water management or water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and directing the optimal use of water resources. It is a subset of water cycle management. It is sometimes called "sustainable water resources management", but this is a redundancy, because all optimal management is necessarily sustainable.
Water management includes the processes, strategies and measures that are carried out in order to use water efficiently and without altering its quality.
Water is essential for the survival of living beings. Water management must continue to adapt to current and future changes in the existence and allocation of these resources. With growing uncertainty over global warming and the long-term impacts of management actions, decision-making will become even more difficult. Global warming is likely to lead to situations not yet experienced. Consequently, alternative management strategies are sought to avoid setbacks in the allocation of water resources.
**taking care of water means using it in an appropriate, responsible and rational manner, that is, avoiding waste and protecting natural sources of water and taking care of it for future generations, for example:
repair water leaks
close taps
wash with full loads
'
Ideally, water resources planning should consider all demands for water (health, agriculture, industry, environment), which compete with each other for a scarce resource. Planning seeks to equitably distribute water to satisfy all demands. As in other cases of resource management, this is rarely possible in practice.
One of the biggest concerns about water resources is the sustainability of their current and future allocation.[1] When water becomes scarcer, the importance of how it is managed grows enormously. Finding a balance between what people need and what the environment needs is an important step in water resource sustainability.
Overview
Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the Earth's water resources, only 3% is fresh water (in principle salt water is not usable, although this can be qualified) and 2 thirds of this fresh water are imprisoned in the polar caps and glaciers. Of the remaining 1%, a fifth are in remote, hard-to-reach areas, and much of the heavy monsoon rains and flooding cannot be easily harnessed. Water is becoming increasingly scarce, and access to clean, safe drinking water (potable water) is limited. Currently only approximately 0.08% of the world's fresh water is exploited by a humanity in ever-increasing demand for drinking water, sanitation, manufacturing, irrigation of food crops and leisure.[3] Due to the small percentage of fresh water remaining, optimizing it has been an ongoing difficulty in several places around the world. The desalination of seawater with renewable energy is helping to alleviate some of these difficulties.
Water sustainability
Introduction
water management or water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and directing the optimal use of water resources. It is a subset of water cycle management. It is sometimes called "sustainable water resources management", but this is a redundancy, because all optimal management is necessarily sustainable.
Water management includes the processes, strategies and measures that are carried out in order to use water efficiently and without altering its quality.
Water is essential for the survival of living beings. Water management must continue to adapt to current and future changes in the existence and allocation of these resources. With growing uncertainty over global warming and the long-term impacts of management actions, decision-making will become even more difficult. Global warming is likely to lead to situations not yet experienced. Consequently, alternative management strategies are sought to avoid setbacks in the allocation of water resources.
**taking care of water means using it in an appropriate, responsible and rational manner, that is, avoiding waste and protecting natural sources of water and taking care of it for future generations, for example:
repair water leaks
close taps
wash with full loads
'
Ideally, water resources planning should consider all demands for water (health, agriculture, industry, environment), which compete with each other for a scarce resource. Planning seeks to equitably distribute water to satisfy all demands. As in other cases of resource management, this is rarely possible in practice.
One of the biggest concerns about water resources is the sustainability of their current and future allocation.[1] When water becomes scarcer, the importance of how it is managed grows enormously. Finding a balance between what people need and what the environment needs is an important step in water resource sustainability.
Overview
Water is an essential resource for all life on the planet. Of the Earth's water resources, only 3% is fresh water (in principle salt water is not usable, although this can be qualified) and 2 thirds of this fresh water are imprisoned in the polar caps and glaciers. Of the remaining 1%, a fifth are in remote, hard-to-reach areas, and much of the heavy monsoon rains and flooding cannot be easily harnessed. Water is becoming increasingly scarce, and access to clean, safe drinking water (potable water) is limited. Currently only approximately 0.08% of the world's fresh water is exploited by a humanity in ever-increasing demand for drinking water, sanitation, manufacturing, irrigation of food crops and leisure.[3] Due to the small percentage of fresh water remaining, optimizing it has been an ongoing difficulty in several places around the world. The desalination of seawater with renewable energy is helping to alleviate some of these difficulties.
Water management dedicates much effort to optimizing water use and minimizing the environmental impact (called water footprint). Integrated water resources management is based on the natural interconnection between all bodies of water (streams, rivers, lakes and the sea).[4] In this management, the quantity and quality of water in the ecosystem helps determine the resources actually available.[5].
As water is a limited resource, supplying it poses a notable challenge. This fact is assumed by the DESAFIO project (acronym for Democratization of Water and Sanitation Governance through Technical and Social Innovations), which has been developed for 30 months and financed by the European Union's seventh framework program for research, technological development and demonstration. This project tackled a difficult task for developing areas: eliminating structural social injustice in essential access to water and healthcare. DESAFIO engineers worked on a water treatment system based on solar energy and filters that provides safe water to a very poor community in the state of Minas Gerais (Brazil).[6].
An important aspect of water management is that it is a somewhat renewable resource: if a fixed annual amount is extracted from an oil field (non-renewable resource), there comes a time when the field is exhausted, and no more can be extracted. But on the other hand, it is possible to extract a fixed amount of water indefinitely from a source of this element, for example a lake, as long as the water extracted is less than the amount contributed to the lake by the rivers and streams that flow into it. That is why droughts cause such great disruptions in the water supply (they drastically reduce the amount of water supplied to sources). Now, in order for this indefinite extraction to be carried out, it is necessary to care for and maintain the ecosystem where the source is located (if, for example, the lake is surrounded by forests, logging should not be allowed to depopulate them, because that would reduce[7] the amount of rain that would go to the lake).
Good management of any resource requires accurate knowledge of the available resource, the uses to which it can be put, its competing demands, the evaluation of the importance and value of those demands, and the mechanisms to translate political decisions into actions on the ground.[8].
For water as a resource, this is particularly difficult, because water sources (for example rivers) can cross several national borders. Furthermore, water uses include many to which it is difficult to assign a financial value, and which may also present difficulties in managing them in conventional terms. Examples include very rare ecosystems or species, or the very long-term value of very old reserves of groundwater (fossil aquifers).[9].
Agriculture
Agriculture is the largest user of the world's freshwater resources, consuming 70%.[10] As the world's population increases, it consumes more food (demand is expected to grow 1.4% annually over the period 2015-2030),[11] industries and urban developments expand, and growing biofuel crops also demand a share of freshwater resources. Water scarcity becomes fundamental. The International Water Management Institute (Sri Lanka) assessed in 2007 whether or not the world had enough water to provide food for its growing population.[12] It assessed the availability of water for agriculture on a global scale at that time and mapped areas suffering from water scarcity. It found that one fifth of the world's inhabitants, more than 1.2 billion, lived in physically water-scarce areas, where there is not enough water to meet all their demands. Another 1.6 billion lived in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment in hydraulic works or insufficient qualified technicians mean that authorities are unable to meet the demand for water.[13].
The report determined that, with the right changes, it would be possible to produce the food required in the future, but that, if these changes are not made, the continuation of current trends in food production and the environment would lead to crises in many parts of the world. With respect to food production, the World Bank points out agricultural production and water management as global problems that are fostering an important and growing debate.[14] The authors of the book Without water: from abundance to scarcity and how to solve the world's water problems, present a 6-point plan to solve the world's water problems:.
Improve water-related data.
Consider the environment as a treasure.
Reform water governance.
Revitalize agricultural use of water.
Manage urban and industrial demand.
Empower the poor and women in water management.
To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will need to increase productivity to meet growing food demands, while industry and cities will need to use water more efficiently.[15].
Water management in urban environments
Contenido
A la vez que se incrementa grandemente la capacidad de la Tierra para sostener población, la urbanización moderna se produce porque ofrece oportunidades económicas a las personas que emigran del campo a las ciudades.[16] Esta urbanización rápida ocurre en todo el mundo, pero mayoritariamente en las economías emergentes y en países en desarrollo. Las ciudades de África y Asia son las que más rápido crecen: allí se encuentran 28 de las 39 megaciudades (una ciudad o casco urbano con más de 10 millones de habitantes) que existen en el mundo.[17] El número de megaciudades continuará aumentando hasta aproximadamente 50 en 2025. En las economías en desarrollo la escasez de agua es un problema muy común.[18] Los recursos de agua dulce están disminuyendo en todo el mundo, y la mayoría de los millones de nuevos habitantes de las ciudades padece escasez de agua,[19] por una o varias de las siguientes causas:.
En las áreas que circundan los centros urbanos, la agricultura tiene que competir con la industria y los usuarios municipales por suministros de agua seguros, a la vez que las fuentes de agua tradicionales se contaminan con residuos urbanos. Como las ciudades ofrecen las mejores oportunidades para vender las cosechas, los agricultores a menudo no tienen otra alternativa que regar sus cultivos con agua previamente utilizada por la ciudad. Según la calidad del sistema de tratamiento de aguas residuales, este riego puede presentar riesgos significativos para la salud. Las aguas residuales de las ciudades pueden contener una mezcla de contaminantes. Hay normalmente aguas grises y negras de cocinas, duchas e inodoros junto con aguas pluviales (de la lluvia, más limpias). Esto significa que el agua normalmente contiene niveles excesivos de nutrientes y sales, así como una amplia gama de patógenos. Los metales pesados también pueden estar presentes, junto con rastros de antibióticos y disruptores endocrinos, como los policloruros de bifenilo.[21] Una buena depuración puede eliminar todos los contaminantes, pero resulta cara.
Los países en desarrollo tienden a tener los menores niveles de tratamiento de aguas residuales. A menudo el agua que emplean los agricultores para regar los cultivos está contaminada con patógenos de aguas residuales. Los patógenos más preocupantes son bacterias, virus y gusanos parásitos, los cuales afectan directamente a la salud de los labradores e indirectamente, a los consumidores que comen los productos contaminados. Entre las enfermedades que pueden contagiarse así está la diarrea, que mata a 1,1 millones de personas anualmente y es la segunda causa más común de mortalidad infantil. Muchos brotes de cólera también se relacionan con la reutilización de aguas residuales mal depuradas. Por tanto las acciones que reduzcan o eliminen la contaminación tienen el potencial de salvar un gran número de vidas y mejorar la salud de muchas personas.
Los científicos han estado trabajando en maneras de reducir la contaminación de los alimentos utilizando un método llamado "de barreras múltiples" o "sistemas multibarrera".[22] Esto implica analizar el proceso de producción y consumo de alimentos desde que las plantas son cultivadas o los animales son criados hasta que el alimento es ingerido. Se piensa entonces dónde se podría crear una barrera contra la contaminación. Las barreras incluyen: introducir prácticas de riego más seguras; promover el tratamiento del agua en la propia explotación agrícola; tomar medidas para matar a los organismos patógenos; y lavar eficazmente los alimentos en mercados y restaurantes.[23].
Urban decision support system
An urban decision support system (UDSS) is a wireless device with a mobile application that uses water usage sensors by household appliances in urban homes to collect approximate water usage data. It is an example of urban water management based on real-time data.[24] The system was developed thanks to an investment from the European Commission of 2.46 million euros (€) to improve residential water consumption behavior.[25] Information about each device – dishwashers, showers, washing machines, faucets – is recorded and sent wirelessly to the UDSS application on the user's mobile device. This app can then show the homeowner which of their appliances are using the most water, and what behaviors are recommended to reduce their consumption, rather than simply giving a total consumption figure. This way people can manage their consumption more economically. The UDSS is based on university research in the field of Administration and Management Sciences, in the Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences of Loughborough University, particularly in the comparative decision support system on domestic water use, led by Dr Lili Yang.[26].
References
[1] ↑ Walmsly, N., & Pearce, G. (2010). Towards Sustainable Water Resources Management: Bringing the Strategic Approach up-to-date. Irrigation & Drainage Systems, 24(3/4), 191–203.
[6] ↑ «Extend access to water with the help of technology. [Social Impact]. DESAFIO. Democratization of Water and Sanitation Governance by Means of Socio-Technical Innovation (2013–2015). Framework Programme 7 (FP7).». SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archivado desde el original el 10 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 17 de marzo de 2020.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180910014619/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00466
[10] ↑ Grafton, Q. R., & Hussey, K. (2011). Water Resources . New York: Cambridge University Press.
[11] ↑ «Perspectivas a largo plazo. El panorama de la agricultura.». Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura.: http://www.fao.org/3/y3557s/y3557s06.htm
[12] ↑ Molden, D. (Ed). Water for food, Water for life is A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.
[15] ↑ Chartres, C. and Varma, S. Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World’s Water Problems FT Press (USA), 2010.
[16] ↑ Capel, Horacio (1 de mayo de 1997). «LOS INMIGRANTES EN LA CIUDAD. CRECIMIENTO ECONÓMICO, INNOVACIÓN Y CONFLICTO SOCIAL». Scripta Nova. ISSN 1138-9788. Consultado el 1 de abril de 2020.: http://www.ub.edu/geocrit/sn-3.htm
[18] ↑ Escolero, O., Kralisch, S., Martínez, S.E., Perevochtchikova, M. (2016). «Diagnóstico y análisis de los factores que influyen en la vulnerabilidad de las fuentes de abastecimiento de agua potable a la Ciudad de México, México». Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 68 (3): 409-427. doi:10.18268/bsgm2016v68n3a3.: https://dx.doi.org/10.18268%2Fbsgm2016v68n3a3
[19] ↑ Howard, K.W.F (2003). Intensive Use of Groundwater:: Challenges and Opportunities. A.A. Balkema Publishers.
[23] ↑ Ilic, S., Drechsel, P., Amoah, P. and LeJeune, J. Chapter 12, Applying the Multiple-Barrier Approach for Microbial Risk Reduction in the Post-Harvest Sector of Wastewater-Irrigated Vegetables.: http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-151781-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
[24] ↑ Eggimann, Sven; Mutzner, Lena; Wani, Omar; Mariane Yvonne, Schneider; Spuhler, Dorothee; Beutler, Philipp; Maurer, Max (2017). «The potential of knowing more – a review of data-driven urban water management». Environmental Science & Technology 51 (5): 2538-2553. PMID 28125222. doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b04267.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28125222
[25] ↑ «Integrated Support System for Efficient Water Usage and Resources Management». issewatus.eu. Archivado desde el original el 12 de enero de 2017. Consultado el 10 de enero de 2017.: https://web.archive.org/web/20170112185737/http://issewatus.eu/
[26] ↑ Chen, Xiaomin; Yang, Shuang-Hua; Yang, Lili; Chen, Xi (1 de enero de 2015). «A Benchmarking Model for Household Water Consumption Based on Adaptive Logic Networks». Procedia Engineering. Computing and Control for the Water Industry (CCWI2015) Sharing the best practice in water management 119: 1391-1398. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.998.: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/20832/1/Benchmaring%20model.pdf
Water management dedicates much effort to optimizing water use and minimizing the environmental impact (called water footprint). Integrated water resources management is based on the natural interconnection between all bodies of water (streams, rivers, lakes and the sea).[4] In this management, the quantity and quality of water in the ecosystem helps determine the resources actually available.[5].
As water is a limited resource, supplying it poses a notable challenge. This fact is assumed by the DESAFIO project (acronym for Democratization of Water and Sanitation Governance through Technical and Social Innovations), which has been developed for 30 months and financed by the European Union's seventh framework program for research, technological development and demonstration. This project tackled a difficult task for developing areas: eliminating structural social injustice in essential access to water and healthcare. DESAFIO engineers worked on a water treatment system based on solar energy and filters that provides safe water to a very poor community in the state of Minas Gerais (Brazil).[6].
An important aspect of water management is that it is a somewhat renewable resource: if a fixed annual amount is extracted from an oil field (non-renewable resource), there comes a time when the field is exhausted, and no more can be extracted. But on the other hand, it is possible to extract a fixed amount of water indefinitely from a source of this element, for example a lake, as long as the water extracted is less than the amount contributed to the lake by the rivers and streams that flow into it. That is why droughts cause such great disruptions in the water supply (they drastically reduce the amount of water supplied to sources). Now, in order for this indefinite extraction to be carried out, it is necessary to care for and maintain the ecosystem where the source is located (if, for example, the lake is surrounded by forests, logging should not be allowed to depopulate them, because that would reduce[7] the amount of rain that would go to the lake).
Good management of any resource requires accurate knowledge of the available resource, the uses to which it can be put, its competing demands, the evaluation of the importance and value of those demands, and the mechanisms to translate political decisions into actions on the ground.[8].
For water as a resource, this is particularly difficult, because water sources (for example rivers) can cross several national borders. Furthermore, water uses include many to which it is difficult to assign a financial value, and which may also present difficulties in managing them in conventional terms. Examples include very rare ecosystems or species, or the very long-term value of very old reserves of groundwater (fossil aquifers).[9].
Agriculture
Agriculture is the largest user of the world's freshwater resources, consuming 70%.[10] As the world's population increases, it consumes more food (demand is expected to grow 1.4% annually over the period 2015-2030),[11] industries and urban developments expand, and growing biofuel crops also demand a share of freshwater resources. Water scarcity becomes fundamental. The International Water Management Institute (Sri Lanka) assessed in 2007 whether or not the world had enough water to provide food for its growing population.[12] It assessed the availability of water for agriculture on a global scale at that time and mapped areas suffering from water scarcity. It found that one fifth of the world's inhabitants, more than 1.2 billion, lived in physically water-scarce areas, where there is not enough water to meet all their demands. Another 1.6 billion lived in areas experiencing economic water scarcity, where lack of investment in hydraulic works or insufficient qualified technicians mean that authorities are unable to meet the demand for water.[13].
The report determined that, with the right changes, it would be possible to produce the food required in the future, but that, if these changes are not made, the continuation of current trends in food production and the environment would lead to crises in many parts of the world. With respect to food production, the World Bank points out agricultural production and water management as global problems that are fostering an important and growing debate.[14] The authors of the book Without water: from abundance to scarcity and how to solve the world's water problems, present a 6-point plan to solve the world's water problems:.
Improve water-related data.
Consider the environment as a treasure.
Reform water governance.
Revitalize agricultural use of water.
Manage urban and industrial demand.
Empower the poor and women in water management.
To avoid a global water crisis, farmers will need to increase productivity to meet growing food demands, while industry and cities will need to use water more efficiently.[15].
Water management in urban environments
Contenido
A la vez que se incrementa grandemente la capacidad de la Tierra para sostener población, la urbanización moderna se produce porque ofrece oportunidades económicas a las personas que emigran del campo a las ciudades.[16] Esta urbanización rápida ocurre en todo el mundo, pero mayoritariamente en las economías emergentes y en países en desarrollo. Las ciudades de África y Asia son las que más rápido crecen: allí se encuentran 28 de las 39 megaciudades (una ciudad o casco urbano con más de 10 millones de habitantes) que existen en el mundo.[17] El número de megaciudades continuará aumentando hasta aproximadamente 50 en 2025. En las economías en desarrollo la escasez de agua es un problema muy común.[18] Los recursos de agua dulce están disminuyendo en todo el mundo, y la mayoría de los millones de nuevos habitantes de las ciudades padece escasez de agua,[19] por una o varias de las siguientes causas:.
En las áreas que circundan los centros urbanos, la agricultura tiene que competir con la industria y los usuarios municipales por suministros de agua seguros, a la vez que las fuentes de agua tradicionales se contaminan con residuos urbanos. Como las ciudades ofrecen las mejores oportunidades para vender las cosechas, los agricultores a menudo no tienen otra alternativa que regar sus cultivos con agua previamente utilizada por la ciudad. Según la calidad del sistema de tratamiento de aguas residuales, este riego puede presentar riesgos significativos para la salud. Las aguas residuales de las ciudades pueden contener una mezcla de contaminantes. Hay normalmente aguas grises y negras de cocinas, duchas e inodoros junto con aguas pluviales (de la lluvia, más limpias). Esto significa que el agua normalmente contiene niveles excesivos de nutrientes y sales, así como una amplia gama de patógenos. Los metales pesados también pueden estar presentes, junto con rastros de antibióticos y disruptores endocrinos, como los policloruros de bifenilo.[21] Una buena depuración puede eliminar todos los contaminantes, pero resulta cara.
Los países en desarrollo tienden a tener los menores niveles de tratamiento de aguas residuales. A menudo el agua que emplean los agricultores para regar los cultivos está contaminada con patógenos de aguas residuales. Los patógenos más preocupantes son bacterias, virus y gusanos parásitos, los cuales afectan directamente a la salud de los labradores e indirectamente, a los consumidores que comen los productos contaminados. Entre las enfermedades que pueden contagiarse así está la diarrea, que mata a 1,1 millones de personas anualmente y es la segunda causa más común de mortalidad infantil. Muchos brotes de cólera también se relacionan con la reutilización de aguas residuales mal depuradas. Por tanto las acciones que reduzcan o eliminen la contaminación tienen el potencial de salvar un gran número de vidas y mejorar la salud de muchas personas.
Los científicos han estado trabajando en maneras de reducir la contaminación de los alimentos utilizando un método llamado "de barreras múltiples" o "sistemas multibarrera".[22] Esto implica analizar el proceso de producción y consumo de alimentos desde que las plantas son cultivadas o los animales son criados hasta que el alimento es ingerido. Se piensa entonces dónde se podría crear una barrera contra la contaminación. Las barreras incluyen: introducir prácticas de riego más seguras; promover el tratamiento del agua en la propia explotación agrícola; tomar medidas para matar a los organismos patógenos; y lavar eficazmente los alimentos en mercados y restaurantes.[23].
Urban decision support system
An urban decision support system (UDSS) is a wireless device with a mobile application that uses water usage sensors by household appliances in urban homes to collect approximate water usage data. It is an example of urban water management based on real-time data.[24] The system was developed thanks to an investment from the European Commission of 2.46 million euros (€) to improve residential water consumption behavior.[25] Information about each device – dishwashers, showers, washing machines, faucets – is recorded and sent wirelessly to the UDSS application on the user's mobile device. This app can then show the homeowner which of their appliances are using the most water, and what behaviors are recommended to reduce their consumption, rather than simply giving a total consumption figure. This way people can manage their consumption more economically. The UDSS is based on university research in the field of Administration and Management Sciences, in the Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences of Loughborough University, particularly in the comparative decision support system on domestic water use, led by Dr Lili Yang.[26].
References
[1] ↑ Walmsly, N., & Pearce, G. (2010). Towards Sustainable Water Resources Management: Bringing the Strategic Approach up-to-date. Irrigation & Drainage Systems, 24(3/4), 191–203.
[6] ↑ «Extend access to water with the help of technology. [Social Impact]. DESAFIO. Democratization of Water and Sanitation Governance by Means of Socio-Technical Innovation (2013–2015). Framework Programme 7 (FP7).». SIOR, Social Impact Open Repository. Archivado desde el original el 10 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 17 de marzo de 2020.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180910014619/http://sior.ub.edu/jspui/cris/socialimpact/socialimpact00466
[10] ↑ Grafton, Q. R., & Hussey, K. (2011). Water Resources . New York: Cambridge University Press.
[11] ↑ «Perspectivas a largo plazo. El panorama de la agricultura.». Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura.: http://www.fao.org/3/y3557s/y3557s06.htm
[12] ↑ Molden, D. (Ed). Water for food, Water for life is A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Earthscan/IWMI, 2007.
[15] ↑ Chartres, C. and Varma, S. Out of water. From Abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the World’s Water Problems FT Press (USA), 2010.
[16] ↑ Capel, Horacio (1 de mayo de 1997). «LOS INMIGRANTES EN LA CIUDAD. CRECIMIENTO ECONÓMICO, INNOVACIÓN Y CONFLICTO SOCIAL». Scripta Nova. ISSN 1138-9788. Consultado el 1 de abril de 2020.: http://www.ub.edu/geocrit/sn-3.htm
[18] ↑ Escolero, O., Kralisch, S., Martínez, S.E., Perevochtchikova, M. (2016). «Diagnóstico y análisis de los factores que influyen en la vulnerabilidad de las fuentes de abastecimiento de agua potable a la Ciudad de México, México». Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana 68 (3): 409-427. doi:10.18268/bsgm2016v68n3a3.: https://dx.doi.org/10.18268%2Fbsgm2016v68n3a3
[19] ↑ Howard, K.W.F (2003). Intensive Use of Groundwater:: Challenges and Opportunities. A.A. Balkema Publishers.
[23] ↑ Ilic, S., Drechsel, P., Amoah, P. and LeJeune, J. Chapter 12, Applying the Multiple-Barrier Approach for Microbial Risk Reduction in the Post-Harvest Sector of Wastewater-Irrigated Vegetables.: http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-151781-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
[24] ↑ Eggimann, Sven; Mutzner, Lena; Wani, Omar; Mariane Yvonne, Schneider; Spuhler, Dorothee; Beutler, Philipp; Maurer, Max (2017). «The potential of knowing more – a review of data-driven urban water management». Environmental Science & Technology 51 (5): 2538-2553. PMID 28125222. doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b04267.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28125222
[25] ↑ «Integrated Support System for Efficient Water Usage and Resources Management». issewatus.eu. Archivado desde el original el 12 de enero de 2017. Consultado el 10 de enero de 2017.: https://web.archive.org/web/20170112185737/http://issewatus.eu/
[26] ↑ Chen, Xiaomin; Yang, Shuang-Hua; Yang, Lili; Chen, Xi (1 de enero de 2015). «A Benchmarking Model for Household Water Consumption Based on Adaptive Logic Networks». Procedia Engineering. Computing and Control for the Water Industry (CCWI2015) Sharing the best practice in water management 119: 1391-1398. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2015.08.998.: https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/20832/1/Benchmaring%20model.pdf