Explanation
Contenido
Según la teoría del valor-trabajo, cada mercancía encierra un valor correspondiente al tiempo de trabajo socialmente necesario requerido para su producción "Producción (economía)").[10] En el caso de un mueble esto incluye las horas de trabajo necesarias para producirlo y las horas de trabajo que fueron necesarias para producir cada una de las mercancías involucradas en el proceso de producción (clavos, maderas, herramientas, etc).
La distinción anteriormente mencionada entre fuerza de trabajo y trabajo permite revelar que las horas de trabajo son en realidad horas de empleo de la fuerza de trabajo y el salario el valor para producir esa fuerza de trabajo, no el "valor del trabajo" desempeñado por el trabajador.[11] Siendo la fuerza de trabajo una mercancía, su valor se puede también medir en lo necesario para su reposición, es decir, lo necesario para que el trabajador —y sus futuros reemplazos— puedan existir —y reproducirse— así como para volver al trabajo cada nuevo día.
Dicho de otra manera, al obrero no se le paga por lo que produce sino, en principio, con arreglo a lo que él vale (el valor de su fuerza de trabajo será mayor si tiene una especialización). Además al obrero, al que se le paga un salario (basado en el valor de su fuerza de trabajo) es diferente al valor de su fuerza de trabajo por las diferencias de género, edad, las condiciones geográficas del país en el que vive, al sector en el que trabaja y también con arreglo a ciertas oscilaciones por la oferta y la demanda de ese puesto de trabajo.
La plusvalía existe porque el trabajador labora más tiempo del necesario para producir y reproducir su vida. Por lo cual se define como la diferencia entre su jornada laboral y el trabajo necesario (igual al valor de su fuerza de trabajo) multiplicando a la expresión monetaria del tiempo de trabajo") (m):.
Si la expresión monetaria del tiempo de trabajo") es unitaria () entonces el plusvalor o plusvalía es igual al plustrabajo:.
Por ejemplo. Supongamos que el trabajo socialmente necesario para producir los bienes que el trabajador y su familia necesitan para vivir durante un día es de 4 horas y el salario del trabajador es igual al valor de su fuerza de trabajo (, por lo que ).
Teniendo además en cuenta que el capitalista busca alquilar la fuerza de trabajo por la mayor cantidad de horas posible (aunque la extensión de la jornada laboral dependerá más que nada de regulaciones legales y de la fortaleza gremial de los trabajadores) y que es dueño de todo lo producido en su empresa.
Si la jornada laboral es de 8 horas, entonces habrá 4 horas en que el trabajador reproducirá su remuneración (trabajo necesario) y 4 horas en las cuales trabajará gratuitamente, sin remuneración (trabajo excedente, o plustrabajo).
El valor creado por este plustrabajo (materializado en un plusproducto) es el plusvalor, el cual es apropiado gratuitamente por el capitalista. El plusvalor, entonces, es tanto la forma específica que adquiere el plusproducto bajo el régimen de producción capitalista como la base de la acumulación capitalista.
mass of surplus value
The mass of surplus value is the amount of surplus labor produced by the entire labor force. For example, if the working day is 8 hours and in 4 hours the worker reproduces the value of his labor power, the mass of surplus value is the value of what is produced in those 4 hours of surplus labor. If the capitalist hired 10 workers (T) the mass of surplus value would be 40. This is because the mass of surplus value (P) is defined as follows:.
In the example:
Surplus value rate
The rate of surplus value is a formula that relates surplus value to the variable capital invested in the corresponding productive process, that is, the investment in labor power. In other words, the capital gains rate is equal to the value of the capital gains divided by the value of personnel costs (salaries).
Where P is the capital gain and V is the variable capital.
The result of the formula shows us the exact amount of surplus value that is generated by each unit of variable capital invested in the production process, being then interpreted as the self-valorization capacity of variable capital. The rate of surplus value is interpreted by Marx as a percentage rate of the degree of exploitation.
According to Marx's calculations, the rate of surplus value during his time was approximately 100%.[4].
Absolute and relative surplus value
"Absolute surplus value" and "relative surplus value" are the two ways that the capitalist has of increasing the rate of exploitation and with it the mass of surplus value that he obtains.
Absolute surplus value consists of increasing the mass of surplus value by lengthening the working day or increasing its intensity. Increasing the day in the previous example from 8 to 10 hours, we have that the time of reproduction of the value of labor power remains 4 hours, but the time of surplus labor increased from 4 to 6 hours. The exploitation rate is now 150%. Likewise, absolute surplus value can be increased by reducing the salary level of the workforce, for example, in a company a worker received a salary of 3 dollars per hour, but then the company decides that the salary of the same worker decreases to 2 dollars per hour, reducing the hourly value of the workforce by 33%. In other words, the company reduced the amount disbursed in variable capital, compared to the previous period. In that sense, working time can be maintained and the salary can decrease, an increase in working time can also occur and, at the same time, a decrease in salary, in monetary terms. Additionally, the absolute increase in surplus value can be obtained by phenomena external to the company, but these are casual and do not depend on the will of the capitalist(s), for example with the decrease in the price of the elements of the constant circulating capital (raw materials, inputs, auxiliary materials), likewise, due to an unexpected increase in the sales prices of the goods produced. The control of sales prices to maintain or increase surplus value is a widespread practice in monopolies and oligopolies.
Relative surplus value consists of increasing the mass of surplus value by increasing the productive force of labor. That is, ensuring that the workforce produces more in the same time or produces the same thing in less time. For example, if the productive power of labor doubles, the value of labor power will be reproduced in 2 hours instead of 4 and surplus labor will increase from 4 to 6 hours. Which, assuming that the working day continues to be 8 hours, allows the exploitation rate to be raised from 100% to 300%.
The increase in relative surplus value can be obtained, in addition to the increase in the productive forces of labor through the modernization of machinery, it is possible to increase it through modifications in the work process, for example by making changes in the location of machinery to optimize times, reduce costs, save raw materials, inputs or auxiliary materials. That is, without the need to acquire new constant fixed capital, the company can increase the rate and mass of surplus value by simply modifying the work process.
Negative surplus value
The negative surplus value, also demonized undervalue, undervalue, or handicap; It consists of situations where the cost of production associated with salaries is greater than the profits obtained from sales. In this situation, instead of there being a surplus of production for the capitalist, there is a deficit, as there is no outlet for what is produced in the market. In these situations, capitalists pay workers more than the value of what was achieved with sales and the value of what was produced linked, implying an economic loss for the capitalist to pay salaries and production costs associated with salaries.[12].
In the specific question of capitalist surplus value, extracted from the worker, a similar event occurs:
Not all the work carried out has value, as work can be done on an issue without demand or social utility.
"And, finally, nothing can be a value without it being at the same time an object of use. If it has no utility, the work invested in it is useless. It cannot be considered work, nor will it, therefore, constitute any value."[13].
If the worker's work eventually has no value, since what is produced with it has no utility or demand, the value that the worker receives in the salary cannot come from his worthless work. That is, it would not gain value by creating it, but rather by giving it to it from another economic agent.
The value that one gains in an exchange relationship without adding value comes from the counterparty, being a circulating value between both that does not increase or reduce the value of the product sold or the total profits. The fact that the capitalist gains value by having more profits than wages implies that his surplus value can only come from the worker's work; The fact that the worker earns more value than what is eventually created with useless work, as there are more salaries than benefits, implies that his salary can only come from the capitalist's capital, causing a handicap, or undervalue, to the capitalist.
The capitalist earns a surplus value causing an undervalue to the worker by not remunerating him for all the value produced with his work when there are more benefits than executed wages; and the worker earns a surplus value causing an undervalue to the capitalist when he earns more value with the salary than the real value of what is produced with the paid work, there must be more production costs associated with salaries than benefits due to being largely useless work carried out in a matter without demand and social utility. The transaction of value in a closed exchange where this is not added, but only passes from one party to another, would apply both when the capitalist receives value from the worker's work by having more benefits than wages to the worker, and when the worker receives value not from eventually worthless work, but from the capital of the capitalist, the latter entering into losses to pay wages, with more wages than profits. [12].