Social well-being is indicated by observing the factors that participate in the quality of life of people in a society and that make their existence possess all those elements that give rise to human or social satisfaction.[1]It is when a decision is made for the well-being of everyone in general. It is a non-observable condition since it is understood from formulations and is compared from one time or space to another. Even so, well-being, as an abstract concept, has an important burden of subjectivity inherent to the individual, although it also appears correlated with some objective economic factors. Social good does not necessarily imply collectivism. The concept of social well-being is often confused with that of quality of life and yet they are different. The two concepts were derived from the various theories of well-being, but over time they became differentiated; Thus, while quality of life was oriented towards psychosocial components, social well-being was oriented more towards material aspects.
History
In the Roman Empire, the first Emperor Augustus established the Cura Annonae or grain alms for citizens who could not afford to buy food each month. Social assistance was expanded by Emperor Trajan. Trajan's program was acclaimed by many, including Pliny the Younger. [3] During the history of Ancient Rome, other provisions for the poor were introduced,[4] such as the Alimenta.[5].
The government of the Song Dynasty (960 AD) supported multiple programs that could be classified as social welfare, including state hospitals, low-interest loans for peasants, state orphanages, free pharmacies for the poor, full state granaries, fire stations and libraries in large cities,[6] nursing homes, public clinics, and pauper cemeteries. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson, "the medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching and comprehensive system of social assistance for the poor...".[7][8] The ancient Greek city-states provided free medical services to the poor and slaves.[9] Beginning in the 19th century, the governments of the Italian city-states began to partner with the church to provide welfare and education for the lower classes. [10] By the 19th century, according to one study, the Qing dynasty had "the most elaborate relief system in world history, based on state and local granaries that were used in times of scarcity to stabilize food prices and relieve the urban and rural poor." This system, however, was weakened after the entry of imperialism into China following the Opium War of 1840 and the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1860), which caused a crisis in the Qing dynasty. After the founding of the Republic in 1912 and the following years of civil wars and caudillismo, "the system of state granaries became almost nonexistent."[11].
Urban well-being policy
Introduction
Social well-being is indicated by observing the factors that participate in the quality of life of people in a society and that make their existence possess all those elements that give rise to human or social satisfaction.[1]It is when a decision is made for the well-being of everyone in general. It is a non-observable condition since it is understood from formulations and is compared from one time or space to another. Even so, well-being, as an abstract concept, has an important burden of subjectivity inherent to the individual, although it also appears correlated with some objective economic factors. Social good does not necessarily imply collectivism. The concept of social well-being is often confused with that of quality of life and yet they are different. The two concepts were derived from the various theories of well-being, but over time they became differentiated; Thus, while quality of life was oriented towards psychosocial components, social well-being was oriented more towards material aspects.
History
In the Roman Empire, the first Emperor Augustus established the Cura Annonae or grain alms for citizens who could not afford to buy food each month. Social assistance was expanded by Emperor Trajan. Trajan's program was acclaimed by many, including Pliny the Younger. [3] During the history of Ancient Rome, other provisions for the poor were introduced,[4] such as the Alimenta.[5].
The government of the Song Dynasty (960 AD) supported multiple programs that could be classified as social welfare, including state hospitals, low-interest loans for peasants, state orphanages, free pharmacies for the poor, full state granaries, fire stations and libraries in large cities,[6] nursing homes, public clinics, and pauper cemeteries. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson, "the medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching and comprehensive system of social assistance for the poor...".[7][8] The ancient Greek city-states provided free medical services to the poor and slaves.[9] Beginning in the 19th century, the governments of the Italian city-states began to partner with the church to provide welfare and education for the lower classes. [10] By the 19th century, according to one study, the Qing dynasty had "the most elaborate relief system in world history, based on state and local granaries that were used in times of scarcity to stabilize food prices and relieve the urban and rural poor." This system, however, was weakened after the entry of imperialism into China following the Opium War of 1840 and the Taiping Rebellion (1850-1860), which caused a crisis in the Qing dynasty. After the founding of the Republic in 1912 and the following years of civil wars and caudillismo, "the system of state granaries became almost nonexistent."[11].
Throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire, various social welfare services and institutions were established.[12] The state was also required to provide food and clothing to children whose parents were unable to raise due to destitution.[12]
In later Protestant European nations, such as the United Provinces of the Netherlands, welfare was managed by local guilds until the abolition of the guild system at the turn of the century.[13][14] In the free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire, city councils in cities such as Nuremberg could assume control of the collection and distribution of public welfare. [15] [16].
The 19th century caliph Umar introduced a form of zakat, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, as a codified universal social security tax.[17] Traditionally estimated at 2.5% of an individual's assets, government zakat funds were distributed to various groups of Muslims, including the impoverished and the heavily indebted.[18] [19] Zakat collection increased during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, although the zakat system was often ineffective and corrupt; Islamic jurists used to recommend Muslims distribute money directly to those in need to maximize its impact.[20].
Likewise, in Jewish tradition, charity (represented by tzedakah) is a matter of religious obligation rather than benevolence. Contemporary charity is considered a continuation of the biblical Maaser Ani, or tithing of the poor, as well as biblical practices, such as allowing the poor to glean the corners of the field and harvest during the Shmita (sabbatical year).
There is relatively little statistical data on transfer payments before the Early Middle Ages. In the medieval period and until the Industrial Revolution, the function of social aid in Europe was carried out through private donations or charity, through numerous confraternities and activities of different religious orders. Among the first social assistance programs in Europe, the English Poor Law of 1601 stands out, which gave parishes the responsibility of providing social assistance to the poor. This system was substantially modified by the Poor Law Amendment Act of the century, which introduced the workhouse system.<! --The United States Constitution (written in 1787) names "promoting the general welfare" as the objective of the United States, and grants Congress powers to levy taxes for the same purpose. In 1819, Simón Bolívar declared "producing [...] the greatest social security" as one of the three characteristics of an ideal government.[21]-->.
It was especially at the end of the century and the beginning of the century that an organized system of state social benefits was introduced in many countries. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany, introduced one of the first welfare systems for the working classes.[22] In Britain the Liberal government of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and David Lloyd George introduced the National Insurance system in 1911,[23] a system later expanded by Clement Attlee.
Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the Netherlands,[24] as well as Nordic countries such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland,[25] which employ a system known as the Nordic model. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories: social democratic, conservative and liberal.[26].
A report published by the ILO in 2014 estimated that only 27% of the world's population has access to comprehensive social security.[27] The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report argues that the traditional payroll-based model of many types of social insurance is "increasingly challenged by work arrangements outside of standard employment contracts."[22].
Economic well-being
Contenido
La medida del bienestar económico ha sido objeto de intenso debate debido a la dificultad de definir qué debe entenderse por bienestar. Convencionalmente se ha optado por tomar, como medida del bienestar, la cantidad de bienes materiales y servicios "Servicio (economía)") útiles producidos por un país, dividido entre el número de sus habitantes (lo que se conoce con el nombre de renta per cápita) o alguna medida directamente relacionada con ésta. Aun así, existen otras medidas alternativas que consideran factores no englobados en el PIB y en la renta per cápita.[28].
Para rentas nacionales bajas, la renta per cápita es mucho mejor indicador del bienestar social. Una de las razones es que la esperanza de vida está positivamente correlacionada con el PIB per cápita cuando este se sitúa entre 0 y 4.000 dólares, pero a partir de 10 000 dólares apenas existe correlación entre ambos,[29] por ejemplo. Otros factores que contribuyen al nivel de vida material de una población son:[30].
Per capita income
Income per capita is measured from the gross domestic product (GDP) or value of the goods and services that a country produces, divided by the number of inhabitants. By calculating the value of a country's production at market prices, we know what that country's income is. By international agreement, it is always expressed in dollars.
If the value of GDP is divided by the number of inhabitants, an average is obtained, an indicator of how much income each person would have. It is done this way because if two countries have the same GDP, let's say 1000, but one has 20 inhabitants and the other 50, when dividing 1000/20 we see that the per capita income is 50 while in the other, when dividing 1000/50 the per capita income is 20, "that is" it is a poorer country than the first.
This is a statistical calculation, an average, not that the inhabitants of a country actually produce that and therefore have that income. There are many people who, like babies, do not produce anything economically speaking and others who produce much more than the average figure.
The three factors that contribute the most to the increase in GDP per capita are:.
GDP per capita receives strong criticism as an indicator of social well-being. As an example, some economists have objected that GDP measures only a partial aspect of objective economic well-being.
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Instead, the HPI attempts to measure the level of poverty in a country. This index was developed by the United Nations and in the case of developing economies (since there is another index for OECD countries) it includes:
Thus, this last index is higher in the countries with the greatest poverty.
Income distribution indices
As indicated, to approximately measure the uniform distribution of income among all individuals in a given country, there are some alternative economic indicators such as:
Social well-being indicators
Some of the most suitable indicators to measure the social well-being of a country are:[28].
Human development and poverty
In addition to the direct human development index (HDI), which includes per capita income among its parameters, there are other indirect ones, which are those that indicate the degree of poverty, underdevelopment or deprivation.
Subjective well-being
Subjective well-being is any measure of the amount of well-being that people in a country say they have. A measure of this, for example, is subjective well-being index, which is prepared from surveys, it is calculated from the percentage of people who consider themselves "happy" or "very happy" minus the percentage of people who consider themselves "not very happy" or "unhappy".
The 1990 World Values Survey showed that this index varied from -2% for Bulgaria to 90% for Iceland. It was observed, as is the case with life expectancy, that for low-income levels there is a higher correlation between subjective well-being and GDP per capita. For higher incomes there is still a correlation, although more moderate. The correlation coefficient r between the two variables considering all income brackets was high (r = 0.74).[37].
Criticism: GDP per capita as an indicator of well-being
El PIB per capita real de una economía suele utilizarse como indicador del nivel de vida medio de los particulares de un país, y el crecimiento económico suele verse por lo tanto como un indicador del aumento en el nivel de vida medio.
No obstante, se presentan algunos problemas al calcular el crecimiento mediante PIB per cápita[38] con la finalidad de medir el crecimiento del bienestar, por ejemplo:.
Otras medidas de rentas nacionales, como el Índice de bienestar económico sostenible o el Indicador de progreso real, han sido desarrolladas como intento de ofrecer una visión más completa del nivel de bienestar, aunque no se ha llegado a un consenso en cuanto a qué medida, si existe, es mejor que el PIB. Este indicador sigue siendo con diferencia la medida más utilizada, especialmente si tenemos en cuenta que, independientemente de todo lo demás, un aumento del PIB real conlleva un aumento de la disponibilidad de empleo, necesaria para la supervivencia de la mayoría de los particulares.
Historical reference
The creators of the national accounting system that gave rise to the GDP measure warned of the limitations of this measure as a measure of social well-being.[39] John Maynard Keynes, John Hicks and Simon Kuznets developed the national accounting system because their governments needed better means of managing their economies in the face of the spectacular fluctuations of the business cycle in the interwar period. Kuznets, creator of the unified American system of national accounting, warned Congress in 1934 that:
However, he considered that his warnings were ignored and that both economists and politicians used to equate prosperity and GDP growth per capita. Years later he expanded his criticism in the same sense when he declared:[41].
Effects of social aid
Es poco probable que el programa de intervención de la asistencia social al trabajo tenga algún impacto en la salud mental y física de las familias monoparentales y los niños. Incluso cuando las tasas de empleo y de ingresos eran más altas en este grupo de personas, la tasa de pobreza era alta, lo que podría conducir a tasas persistentemente altas de depresión, estuvieran o no en el programa.[42].
Las transferencias de ingresos pueden ser condicionales o incondicionales. Las condicionales son a veces criticadas por paternalistas e innecesarias.
Un estudio realizado en 2008 por el economista del bienestar y profesor de la Universidad de Brown, Allan M. Feldman[43] sugiere que el bienestar puede alcanzar tanto el equilibrio competitivo como la eficiencia de Pareto en el mercado.[44] Aunque, los diferentes puntos de eficiencia de Pareto son más justos para unos que para otros.[45].
Algunos opositores a la asistencia social argumentan que afecta a los incentivos laborales.
Perception of social assistance programs
According to a 2012 review study, whether a social assistance program generates public support depends on:[46].
[7] ↑ Nelson, Robert Henry (2010-11). Economics as Religion: From Samuelson to Chicago and Beyond (en inglés). Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-03861-2. Consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2024.: https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw-bHEGNqqcC&pg=PA103
[9] ↑ The New Public Health By Theodore H. Tulchinsky, Elena A. Varavikova, Matan J. Cohen. 2023, P.4.
[10] ↑ Philip Jones (22 de mayo de 1997). La ciudad-estado italiana: From Commune to Signoria. Clarendon Press. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-19-159030-6.: https://books.google.com/books?id=rcR2pk4lknQC
[11] ↑ Famine Politics in Maoist China and the Soviet Union By Felix Wemheuer, 2014, P.30.
[13] ↑ Marco H. D. Van Leeuwen (31 de agosto de 2016). Palgrave Macmillan UK, ed. Mutual Insurance 1550-2015: From Guild Welfare and Friendly Societies to Contemporary Micro-Insurers. pp. 70-71. ISBN 978-1-137-53110-0.: https://books.google.com/books?id=h5TvDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70
[14] ↑ Bernard Harris; Paul Bridgen (6 de abril de 2012). id=3LF_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 Caridad y ayuda mutua en Europa y Norteamérica desde 1800. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-134-21508-9.: https://books.google.com/books?
[15] ↑ Hajo Holborn (21 de diciembre de 1982). A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation. Princeton University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-691-00795-3. OCLC 1035603175.: https://books.google.com/books?id=350Qosar-UcC&pg=PA26
[16] ↑ James B. Collins; Karen L. Taylor (15 de abril de 2008). Early Modern Europe: Issues and Interpretations. John Wiley & Sons. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-4051-5207-5.: https://books.google.com/books?id=lT1TzLhoidIC&pg=PA224
[18] ↑ Benthal, Jonathan. nl/bitstream/handle/1887/16762/ISIM_1_The_Qur-an-s_Call_to_Alms_Zakat_the_Muslim_Tradition_of_Alms-giving.pdf?sequence=1 «La llamada del Corán a la limosna Zakat, la tradición musulmana de dar limosna». Boletín del ISIM 98 (1): 13.: https://openaccess.leidenuniv.
[19] ↑ M.A. Mohamed Salih (2004). Alexander De Waal, ed. id=WYLSKQa9tHEC&pg=PA148 El islamismo y sus enemigos en el Cuerno de África. Indiana University Press. pp. 148-149. ISBN 978-0-253-34403-8.: https://books.google.com/books?
[20] ↑ Fauzia, Amelia (2013). Faith and the State: A History of Islamic Philanthropy in Indonesia. Brill. pp. 45-55. ISBN 9789004233973.
[21] ↑ Manuel Israel Ruiz Arias (September 2010). «Sobre Seguridad Social el FMI tiene poco que decirnos y mucho que contarnos». Revista Envío.: https://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/4240
[25] ↑ Paul K. Edwards y Tony Elger, The global economy, national states and the regulation of labour (1999) p. 111.
[26] ↑ Ferragina, Emanuele; Seeleib-Kaiser, Martin (30 de octubre de 2011). «Revista temática: Debate sobre los regímenes de bienestar: pasado, presente, futuro?». Policy & Politics 39 (4): 583-611. S2CID 146986126. doi:10.1332/030557311X603592.: https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01347336/file/Welfare_regime_debate.pdf
[29] ↑ Ronald Inglehart, Modernización y Posmodernización: el cambio cultural, económico y politico en 43 sociedades, Ed. Siglo XXI, Madrid, 2000, pp. 78.
[30] ↑ Paul Krugman, La era de las perspectivas limitadas, Ed. Ariel, Barcelona, 1998, ISBN 84-344-1432-5, pp. 19.
[34] ↑ Larry Osberg y Andrew Sharpe, Human Well-Being and Economic Well-Being: What Values are Implicit in Current Indices?, Center for the Study of Living Standars, julio de 2003.
[35] ↑ Índice de pobreza multidimensional desde 2010 El IPM o MPI está desarrollado por la PNUD y la OPHI (Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative).: http://hdr.undp.org/es/informes/mundial/idh2010/ipm/
[37] ↑ Ronald Inglehart, Modernización y Posmodernización: el cambio cultural, económico y politico en 43 sociedades, Ed. Siglo XXI, Madrid, 2000, pp. 81.
[42] ↑ Gibson M, Thomson H, Banas K, Lutje V, McKee MJ, Martin SP, Fenton C, Bambra C, Bond L (26 de febrero de 2018). «Welfare-to-work Interventions and Their Effects on the Mental and Physical Health of Lone Parents and Their Children». Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018 (2): CD009820. PMC 5846185. PMID 29480555. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009820.pub3.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5846185
[44] ↑ Feldman, Allan M. «Economía del bienestar». El nuevo diccionario Palgrave de economía. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.
[45] ↑ cosign-apps.lib&https://apps.lib.umich.edu/login?dest=/proxy-login/?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_1417-2 «U-M Weblogin». weblogin.umich.edu. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1417-2. Consultado el 8 de diciembre de 2021.: https://weblogin.umich.edu/?
[46] ↑ Campbell, Andrea Louise (11 de mayo de 2012). «Policy Makes Mass Politics». Annual Review of Political Science 15 (1): 333-351. ISSN 1094-2939. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-012610-135202.: https://es.wikipedia.org//portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1094-2939
Throughout the history of the Byzantine Empire, various social welfare services and institutions were established.[12] The state was also required to provide food and clothing to children whose parents were unable to raise due to destitution.[12]
In later Protestant European nations, such as the United Provinces of the Netherlands, welfare was managed by local guilds until the abolition of the guild system at the turn of the century.[13][14] In the free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire, city councils in cities such as Nuremberg could assume control of the collection and distribution of public welfare. [15] [16].
The 19th century caliph Umar introduced a form of zakat, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, as a codified universal social security tax.[17] Traditionally estimated at 2.5% of an individual's assets, government zakat funds were distributed to various groups of Muslims, including the impoverished and the heavily indebted.[18] [19] Zakat collection increased during the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphates, although the zakat system was often ineffective and corrupt; Islamic jurists used to recommend Muslims distribute money directly to those in need to maximize its impact.[20].
Likewise, in Jewish tradition, charity (represented by tzedakah) is a matter of religious obligation rather than benevolence. Contemporary charity is considered a continuation of the biblical Maaser Ani, or tithing of the poor, as well as biblical practices, such as allowing the poor to glean the corners of the field and harvest during the Shmita (sabbatical year).
There is relatively little statistical data on transfer payments before the Early Middle Ages. In the medieval period and until the Industrial Revolution, the function of social aid in Europe was carried out through private donations or charity, through numerous confraternities and activities of different religious orders. Among the first social assistance programs in Europe, the English Poor Law of 1601 stands out, which gave parishes the responsibility of providing social assistance to the poor. This system was substantially modified by the Poor Law Amendment Act of the century, which introduced the workhouse system.<! --The United States Constitution (written in 1787) names "promoting the general welfare" as the objective of the United States, and grants Congress powers to levy taxes for the same purpose. In 1819, Simón Bolívar declared "producing [...] the greatest social security" as one of the three characteristics of an ideal government.[21]-->.
It was especially at the end of the century and the beginning of the century that an organized system of state social benefits was introduced in many countries. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany, introduced one of the first welfare systems for the working classes.[22] In Britain the Liberal government of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and David Lloyd George introduced the National Insurance system in 1911,[23] a system later expanded by Clement Attlee.
Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the Netherlands,[24] as well as Nordic countries such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland,[25] which employ a system known as the Nordic model. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories: social democratic, conservative and liberal.[26].
A report published by the ILO in 2014 estimated that only 27% of the world's population has access to comprehensive social security.[27] The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report argues that the traditional payroll-based model of many types of social insurance is "increasingly challenged by work arrangements outside of standard employment contracts."[22].
Economic well-being
Contenido
La medida del bienestar económico ha sido objeto de intenso debate debido a la dificultad de definir qué debe entenderse por bienestar. Convencionalmente se ha optado por tomar, como medida del bienestar, la cantidad de bienes materiales y servicios "Servicio (economía)") útiles producidos por un país, dividido entre el número de sus habitantes (lo que se conoce con el nombre de renta per cápita) o alguna medida directamente relacionada con ésta. Aun así, existen otras medidas alternativas que consideran factores no englobados en el PIB y en la renta per cápita.[28].
Para rentas nacionales bajas, la renta per cápita es mucho mejor indicador del bienestar social. Una de las razones es que la esperanza de vida está positivamente correlacionada con el PIB per cápita cuando este se sitúa entre 0 y 4.000 dólares, pero a partir de 10 000 dólares apenas existe correlación entre ambos,[29] por ejemplo. Otros factores que contribuyen al nivel de vida material de una población son:[30].
Per capita income
Income per capita is measured from the gross domestic product (GDP) or value of the goods and services that a country produces, divided by the number of inhabitants. By calculating the value of a country's production at market prices, we know what that country's income is. By international agreement, it is always expressed in dollars.
If the value of GDP is divided by the number of inhabitants, an average is obtained, an indicator of how much income each person would have. It is done this way because if two countries have the same GDP, let's say 1000, but one has 20 inhabitants and the other 50, when dividing 1000/20 we see that the per capita income is 50 while in the other, when dividing 1000/50 the per capita income is 20, "that is" it is a poorer country than the first.
This is a statistical calculation, an average, not that the inhabitants of a country actually produce that and therefore have that income. There are many people who, like babies, do not produce anything economically speaking and others who produce much more than the average figure.
The three factors that contribute the most to the increase in GDP per capita are:.
GDP per capita receives strong criticism as an indicator of social well-being. As an example, some economists have objected that GDP measures only a partial aspect of objective economic well-being.
Human Poverty Index (HPI)
Instead, the HPI attempts to measure the level of poverty in a country. This index was developed by the United Nations and in the case of developing economies (since there is another index for OECD countries) it includes:
Thus, this last index is higher in the countries with the greatest poverty.
Income distribution indices
As indicated, to approximately measure the uniform distribution of income among all individuals in a given country, there are some alternative economic indicators such as:
Social well-being indicators
Some of the most suitable indicators to measure the social well-being of a country are:[28].
Human development and poverty
In addition to the direct human development index (HDI), which includes per capita income among its parameters, there are other indirect ones, which are those that indicate the degree of poverty, underdevelopment or deprivation.
Subjective well-being
Subjective well-being is any measure of the amount of well-being that people in a country say they have. A measure of this, for example, is subjective well-being index, which is prepared from surveys, it is calculated from the percentage of people who consider themselves "happy" or "very happy" minus the percentage of people who consider themselves "not very happy" or "unhappy".
The 1990 World Values Survey showed that this index varied from -2% for Bulgaria to 90% for Iceland. It was observed, as is the case with life expectancy, that for low-income levels there is a higher correlation between subjective well-being and GDP per capita. For higher incomes there is still a correlation, although more moderate. The correlation coefficient r between the two variables considering all income brackets was high (r = 0.74).[37].
Criticism: GDP per capita as an indicator of well-being
El PIB per capita real de una economía suele utilizarse como indicador del nivel de vida medio de los particulares de un país, y el crecimiento económico suele verse por lo tanto como un indicador del aumento en el nivel de vida medio.
No obstante, se presentan algunos problemas al calcular el crecimiento mediante PIB per cápita[38] con la finalidad de medir el crecimiento del bienestar, por ejemplo:.
Otras medidas de rentas nacionales, como el Índice de bienestar económico sostenible o el Indicador de progreso real, han sido desarrolladas como intento de ofrecer una visión más completa del nivel de bienestar, aunque no se ha llegado a un consenso en cuanto a qué medida, si existe, es mejor que el PIB. Este indicador sigue siendo con diferencia la medida más utilizada, especialmente si tenemos en cuenta que, independientemente de todo lo demás, un aumento del PIB real conlleva un aumento de la disponibilidad de empleo, necesaria para la supervivencia de la mayoría de los particulares.
Historical reference
The creators of the national accounting system that gave rise to the GDP measure warned of the limitations of this measure as a measure of social well-being.[39] John Maynard Keynes, John Hicks and Simon Kuznets developed the national accounting system because their governments needed better means of managing their economies in the face of the spectacular fluctuations of the business cycle in the interwar period. Kuznets, creator of the unified American system of national accounting, warned Congress in 1934 that:
However, he considered that his warnings were ignored and that both economists and politicians used to equate prosperity and GDP growth per capita. Years later he expanded his criticism in the same sense when he declared:[41].
Effects of social aid
Es poco probable que el programa de intervención de la asistencia social al trabajo tenga algún impacto en la salud mental y física de las familias monoparentales y los niños. Incluso cuando las tasas de empleo y de ingresos eran más altas en este grupo de personas, la tasa de pobreza era alta, lo que podría conducir a tasas persistentemente altas de depresión, estuvieran o no en el programa.[42].
Las transferencias de ingresos pueden ser condicionales o incondicionales. Las condicionales son a veces criticadas por paternalistas e innecesarias.
Un estudio realizado en 2008 por el economista del bienestar y profesor de la Universidad de Brown, Allan M. Feldman[43] sugiere que el bienestar puede alcanzar tanto el equilibrio competitivo como la eficiencia de Pareto en el mercado.[44] Aunque, los diferentes puntos de eficiencia de Pareto son más justos para unos que para otros.[45].
Algunos opositores a la asistencia social argumentan que afecta a los incentivos laborales.
Perception of social assistance programs
According to a 2012 review study, whether a social assistance program generates public support depends on:[46].
[7] ↑ Nelson, Robert Henry (2010-11). Economics as Religion: From Samuelson to Chicago and Beyond (en inglés). Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0-271-03861-2. Consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2024.: https://books.google.com/books?id=Rw-bHEGNqqcC&pg=PA103
[9] ↑ The New Public Health By Theodore H. Tulchinsky, Elena A. Varavikova, Matan J. Cohen. 2023, P.4.
[10] ↑ Philip Jones (22 de mayo de 1997). La ciudad-estado italiana: From Commune to Signoria. Clarendon Press. p. 447. ISBN 978-0-19-159030-6.: https://books.google.com/books?id=rcR2pk4lknQC
[11] ↑ Famine Politics in Maoist China and the Soviet Union By Felix Wemheuer, 2014, P.30.
[13] ↑ Marco H. D. Van Leeuwen (31 de agosto de 2016). Palgrave Macmillan UK, ed. Mutual Insurance 1550-2015: From Guild Welfare and Friendly Societies to Contemporary Micro-Insurers. pp. 70-71. ISBN 978-1-137-53110-0.: https://books.google.com/books?id=h5TvDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70
[14] ↑ Bernard Harris; Paul Bridgen (6 de abril de 2012). id=3LF_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 Caridad y ayuda mutua en Europa y Norteamérica desde 1800. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-134-21508-9.: https://books.google.com/books?
[15] ↑ Hajo Holborn (21 de diciembre de 1982). A History of Modern Germany: The Reformation. Princeton University Press. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-691-00795-3. OCLC 1035603175.: https://books.google.com/books?id=350Qosar-UcC&pg=PA26
[16] ↑ James B. Collins; Karen L. Taylor (15 de abril de 2008). Early Modern Europe: Issues and Interpretations. John Wiley & Sons. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-4051-5207-5.: https://books.google.com/books?id=lT1TzLhoidIC&pg=PA224
[18] ↑ Benthal, Jonathan. nl/bitstream/handle/1887/16762/ISIM_1_The_Qur-an-s_Call_to_Alms_Zakat_the_Muslim_Tradition_of_Alms-giving.pdf?sequence=1 «La llamada del Corán a la limosna Zakat, la tradición musulmana de dar limosna». Boletín del ISIM 98 (1): 13.: https://openaccess.leidenuniv.
[19] ↑ M.A. Mohamed Salih (2004). Alexander De Waal, ed. id=WYLSKQa9tHEC&pg=PA148 El islamismo y sus enemigos en el Cuerno de África. Indiana University Press. pp. 148-149. ISBN 978-0-253-34403-8.: https://books.google.com/books?
[20] ↑ Fauzia, Amelia (2013). Faith and the State: A History of Islamic Philanthropy in Indonesia. Brill. pp. 45-55. ISBN 9789004233973.
[21] ↑ Manuel Israel Ruiz Arias (September 2010). «Sobre Seguridad Social el FMI tiene poco que decirnos y mucho que contarnos». Revista Envío.: https://www.envio.org.ni/articulo/4240
[25] ↑ Paul K. Edwards y Tony Elger, The global economy, national states and the regulation of labour (1999) p. 111.
[26] ↑ Ferragina, Emanuele; Seeleib-Kaiser, Martin (30 de octubre de 2011). «Revista temática: Debate sobre los regímenes de bienestar: pasado, presente, futuro?». Policy & Politics 39 (4): 583-611. S2CID 146986126. doi:10.1332/030557311X603592.: https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01347336/file/Welfare_regime_debate.pdf
[29] ↑ Ronald Inglehart, Modernización y Posmodernización: el cambio cultural, económico y politico en 43 sociedades, Ed. Siglo XXI, Madrid, 2000, pp. 78.
[30] ↑ Paul Krugman, La era de las perspectivas limitadas, Ed. Ariel, Barcelona, 1998, ISBN 84-344-1432-5, pp. 19.
[34] ↑ Larry Osberg y Andrew Sharpe, Human Well-Being and Economic Well-Being: What Values are Implicit in Current Indices?, Center for the Study of Living Standars, julio de 2003.
[35] ↑ Índice de pobreza multidimensional desde 2010 El IPM o MPI está desarrollado por la PNUD y la OPHI (Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative).: http://hdr.undp.org/es/informes/mundial/idh2010/ipm/
[37] ↑ Ronald Inglehart, Modernización y Posmodernización: el cambio cultural, económico y politico en 43 sociedades, Ed. Siglo XXI, Madrid, 2000, pp. 81.
[42] ↑ Gibson M, Thomson H, Banas K, Lutje V, McKee MJ, Martin SP, Fenton C, Bambra C, Bond L (26 de febrero de 2018). «Welfare-to-work Interventions and Their Effects on the Mental and Physical Health of Lone Parents and Their Children». Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2018 (2): CD009820. PMC 5846185. PMID 29480555. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009820.pub3.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5846185
[44] ↑ Feldman, Allan M. «Economía del bienestar». El nuevo diccionario Palgrave de economía. ISBN 978-1-349-95121-5.
[45] ↑ cosign-apps.lib&https://apps.lib.umich.edu/login?dest=/proxy-login/?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1057%2F978-1-349-95121-5_1417-2 «U-M Weblogin». weblogin.umich.edu. doi:10.1057/978-1-349-95121-5_1417-2. Consultado el 8 de diciembre de 2021.: https://weblogin.umich.edu/?
[46] ↑ Campbell, Andrea Louise (11 de mayo de 2012). «Policy Makes Mass Politics». Annual Review of Political Science 15 (1): 333-351. ISSN 1094-2939. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-012610-135202.: https://es.wikipedia.org//portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1094-2939