Social aspect
Social Policies
From his trips made before assuming the presidency, Belaúnde was also able to collect data on a whole range of ancestral knowledge and forms of social interaction, practiced in the towns he visited. Rescuing the ancestral tradition of community work of the Andean peoples, he was able to organize government work with the beneficiary towns of state aid. Hence, starting in August 1963, a national office called Popular Cooperation was consolidated, whose work, carried out for the most part by residents guided by government officials, ended by coining the phrase: "The people did it," as a way of instilling in the social imagination how successful properly organized communal work could be.
This community development policy sought to move from a vertical system imposed from the central government to an approach from the communities themselves that will give greater importance to the interests of the beneficiaries of social policy. Thus, 10 million dollars were allocated for this initiative.[5].
However, the Popular Cooperation projects were not deployed to a significant magnitude due to the great opposition of the APRA-UNO coalition from the legislature, which described Belaúnde's social program as political. Congress would end up obstructing Popular Cooperation, transforming it into a department within the Ministry of Development and Public Works and not into an inter-ministerial program as was Belaúnde's initial objective.[5].
Belaúnde tried to combat the profound structural inequality through Law No. 15037 on Agrarian Reform of May 21, 1964. This reform mainly affected abandoned, poorly cultivated or feudalized latifundia in the departments of Pasco, Junín, Puno and the valleys of Lares and La Convencion, in the department of Cuzco, areas that had been convulsed by peasant mobilizations. It did not affect lands that had an efficient yield.
The matter presented regional particularities. While on the coast there was only the problem of redistribution of fertile land near the rivers, in the mountains only 5% of the land was in condition to be plowed. Furthermore, there was not only the need for redistribution, but also a problem of technical capacity so that the new owners could exploit it. The approach to the problem was solely distributive, so attempts at reform would end up being harmful.[5].
In the 1960s, the emergence of farmers' organizations took place, especially in the Convention Valley, where a small number of owners owned arable land. Thus, a conflict took place between the peasants, led by Hugo Blanco Galdós, and the large local property-owning families.
Finally, in the midst of this scenario of conflict, at the end of the fourth year of the Belaundista government, it had awarded 195,347 hectares of land, benefiting 30,000 farmers.
Social changes and their implications
In 1940, Peru was a predominantly agrarian country, with 6.2 million inhabitants, of which 2.2 were urban and 4 million were rural. During the second half of the century this preliminary condition changed drastically, with special emphasis on the period 1961-1972: the total population rose to 13.5 million in 1972. Although demographic growth occurred to a greater extent in the urban area, the growth in the rural population led to little availability of land to support the new inhabitants. In 1969, Velasco's agrarian reform demonstrated that there was only land to meet the demands of 25% of the peasantry, and this after decades of migration from the countryside to the city.[35].
The scarcity of land, added to the economic policies that tended to weaken the agrarian economy, caused the agricultural crisis.[44] The agricultural sector was so weakened that even the landowners themselves began to abandon their land. This unrest was fought in various ways, from the reformist route, with the intense debate on agrarian reform, to the revolutionary route with the guerrilla movements that were especially welcomed in the period 1956-1964.[45] On the other hand, the scarcity of land further precipitated urban growth, in addition to the condensation of the population on the coast, and especially in Lima. Between 1949 and 1993, the population of the coast in relation to the jungle went from 24% to 52%, that of the mountains from 63% to 35.5%. Furthermore, in 1993 one in three Peruvians lived in Lima.[46].
The migratory movement to cities was common during the industrial revolution in metropolitan countries. However, the poor development of the industry in Peru led to the inability to absorb labor. This is how the increase in the tertiary service sector is generated; what has been called “the informal sector”. Furthermore, the accelerated growth of cities, with the anarchic establishment of populations on the periphery simply overwhelmed the State's capabilities to provide services to the new settlers.[47] It is worth mentioning that during the internal armed conflict at the end of the century, the State's poor response to the challenge posed by the structural changes in society was a factor that made the conflict possible.[48]
Primary and secondary education had accelerated growth since the 1940s. The number of primary and secondary schools increased massively, and more importantly, the number of students who benefited increased from 60,661 in 1948 to 368,565 in 1966.[49] In addition, the number of universities also increased, which however only served to radicalize educated citizens who became part of "the unemployed." informal”. In 1972, the unemployed and underemployed represented 56.6% of the EAP.[46] This leads Oloarte[50] to maintain that the main problem for development is the existence of many trained workers and little work. The author offers us another point of view on the causes of this problem: lack of investment, political and economic instability, and poor cooperation between the state and the market.
Repression of guerrilla movements
Following the example of the Cuban revolution, some guerrilla groups emerged. In 1963 the National Liberation Army "Ejército de Liberación Nacional (Perú)") (ELN) made its appearance, a guerrilla group that was quickly neutralized by the armed forces, being the first guerrilla experience in Peru.
In 1964, the failure of the government's reform attempts and successive land invasions, some with violent clashes between peasants and landowners, led to an uncontrollable situation that triggered the following year the start of the guerrilla war by the Revolutionary Left Movement "Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria (Peru)") (MIR). Its founder and leader was Luis de la Puente Uceda, a personal friend of Fidel Castro.
De la Puente Uceda was initially APRA, but he opposed the pact with Prado in 1956 and formed the Apra Rebelde, which in 1962 became the MIR. He traveled through Cuba, Europe, China, Vietnam and Korea. Upon returning to Peru, he was chosen by his party to lead the Mesa Pelada guerrilla movement (La Convencion, Cuzco). He had the support of the peasant leader Hugo Blanco Galdós, who mobilized thousands of peasants who demanded agrarian reform. While Gonzalo Fernández Gasco operated in the north of Peru; in the center, Guillermo Lobatón Milla; and in the south Rubén Tupayachi Solórzano.
The Armed Forces liquidated the MIR insurgency in less time than it had anticipated, although there were bloody clashes. De la Puente Uceda died fighting (October 23, 1965). Likewise, on January 5, 1966, Guillermo Lobatón died, but his body or his belongings were never found. One of the main reasons for the failure of these guerrillas was that the peasantry withdrew their support, considering that it was not necessary to resort to violence since the government had begun to carry out agrarian reforms in the most conflictive areas. Another reason was the guerrillas' choice to resist in forested areas, which, although difficult to access, were easier for the army to isolate and surround them, as happened.
Educational policy
• - The country enjoyed a significant investment in education, to which the highest proportion of the budget was allocated, something that had not happened in the country's history, until then.
• - The Law of free education was given at all levels, from Initial to Higher Education.
• - A vast educational plan was developed based on humanist, Christian, democratic and nationalist ideals.
• - New universities and normal schools were created, both state and private.
• - In coordination with the Ministry of Health, the Comprehensive School Feeding Plan was executed, which covered a daily supply of more than three million daily breakfasts to children in special and primary education, especially in marginal, rural, border and emergency areas.
• - Regional intermediate level schools were created in Chimbote, Tacna, Huancavelica, Chachapoyas, Moyobamba and Cuzco; the Juana Cervantes de Bolognesi school units for women in Arequipa, General Prado in Callao, Mercedes Indacochea in Lima (Barranco), the Mariscal Cáceres Military School in Huancayo and the Almirante Guisse naval high schools in Lima and Teniente Clavero in Iquitos.
• - School enrollment doubled, going from 1,843,799 to 3,117,500 students, with a growth rate of 9.19%, much higher than the demographic rate. In the five years of government, 14,000 classrooms were built, half of them by Popular Cooperation.
• - Under the auspices of UNICEF and UNESCO, an operations plan was completed for the training and improvement program for primary teaching personnel and new Regulations were issued for this sector.
• - Teaching services were significantly improved. At the initiative of the Executive, Law No. 15215 on the Teachers' Statute and Ranking was promulgated, which ensured special working conditions for teachers. By supreme decree No. 78 of December 10, 1965, the Magisterial Derrama was created, intended to financially help teachers and workers in the educational sector in cases of death, disability, retirement or voluntary withdrawal from service. The Derrama Magisterial project was the work of the acciopopulist deputy Luis Bocchio Rejas.
• - Regarding technical education, new schools were created and the development of industrial education for women was stimulated. Massive training courses were given for teachers and a new curriculum was put into operation for their training.
• - Intense work was done to educate adults and foresters.
• - With the purpose of decentralizing educational administration, regional directorates were created, which were provided with regulations. The functions of budget administration, personnel administration and technical pedagogical supervision were delegated to these directorates, with the Ministry of Education reserving the tasks of regulations and planning.
• - In the field of cultural promotion we will mention the initiation of the preparation of the General Geography of Peru, the Historical-Geographical Atlas and Peruvian landscapes; the creation of the Houses of Culture of Callao, Cajamarca, Cuzco, Huánuco and Ica, of the regional museums of Puno, Moquegua, Ica, Chincha and Cuzco and the site museums of Chanchán, Huarihuilca and Julio C. Tello.
Development and public works
It was thanks to Popular Cooperation and loans made by foreign and domestic credit institutions that Belaúnde was able to plan and carry out extensive infrastructure works, which materialized in the construction of roads, irrigation systems, electrification, housing, etc.
• - By law No. 15,260 of December 14, 1964, cooperatives were regulated and promoted in Peru.
• - The Departmental Development Corporations were created, in order to decentralize the administration.
• - A National Road Plan was developed for the construction of a system of communication routes that integrated production areas, especially agricultural, with the various urban markets. Many of these roads were built with the Popular Cooperation program and with international credits.
• - The construction of roads leading into the mountains and along the length of the mountains was promoted. 12 provincial capitals were interconnected: Corongo, Chuquibambilla, Antabamba, Pomabamba, Cajatambo, Piscobamba, Huacrachuco, Jumbilla, Rodríguez de Mendoza, Tambobamba and Llamellín.[51].
• - Construction of the famous Jungle Marginal Highway (now Fernando Belaúnde Terry Highway) began to unite that region, until then almost isolated, with the mountains and the coast, as well as to interconnect it with neighboring countries. The highway starts from the Chinchipe River (San Ignacio, Cajamarca), on the border with Ecuador in the north, until reaching the Heath River, in the department of Madre de Dios, in the south.
• - In Callao, the construction of the Jorge Chávez International Airport (initiated by the previous Prado government) was accelerated and airports were renovated and built in the most important cities of the nation.
• - The expansion work on the second stage of the Cañón del Pato Hydroelectric Power Plant, in Áncash, and the Sogesa plant (Sociedad Siderúrgica de Chimbote) that began the production of pig iron, steel and laminated products, were completed.
• - The first stage of the Tacna Plan began, through the construction of the Aricota Hydroelectric Power Plant, to generate 35,300 kW of electrical energy.
• - Construction of the first stage of the Mantaro Hydroelectric Plant began in Huancavelica.
• - The Machu Picchu Hydroelectric Power Plant was put into operation.
• - Other hydroelectric plants that came into operation were those of Abancay, Ayacucho and Huancaray, as well as the Iquitos Thermal Power Plant. The Matucana Central was started.
• - The first stage of the Tinajones Reservoir was built, in Lambayeque, to improve agricultural and livestock activity in the northern area.
• - The El Frayle dam was enabled, for the expansion of irrigation works in La Joya, with complementary works, through the construction of the Aguada Blanca reservoir.
Health and social welfare policy
• - A vast social assistance plan was carried out, through state and international organizations.[53].
• - The Ministry of Health was restructured and the National Health Plan was developed.[53].
• - The School of Public Health was created to train special personnel for the training of rural inmates and hospital administration.[53].
• - The Special Public Health Service was created, whose purpose was to solve the multiple health problems facing the country, mainly in rural areas.
• - With the support of the National Health and Social Welfare Fund (chaired by Octavio Mongrut) extensive hospital work was carried out. The health center hospitals of Tumbes, Trujillo, Huaraz, Cajamarca, Huánuco, Ayacucho, Abancay, Huancavelica, Cuzco, Tingo María, Puno, Rioja, Juanjuí, Aplao, Ica, Chepén, La Unión (Huánuco), Santa Rosa (Lima), Mollendo, Callao, Rímac, Moquegua, Tarapoto, Pucallpa, Chota and San Juan came into operation de Dios (Callao).[53] In total, 24 hospitals were built, an enormous achievement if one considers that in the entire history of the Health sector, 49 hospitals had been built, until before the start of the Belaundista government.[54].
• - The Children's Hospital, the Maternity Hospital and the Santa Rosa Maternal and Child Hospital in Lima were remodeled, expanded and equipped.[55].
• - Honoring his profession as an architect, Belaúnde carried out a vast policy of construction and promotion of collective housing. For this, there was cooperation from the National Health and Social Welfare Fund, the National Housing Board, the Workers' Retirement Fund, the National Employee Social Security Pension Fund, Sogesa and the National Economic Development Fund, plus loans granted by foreign credit institutions. In numerous cities in the country, large housing complexes were built for the popular sectors, education professionals and police, and a large part of the main cities on the Peruvian coast and mountains were urbanized. In Lima, Residencial San Felipe stands out, with its corresponding shopping center, as well as the neighborhood units of Matute, Mirones and Rímac.[56].
• - An effective sanitation plan was carried out and a program was drawn up to provide water and sewage services to populations of less than 2,000 inhabitants.
• - The La Punta drainage collector in Callao and the elevated water reservoir service in the same city were delivered to the service.[57].
• - Construction of the Lima Civic Center began on the land of the former Central Penitentiary or Panopticon.[57].
• - The Park of Legends was inaugurated, in the district of San Miguel "Distrito de San Miguel (Lima)"), in December 1963, which began with an area of 24 hectares. Subsequently, about 100 hectares were acquired from the Catholic University in order to develop the Central Park of Lima, which houses the Zoo, the National Museum of Archeology, as well as other museums and recreation facilities.
Justice
• - As a first step in improving the administration of justice, an inventory of the country's judicial reality began to be compiled, in order to establish a new judicial territorial demarcation.
• - To house, protect and study the problem of juvenile delinquency, foster homes for minors and the juvenile police service were created.
• - To rehabilitate the criminal, the probation service and the industrial technical institute of Peru were created, as an entity destined to organize work centers in penal establishments. For the qualification of prison personnel, the Prison Training Center was reimplemented.
• - Emphasis was placed on the construction of penitentiary premises and the Ica Penitentiary Center was inaugurated.
• - Work was intensified for the completion of the Lurigancho Center for the accused.
• - The Callao Courthouse was inaugurated.[58].