Pre-Romanesque architecture

The unification of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis I (465–511) and his successors corresponded with the need for the construction of churches, and especially monastic churches, since these were now the most powerful seats of the Merovingian church. The plants often continued the tradition of the Roman basilica, but also took influences from places as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most buildings were made of wood, but stone was more common in important buildings in the West and in the southern areas that later fell under Merovingian rule. Most of the major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once, but many Merovingian plants have been reconstructed from archaeology.

The description given by Bishop Gregory of Tours in the History of the Franks of the basilica of Saint-Martin "Basilica of Saint Martin of Tours (Tours)"), built at Tours by Saint Perpetual (bishop 460-490) at the beginning of the period and at a time when it was on the border of Frankish territory, gives reason to regret the disappearance of this building, one of the most beautiful Merovingian churches, which he It was said to have 120 marble columns, towers at the eastern end, and several mosaics:

A feature of St. Martin's Basilica that became a feature of Frankish ecclesial architecture was the sarcophagus or reliquary of the saint elevated to be visible and situated axially behind the altar, sometimes in the apse. There are no Roman precedents for this Frankish innovation.[7]​.

Other buildings are described as similarly ornate, buildings now lost, including the Merovingian foundations of the Basilica of Saint-Denis, of Ssn Gereon in Cologne and of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, in Paris.

Rococo architecture

Rococo was first developed in the decorative arts and interior design. The succession of Louis XIV brought a change in court artists and in general artistic fashion. Towards the end of the old king's reign, the rich baroque designs gave way to lighter elements with more curves and natural patterns. These elements are evident in the architectural designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Regency "Regency (France)", court life moved away from Versailles and this artistic shift became well established, first in the royal palace and then throughout French high society. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs were often seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XV's regime.

The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France. Rococo still maintained the Baroque flavor of complex shapes and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of different characteristics, including a taste for oriental designs and asymmetrical compositions. The style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture. The Rococo style spread with French artists and recorded publications. It was easily received in the Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia and Austria, where it fused with lively German baroque traditions.

neo-gothic architecture

In France, the neo-Gothic style appears quite late due to the Napoleonic wars, which mobilized all the forces of the French nation, and the taste of Emperor Napoleon I for the neoclassical Empire style. Victor Hugo's novel Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) revived interest in the cathedrals of Île-de-France. The Bourbon Restoration allowed young architects to reconnect with the artistic past of the medieval kingdom of France, especially with the French Gothic style of the 19th century. The architect Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus[24]​ was one of the precursors of this architectural renewal. Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) worked with Lassus on several projects—notably Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle, both on the Île de la Cité in Paris—and owes him many of his insights.

Viollet-le-Duc was one of the best architects of his time: his talent lay in his insight to make detailed observations of medieval buildings worthy of the best archaeological works (his finally recognized merits were celebrated during a major retrospective mounted in 1979, on the occasion of the centenary of his death). He completely restored certain constructions, often overlooking their original state of deterioration, with radical interventions, rebuilding with great imagination and even adding completely new parts (this point has always been attacked: he is accused of inventing the plan of certain missing parts, and therefore of distorting or "denaturalizing" them, foreign to the new concepts of restoration: minimal intervention and respect for the original work). He applied this theory in his restorations of the walled city of Carcassonne, as well as in Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, in the castle of Roquetaillade, and even more characteristically through the "pedagogical" examples of the castle of Pierrefonds and the castle of Pupetières").[25] He differed from his English counterpart John Ruskin in that he often replaced the work of medieval stonemasons. His rational approach to the Gothic It actually contrasted completely with the Romantic origins of the renovation, and is considered by some to be a prelude to the structural honesty demanded by the Modern movement.

Throughout his career, he was prey to the question of whether iron and masonry should be combined in a construction. He knew of the use of iron braces and staples in the construction of the original cathedrals since he had verified their presence, but he also knew the problems that this could cause, over time, due to the evolution of the structures. Iron had, in fact, been used in Gothic constructions from the earliest days. It was only with Ruskin and the demand in architectural Gothic for "structural truth" that iron, whether visible or not, was considered inappropriate for a Gothic building. That argument began to collapse in the middle of the century when large prefabricated structures were built in England, such as The Crystal Palace, in glass and iron, or the atrium of the Oxford University Museum, which seemed to embody the principles of Gothic through iron. Between 1863 and 1872, Viollet-le-Duc published his Entretiens sur l’architecture, a set of bold and avant-garde plans that combined iron and masonry. Although these projects were never carried out, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, among them Antoni Gaudí, or the Detailleur architects),[26]​ to whom, among others, the Trévarez castle is due").[27]​.

Inspired by the research works of Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, many architects imitated the medieval style to design new buildings, especially religious ones. In 1840, the Basilica of Our Lady of Bonsecours, near Rouen, ushered in the era of neo-Gothic churches, followed closely in Nantes by the Church of St. Nicholas "Basilica of St. Nicholas (Nantes)") (1844-1869). They followed, among others, the Sacred Heart of Moulins "Moulins (Allier)"), in Allier (1844-1881), the church of Saint Vincent de Paul "Church of Saint Vincent de Paul (Marseille)") (or of the Reformed, in Canebière) in Marseille (1855-1886), the church of Saint Paul in Strasbourg "Church of Saint Paul (Strasbourg)") (1892-1897), etc. In Paris, a famous example was the church of Sainte-Clotilde (1846-1857).

Some neo-Gothic works were only partial, especially to complete medieval buildings: a choir was built for the cathedral of Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul in Nantes (1840-1891); the façade and towers for the abbey church of Saint-Ouen (1846-1851); the façade for the cathedral of Our Lady of the Annunciation of Moulins "Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of the Annunciation (Moulins)"), designed by the architects Lassus and Millet (1852-1874); two arrows for the Saint-Corentin cathedral in Quimper (1854-1856); a section and a new flamboyant façade for the church of Saint-Laurent in Paris (1863-1867, the work of Simon-Claude Constant-Dufeux"); and a façade with its high arrows for the Notre-Dame cathedral in Clermont-Ferrand (1866-1884).

During this period, basilicas and cathedrals were also built abroad by French architects such as in Luján and Mercedes"), in Argentina, or in Canton"), in China.

• - New neo-Gothic churches.

• - Basilica of Our Lady of Bonsecours (1840-1844), by Jacques-Eugène Barthélémy.

• - Temple of Saint Stephen of Mulhouse (1855-1860), by Jean-Baptiste Schacre.

• - Church of Saint Vincent de Paul "Church of Saint Vincent de Paul (Marseille)"), Marseille (1855-1886), by François Reybaud.

• - Church of Saint Leo de Nancy (1860-1877), by Léon Vautrin.

• - Church of Saint Ambrose (Paris) "Church of Saint Ambrose (Paris)") (1863-1869), by Théodore Ballu.

• - Basilica of Notre-Dame de Nice (1864-1868), by Charles Lenormand.

• - Saint-Bruno de Voiron Church (1864-1883), by Alfred Berruyer.

• - Church of Saint Paul (Strasbourg) "Church of Saint Paul (Strasbourg)") (1892-1897).

Civil buildings were also built in the neo-Gothic style in France, such as the east wing of the Rouen Courthouse, the castles of Challain-la-Potherie"), Abbadia"), Pupetières"), Bagnoles-de-l'Orne, Savigny-sous-Faye,[28] Kériolet"), or Hardelot").

• - Château de Challain-la-Potherie"), by René Hodé") (1847-1854).

• - Château de Roquetaillade (1850-1870), 14th century castle restored by Viollet-le-Duc.

• - Citadel of Carcassonne, restored by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (from 1854) and finished by his disciples (until 1913).

• - East Wing of the Rouen Courthouse (neo-Gothic, end of the 19th century).

Second Empire Architecture

During the mid-century, when Napoleon III established the Second Empire, Paris became a glamorous city of imposing, tall buildings. Many houses were embellished with details such as paired columns and elaborate wrought iron crestings that appear along the roofs. But the most striking feature of this period is the steep mansard roof, recognizable by its trapezoidal shape: unlike a gabled triangular gable, the mansard has almost no slope until the top, when it flattens abruptly. This almost perpendicular roof line creates a sense of majesty, and also allows for more usable attic space. In the United States, the Second Empire is a Victorian style. However, the practical and decidedly French mansard can also be found in many contemporary homes.

Beaux Arts

Another Parisian style, Beaux Arts ("Beaux Arts (architecture)"), originated from the legendary École des Beaux Arts (School of Fine Arts). Flourishing during the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a grand creation in the most refined neoclassical style. Symmetrical facades were ornamented with luxurious details, such as garlands, medallions, flowers and shields. These imposing and massive houses, almost always built of stone, were reserved only for the very rich. However a more 'humble' house could show Beaux Arts influences if it had stone balconies and masonry ornaments. Many American architects studied at the École des Beaux Arts, and the style strongly influenced American architecture from around 1880 to the 1920s.

modern and contemporary architecture

Some of the leading modern and contemporary French designers and architects are:.

• - Le Corbusier.

• - Robert Mallet-Stevens.

• - Frédéric Borel").

• - Dominique Perrault.

• - Christian de Portzamparc.

• - Jean Nouvel.

• - List of Post World War II French architects").

• - Villa Savoye.

• - Notre Dame du Haut - "Chapel du Ronchamp".

• - Villa Noailles.

• - Church of Notre-Dame de la Salette in Paris"), (architect: Henri Colboc).

• - Institut du Monde Arabe").

Pre-Romanesque architecture

The unification of the Frankish kingdom under Clovis I (465–511) and his successors corresponded with the need for the construction of churches, and especially monastic churches, since these were now the most powerful seats of the Merovingian church. The plants often continued the tradition of the Roman basilica, but also took influences from places as far away as Syria and Armenia. In the East, most buildings were made of wood, but stone was more common in important buildings in the West and in the southern areas that later fell under Merovingian rule. Most of the major churches have been rebuilt, usually more than once, but many Merovingian plants have been reconstructed from archaeology.

The description given by Bishop Gregory of Tours in the History of the Franks of the basilica of Saint-Martin "Basilica of Saint Martin of Tours (Tours)"), built at Tours by Saint Perpetual (bishop 460-490) at the beginning of the period and at a time when it was on the border of Frankish territory, gives reason to regret the disappearance of this building, one of the most beautiful Merovingian churches, which he It was said to have 120 marble columns, towers at the eastern end, and several mosaics:

A feature of St. Martin's Basilica that became a feature of Frankish ecclesial architecture was the sarcophagus or reliquary of the saint elevated to be visible and situated axially behind the altar, sometimes in the apse. There are no Roman precedents for this Frankish innovation.[7]​.

Other buildings are described as similarly ornate, buildings now lost, including the Merovingian foundations of the Basilica of Saint-Denis, of Ssn Gereon in Cologne and of the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, in Paris.

Rococo architecture

Rococo was first developed in the decorative arts and interior design. The succession of Louis XIV brought a change in court artists and in general artistic fashion. Towards the end of the old king's reign, the rich baroque designs gave way to lighter elements with more curves and natural patterns. These elements are evident in the architectural designs of Nicolas Pineau. During the Regency "Regency (France)", court life moved away from Versailles and this artistic shift became well established, first in the royal palace and then throughout French high society. The delicacy and playfulness of Rococo designs were often seen as perfectly in tune with the excesses of Louis XV's regime.

The 1730s represented the height of Rococo development in France. Rococo still maintained the Baroque flavor of complex shapes and intricate patterns, but by this point, it had begun to integrate a variety of different characteristics, including a taste for oriental designs and asymmetrical compositions. The style had spread beyond architecture and furniture to painting and sculpture. The Rococo style spread with French artists and recorded publications. It was easily received in the Catholic parts of Germany, Bohemia and Austria, where it fused with lively German baroque traditions.

neo-gothic architecture

In France, the neo-Gothic style appears quite late due to the Napoleonic wars, which mobilized all the forces of the French nation, and the taste of Emperor Napoleon I for the neoclassical Empire style. Victor Hugo's novel Notre-Dame de Paris (1831) revived interest in the cathedrals of Île-de-France. The Bourbon Restoration allowed young architects to reconnect with the artistic past of the medieval kingdom of France, especially with the French Gothic style of the 19th century. The architect Jean-Baptiste-Antoine Lassus[24]​ was one of the precursors of this architectural renewal. Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (1814-1879) worked with Lassus on several projects—notably Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle, both on the Île de la Cité in Paris—and owes him many of his insights.

Viollet-le-Duc was one of the best architects of his time: his talent lay in his insight to make detailed observations of medieval buildings worthy of the best archaeological works (his finally recognized merits were celebrated during a major retrospective mounted in 1979, on the occasion of the centenary of his death). He completely restored certain constructions, often overlooking their original state of deterioration, with radical interventions, rebuilding with great imagination and even adding completely new parts (this point has always been attacked: he is accused of inventing the plan of certain missing parts, and therefore of distorting or "denaturalizing" them, foreign to the new concepts of restoration: minimal intervention and respect for the original work). He applied this theory in his restorations of the walled city of Carcassonne, as well as in Notre Dame and the Sainte Chapelle in Paris, in the castle of Roquetaillade, and even more characteristically through the "pedagogical" examples of the castle of Pierrefonds and the castle of Pupetières").[25] He differed from his English counterpart John Ruskin in that he often replaced the work of medieval stonemasons. His rational approach to the Gothic It actually contrasted completely with the Romantic origins of the renovation, and is considered by some to be a prelude to the structural honesty demanded by the Modern movement.

Throughout his career, he was prey to the question of whether iron and masonry should be combined in a construction. He knew of the use of iron braces and staples in the construction of the original cathedrals since he had verified their presence, but he also knew the problems that this could cause, over time, due to the evolution of the structures. Iron had, in fact, been used in Gothic constructions from the earliest days. It was only with Ruskin and the demand in architectural Gothic for "structural truth" that iron, whether visible or not, was considered inappropriate for a Gothic building. That argument began to collapse in the middle of the century when large prefabricated structures were built in England, such as The Crystal Palace, in glass and iron, or the atrium of the Oxford University Museum, which seemed to embody the principles of Gothic through iron. Between 1863 and 1872, Viollet-le-Duc published his Entretiens sur l’architecture, a set of bold and avant-garde plans that combined iron and masonry. Although these projects were never carried out, they influenced several generations of designers and architects, among them Antoni Gaudí, or the Detailleur architects),[26]​ to whom, among others, the Trévarez castle is due").[27]​.

Inspired by the research works of Lassus and Viollet-le-Duc, many architects imitated the medieval style to design new buildings, especially religious ones. In 1840, the Basilica of Our Lady of Bonsecours, near Rouen, ushered in the era of neo-Gothic churches, followed closely in Nantes by the Church of St. Nicholas "Basilica of St. Nicholas (Nantes)") (1844-1869). They followed, among others, the Sacred Heart of Moulins "Moulins (Allier)"), in Allier (1844-1881), the church of Saint Vincent de Paul "Church of Saint Vincent de Paul (Marseille)") (or of the Reformed, in Canebière) in Marseille (1855-1886), the church of Saint Paul in Strasbourg "Church of Saint Paul (Strasbourg)") (1892-1897), etc. In Paris, a famous example was the church of Sainte-Clotilde (1846-1857).

Some neo-Gothic works were only partial, especially to complete medieval buildings: a choir was built for the cathedral of Saint-Pierre-et-Saint-Paul in Nantes (1840-1891); the façade and towers for the abbey church of Saint-Ouen (1846-1851); the façade for the cathedral of Our Lady of the Annunciation of Moulins "Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of the Annunciation (Moulins)"), designed by the architects Lassus and Millet (1852-1874); two arrows for the Saint-Corentin cathedral in Quimper (1854-1856); a section and a new flamboyant façade for the church of Saint-Laurent in Paris (1863-1867, the work of Simon-Claude Constant-Dufeux"); and a façade with its high arrows for the Notre-Dame cathedral in Clermont-Ferrand (1866-1884).

During this period, basilicas and cathedrals were also built abroad by French architects such as in Luján and Mercedes"), in Argentina, or in Canton"), in China.

• - New neo-Gothic churches.

• - Basilica of Our Lady of Bonsecours (1840-1844), by Jacques-Eugène Barthélémy.

• - Temple of Saint Stephen of Mulhouse (1855-1860), by Jean-Baptiste Schacre.

• - Church of Saint Vincent de Paul "Church of Saint Vincent de Paul (Marseille)"), Marseille (1855-1886), by François Reybaud.

• - Church of Saint Leo de Nancy (1860-1877), by Léon Vautrin.

• - Church of Saint Ambrose (Paris) "Church of Saint Ambrose (Paris)") (1863-1869), by Théodore Ballu.

• - Basilica of Notre-Dame de Nice (1864-1868), by Charles Lenormand.

• - Saint-Bruno de Voiron Church (1864-1883), by Alfred Berruyer.

• - Church of Saint Paul (Strasbourg) "Church of Saint Paul (Strasbourg)") (1892-1897).

Civil buildings were also built in the neo-Gothic style in France, such as the east wing of the Rouen Courthouse, the castles of Challain-la-Potherie"), Abbadia"), Pupetières"), Bagnoles-de-l'Orne, Savigny-sous-Faye,[28] Kériolet"), or Hardelot").

• - Château de Challain-la-Potherie"), by René Hodé") (1847-1854).

• - Château de Roquetaillade (1850-1870), 14th century castle restored by Viollet-le-Duc.

• - Citadel of Carcassonne, restored by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc (from 1854) and finished by his disciples (until 1913).

• - East Wing of the Rouen Courthouse (neo-Gothic, end of the 19th century).

Second Empire Architecture

During the mid-century, when Napoleon III established the Second Empire, Paris became a glamorous city of imposing, tall buildings. Many houses were embellished with details such as paired columns and elaborate wrought iron crestings that appear along the roofs. But the most striking feature of this period is the steep mansard roof, recognizable by its trapezoidal shape: unlike a gabled triangular gable, the mansard has almost no slope until the top, when it flattens abruptly. This almost perpendicular roof line creates a sense of majesty, and also allows for more usable attic space. In the United States, the Second Empire is a Victorian style. However, the practical and decidedly French mansard can also be found in many contemporary homes.

Beaux Arts

Another Parisian style, Beaux Arts ("Beaux Arts (architecture)"), originated from the legendary École des Beaux Arts (School of Fine Arts). Flourishing during the 19th and early 20th centuries, it was a grand creation in the most refined neoclassical style. Symmetrical facades were ornamented with luxurious details, such as garlands, medallions, flowers and shields. These imposing and massive houses, almost always built of stone, were reserved only for the very rich. However a more 'humble' house could show Beaux Arts influences if it had stone balconies and masonry ornaments. Many American architects studied at the École des Beaux Arts, and the style strongly influenced American architecture from around 1880 to the 1920s.

modern and contemporary architecture

Some of the leading modern and contemporary French designers and architects are:.

• - Le Corbusier.

• - Robert Mallet-Stevens.

• - Frédéric Borel").

• - Dominique Perrault.

• - Christian de Portzamparc.

• - Jean Nouvel.

• - List of Post World War II French architects").

• - Villa Savoye.

• - Notre Dame du Haut - "Chapel du Ronchamp".

• - Villa Noailles.

• - Church of Notre-Dame de la Salette in Paris"), (architect: Henri Colboc).

• - Institut du Monde Arabe").