Urbanism as a formal language | Construpedia

Urbanism as a formal language

Introduction

structuralism was an architectural and urban movement that emerged in the middle of the century. It was a reaction to the perception of rationalism "New Objectivity (architecture)") (CIAM-Functionalism)[1] as a lifeless expression of urbanism that ignored the identity of the inhabitants and urban forms. Architectural structuralism was characterized by buildings with a geometric structure, often composed of small units that were related to the human scale. The new movement belonged to the avant-garde, while general urban planning continued to develop according to the old CIAM principles until the 1970s. Its methodological orientation is based on the study of the structure of objects, prioritizing the analysis of the whole rather than its parts and on the examination of the interrelationships of its elements through semiology, a discipline that "offers a mechanism by which the built environment can be 'read' and 'decoded'".[2]

Structuralism "Structuralism (philosophy)"), in a general sense, was a current of thought of the century that originated in linguistics. Other disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, economics, philosophy and also art took up structuralist ideas and developed them. Russian Formalism[3] and the Prague School played an important role in the development of structuralism. Roland Barthes, a key figure in structuralist thought, maintained that there was no complete structuralist philosophy, but only a structuralist method.[4].

In architecture, its appearance dates back to the works of Aldo van Eyck, Alison and Peter Smithson, members of the group Team 10.[5] It can manifest itself in two different ways that can sometimes occur simultaneously: on the one hand, there is the "aesthetic of number" formulated by van Eyck in the magazine Forum in 1959 - whose appearance can be compared to cellular tissue-,[6] and on the other hand, the architecture of "structure and coincidence" formulated by N. John Habraken in 1961.[7] The Dutch architects of structuralism conducted research in a similar manner to Claude Lévi-Strauss (anthropology) and were interested in Ferdinand de Saussure's "langue et parole" principle (linguistics), especially the issue of engagement with the concepts of structure and interpretation.[8]

At the beginning of the general article "Structuralism" a definition is formulated that is useful for all fields:

Alternatively, as philosopher Simon Blackburn summarizes:

Structuralism and postmodernism

Urbanism as a formal language

Introduction

In Europe, structuralism had a strong influence on theoretical debate until the late 1960s. In its effort to offer an alternative to classical modern architecture, it was accompanied by New Brutalism.[9] In 1975, structuralist philosophy lost its predominant position in the humanities due to major social and political changes.[10] In architecture, its position was undermined by the growing popularity of postmodern architecture promoted by authors such as Charles Jencks, Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown. Structuralist ideas remained to inform the work of important architects during and after the postmodern era, which is estimated to have ended in 1995.[11].

The theoretical concepts of structuralism in architecture were developed mainly in Europe and Japan, with important contributions from the United States and Canada. Arnulf Lüchinger's contributions to architectural journals"[12] and his compilation of structuralist projects published in 1980 (Structuralism in Architecture and Urban Planning) introduced structuralism to a broader audience. Kenneth Frampton[13] and Jürgen Joedicke") have made important evaluations of structuralist theory in architecture.[14].

In the 2010s, a new interest in structuralism in architecture was detected, although it can be argued that it was not accompanied by a resurgence of structuralism in the humanities. In 2011, an extensive scientific compilation of "structuralist activity" appeared in a publication called Structuralism Reloaded.[15] In this extensive book, articles by 47 international authors on philosophical, historical, artistic and other relevant aspects were published. The following parts of this article are based on the current status of that publication Structuralism Reloaded.

A few months after that book was published, the RIBA Institute in London debated the new candidates for the RIBA Gold Medal in 2012. A real question was: "Should the Venturis be given this year's RIBA Gold Medal?" [Should the Venturi receive this year's RIBA Gold Medal?]. Surprisingly, the RIBA committee did not award the Venturi for their postmodern vision, and instead gave the prize to Herman Hertzberger for his structuralist architecture and theoretical contributions. Times had changed and there had been a shift in emphasis. Former RIBA President Jack Pringle's comment was: "The Royal Gold Medal, Britain's most prestigious award, should go to an architect who has taken us forward, not back."

Origins

In the international professional world, the year 1959 is seen as the beginning of the architectural movement of structuralism.[22][23][24][15] That year an international conference of architects called "CIAM '59" was held at the Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo. Structuralism was not yet discussed during the conference. In the Netherlands, the concept of structuralism first appeared in an architectural magazine in 1969,[25] in previous years the concepts of "forum architecture" and "configurative design" were common. Outside the Netherlands, structuralism in architecture had previously been published incidentally in professional journals: German in 1958,[26] Italian in 1959,[27] French in 1964,[28] etc. Francis Strauven, architectural historian, wrote about the origins of structuralism as an architectural movement: "Dutch structuralism as an architectural movement was recognized and launched internationally by the Swiss architect Arnulf Lüchinger"), since 1974."[29]

Structuralism in architecture and urban planning had its origins in the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM) after World War II. Between 1928 and 1959, the CIAM were an important platform for the discussion of architecture and urban planning. Various groups with often conflicting views were active in this organization; for example, members with a scientific approach to architecture without aesthetic premises ("New Objectivity (architecture)" rationalists), members who considered architecture as an art form (Le Corbusier), members who were advocates of high-rise or low-rise construction (Ernst May), members who supported a course of reform after the Second World War (Team 10), members of the old guard, etc. Individual members of the small splinter group Team 10 laid the foundation for structuralism. The influence of this team was later interpreted by second generation protagonist Herman Hertzberger when he said: "I am a product of Team 10."[30]

As a group of avant-garde architects, Team 10 was active from 1953 to 1981, and from it emerged two different movements: the New Brutalism of the English members (Alison and Peter Smithson) and the structuralism of the Dutch members (Aldo van Eyck and Jacob Bakema).[30]

Outside of Team 10, other ideas were developed that promoted the structuralist movement, influenced by the concepts of Louis Kahn in the United States, Kenzo Tange in Japan and John Habraken") in the Netherlands (with his theory of user participation in housing). Herman Hertzberger, Lucien Kroll") and Alejandro Aravena made important architectural contributions in the field of participation.

In 1960, Japanese architect Kenzo Tange designed his well-known Tokyo Bay Plan. Reflecting later on the initial phase of that project, he said: "I think it was around 1959 or the early sixties that I started thinking about what I would later call structuralism."[31] Tange also wrote the 1966 article "Function, Structure and Symbol", in which he describes the transition from a functional to a structural approach. Tange considered the period from 1920 to 1960 under the title of "Functionalism" and the period from 1960 under the title of "Structuralism".[31]

Le Corbusier created several early projects and built prototypes in a structuralist key, some of them dating back to the 1920s. Although he was criticized by members of Team 10 in the 1950s for certain aspects of his work (urban concept without "sense of place" or the dark interior streets of the Unité), they recognized him as a great model and creative personality in architecture and art.

Definition of the structuralist form

Since structuralism took different directions, there is more than one definition. Herman Hertzberger's theoretical contribution belongs to the most interesting versions. A recent and frequently cited statement by Hertzberger is: "In structuralism, a distinction is made between a structure with a long life cycle and contents with shorter life cycles."[33] A more detailed description of Hertzberger was published in 1973. This is a structuralist definition in a general sense, but also the basic concept of user participation: «The fact that we put 'form' in a central position with respect to notions like 'space' or 'architecture', in itself means nothing more than a change of accent. What we are talking about is, in fact, another notion of form than that which establishes and maintains a formal and immutable relationship between the object and the viewer. It is not an external form that envelops the object that matters to us, but rather the form in the sense of embodied capacity and potential vehicle of meaning. Form can be filled with meaning, but it can also be deprived of meaning again, depending on the use made of it, through the values we attribute or add to it, or even deprive it of, all depending on the way the users and the form react and play with each other. The case we want to make is that it is this capacity to absorb, carry and transmit meaning that defines what the form can produce in users, and, conversely, what users can produce in the form. What matters is the interaction between form and users, what they mutually transmit and produce, and how they own each other. What we have to try is to form the material (of the things we make) in such a way that, in addition to responding to function in the strict sense, it is suitable for more purposes. And so, be able to play as many roles as possible in the service of the different individual users, so that each one can react to it for themselves, interpreting it in their own way, annexing it to their family environment, to which they will then make a contribution.

In comparison with other currents of structuralism in architecture, the following clarifications are worth noting: «In the new architectural movement, everything that resembles a woven plot and has a grid tends to be called structuralist. It would be a superficial way of looking at things. By nature, structuralism deals with the configuration of conditioned and multipurpose units of form (spatial, communicational, constructive or other units) at all urban scales. Only when users have taken possession of the structures through contact, interpretation, or content details do the structures reach their full status. Therefore, any architecture that has a tendency toward formalism is excluded. The much-discussed flexible form is also rejected as a neutral enclosure system as it does not offer the right solution for any space programme. In the architecture of Herman Hertzberger one can find the structuralist form from the smallest detail to the most complicated structure, whether in terms of spatial, façade or environmental design.

The following quote is a definition of structuralism in different fields. He also talks about the autonomy of the primary structure: «Many structuralists would describe a structure in general terms as a complete set of relationships, in which the elements can change, but in such a way that they remain dependent on the set and retain their meaning. The set is independent of its relationship with the elements. The relationships between elements are more important than the elements themselves. The elements are interchangeable, but not the relationships."[36].

Theoretical origins, principles and aspects

The following aspects are less related to the visual side of architecture and are often described as ideological principles:.

• - Built structures that formally correspond to social structures, according to Team 10 (Working group for the investigation of "interrelationships between social and built structures").[30][12][22].

• - The "archetypal behavior of man" as the origin of architecture (cf. Anthropology, Claude Lévi-Strauss). Different rationalist architects had contacts with Russian avant-garde groups after the First World War. They believed in the idea that man and society could be manipulated.

• - «Coherence», «growth» and «change» at all levels of the urban structure. The concept of "sense of place" (Sense of place). Identification elements (identification devices) and «urban structuring» (Urban Structuring) and «articulation» (of the built volume).

• - «Polyvalent form» and «individual interpretations» (compare the concept of language and word") by Ferdinand de Saussure). Participation of users in housing. Integration of "high" and "low" culture in architecture (beautiful architecture and everyday building forms): pluralistic architecture.

The principle of “structure and content” (Structure and Infill) remains relevant to this day, both for housing projects and for urban planning. The following images influenced the housing projects: the perspective drawing of the “Fort l'Empereur” project in Algiers by Le Corbusier (1934), the isometric drawing of the “Diagoon” housing project in Delft by Herman Hertzberger (1971) and the social housing projects carried out by Alejandro Aravena in the 19th century. At the city level, important projects were: the Tokyo Bay Plan by Kenzo Tange (1960) and the fascinating images of the model of the Free University of Berlin by Candilis Josic & Woods (1963). Also worth mentioning are the utopias of Metabolism&action=edit&redlink=1 "Metabolism (architecture) (not yet written)"), Archigram and Yona Friedman. In general, the instruments for urban structuring were: traffic lines (for example, grid plans), symmetries, squares, notable buildings, rivers, coasts, green areas, hills, etc. These methods were also used in previous cities.

The principle of the “aesthetic of number” was less useful for structuring an entire city. However, exemplary articulated configurations emerged, both in architecture and in housing projects. The first influential images of this direction were provided by Aldo van Eyck with aerial photographs of his orphanage in Amsterdam (1960). He later built another inspiring configuration for the Estec Space Center in Noordwijk (1989). These two compositions can be counted among the most beautiful "icons" of structuralism.[18].

Urbanizations, buildings and projects

• - OMA, Rem Koolhaas office: Homeruskwartier housing project in Almere, 2012 (participation).

• - Richard Rogers: Terminal 4 of the Madrid-Barajas Airport, 2006.

• - Renzo Piano: Zentrum Paul Klee, Bern Museum, 2005.

• - Alejandro Aravena: Social housing projects in Iquique 2004, Santiago de Chile 2007, Monterrey 2010, Constitución 2016 (participation).

• - Riegler Riewe: Fakultät für Informations- und Elektrotechnik der Technischen Universität Graz, 2000.

• - Adriaan Geuze et al.: New urban district Borneo-Sporenburg Scheepstimmermanstraat in Amsterdam, 1997 (participation).

• - Rafael Moneo: National Museum of Roman Art, Mérida "Mérida (Spain)"), 1986.

• - Renzo Piano & Richard Rogers: Center Georges-Pompidou in Paris, 1977.

• - Lucien Kroll"): St. Lambrechts-Woluwe student center in Louvain-la-Neuve near Brussels, 1976 (participation).

• - Verhoeven Klunder Witstok & Brinkman: Urbanization in Berkel-Rodenrijs near Rotterdam, 1973.

• - Piet Blom: Kasbah housing estate in Hengelo, 1973 / Oude Haven urban neighborhood in Rotterdam, 1985.

• - Craig Zeidler & Strong"): McMaster University Medical Center in Hamilton, Canada, 1972.

• - Kisho Kurokawa: Nakagin Capsule Tower (1970-1972), in Tokyo;.

• - Herman Hertzberger: Centraal Beheer office building in Apeldoorn, 1972 (participation, interior) / Diagoon, eight experimental houses in Delft, 1971 (participation).

• - Moshe Safdie: Habitat '67 housing complex, Montreal World's Fair, 1967 / Yad Vashem Children's Monument in Jerusalem, 2005.

• - Giancarlo De Carlo: Collegio del Colle Urbino student accommodation, 1966.

• - Stefan Wewerka: New urban neighborhood Ruhwald in Berlin, project 1965.

• - Candilis Josic & Woods: Free University of Berlin, 1963-1973.

• - Atelier 5: Halen Urbanization") near Bern, 1961.

• - Kenzo Tange: Tokyo Bay Plan, 1960 project / Yamanashi Chamber of Culture in Kofu, 1967.

• - Aldo van Eyck: Orphanage in Amsterdam, 1960 / Estec European Center for Space Research and Technology, restaurant-library conference room in Noordwijk, 1989.

• - Louis Kahn: Jewish community center in Trenton, project 1954 / Salk Institute in La Jolla, California, 1965 / Kimbell Art Museum in Fort Worth, 1972.

• - Alison and Peter Smithson: Golden Lane development in London, 1952 project / Urban planning plan of 1953: Associative hierarchy "house-street-district-city".

• - Van den Broek & Bakema"), Stokla: New districts of Rotterdam: Pendrecht project 1949 / Alexanderpolder projects 1953 and 1956.

• - Le Corbusier: Perspective drawing of the new Fort l'Empereur neighborhood in Algiers, project 1934 (participation) / Weekend house near Paris, 1935 / Le Corbusier Center in Zurich, 1967.

Different types of structures

Aesthetics of the number

The expression "aesthetics of number" (Aesthetics of Number) was introduced by Aldo van Eyck in the architecture magazine Forum 7/1959.[18] In his article, van Eyck showed two works of art: a structuralist painting by the contemporary artist Richard Paul Lohse") and a kuba fabric" (Bakuba scarf) by an African artist of primitive culture. The combination of these two cultures has had symbolic meaning in the structuralist movement. The external appearance of this architecture is immutable.

• - Leicester University Engineering Building") (1959-1963) (Stirling "James Stirling (architect)")-Gowan).

• - Salk Institute in La Jolla (1965), California (Louis Kahn).

• - Brunswick Center") (1972) in Bloomsbury London, (Patrick Hodgkinson).

• - Aachen Clinic") (1971-1985) (Klinikum Aachen).

• - Banca del Gottardo office building (1987) in Lugano (Mario Botta).

• - Oriente Station "Orient Station (Lisbon)") of Lisbon, 1998 (Santiago Calatrava).

• - The children's monument Yad Vashem Jerusalem, 2005 (Moshe Safdie).

• - Memorial in Berlin, 2005 (Peter Eisenman).

Structure and content: two-component approach: participation

In the 1960s, Dutch structuralists criticized the narrowness of the functional principle "Form follows function." In historic cities they found solutions for a more relevant formal principle: an interpretable, adaptable and expandable architecture (see below “Historic Cities – Reciprocity of Form”). In the magazine Forum they developed ideas about "Polyvalent form and individual interpretations*", "Reciprocity of form" (Reciprocity of form), "Structure and infill*) and "Participation".[18] Herman Hertzberger also used the expressions "Architecture as half-product" (Architecture as half-product) and "Structures". open» (Open structures).

The initiator of participation in architecture, as part of the structuralist movement, was John Habraken. In 1961 he published the book Supports: An Alternative to Mass Housing i in different languages. In the century, Chilean architect Alejandro Aravena is working with similar principles of participation. In relation to its social housing projects, Aravena speaks of "Participatory design process", "Half houses for participation" and "Incremental housing". Although Aravena was awarded the Pritzker Prize in 2016 for his architectural work. In 2008, for the Milan Triennale, Alejandro Aravena built a prototype of "Half House" in a similar manner to Le Corbusier's Pavilion de l'Esprit Nouveau in Paris in 1925.

Structure and content – vertical and horizontal communication units.

• - «Interpretable, adaptable and expandable» – Yamanashi in Kofu, 1967 (Kenzo Tange).

• - By Drie Hoven for seniors in Amsterdam, 1974 (Herman Hertzberger).

• - Free University of Berlin, 1963-1973 (Candilis Josic Woods).

• - Barcelona, urban plan from the 19th century.

Participation in housing.

• - In 1934 Le Corbusier designed the Fort l'Empereur project in Algiers, for the participation of residents.

• - Diagoon housing in Delft, 1971 (Herman Hertzberger).

• - Diagoon housing, participation inside and outside.

• - Residences of the Faculty of Medicine of Louvain-la-Neuve near Brussels, 1976 (Lucien Kroll")).

• - Amsterdam Scheeps- timmermanstraat"), cubist style, 1997 (Adriaan Geuze, coordination).

• - Almere Homerus- kwartier, mix of styles, 2012 (OMA, general plan and coordination).

• - Map of the city of Almere, Homeruskwartier (circle on the left).

Participation with "half houses", five social housing projects in Chile —Quinta Monroy (2004), Iquique; The Mirror (2007), Don Francisco, Santiago de Chile; Villa Verde (2016), Rio Loncamilla, Constitución "Constitución (Chile)")—, Mexico —Las Anacuas (2010), Monterrey— and Italy —prototype of "Half-house", in the Milan, Triennale 2008—, made by Alejandro Aravena:.

Other structures

• - Pompidou Center in Paris, "Megastructure&action=edit&redlink=1 "Megastructure (planning concept) (not yet written)")", 1977 (Renzo Piano & Richard Rogers).

• - Park Hill") housing estate in Sheffield, "Gridless structure", 1961 (Jack Lynn&action=edit&redlink=1 "Jack Lynn (architect) (not yet drafted)") & Ivor Smith")).

• - Parliament Building of North Rhine-Westphalia") in Düsseldorf, 1979-1988.

Park Hill housing estate in Sheffield, "Ungridded structure", 1961 (Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith).

Urban structuring – the art of urban planning – general structures

Historic cities

Examples of urban planning and structuring. Regarding the relationship between historical and contemporary architecture, Le Corbusier wrote: «I was called a revolutionary, while my greatest teacher was the past. My supposed revolutionary ideas come directly from the history of architecture itself."[38].

• - Amsterdam, structure and content (urban complexes), 1660.

• - Manhattan, Gridiron Plan, 1807 (structure and content, rule-based and interpretable).

• - Barcelona, Gridiron Plan, 1859 (integration of two different structures: historic city and grid plan).

• - Rome, Symmetries, Axes, Rivers, Hills, etc.

• - Karlsruhe, Basic structure: radial.

• - Paris, Radial structure, Axes, Symmetries, River.

• - Washington, D.C., Plan de L'Enfant 1792.

• - Amsterdam, Basic structure: U shape.

• - Venice, Basic structure: S shape.

Historic cities – reciprocity of forms

In Forum 2/1962 Jacob Bakema") conducted a study on the principle of "reciprocity of form" and "participation", especially on the Diocletian's Palace in Split.[18] In Forum 3/1962 Herman Hertzberger conducted research on the Roman amphitheaters of Arles and Lucca. Later, in 1966, the idea of the amphitheater of Arles was taken up by Aldo Rossi in his book L'architettura della città [The architecture of the city]. In 1976, Reyner Banham presented the Ponte Vecchio of Florence as one of the historical prototypes in his book Megastructure.[21].

• - Diocletian's Palace, original state, 305.

• - Diocletian's Palace, original plan.

• - Diocletian's Palace transformed into a city, Split 1912.

• - Split") and Diocletian's Palace, century.

• - Arles, Roman amphitheater, built in 90 AD, transformed into a city between 600 and 1830.

• - Arles, Roman amphitheater reused as an arena since 1830.

• - Florence, Ponte Vecchio, Structure and coincidence.

New cities

The new cities in the century. The term "Urban Structuring" was introduced by Alison and Peter Smithson, the term "Articulations" by Herman Hertzberger. Both terms are used as the title of an architectural book.

• - Amsterdam, Plan Zuid"), urban plan by Berlage 1915, architecture of the Amsterdam School.

• - Chandigarh, Le Corbusier's Urban Plan and Government Buildings, 1951-1964.

• - Brasília, urban plan by Lucio Costa, government buildings by Oscar Niemeyer, 1956-1963.

• - Brasilia 1990.

• - Dhaka, National Parliament of Bangladesh, urban plan and architecture by Louis Kahn, 1962-1976.

Residential areas, large and small scale

• - Bijlmermeer in Amsterdam-Zuidoost, 1966–75.

• - Bijlmermeer Metro.

• - Bijlmermeer, general plan 1965 (Siegfried Nassuth")).

• - Bijlmermeer 2012, existing buildings (red), demolished (grey).

• - Rozendaal in Leusden, general plan 1969 (David Zuiderhoek).

• - Rozendaal 1973, left part of the plan carried out (Henk Klunder).

• - Sterrenwijk en Berkel en Rodenrijs"), 1973 (Verhoeven Klunder Witstok Brinkman).

• - Sterrenwijk, basic structure and implementation (see Google Maps, Berkel en Rodenrijs") Planetenweg).

References

[1] ↑ Aldo van Eyck, "Statement Against Rationalism", escrito para CIAM VI en 1947. En: Aldo van Eyck - Writings, Amsterdam 2008. Statement against CIAM-formulations like: "Urban planning can never be determined by aesthetic considerations but exclusively by functional conclusions." Esta formulación proviene de los arquitectos del movimiento racionalista y fue escrita para la declaración del CIAM en 1928.
[2] ↑ Leach, 2005, p. 156.
[3] ↑ Todorov (Ed.), Tzvetan (1965). Théorie de la littérature. Textes des Formalistes russes.. Editions du Seuil. ISBN 9 782020019293. (requiere registro).: https://archive.org/details/theoriedelalitte0000todo
[4] ↑ Barthes, Roland (1964). L’activité structuraliste. En: Essais critiques. Points (first edition Editions du Seuil). ISBN 202005809-X.
[5] ↑ Lin, 2010, p. 176.
[6] ↑ van Eyck, 1959.
[7] ↑ Habraken, 1961.
[8] ↑ Francis Strauven, Aldo van Eyck - The Shape of Relativity, Amsterdam 1998 (1994). Biografía de Aldo van Eyck y su «Disciplina configurativa» ("Configurative Discipline") del diseño.
[9] ↑ Denkinger, Bernhard (2019). Die vergessenen Alternativen. Strukturalismus und brutalistische Erfahrung in der Architektur. Berlin: Jovis. pp. 36-40. ISBN 978-3-86859-551-2.
[10] ↑ Dosse, Francois (1999). Geschichte des Strukturalismus. Band 2: Die Zeichen der Zeit 1967-1991. Frankfurt: Fischer (First edition by Éditions la Découverte). pp. 329–350. ISBN 3-596-13476-5.: https://archive.org/details/geschichtedesstr0000fran
[11] ↑ Klotz, Heinrich (1999). Architektur der Zweiten Moderne. Ein Essay zur Ankündigung des Neuen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlagsanstalt. p. 14. ISBN 3-421-03231-9.
[12] ↑ a b c d Arnulf Lüchinger, Structuralism in Architecture and Urban Planning, Stuttgart 1980, p. 56. El estructuralismo como movimiento internacional. Incluye textos originales de Herman Hertzberger, Louis Kahn, Le Corbusier, Kenzo Tange, Aldo van Eyck y otros miembros de Team 10.
[13] ↑ Frampton, Kenneth (2002). The Structural Regionalism of Herman Hertzberger. En: Labour, Work and Architecture. Collected Essays on Architecture and Design. New York: Phaidon. pp. 289-297. ISBN 0714840807.
[14] ↑ Joedicke, Jürgen (1980). Architektur im Umbruch. Geschichte – Entwicklung – Ausblick. Stuttgart 1980. Stuttgart: Karl Krämer. ISBN 3-7828-0459-7.
[15] ↑ a b c d Tomas Valena (ed.) con Avermaete y Georg Vrachliotis, Structuralism Reloaded - Rule-Based Design in Architecture and Urbanism, Stuttgart-Londres 2011. 47 artículos de Roland Barthes, Herman Hertzberger, Winy Maas et al.
[16] ↑ "The Royal Gold Medal, Britain's most prestigious award, should go to an architect that has taken us forward, not backwards.".
[17] ↑ "I do not believe that we can still speak of one structuralism. There were a lot of movements that claimed to be structuralist." Structuralism Reloaded - Rule-Based Design in Architecture and Urbanism, ed .'Valena.
[18] ↑ a b c d e f g Aldo van Eyck, "Het Verhaal van een Andere Gedachte" (La historia de otra idea), con el principio "Aesthetics of Number", en Forum 7/1959, Amsterdam-Hilversum. El equipo editorial de la revista Forum 7/1959-3/1963 y julio/1967 estaba formado por Aldo van Eyck, Herman Hertzberger, Jacob Bakema et al.
[19] ↑ Aldo van Eyck, "Steps towards a configurative discipline", en: Forum 3/1962, Amsterdam-Hilversum.
[20] ↑ N. John Habraken, Supports - An Alternative to Mass Housing, Londres 1972. User Participation. (Dutch edition De Dragers en de Mensen, Amsterdam 1961. German edition Die Träger und die Menschen, La Haya 2000; in combination with Two-Components-Approach - Structure and Coincidence).
[21] ↑ a b Reyner Banham, Megastructure - Urban Futures of the Recent Past, Londres 1976.
[22] ↑ a b c d e Oscar Newman (ed.), CIAM '59 in Otterlo, Stuttgart-Londres-New York 1961, (Engels en Duits). 30 artículos de. Louis Kahn, Kenzo Tange, Georges Candilis, Jacob Bakema, Aldo van Eyck, Alison y Peter Smithson.Aunque nadie en Otterlo hablaba todavía de estructuralismo, en la década de 1970 los intérpretes de arquitectura identificaron la conferencia de Otterlo como el comienzo del movimiento estructuralista internacional..
[23] ↑ Arnulf Lüchinger, Structuralism in Architecture and Urban Planning, Stuttgart 1980. Structuralisme als internationale stroming. Met teksten van Herman Hertzberger, Louis Kahn, Le Corbusier, Kenzo Tange, Aldo van Eyck en andere leden van Team Ten.
[24] ↑ Wim van Heuvel, Structuralisme in de Nederlandse Architectuur, Rotterdam 1992.
[25] ↑ a b Arnaud Beerends, "Een Structuur voor het Raadhuis van Amsterdam", en TABK 1/1969, Heerlen.
[26] ↑ Giuseppe Vindigni, "Rundgang durch die Expo 1958", en: Bauen+Wohnen 9/1958, Zürich, pag. 243–244, sin imágenes. El pabellón estadounidense ha sido descrito como "estructuralismo" y el pabellón suizo como "parecido a un panal de abejas" ('bijenraat-achtig').
[27] ↑ Ernesto Nathan Rogers e Pier Luigi Nervi, "Architettura e strutturalismo", en: Casabella 7/1959, Milán, pp. 4-5.
[28] ↑ Félix Candela, "Architecture et 'structuralisme' ", en: habitation 3/1964, Lausanne, pag. 44–50, sin imágenes.
[29] ↑ "Het Nederlands Structuralisme als architectuurstroming werd erkend en internationaal gelanceerd door de Zwitserse architect Arnulf Lüchinger, sinds 1974", Beerends, op. cit.
[30] ↑ a b c d ("I am a product of Team 10.") Max Risselada and Dirk van den Heuvel (eds.), Team 10 - In Search of a Utopia of the Present, Rotterdam 2005. Essays by 23 authors. Interviews with Georges Candilis, Giancarlo De Carlo, Balkrishna Doshi, Ralph Erskine, Herman Hertzberger, Alison and Peter Smithson, Aldo van Eyck.
[31] ↑ a b "It was, I believe, around 1959 or at the beginning of the sixties that I began to think about what I was later to call Structuralism." Kenzo Tange, "Function, Structure and Symbol, 1966", en: Udo Kultermann, Kenzo Tange, Zurich 1970. Kenzo Tange en 1966: «Además de 'funcionar', también necesitamos dar estructura a los espacios. El proceso de 'estructuración' es el tema básico del diseño urbano». ("In addition to 'functioning' we also need to give spaces structure. The process of 'structuring' is the basic theme of urban design."). en una conferencia en 1981: «Creo que fue alrededor de 1959 o a principios de los años sesenta cuando comencé a pensar en lo que más tarde llamaría estructuralismo» ("It was, I believe, around 1959 or in the beginning of the Sixties, that I started to think about what I was later to call structuralism") (publicado en Plan 2/1982, Amsterdam).
[32] ↑ Wim van Heuvel, Structuralism in Dutch Architecture, Rotterdam 1992.
[33] ↑ "In Structuralism, one differentiates between a structure with a long life cycle and infills with shorter life cycles." Herman Hertzberger, Lessons for Students in Architecture, Rotterdam 1991-No.1, 2000-No.2, 2008-No.3. Definition by Herman Hertzberger: "Structuralism deals with the difference of a structure with a long life-cycle and infills with shorter life-cycles.".
[34] ↑ "The fact that we put 'form' in a central position with respect to such notions as 'space' or 'architecture', means in itself no more than a shifting of accent. What we are talking about is in fact another notion of form than that, which premises a formal and unchanging relationship between object and viewer, and maintains this. It is not an outward form wrapped around the object that matters to us, but form in the sense of inbuilt capacity and potential vehicle of significance. Form can be filled-in with significance, but can also be deprived of it again, depending on the use that's made of it, through the values we attach to, or add to it, or which we even deprive it of, - all this dependent on the way in which the users and the form react to, and play on each other. The case we want to put is, that it is this capacity to absorb, carry and convey significance that defines what form can bring about in the users - and conversely - what the users can bring about in the form. What matters is the interaction of form and users, what they convey to each other and bring about in each other, and how they mutually take possession of each other. What we have to aim for, is, to form the material (of the things we make) in such a way that - as well as answering to the function in the narrower sense - it will be suitable for more purposes. And thus, it will be able to play as many roles as possible in the service of the various, individual users, - so that everyone will then be able to react to it for himself, interpreting it in his own way, annexing it to his familiar environment, to which it will then make a contribution." Arnulf Lüchinger, op. cit., p. 56.
[35] ↑ "In the new architectural movement there is often a tendency to call everything Structuralist that resembles a woven texture and has a grid. This would be a superficial way of looking at things. By nature Structuralism is concerned with the configuration of conditioned and polyvalent units of form (spatial, communicational, constructional or other units) at all urban scales. Only when the users have taken possession of the structures through contact, interpretation or filling-in the details, do the structures achieve their full status. Any architecture that has a tendency to formalism is thus excluded. Flexible form, which has been much discussed, is also rejected as a neutral enclosing system, since it does not offer the appropriate solution for any spatial programme. In the architecture of Herman Hertzberger Structuralist form can be found from the smallest detail up to the most complicated structure, whether it is in terms of spatial, facade or environmental design.". Arnulf Lüchinger, op. cit., pag. 5.
[36] ↑ "Many Structuralists would describe a structure roughly in the following terms: it is a complete set of relationships, in which the elements can change, but in such a way that these remain dependent on the whole and retain their meaning. The whole is independent of its relationship to the elements. The relationships between the elements are more important than the elements themselves. The elements are interchangeable, but not the relationships." Arnulf Lüchinger op. cit., pag. 16.
[37] ↑ Herman Hertzberger, "Dedicato a Schindler", en: Domus September No.465/1967, Milán.
[38] ↑ "I was labelled a revolutionary, whereas my greatest teacher was the Past. My so-called revolutionary ideas are straight out of the history of architecture itself." Citado en Hertzberger 1991 N°2.