A quarry is a mining operation "Mine (mining)"), generally open pit, in which industrial, ornamental or aggregate rocks are obtained "Arid (mining)"). The quarries are usually small-sized operations, although together they probably represent the largest volume of world mining. The operation of quarries in some jurisdictions is regulated to reduce their environmental impact.[1][2]
modified.
The products obtained in the quarries, unlike the rest of the mining operations, are not subjected to concentration. The main rocks obtained in the quarries are: marble, granite, limestone, travertine and slate "Slate (rock)").[3].
Every quarry has a useful life, and once it is exhausted, the abandonment of the activity can cause environmental problems, mainly related to the destruction of the landscape.[3].
A large concentration of white marble quarries can be located in the town of Macael, Almería, Spain, which is extracted and processed for different constructions and decorative objects.
History
Man began to dig the earth with rudimentary tools, made of wood, horn or bone for soft land, and flint for rocks. To shape the soft rocks, he used hard rock tools. But to shape hard rocks, he had to wait for the arrival of metals, powerful abrasives like diamonds, and then explosives.[4].
The first exploitations were made naturally, more than 5,000 years ago, collecting stones on the surface of the ground. Stones taken in their raw state are used in the construction of dry stone walls. River boulders are a material of choice but difficult to execute without mortar, so they are cemented using clay mortars, brought on site when possible.[5] The search for stones at increasingly greater depths led to the establishment of open-air or underground quarries. Thus, already in the Neolithic, in the Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes (Hainau), men contemporary with the dolmens excavated wells and galleries to obtain calcareous flint, which was easier to use than the boulders included in the silt.[6].
In the ancient world, little by little the need to find the most suitable stones for their destination became apparent. The work of extracting and cutting the stones is carried out in several stages: after the work of "discovering" the stone benches suitable for producing stones, hard or soft, compatible with their destination, the extraction work itself begins. To remove the blocks that can be molded, the stonemason makes use, in very rare cases, of natural strata and cracks, more often he must dig grooves, in the peak, delimiting the volume and shape of the stones in a way that will have to be carried out.[5].
Wedge (Rock Stability)
Introduction
A quarry is a mining operation "Mine (mining)"), generally open pit, in which industrial, ornamental or aggregate rocks are obtained "Arid (mining)"). The quarries are usually small-sized operations, although together they probably represent the largest volume of world mining. The operation of quarries in some jurisdictions is regulated to reduce their environmental impact.[1][2]
modified.
The products obtained in the quarries, unlike the rest of the mining operations, are not subjected to concentration. The main rocks obtained in the quarries are: marble, granite, limestone, travertine and slate "Slate (rock)").[3].
Every quarry has a useful life, and once it is exhausted, the abandonment of the activity can cause environmental problems, mainly related to the destruction of the landscape.[3].
A large concentration of white marble quarries can be located in the town of Macael, Almería, Spain, which is extracted and processed for different constructions and decorative objects.
History
Man began to dig the earth with rudimentary tools, made of wood, horn or bone for soft land, and flint for rocks. To shape the soft rocks, he used hard rock tools. But to shape hard rocks, he had to wait for the arrival of metals, powerful abrasives like diamonds, and then explosives.[4].
The first exploitations were made naturally, more than 5,000 years ago, collecting stones on the surface of the ground. Stones taken in their raw state are used in the construction of dry stone walls. River boulders are a material of choice but difficult to execute without mortar, so they are cemented using clay mortars, brought on site when possible.[5] The search for stones at increasingly greater depths led to the establishment of open-air or underground quarries. Thus, already in the Neolithic, in the Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes (Hainau), men contemporary with the dolmens excavated wells and galleries to obtain calcareous flint, which was easier to use than the boulders included in the silt.[6].
In the ancient world, little by little the need to find the most suitable stones for their destination became apparent. The work of extracting and cutting the stones is carried out in several stages: after the work of "discovering" the stone benches suitable for producing stones, hard or soft, compatible with their destination, the extraction work itself begins. To remove the blocks that can be molded, the stonemason makes use, in very rare cases, of natural strata and cracks, more often he must dig grooves, in the peak, delimiting the volume and shape of the stones in a way that will have to be carried out.[5].
According to Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, the Romans were the most intelligent quarry explorers who ever lived. "The stone constructions they left are always built with the best materials that could be obtained in the vicinity of their monuments. There is no Roman building whose stones are of mediocre quality; when these completely lacked an extensive radius, they used boulders or bricks, instead of using building stone of inferior quality; and if you want to have good carved stone in a region where the Romans erected monuments, it is only a matter of looking for Roman quarries".[7].
The tools of the Roman stonemasons consisted of picks, wedges, levers for extracting, saws for cutting blocks, chisels and hammers, mallets.
Ancient Rome, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, until the century made massive use of natural stone in prestigious architecture.
The traditional cutting techniques, by bleeding with a pick, in a corner, with a mallet executed with a man's arm, are followed by the mechanical and "blind" work of the machines: the mechanical impact of the pneumatic hammer, the chainsaw, the rotary drill (from the auger to the rotary), the hammer drill, the pressurized water jet or even the power laser.[4].
Stone stopped occupying the multi-secular predominant place it had in construction with the invention of concrete (artificial stone), which is easier to use.
Building stones (slates, so-called dimension cut stones, tombstones and ornamental stones) represent only a small but lucrative part of rock production. In France, if we consider all the blasted rocks, the quarries exceed the production of the mines in tonnage. Every year in France, 200 million tons (MT) of rocky mineral matter are extracted (excluding alluvium, moraines and other deposits of loose soils, which represent even more) which are divided between: coal and minerals (10 MT); cement, stone and plaster (10 MT); concrete aggregates, roads, ballast (150 MT); breakwater blocks (sea docks, port works) (30 MT).[4].
Organization, structure of a quarry
In addition to workshops, weighing systems, fuel reserves and exploitation equipment... a quarry is usually made up of specific areas, which evolve in space and time with the progress of work fronts, etc.
They are the flanks (often vertical or almost) resulting from the cutting of the rock (sometimes sawn, previously split and today more often cut by blasting (eg). Several overlapping fronts can be organized into tiers, with a regulatory height of each front, established according to the risk of collapse. In France, according to ENCEM, the step located between two benches must not exceed 15 m (and up to 30 m with exceptions).[3] It is said that a front is "lower" (of the exploited deposit) or discovery (made up of altered surface materials called discovery materials).[3].
Horizontal benches, often several tens of meters wide (machinery movement area), separate the working faces (the stonemason calls the combination of a fountain and its lower seat a step).[3] At the end of exploitation, when the cutting fronts have advanced, the “residual” benches usually measure less than five meters.[3].
At the bottom of the pit is the horizontal plateau formed by the progressive advance of the fronts. It can reach hundreds of hectares in very large quarries.[3].
Tracks allow machines to circulate between different areas of a quarry. Each track is generally about 10 m[3] wide.
Battlements are linear deposits 2 to 4 m high, generally a few meters (5 to 10 m) wide, deposited on the periphery of the quarry to limit noise, hide and delimit the site. Topsoil and quarry waste are generally deposited there, which can be reused during rehabilitation, at the end of operations.
The terril is an important accumulation of materials without commercial interest ("sterile"), resulting from superficial clearing or deep production that can reach several hectares and tens of meters in height, sometimes used for partial filling of the career at the end of life.[3].
A dewatering tank can be installed near the pit or at the bottom of the pit. It receives water from rain and runoff or from pumping groundwater (drainage water). It is a permanent or temporary storage place (in rainy regions where water must be evacuated so as not to drown the quarry. In draining substrates, sometimes it is not necessary). One or more sedimentation ponds recover the MSA (matter suspended in water). Its water can be reused for washing materials (closed circuit) or for treating mine water before discharge into the natural environment. Periodic cleaning of settled sludge is then necessary.
Extraction methods
Quarrying methods include:.
The following steps are used in the blasting process:
Issues
Contenido
Las canteras situadas en zonas llanas con aguas subterráneas poco profundas o que se encuentran cerca de aguas superficiales suelen tener problemas de ingeniería con el drenaje. Por lo general, el agua se elimina mediante el bombeo mientras la cantera está en funcionamiento, pero en el caso de grandes afluencias pueden ser necesarios enfoques más complejos. Por ejemplo, la cantera Coquina está excavada a más de 60 pies (18,3 m) por debajo del nivel del mar.
Para reducir las filtraciones superficiales, se construyó un foso revestido de arcilla alrededor de toda la cantera. [El agua subterránea que entra en la cantera se bombea hacia el foso. A medida que una cantera se hace más profunda, las entradas de agua generalmente aumentan y también se hace más costoso elevar el agua durante la extracción; esto puede convertirse en el factor limitante de la profundidad de la cantera. Algunas canteras llenas de agua se trabajan por debajo del agua, mediante dragado.
Muchas personas y municipios consideran que las canteras son una monstruosidad y exigen diversos métodos de reducción de los problemas de ruido, polvo y apariencia. Uno de los ejemplos más eficaces y famosos de restauración de canteras es el de los Jardines Butchart en Victoria, BC, Canadá.[8].
Otro problema es la contaminación de las carreteras por los camiones que salen de las canteras. Para controlar y restringir la contaminación de las vías públicas, cada vez son más comunes los sistemas de lavado de ruedas.
The lakes of the quarries
Many quarries fill with water naturally after being abandoned and become lakes. Others become landfills.
Water-filled quarries can be very deep, often 50 feet (15.2 m) or more, and surprisingly cold, so swimming in quarry lakes is generally not recommended. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmer's muscles to suddenly weaken; It can also cause shock and even hypothermia.[9] Although quarry water is usually very clear, submerged quarry stones, abandoned equipment, dead animals, and strong currents make diving extremely dangerous. Several people drown in quarries each year.[10][11] However, many inactive quarries become safe bathing places.[12][13].
Such lakes, even those located within active quarries, can provide important habitat for animals.[14].
Occupational risks
Tasks in a quarry entail a series of risks to the health of workers. The most common risks are:
In Mexico
In Mexico, a specific type of volcanic rock (volcanic tuff) characteristic of several regions of the country is also known as quarry. This type of rock has been used in sculpture and regional architecture since pre-Hispanic times and mainly during the colonial period.
The state of Oaxaca is famous for its baroque green quarry architecture. The pink quarry is typical of the historic buildings of Degollado, San Luis Potosí "San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí)"), Morelia, Zacatecas and San Miguel el Alto. Other types of quarry are also found in the main monuments of the city of Guadalajara "Guadalajara (Mexico)"), made of gray and yellow quarry.
Currently, it continues to be used in construction as a coating and manufacturing of decorative elements such as fountains, fireplaces, columns, etc.
In the state of Jalisco, there are three municipalities of Degollado, Yahualica de González Gallo and San Miguel el Alto that are dedicated to quarry mining and craft production. In these cities, their historic centers are created based on this material, highlighting their main architectural buildings.
In the community of Escolásticas, in the municipality of Pedro Escobedo "Pedro Escobedo (Querétaro)"), in the state of Querétaro, the art made with different types of quarry is well known. In the city of San Luis Potosí there are important buildings built with quarry extracted from the nearby San Miguelito mountain range.
References
[1] ↑ «Law Document English View». Ontario.ca (en inglés). 24 de julio de 2014. Consultado el 30 de junio de 2020.: https://www.ontario.ca/laws/view
[3] ↑ a b c d e f g h i j ENCEM, Gestion et aménagement écologique des carrières de roches massives, Guide pratique à l'usage des exploitants de carrières, ENCEM, juin 2011, ref:REA A5 11 G (publié en 2011.
[4] ↑ a b c Manuel de mécanique des roches: Les applications. Comité français de mécanique des roches, Pierre Duffaut. Presses des MINES, 2003.
[5] ↑ a b Jean-Pierre Adam. La Construction romaine. Matériaux et techniques. Sixième édition. Grands manuels picards. 2011.
[6] ↑ Salomon A. Puits à silex et trous à marne. In: Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française. 1913, tome 10, N. 4. p. 229-242.
[7] ↑ Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du xie au xvie siècle - Tome 7.
[8] ↑ «BCMEMPR, BCMTH, and NRC. (1995). Reclamation and Environmental Protection Handbook for Sand, Gravel and Quarry Operations in British Columbia. Ministerio de Energía, Minas y Recursos Petrolíferos de la Columbia Británica, Ministerio de Transporte y Carreteras, Recursos Naturales de Canadá.». Falta la |url= (ayuda).
[14] ↑ Sievers, Michael (19 de mayo de 2017). «Los humedales de las canteras de arena proporcionan un hábitat de alta calidad para los anfibios nativos». Web Ecology 17 (1): 19-27. doi:10.5194/we-17-19-2017.: https://dx.doi.org/10.5194%2Fwe-17-19-2017
According to Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, the Romans were the most intelligent quarry explorers who ever lived. "The stone constructions they left are always built with the best materials that could be obtained in the vicinity of their monuments. There is no Roman building whose stones are of mediocre quality; when these completely lacked an extensive radius, they used boulders or bricks, instead of using building stone of inferior quality; and if you want to have good carved stone in a region where the Romans erected monuments, it is only a matter of looking for Roman quarries".[7].
The tools of the Roman stonemasons consisted of picks, wedges, levers for extracting, saws for cutting blocks, chisels and hammers, mallets.
Ancient Rome, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, until the century made massive use of natural stone in prestigious architecture.
The traditional cutting techniques, by bleeding with a pick, in a corner, with a mallet executed with a man's arm, are followed by the mechanical and "blind" work of the machines: the mechanical impact of the pneumatic hammer, the chainsaw, the rotary drill (from the auger to the rotary), the hammer drill, the pressurized water jet or even the power laser.[4].
Stone stopped occupying the multi-secular predominant place it had in construction with the invention of concrete (artificial stone), which is easier to use.
Building stones (slates, so-called dimension cut stones, tombstones and ornamental stones) represent only a small but lucrative part of rock production. In France, if we consider all the blasted rocks, the quarries exceed the production of the mines in tonnage. Every year in France, 200 million tons (MT) of rocky mineral matter are extracted (excluding alluvium, moraines and other deposits of loose soils, which represent even more) which are divided between: coal and minerals (10 MT); cement, stone and plaster (10 MT); concrete aggregates, roads, ballast (150 MT); breakwater blocks (sea docks, port works) (30 MT).[4].
Organization, structure of a quarry
In addition to workshops, weighing systems, fuel reserves and exploitation equipment... a quarry is usually made up of specific areas, which evolve in space and time with the progress of work fronts, etc.
They are the flanks (often vertical or almost) resulting from the cutting of the rock (sometimes sawn, previously split and today more often cut by blasting (eg). Several overlapping fronts can be organized into tiers, with a regulatory height of each front, established according to the risk of collapse. In France, according to ENCEM, the step located between two benches must not exceed 15 m (and up to 30 m with exceptions).[3] It is said that a front is "lower" (of the exploited deposit) or discovery (made up of altered surface materials called discovery materials).[3].
Horizontal benches, often several tens of meters wide (machinery movement area), separate the working faces (the stonemason calls the combination of a fountain and its lower seat a step).[3] At the end of exploitation, when the cutting fronts have advanced, the “residual” benches usually measure less than five meters.[3].
At the bottom of the pit is the horizontal plateau formed by the progressive advance of the fronts. It can reach hundreds of hectares in very large quarries.[3].
Tracks allow machines to circulate between different areas of a quarry. Each track is generally about 10 m[3] wide.
Battlements are linear deposits 2 to 4 m high, generally a few meters (5 to 10 m) wide, deposited on the periphery of the quarry to limit noise, hide and delimit the site. Topsoil and quarry waste are generally deposited there, which can be reused during rehabilitation, at the end of operations.
The terril is an important accumulation of materials without commercial interest ("sterile"), resulting from superficial clearing or deep production that can reach several hectares and tens of meters in height, sometimes used for partial filling of the career at the end of life.[3].
A dewatering tank can be installed near the pit or at the bottom of the pit. It receives water from rain and runoff or from pumping groundwater (drainage water). It is a permanent or temporary storage place (in rainy regions where water must be evacuated so as not to drown the quarry. In draining substrates, sometimes it is not necessary). One or more sedimentation ponds recover the MSA (matter suspended in water). Its water can be reused for washing materials (closed circuit) or for treating mine water before discharge into the natural environment. Periodic cleaning of settled sludge is then necessary.
Extraction methods
Quarrying methods include:.
The following steps are used in the blasting process:
Issues
Contenido
Las canteras situadas en zonas llanas con aguas subterráneas poco profundas o que se encuentran cerca de aguas superficiales suelen tener problemas de ingeniería con el drenaje. Por lo general, el agua se elimina mediante el bombeo mientras la cantera está en funcionamiento, pero en el caso de grandes afluencias pueden ser necesarios enfoques más complejos. Por ejemplo, la cantera Coquina está excavada a más de 60 pies (18,3 m) por debajo del nivel del mar.
Para reducir las filtraciones superficiales, se construyó un foso revestido de arcilla alrededor de toda la cantera. [El agua subterránea que entra en la cantera se bombea hacia el foso. A medida que una cantera se hace más profunda, las entradas de agua generalmente aumentan y también se hace más costoso elevar el agua durante la extracción; esto puede convertirse en el factor limitante de la profundidad de la cantera. Algunas canteras llenas de agua se trabajan por debajo del agua, mediante dragado.
Muchas personas y municipios consideran que las canteras son una monstruosidad y exigen diversos métodos de reducción de los problemas de ruido, polvo y apariencia. Uno de los ejemplos más eficaces y famosos de restauración de canteras es el de los Jardines Butchart en Victoria, BC, Canadá.[8].
Otro problema es la contaminación de las carreteras por los camiones que salen de las canteras. Para controlar y restringir la contaminación de las vías públicas, cada vez son más comunes los sistemas de lavado de ruedas.
The lakes of the quarries
Many quarries fill with water naturally after being abandoned and become lakes. Others become landfills.
Water-filled quarries can be very deep, often 50 feet (15.2 m) or more, and surprisingly cold, so swimming in quarry lakes is generally not recommended. Unexpectedly cold water can cause a swimmer's muscles to suddenly weaken; It can also cause shock and even hypothermia.[9] Although quarry water is usually very clear, submerged quarry stones, abandoned equipment, dead animals, and strong currents make diving extremely dangerous. Several people drown in quarries each year.[10][11] However, many inactive quarries become safe bathing places.[12][13].
Such lakes, even those located within active quarries, can provide important habitat for animals.[14].
Occupational risks
Tasks in a quarry entail a series of risks to the health of workers. The most common risks are:
In Mexico
In Mexico, a specific type of volcanic rock (volcanic tuff) characteristic of several regions of the country is also known as quarry. This type of rock has been used in sculpture and regional architecture since pre-Hispanic times and mainly during the colonial period.
The state of Oaxaca is famous for its baroque green quarry architecture. The pink quarry is typical of the historic buildings of Degollado, San Luis Potosí "San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí)"), Morelia, Zacatecas and San Miguel el Alto. Other types of quarry are also found in the main monuments of the city of Guadalajara "Guadalajara (Mexico)"), made of gray and yellow quarry.
Currently, it continues to be used in construction as a coating and manufacturing of decorative elements such as fountains, fireplaces, columns, etc.
In the state of Jalisco, there are three municipalities of Degollado, Yahualica de González Gallo and San Miguel el Alto that are dedicated to quarry mining and craft production. In these cities, their historic centers are created based on this material, highlighting their main architectural buildings.
In the community of Escolásticas, in the municipality of Pedro Escobedo "Pedro Escobedo (Querétaro)"), in the state of Querétaro, the art made with different types of quarry is well known. In the city of San Luis Potosí there are important buildings built with quarry extracted from the nearby San Miguelito mountain range.
References
[1] ↑ «Law Document English View». Ontario.ca (en inglés). 24 de julio de 2014. Consultado el 30 de junio de 2020.: https://www.ontario.ca/laws/view
[3] ↑ a b c d e f g h i j ENCEM, Gestion et aménagement écologique des carrières de roches massives, Guide pratique à l'usage des exploitants de carrières, ENCEM, juin 2011, ref:REA A5 11 G (publié en 2011.
[4] ↑ a b c Manuel de mécanique des roches: Les applications. Comité français de mécanique des roches, Pierre Duffaut. Presses des MINES, 2003.
[5] ↑ a b Jean-Pierre Adam. La Construction romaine. Matériaux et techniques. Sixième édition. Grands manuels picards. 2011.
[6] ↑ Salomon A. Puits à silex et trous à marne. In: Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française. 1913, tome 10, N. 4. p. 229-242.
[7] ↑ Eugène Viollet-le-Duc Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du xie au xvie siècle - Tome 7.
[8] ↑ «BCMEMPR, BCMTH, and NRC. (1995). Reclamation and Environmental Protection Handbook for Sand, Gravel and Quarry Operations in British Columbia. Ministerio de Energía, Minas y Recursos Petrolíferos de la Columbia Británica, Ministerio de Transporte y Carreteras, Recursos Naturales de Canadá.». Falta la |url= (ayuda).
[14] ↑ Sievers, Michael (19 de mayo de 2017). «Los humedales de las canteras de arena proporcionan un hábitat de alta calidad para los anfibios nativos». Web Ecology 17 (1): 19-27. doi:10.5194/we-17-19-2017.: https://dx.doi.org/10.5194%2Fwe-17-19-2017