Sustainable architecture, also known as green architecture, eco-architecture and sustainable architecture, is a way of conceiving architectural design in a sustainable manner, seeking to optimize natural resources and building systems, in a way that minimizes the environmental impact of buildings on the environment and its inhabitants.[1][2].
The principles of sustainable architecture include:.
• - The consideration of the climatic conditions, hydrography and ecosystems of the environment in which the buildings are built, to obtain optimal performance with the least environmental impact.
• - Efficiency and moderation in the use of construction materials, prioritizing those with low energy content over those with high energy content.
• - Reducing energy consumption for heating, cooling, lighting and other equipment, covering the rest of the demand with renewable energy sources.
• - The minimization of the overall energy balance of the building, covering the phases of design, construction, use and end of its useful life.
• - Compliance with the requirements of hygrothermal comfort, health, lighting and habitability.
• - Landscaping with native plants to support passive comfort and generate living integrated with natural rhythms.
• - Contribute to the reduction of the heat island effect and alteration of infiltration and evaporation in soils, in the choice of materials for roofs, sidewalks, streets and parking lots.
• - Include strategies to minimize drinking water consumption and treat and reuse used water.
• - Harvest rainwater and manage the effluent so as not to recharge the basins in peak events, to avoid flooding.[1].
Origin of the term
The term "sustainable architecture" comes from a derivation of the term "sustainable development" that the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Brundtland incorporated in the report Our common future (Our common future) presented at the 42nd session of the United Nations in 1987. "Development is sustainable when it meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs," defined Gro Bruntland. This report emphasized that the impoverishment of the world's population was one of the main causes of environmental deterioration at a global level. In 1992, the heads of state meeting at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro committed to jointly seeking "... development paths that respond to the needs of the present without compromising the abilities of future generations to satisfy their own."
Thermal mitigation architecture
Introduction
Sustainable architecture, also known as green architecture, eco-architecture and sustainable architecture, is a way of conceiving architectural design in a sustainable manner, seeking to optimize natural resources and building systems, in a way that minimizes the environmental impact of buildings on the environment and its inhabitants.[1][2].
The principles of sustainable architecture include:.
• - The consideration of the climatic conditions, hydrography and ecosystems of the environment in which the buildings are built, to obtain optimal performance with the least environmental impact.
• - Efficiency and moderation in the use of construction materials, prioritizing those with low energy content over those with high energy content.
• - Reducing energy consumption for heating, cooling, lighting and other equipment, covering the rest of the demand with renewable energy sources.
• - The minimization of the overall energy balance of the building, covering the phases of design, construction, use and end of its useful life.
• - Compliance with the requirements of hygrothermal comfort, health, lighting and habitability.
• - Landscaping with native plants to support passive comfort and generate living integrated with natural rhythms.
• - Contribute to the reduction of the heat island effect and alteration of infiltration and evaporation in soils, in the choice of materials for roofs, sidewalks, streets and parking lots.
• - Include strategies to minimize drinking water consumption and treat and reuse used water.
• - Harvest rainwater and manage the effluent so as not to recharge the basins in peak events, to avoid flooding.[1].
Origin of the term
The term "sustainable architecture" comes from a derivation of the term "sustainable development" that the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Brundtland incorporated in the report () presented at the 42nd session of the United Nations in 1987. "Development is sustainable when it meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs," defined Gro Bruntland. This report emphasized that the impoverishment of the world's population was one of the main causes of environmental deterioration at a global level. In 1992, the heads of state meeting at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro committed to jointly seeking "... development paths that respond to the needs of the present without compromising the abilities of future generations to satisfy their own."
Thus, the concept of sustainable development is based on three principles:[3].
• - The analysis of the life cycle "Life cycle (environment)") of materials and constructions;
• - The development of the use of raw materials and renewable energies;.
• - The reduction of the quantities of materials and energy used in the extraction of natural resources, their exploitation and the destruction or recycling of waste.
During this meeting in Rio de Janeiro, a parallel meeting was held,[4] convened by academics, researchers and global NGOs to discuss the state of knowledge in each field with respect to each line of knowledge. There were hundreds of works from all over the world, among which were architects with environmental awareness, mostly coming from previous currents such as solar architecture, bioclimatic architecture or alternative architecture.
Despite the initial caution of the academic world when agreeing on new concepts and their inclusion in the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy, it was possible to translate "sustainable" as "sustainable", a meaning already fully accepted by this institution. On the contrary, the term "sustainable" has no relationship with this concept, and is considered an anglicism when used as a substitute for sustainable, despite being widely spread in Latin America.
In 1998, the School of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Michigan published the document An Introduction to Sustainable Architecture, which summarizes the principles of sustainable architecture.[5].
In 2004, the Dictionary of architecture in Argentina was published, where the word "bioclimatic/bioenvironmental/passive solar/sustainable/environmentally conscious (Architecture)" appears to unify a line of thought in architecture.[6] And it is defined: "... applied to design and architecture, these adjectives are integrated into constructions that designate the strategies and buildings that are conceived, built and function as according to the environmental conditions and possibilities of the place (climate, ecological values), its inhabitants and ways of life. This is achieved through two subsystems: "conservation and rational use of energy" and that of passive solar systems, both incorporated into the architectural organism. By extension they apply to urban planning...".
Given that the controversy continued, it was not surprising that only in October 2005 the First International Seminar on Sustainable, Sustainable and Bioclimatic Architecture was held in the city of Montería (Colombia), in order to bring together Ibero-American specialists to resolve the approach of each sub-current and find agreements.
In March 2006, the collectible Sustainable Architecture was published in the newspaper with the largest circulation in Argentina,[7] to clarify the use of the term to the community of architects, explain its foundations, analyze ten significant works worldwide, along with an application manual for the country's climates.
In 2009, the Laboratory of Architecture and Sustainable Habitat - LAyHS was created in the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning of the National University of La Plata (La Plata, Argentina) in order to carry out R&D in this current of architecture. In 2011, its members promoted the creation of a Master's and Specialization degree in Architecture and Sustainable Habitat [8] which was approved in 2012 and accredited by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation in 2014 and began its operation.
In 2011, the creation of the architecture program focused on training in Urban Development and Sustainable Architectural Design was approved at the National University of Cuyo (Mendoza, Argentina),[9] in order to train architects with an orientation focused on bioclimatic and sustainable design.
Also in 2011, the University of Bío-Bío created the magazine Hábitat Sustentable,[10] in Open Journal Systems format with the support of the Chilean Agency for Energy Efficiency (AChee).
In 2012, the Higher Institute of Architecture and Design - ISAD (Chihuahua, Mexico), created the Master's Degree in Sustainable Architectural Design.[11] In 2014, the University of the Environment of Mexico created the Master's Degree in Sustainable Architecture, Design and Construction.[12] In the same year, the Motolinia del Pedregal University of Mexico created the Master's Degree in Architecture and Sustainable Design.[13] At the Faculty of Architecture of the UNAM (Mexico) the Sustainability Laboratory - LASUS is created.[14] In Spain, at the University of Valencia, the Advanced Master's Professional Specialization Program in Sustainable and Bioclimatic Architecture is created, showing the use of the term sustainable in the Iberian Peninsula.
Also in 2013, the CONICET of Argentina changed the name of the historic Habitat Commission, which brought together researchers and doctoral scholars, architects, engineers, sociologists, anthropologists, environmental psychologists, and renewable energy physicists, to the name Habitat, Environmental Sciences and Sustainability Commission. In this way it brings together other researchers from biology, agronomy, exact and natural sciences who sought to join the growing field of knowledge that deals with the relationship between man and nature.
This shows the institutional consolidation that this current of thought is achieving in architecture, together with the commitment of architects to become aware of the environmental impact caused by their professional practice in relation to climate change, its mitigation and adaptation.
Energy and architecture
Contenido
La eficiencia energética es una de las principales metas de la arquitectura sostenible, aunque no la única. Los arquitectos utilizan diversas técnicas para reducir las necesidades energéticas de edificios mediante el ahorro de energía y para aumentar su capacidad de capturar la energía del sol o de generar su propia energía.
Entre estas estrategias de diseño sostenible se encuentran la calefacción solar activa y pasiva, el calentamiento solar de agua activo o pasivo, la generación eléctrica solar, la acumulación freática o la calefacción geotérmica, y más recientemente la incorporación en los edificios de generadores eólicos.
Las consideraciones especificadas se refieren tanto a aspectos concernientes a los materiales utilizados, tecnologías utilizadas para obtener una mayor eficiencia energética de la vivienda y las técnicas de construcción.
El impacto ambiental del diseño edilicio, su construcción y operación son enormes. Como ejemplo, los edificios en los Estados Unidos son responsables del 39 % de las emisiones de CO, del 40 % del consumo de energía primaria, el 13 % del consumo de agua potable y el 15 % de PBI por año.[15].
Efficient heating
HVAC systems (heating or cooling) are a primary focus for sustainable architecture because they typically consume the most energy in buildings. In a passive solar building, the design allows them to efficiently harness the sun's energy without the use of certain special mechanisms, such as: photovoltaic cells, solar panels, solar collectors (water heating, heating, cooling, swimming pools), valuing the design of the windows. These special mechanisms fall within the so-called active solar systems. Buildings conceived through passive solar design incorporate thermal inertia through the use of construction materials that allow the accumulation of heat in their thermal mass such as concrete, common brick masonry, stone, adobe, rammed earth, cement soil, water, among others (Trombe-Michel wall case "Jacques Michel (architect)"). In addition, it is necessary to use thermal insulation to conserve the heat accumulated during a sunny day. Furthermore, to minimize heat loss, buildings are sought to be compact and this is achieved through a low surface area of walls, ceilings and windows with respect to the volume they contain. This means that very open multi-wing or spine-shaped designs should be avoided in favor of more compact and centralized structures. Traditional high compact buildings in very cold climates are a good historical model for an energy efficient building.
Windows are used to maximize the entry of light and energy from the sun into the interior environment while seeking to minimize heat loss through the glass (a very poor thermal insulator). This generally involves installing a larger glass surface in the direction with the greatest solar exposure, to capture the sun in winter and restricting the glass surfaces to the opposite side as much as possible. This strategy is suitable in temperate to very cold climates. In warm to tropical climates other strategies are used. The use of airtight double glazing (DVH) reduces heat losses by half although its cost is significantly higher. It is advisable to plant deciduous trees in front of windows facing greater solar exposure, to block excessive sun in summer and at the same time allow sunlight to pass through in winter, when their leaves disappear. Perennials are often planted to the south of the building to act as a barrier against cold southerly winds.[16].
Efficient cooling
When the use of passive cooling is impossible due to particular conditions, such as buildings in very dense urban sectors in climates with hot summers or with uses that involve a large generation of heat inside (artificial lighting, electromechanical equipment, people and others), the use of air conditioning systems will be necessary. Since these systems usually require a large energy expenditure to extract heat from the interior of the building, it is necessary to use strong and active sustainable design strategies. Among others:
• - Adequate sun protection on all glass surfaces.
• - Avoid the use of glazing on ceilings.
• - Good thermal insulation in walls, ceilings and glass.
• - Concentrate spaces with high heat emission (computers, kitchens, etc.) and give them good ventilation.
• - Sectorize spaces according to uses.
• - Use air conditioning systems with energy certification in order to know how efficient they are.
• - Ventilate buildings at night.
This will help reduce global warming and the ozone hole in the atmosphere.
Passive cooling
In very hot climates where cooling is necessary, passive solar design also provides effective solutions. Building materials with high thermal mass have the ability to maintain cool night temperatures throughout the day. For this, wall or ceiling thicknesses that vary between 15 to 60 cm are necessary and thus use the building envelope as a heat storage system. It is necessary to provide adequate ventilation "Ventilation (architecture)") at night that sweeps the largest internal surface avoiding the accumulation of daytime heat. Ventilation inside the premises can be significantly improved with the installation of a solar chimney.
During the day ventilation should be minimal. Thus, as the walls and ceilings are cooler, they will absorb body heat, giving a feeling of freshness.
In very hot climates, buildings are designed to capture and channel existing winds, particularly those coming from nearby sources of moisture such as lakes or forests. Many of these valuable strategies are employed in certain ways by the traditional architecture of warm regions.[17].
In very hot and dry climates with a high content of atmospheric dust, wind collectors can be used to direct the air to low points, and can also filter and humidify the air to remove heat through evaporative cooling") or direct it to internal patios with fountains or ponds and in this way cool the interior environment.[18].
Production of alternative energies in buildings
Alternative energies in architecture involve the use of active solar devices, such as photovoltaic panels or wind generators that help provide sustainable electricity for any use. If the roofs have slopes, try to locate them towards solar noon with a slope that optimizes the capture of solar energy so that the photovoltaic panels generate with maximum efficiency. To know the optimal slope of the photovoltaic panel in winter (when the day is shorter and the solar radiation weaker) the angle of the sun's height must be subtracted from the value of the latitude of the place. We will obtain the height of the star from a solar chart"). Buildings have been built that even move through the day to follow the sun. Wind generators are increasingly being used in areas where the wind speed is sufficient with sizes less than 8 m in diameter. Water-active solar heating systems fully or partially cover the heating needs throughout the year in a sustainable way. Buildings that use a combination of these methods reach the highest goal of zero energy demand and in the 80s They were called self-sufficient. A new trend consists of generating energy and selling it to the grid, for which it is necessary to have specific legislation, policies to promote renewable energy and state subsidy programs. In this way, the excessive costs represented by energy accumulation systems in buildings are avoided. One of the most notable examples is the Mont-Cenis Academy in Germany by the architects Jourda & Perroudin, inaugurated in 1999.[19].
Other forms of energy generation based on renewable sources are solar thermal energy (for heating, domestic hot water and air conditioning), biomass "Biomass (energy)") or even geothermal. The ideal way to guarantee energy supply throughout the year, under changing climatic and environmental conditions, is to combine the different sources.
Sustainable skyscrapers: green architecture
It is possible to create skyscraper architecture that respects the environment and, above all, is sustainable, as is the case with vertical architecture. It would be produced from the building's own resources, which would be areas such as all types of apartments and establishments, but self-sufficient with renewable and non-polluting energy. In short, skyscrapers can be adapted to green and sustainable architecture.
Green architecture does not only refer to the implementation of vegetables and plants in urban buildings and buildings, as has been traditionally considered, but also to the use of techniques based on sustainability and renewable energies. The term green does not refer only to plants, but the color of an entire movement in favor of taking care of the environment and therefore our planet.
If cities continue to experience vertical growth in the coming years, how will architects design the skyscrapers of the future? This is the question asked every year by the architecture magazine eVolo, which has organized the 'eVolo Skycraper Competition' since 2006, a competition in which renowned architects choose the best designs for the possible skyscrapers of tomorrow for their creativity, ingenuity and their way of understanding vertical communities.
The organizers have received more than 480 original projects from all corners of the planet, and this year the first prize has gone to four Polish urban planners and architects from the BOMP studio for their project 'Essence Skycraper', a gigantic megastructure that houses not only boring office buildings, but up to eleven different landscapes inside.
Oceans, jungles, caves and waterfalls can be architectural elements in this secret garden of immense proportions, where we will no longer even have to leave the building to go to nature and get away from the frenetic pace of the city.
Energy recycling
The most economical alternative to achieve an energy efficient building is to include the issue from the project phase. But it is possible to take an existing building and, using a technique called energy recycling known by its Anglo-Saxon roots as retrofit[20], give the building a new sustainable life cycle.
Among the first tasks is to carry out an energy audit to know what the energy inputs and outputs are to the building as a system, always seeking to maintain hygrothermal comfort, health and safety.[21].
Implementation and location
The location of the building is a central aspect in sustainable architecture and is often not taken into account. Although many ecological architects suggest locating the ideal home or offices in the middle of nature or the forest, this is not always the most advisable; since it is harmful to the natural environment. First, such structures often serve as the last line of attraction for the suburbs of cities and can generate tension that favors their growth. Secondly, being isolated they increase the energy consumption required for transportation and generally lead to unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions. An urban or suburban location should be sought close to communication routes, seeking to improve and strengthen the area. This is the current trend of the new urban movement. Careful mixed zoning between industrial (clean), commercial, and residential areas implies better accessibility to travel on foot, by bicycle, or using public transportation.[22][23].
Materials for sustainable buildings
Products can communicate environmental impacts throughout their life cycle based on a series of impact categories defined in the International Standard ISO 14025 through an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD).[24] EPDs are a type of Eco-Labels defined in international ISO standards (International Organization for Standardization). The impact categories included, based on a life cycle analysis, refer, among other parameters, to resource depletion or global warming potential. At the European level there is a framework standard for DAP, EN 15804, issued by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Both standards are published in Spanish by AENOR.
DAPs are verified through a Program Administrator. In Europe ECO Platform[25] brings together the main DAP verification Administrators. In Spain, the Program Administrators are the College of Quantity Surveyors, Technical Architects and Building Engineers of Barcelona, which issues DAP under the name DAPcons[26] and AENOR, which issues DAP under the name GlobalEPD.[27].
The evaluation at the building level based on Environmental Declarations can be done based on the European Standard EN 15978, also issued by CEN and which uses the same modular structure to define the different stages of the life of the building as that used in the European EPD standard (EN 15804).
Materials suitable for use in sustainable buildings must have characteristics such as low energy content, low emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2 - NOx - SOx - particulate matter, be recycled, contain the highest percentage of reused materials, among others. The construction industry consumes 50% of all global resources and becomes the least sustainable activity on the planet. In the case of wood, avoid wood from native forests and use wood from crops such as pine, eucalyptus, among other species.
Among the materials used in construction that have the most own energy are primary aluminum (215 MJ/kg), commercial aluminum with 30% recycled (160 MJ/kg), neoprene (120 MJ/kg), synthetic paints and varnishes (100 MJ/kg), expanded or extruded polystyrene (100 MJ/kg) and primary copper (90 MJ/kg), along with polyurethanes, polypropylenes and polyvinyl chloride PVC.[28].
Waste management
Sustainable architecture focuses on the use and treatment of waste on site, incorporating such things as gray water treatment systems using filters and biological stabilization with reeds and other aquatic plant varieties. These methods, when combined with the production of compost from organic waste, the separation of garbage, can help minimize the production of waste in a home.
Modular construction has established itself as one of the solutions that favor sustainable architecture, since it allows the generation of waste on site to be significantly reduced and improves the energy efficiency of finished buildings.[29].
Sustainable architecture has worked on waste management on several occasions, in order to better contribute to the reduction of environmental impacts, according to the CEMDA (Mexican Center for Environmental Law), this center mentions three fundamental tips for the proper management of waste, which are related to the three R's, reduce, recycle and reuse.
Waste management greatly influences respecting what is related to it on a large scale, which involves the proper use of materials, as well as the management and reduction of different elements that may affect the environment.
Recycling of structures and materials
Sustainable architecture can use recycled or second-hand materials. The reduction in the use of new materials generates a reduction in the use of the energy of each material in its manufacturing process. Architects try to adapt old structures and constructions to respond to new needs and thus avoid constructions that start from scratch as much as possible.[30].
Recycled materials
Among the materials possible to recycle are:
• - masonry in the form of crushed rubble to make subfloors or Roman wells.
• - wood of various squares for ceilings, panels and floors.
• - pavement concrete, which is crushed again and used in structures with lower load commitments.
• - doors, windows and other openings.
• - thermoacoustic insulators.
• - majolica and other ceramic coverings.
• - metal pipes.
• - sheet metal covers for construction fences.
• - structural iron for minor works.
• - bars.
In undeveloped countries, it is common for there to be a large recovery of demolitions and sites where these products are concentrated for later reuse. In Argentina they are called Chacaritas") in reference to the largest cemetery in Buenos Aires.
Architecture and social sustainability
Architecture generates a great social impact on the population and good examples are necessary in each local community to show society the paths to follow. In each culture, new types of buildings emerged over time, but only some of these buildings became models to be repeated by society.
The first concept model was made by architect George Fred Keck in 1933 for the Chicago World's Fair and was called the House of Tomorrow. Around 1940, Keck built a passive solar house for real estate businessman Howard Sloan in Glenview, Illinois, which was called "Solar house" by the Chicago Tribune newspaper, and is the first known use of the term.
In the experimental field, the first systematic developments were brought together in what was called the "List of Pioneer Solar Buildings" that shows continuous production by the academic world since 1939 when the MIT Solar House #1 was built in Michigan by H.C. Hottel of the Massachusetts Institute of Technologies - MIT.
While in the United States houses of light construction (100 to 150 kg/m²) are common, in South America they are mostly of heavy construction (>150 kg/m²). The materials and construction methods are different, probably due to the culture that each building type brought. Since changes in customs are not simple, enormous efforts are required to generate valid alternatives that are adopted by society.
Concepts such as what is the initial cost of a building"), what is the cost throughout its useful life") (estimated at 30 to 50 years),[31] the Vulnerability of buildings and risk analysis, can a family or a society pay these costs? "Can the environmental cost be met?") These are all questions that each local society must answer and the leadership must provide adequate and sustainable responses.
Local initiatives
Local initiatives arise from specific problems by NGOs or figures with high media impact. One of these initiatives is Make It Right carried out by the American actor Brad Pitt in order to rebuild a hundred homes in a poor neighborhood of New Orleans devastated by Hurricane Katrina.
The novelty of the initiative is that prestigious local and international architects have donated sustainable housing projects.[32] Each example is one more step in social and sustainable matters to generate proposals when governments and politicians fail or deny the needs of human society.
In Argentina, for example, the Oran technical school (No. 3134) has built social housing using bamboo cane. The main structure of these buildings is made of bamboo, while the walls were made with plates of recycled garbage. Initiatives like this have been replicated by various organizations in Colombia, Brazil, Chile and Bolivia. Meanwhile, in Peru, only the Bahías organization, Ecological Condominiums, has been concerned with building so-called ecological or green homes.
One of the big questions that human beings ask is what effects this type of buildings will produce and the answer seems clear:.
Conservation of resources (materials, water, energy).
Principle of the three “Rs”: recycle, recover, reuse.
Analysis of the life cycle management of the raw materials used, with the aim of reducing the generation of waste and GHG emissions.
Rational use of energy.
Rational use of water.
Increase in the quality and health of life for the user/owner and the community in which it is located (urbanization).
General environmental protection of the environment in which it is located.
Building environmental certification, qualification and labeling
«El sector de la vivienda y de los servicios (compuesto en su mayoría por edificios), absorbe más del 40 % del consumo final de energía en la Comunidad Económica Europea. Se encuentra además en fase de expansión, que hará aumentar el consumo de energía...»[33] En el caso de países con menor nivel de industrialización y alta urbanización puede alcanzar hasta el 50 % del consumo final de energía primaria.
Estas afirmaciones pueden encontrarse en gran cantidad de directivas y reglamentaciones que priorizan la necesidad de reducir el consumo energético del sector edificación, tanto para avanzar en el cumplimiento de los compromisos ambientales (protocolo de Kioto) como para reducir la dependencia energética de combustibles fósiles o fuentes de energía convencionales.
EDGE Certification
EDGE (Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies) is an international sustainable construction certification system created by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), part of the World Bank Group. Its objective is to promote the construction of more efficient buildings in terms of energy, water and materials, transforming the way buildings are designed and operated, with a focus on emerging markets.[34][35].
The system is based on three key areas of efficiency:[36].
• - Energy: reducing energy consumption in the operation of the building.
• - Water: reducing the use of water compared to conventional buildings.
• - Materials: reducing the carbon incorporated in construction materials.
To obtain certification, a building must demonstrate at least 20% savings in these three areas compared to conventional construction. If 40% energy savings are achieved, the building can qualify for the "EDGE Advanced" level, and those that achieve 100% efficiency in energy use can receive "Zero Carbon" certification.[35][37].
The EDGE certification process consists of three phases:[36][38].
Evaluation with the EDGE Tool: The project is evaluated using a free online tool that allows developers to project savings in energy, water and materials, providing a comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of the design.
EDGE Preliminary Certificate: An accredited auditor reviews the project plans and specifications to validate that the proposed strategies are viable and achieve the required savings. If the requirements are met, the project receives a Preliminary Certificate.
Final EDGE Certification: After construction, an auditor performs an on-site inspection to ensure that the approved design strategies were correctly implemented. By verifying the projected reductions, the project receives Final Certification.
EDGE certification offers several benefits, such as reducing operating costs through lower energy and water consumption, which also helps mitigate climate change. In addition, it increases the value of properties by making them more attractive to buyers and tenants interested in sustainability.[35][39] The certification is applicable to both new projects and existing buildings, and covers a wide variety of typologies, including single-family homes, commercial buildings, hotels, hospitals, schools, among others.[34][35].
Governments and financial entities can also take advantage of EDGE certification. For governments, it is a tool to encourage green construction through policies and incentives, while financial institutions can reduce risks by requiring certification as a condition for financing.[39].
There are three levels of EDGE certification:[37].
• - EDGE Certified: 20% savings in energy, water and materials.
• - EDGE Advanced: 40% savings in energy, with 20% in water and materials.
• - Zero Carbon: 100% energy savings, with 20% in water and materials.
EDGE is an internationally recognized certification system managed by Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI). It is applicable in more than 170 countries, reflecting its global relevance in the sustainable construction sector. Its development has been supported by international donors such as Switzerland and the United Kingdom, among others, which reinforces its validity in various contexts.[34][35] The accessibility of the system, together with its low certification costs, has facilitated its adoption in projects of various scales, consolidating EDGE as a key tool for the development of sustainable buildings.[34][38].
Certification and Accreditation of Sustainable Construction[40]
La construcción sostenible, orientada a minimizar el impacto ambiental de los edificios a lo largo de su ciclo de vida, se ha convertido en una prioridad global. Para garantizar que las edificaciones cumplan con los estándares de sostenibilidad, se han desarrollado diversos sistemas de certificación y acreditación a nivel internacional y nacional. Estos sistemas proporcionan un marco de referencia y una metodología para evaluar, medir y validar el desempeño ambiental de los edificios.
Main certification systems
• - LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design): Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), LEED is one of the most recognized certification systems worldwide. It evaluates the sustainability of buildings in different categories, including energy efficiency, water use, material selection and indoor environmental quality.
• - BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method): Originating in the United Kingdom, BREEAM is another widely used certification system. It analyzes a wide range of aspects, from project management to the ecology of the site, to the health and well-being of the occupants.
• - VERDE (Building Reference Efficiency Assessment): Developed by the Green Building Council Spain (GBCe), VERDE is a certification system adapted to the particularities of the Spanish market. It evaluates the sustainability of buildings based on criteria such as energy efficiency, water use, materials and resources, and the quality of the indoor environment.
• - Passivhaus: More than a certification system, Passivhaus is a building standard that focuses on energy efficiency and thermal comfort. Passivhaus buildings are characterized by a high level of insulation, mechanical ventilation with heat recovery and a design that minimizes energy losses.
• - WELL Building Standard: This certification system focuses on the health and well-being of building occupants. It evaluates aspects such as air quality, lighting, nutrition, fitness and acoustic comfort.
Certification benefits
• - Market recognition: Certified buildings obtain greater recognition in the real estate market.
• - Improvement of brand image: Certifications demonstrate the commitment of owners and developers to sustainability.
• - Reduced operating costs: Certified buildings usually have lower operating costs thanks to their energy efficiency.
• - Improved quality of life: Sustainable buildings offer a healthier and more comfortable indoor environment for their occupants.
Certification process
The certification process usually involves a detailed evaluation of the project by an independent certifying body. This evaluation is based on a series of specific criteria and requirements for each certification system. Once the requirements are met, the corresponding certification is granted.
In summary, sustainable construction certification and accreditation systems play a fundamental role in promoting more efficient, healthy and environmentally friendly buildings. By providing a clear and transparent framework, these systems help drive the transition towards more sustainable construction.
Optimization of natural resources
La utilización correcta y moderada de los recursos naturales hace a la arquitectura sustentable. No alcanza con solo utilizarlos sino también cuidarlos.
Los recursos naturales no son ilimitados, y para que sean sotenibles debe ser gestionado basándose en tres principios: Ningún recurso renovable deberá utilizarse a un ritmo superior al de su generación. Ningún contaminante deberá producirse a un ritmo superior al que pueda ser reciclado, neutralizado o absorbido por el medio ambiente. Ningún recurso no renovable deberá aprovecharse a mayor velocidad de la necesaria para sustituirlo por un recurso renovable utilizado de manera sostenible.
Casos:.
• - la Directiva 93/76/CEE"),.
• - en El Libro Verde") de la UE (Hacia una estrategia para la seguridad de suministro energético en la UE, 2000),.
• - la Directiva 2002/91/CE"),.
• - la Directiva de eficiencia energética en edificios,.
• - el Código Técnico de la Edificación (CTE), y su Registro de certificaciones ambientales de producto[41] España.
• - la Certificación Energética (CALENER")), España.
• - el Informe de evaluación del edificio, España.
• - el Etiquetado tipo III GlobalEPD, España.
• - el Etiquetado energético en Alemania").
• - el Etiquetado energético en Francia HQE.
• - el Etiquetado energético en USA"). Certificado LEED - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.
• - la certificación BREEAM") del Building Research Establishment en Reino Unido.
• - la certificación WELL Standard del International WELL Building Institute (IWBI)[42].
• - el concepto Embodied Energy").
• - el Programa LIDER").
• - el proyecto de Etiquetado Energético para la UE: Proyecto PREDAC") (Promoting Actions for Renewable Energies).
• - la Certificación Passiv Haus"), Alemania.
• - la Certificación Plus Energie Haus"), Alemania.
• - la Regulación energética edilicia en Argentina y el Etiquetado energético de edificios.
• - la Ley 13059/03") de la Provincia de Buenos Aires y su Decreto Reglamentario 1030/10"), Argentina.
• - la Ley 4458/12") de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
• - el Código de Edificación de la Ciudad de Rosario,Ordenanza N.º 8757/2011 .
• - el Código de Edificación de la Ciudad de Olavarría, Argentina.[43].
• - el Etiquetado Energético en Argentina") con base en la Norma IRAM 11900").
Uno de los motivos que pueden justificar el escaso debate sobre los procesos de regulación y certificación energética de viviendas en casi todo el mundo es la elevada complejidad técnica del sistema edificio desde un punto de vista energético. Esto sin duda ha alejado al resto de sectores sociales del debate destinado a definir los procedimientos a seguir para implementar las Directivas citadas (Caso UE).
Sin embargo, en el sector de la edificación, tal y como han mostrado las experiencias en muchos países europeos, es fundamental la aceptación de distintos sectores de la sociedad para que una herramienta como la certificación energética tenga alguna utilidad. Un inicio es que estas certificaciones sean voluntarias hasta que logre impactar al mercado inmobiliario.[44].
International initiatives
• - The Sustainable Building Alliance[45].
• - IPCC Fourth Assessment Report[46].
• - UNEP and Climate change[47].
• - GHG Indicator[48].
• - Agenda 21[49].
• - FIDIC's PSM[50].
• - iiSBE's SBtool[51].
• - BREEAM ES[52].
Descriptive frameworks for the environmental impacts of construction are being standardized internationally:
• - At the level of the (ISO) International Organization for Standardization's Technical Committee 59 (ISO TC59) - Building Construction.
• - At the level of the European committee for standardization: European Committee for Standardization's CEN TC350 -Sustainability of Construction Works.
• - In Argentina the Sustainable Construction subcommittee of IRAM[53].
• - In the United States, Standard 189.1-2009 ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.[54].
Bioclimatic data
The design of an ECD (Environmentally Conscious Design) building requires quantitative information about the site where the building will be implemented to incorporate the most appropriate passive design measures. Obtaining bioclimatic data is not easy, especially in undeveloped countries. These data include: temperature (°C), relative humidity (%), absolute humidity (g/kg; mm Hg/kg; kPa/kg), solar radiation (W/m²), wind frequency, direction and speed. Each country has meteorological services that can be used to obtain information, although they are not always free.
NASA has a free service where you can obtain calculated monthly average data (the error is indicated) of practically all the usual parameters for the design of the building and its facilities with renewable energy; work. Other sites such as Tu Tiempo.net[57] provide information generated by weather stations throughout the planet on a monthly or daily basis free of charge. The One Building organization offers climate files in .TMY format to be used in numerical simulation programs for hundreds of cities around the world.[58].
Architects who contribute to sustainable architecture
En la arquitectura sostenible existen tres corrientes convergentes que interactúan y se retro-alimentan en una línea de tiempo. La primigenia formada en la práctica en los años 1930-40 como George Fred Keck (1895-1980) o en la teoría en investigación académica como Victor Olgyay (1919-1970) que desde EE. UU. llevaron al desarrollo de los métodos de diseño expresados en la Arquitectura solar primero que evolucionó en Arquitectura solar pasiva y Arquitectura bioclimática. Allí se suman el Ing. Felix Trombe (1906-1985) y el Arq. Jacques Michel "Jacques Michel (arquitecto)") en Francia, Baruch Givoni (1920- ) en Israel, Jaime López de Asiain (1933- ) en España, Enrico Tedeschi (1910-1978) en Argentina junto a Elías Rosenfeld (1934-2012) y Elio Di Bernardo") (1920- 2018). En EE. UU. Edward Mazria (1939- ) junto a físicos e ingenieros del Laboratorio de los Álamos genera el primer programa de simulación energética que en la actualidad permite predecir el comportamiento ambiental de los edificios y llevó a la certificación de estos. Desde Inglaterra Brenda & Robert Vale (1950- ) propusieron la idea de una vivienda autosuficiente que hoy es el modelo a seguir en las edificaciones energía plus.
Otra corriente de arquitectos empíricos y comprometidos con movimientos sociales en los ´70, principalmente en EE. UU., avanzaron en la recuperación de tradiciones constructivas ancestrales, redefiniéndolas al presente. El uso de la tierra cruda como material junto a la Arquitectura solar pasiva tuvo en David Wright un gran exponente. Con visiones concurrentes en relación con confrontar con el consumismo se destacaron Michael Reynolds y Tom Bender en EE. UU. En Alemania Gernot Minke desde una visión académica como arquitecto y doctor en ingeniería buscó experimentar y monitorear el comportamiento de construcciones con contenido energético cercano a cero en el ciclo de vida de sus edificios. Su trabajo tiene muchos seguidores en el mundo. En Japón se destaca el aporte de hacer construcciones con materiales comunes o de reciclado de Shigeru Ban (1957- ). Más cercano a la visión de la corporación de la arquitectura Glenn Murcutt (1936- ) desde Australia se enrola en una visión de baja tecnología y obtuvo el premio Pritzker en 2002.
El tercer grupo lo integran arquitectos que originalmente adscribían a la Arquitectura high-tech, y luego incorporaron la sostenibilidad con el concurso de asesores. Sus obras se encuentran entre las más costosas y sofisticadas de la arquitectura contemporánea. Tiene como sus máximos representantes a Norman Foster (1935- ) y Richard Rogers (1933- ), con el concurso de la empresa consultora de ingeniería británica ARUP.
The technological, formalist or modern, reformed into sustainable ones
Together they represent, from professional practice, scientific inquiry and experimentation, ideological commitment and teaching vocation, more than 80 years of a common position regarding making architecture.
Areas that contribute to Sustainable Architecture
There are various areas that contribute in this area, however, some are more common than others. One of them, as the title says, is Architecture, and together with Design, they are responsible for offering an aesthetic space including green areas and environmentally friendly objects. An example is the “Green Roofs” whose main function is to oxygenate the environment and compensate for the loss that has been generated in the construction processes. They also have an energy saving of 25%, according to an article in EcoHabitar magazine published in 2015. On the other hand, Civil Engineering ensures that the design is feasible, in addition to including ecological techniques in the construction process. "Natural Topography is used to optimize the use of energy. This leads to the reduction of operating costs by optimizing the use of resources. Green architecture [...] focuses on the use of natural materials for the construction of the work itself.
"We work with thermal walls, thermal mass in buildings in order to reduce energy consumption and loss”[63] Other engineering areas also contribute, such as Electronics, Operational Systems, Environmental, Electrical, Nanotechnology, Renewable Energy, etc. Mainly, these can influence the quality of the devices that will be in the house, and optimize them in terms of the energy they require and the lifespan they have. This way you can save energy and reduce costs. “The use of advanced technologies for energy saving in homes makes it possible to generate enormous reductions in the demand for fossil fuels and in greenhouse gas emissions.”[64].
General
Entities and organizations that promote sustainable architecture
• - Sustainable Building Alliance, an international initiative promoted by the United Nations.
• - Argentine Association of Renewable Energies and Environment[65].
• - International Solar Energy Society[66].
• - Argentina Green Building Council.
• - Building Research Establishment[67].
• - n'UNDO.
Many works have their original texts in other languages. An attempt has been made to show the translations into Spanish. It is a representative list although not complete. A chronological review of the bibliography can be found in Annexes.
[3] ↑ * Gauzin-Müller (2001). L'Architecture écologique. Edit Groupe Monitor. Versión en español: Arquitectura ecológica publicada en 2002 por Edit G. Gili. ISBN 978-84-252-1918-4.
[4] ↑ Nuestras propias soluciones. Cien testimonios. Actas de la ECO´92 en Río de Janeiro.
[5] ↑ Kim, Jong-Jin; Rigdon, Brenda. «Pollution Prevention in Architecture. National Pollution Prevention Center For Higher Education» (pdf) (en inglés). Universidad de Míchigan. p. 30. Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2008.: http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ARCHpdfs/ARCHintIntro.pdf
[6] ↑ Rosenfeld, E.; Czajkowski J.; San Juan, G. (2004) en Diccionario de Arquitectura en la Argentina. Edit. Clarín. Tomo 1, pág 157. ISBN 950-782-423-5.
[7] ↑ Cátedra de Instalaciones Czajkowski - Gómez - FAU-UNLP (2006). Arquitectura Sustentable. Edit Clarín. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
[11] ↑ Maestría en Diseño Arquitectónico Sustentable. Instituto Superior de Arquitectura y Diseño. [4] Archivado el 5 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine.: http://www.isad.edu.mx/site/?page_id=140
[15] ↑ Prólogo del Estándar 189.1-2009 ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES. Atlanta, EEUU.
[16] ↑ Javier Neila González, F. (2004) Arquitectura bioclimática en un entorno sostenible. Edit Munilla-Lería, Madrid.
[17] ↑ Givoni B, A. (1976) Man, Climate and Architecture. Architectural Science Serves. Publishers. Ltd. London.
[18] ↑ Yáñez Paradera, Guillermo. (2008) Arquitectura solar e iluminación natural. en capítulo 9: Evaporación del agua. Torres de refrigeración. "captadores de viento", pág 358. Editorial Munilla-lería ISBN 978-84-89150-81-2.
[19] ↑ Jones, D.L.(2002) Arquitectura y entorno. El diseño de la construcción bioclimática. Edit Blume. Barcelona. ISBN 84-9593-01-0.
[21] ↑ Clark, William H. 1998. Análisis y gestión energética de edificios. Métodos, proyectos y sistemas de ahorro energético. Ed. Mc Graw Hill. ISBN 84-481-2102-3.
[22] ↑ Paris, O. et al. (2002). Construyendo ciudades sustentables. Edit i+p. ISBN 978-987-1385-01-0.
[23] ↑ Jenks, M. & Dempsey, N. (2005). Future forms and design for sustainable cities. Edit Architectural Press, London ISBN 0-7506-6309-X.
[26] ↑ «Programa DAPconstrucción | Agenda de la Construcció Sostenible». www.csostenible.net. Consultado el 24 de noviembre de 2016.: http://www.csostenible.net/dapcons?locale=es
[31] ↑ Ejemplo para el cálculo de costos en sistemas complejos en edificaciones Gestión integral en obras hidráulicas - Rentabilidad y calidad en la conducción de agua.: http://www.sonia-bueno.net/45591.html
[34] ↑ a b c d Consultores, G. E. A. (3 de enero de 2019). «Certificación Ambiental de Edificios - EDGE». GEA Consultores Ambientales. Consultado el 25 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.geaconsultores.com/certificacion-edge/
Thus, the concept of sustainable development is based on three principles:[3].
• - The analysis of the life cycle "Life cycle (environment)") of materials and constructions;
• - The development of the use of raw materials and renewable energies;.
• - The reduction of the quantities of materials and energy used in the extraction of natural resources, their exploitation and the destruction or recycling of waste.
During this meeting in Rio de Janeiro, a parallel meeting was held,[4] convened by academics, researchers and global NGOs to discuss the state of knowledge in each field with respect to each line of knowledge. There were hundreds of works from all over the world, among which were architects with environmental awareness, mostly coming from previous currents such as solar architecture, bioclimatic architecture or alternative architecture.
Despite the initial caution of the academic world when agreeing on new concepts and their inclusion in the Dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy, it was possible to translate "sustainable" as "sustainable", a meaning already fully accepted by this institution. On the contrary, the term "sustainable" has no relationship with this concept, and is considered an anglicism when used as a substitute for sustainable, despite being widely spread in Latin America.
In 1998, the School of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Michigan published the document An Introduction to Sustainable Architecture, which summarizes the principles of sustainable architecture.[5].
In 2004, the Dictionary of architecture in Argentina was published, where the word "bioclimatic/bioenvironmental/passive solar/sustainable/environmentally conscious (Architecture)" appears to unify a line of thought in architecture.[6] And it is defined: "... applied to design and architecture, these adjectives are integrated into constructions that designate the strategies and buildings that are conceived, built and function as according to the environmental conditions and possibilities of the place (climate, ecological values), its inhabitants and ways of life. This is achieved through two subsystems: "conservation and rational use of energy" and that of passive solar systems, both incorporated into the architectural organism. By extension they apply to urban planning...".
Given that the controversy continued, it was not surprising that only in October 2005 the First International Seminar on Sustainable, Sustainable and Bioclimatic Architecture was held in the city of Montería (Colombia), in order to bring together Ibero-American specialists to resolve the approach of each sub-current and find agreements.
In March 2006, the collectible Sustainable Architecture was published in the newspaper with the largest circulation in Argentina,[7] to clarify the use of the term to the community of architects, explain its foundations, analyze ten significant works worldwide, along with an application manual for the country's climates.
In 2009, the Laboratory of Architecture and Sustainable Habitat - LAyHS was created in the Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning of the National University of La Plata (La Plata, Argentina) in order to carry out R&D in this current of architecture. In 2011, its members promoted the creation of a Master's and Specialization degree in Architecture and Sustainable Habitat [8] which was approved in 2012 and accredited by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation in 2014 and began its operation.
In 2011, the creation of the architecture program focused on training in Urban Development and Sustainable Architectural Design was approved at the National University of Cuyo (Mendoza, Argentina),[9] in order to train architects with an orientation focused on bioclimatic and sustainable design.
Also in 2011, the University of Bío-Bío created the magazine Hábitat Sustentable,[10] in Open Journal Systems format with the support of the Chilean Agency for Energy Efficiency (AChee).
In 2012, the Higher Institute of Architecture and Design - ISAD (Chihuahua, Mexico), created the Master's Degree in Sustainable Architectural Design.[11] In 2014, the University of the Environment of Mexico created the Master's Degree in Sustainable Architecture, Design and Construction.[12] In the same year, the Motolinia del Pedregal University of Mexico created the Master's Degree in Architecture and Sustainable Design.[13] At the Faculty of Architecture of the UNAM (Mexico) the Sustainability Laboratory - LASUS is created.[14] In Spain, at the University of Valencia, the Advanced Master's Professional Specialization Program in Sustainable and Bioclimatic Architecture is created, showing the use of the term sustainable in the Iberian Peninsula.
Also in 2013, the CONICET of Argentina changed the name of the historic Habitat Commission, which brought together researchers and doctoral scholars, architects, engineers, sociologists, anthropologists, environmental psychologists, and renewable energy physicists, to the name Habitat, Environmental Sciences and Sustainability Commission. In this way it brings together other researchers from biology, agronomy, exact and natural sciences who sought to join the growing field of knowledge that deals with the relationship between man and nature.
This shows the institutional consolidation that this current of thought is achieving in architecture, together with the commitment of architects to become aware of the environmental impact caused by their professional practice in relation to climate change, its mitigation and adaptation.
Energy and architecture
Contenido
La eficiencia energética es una de las principales metas de la arquitectura sostenible, aunque no la única. Los arquitectos utilizan diversas técnicas para reducir las necesidades energéticas de edificios mediante el ahorro de energía y para aumentar su capacidad de capturar la energía del sol o de generar su propia energía.
Entre estas estrategias de diseño sostenible se encuentran la calefacción solar activa y pasiva, el calentamiento solar de agua activo o pasivo, la generación eléctrica solar, la acumulación freática o la calefacción geotérmica, y más recientemente la incorporación en los edificios de generadores eólicos.
Las consideraciones especificadas se refieren tanto a aspectos concernientes a los materiales utilizados, tecnologías utilizadas para obtener una mayor eficiencia energética de la vivienda y las técnicas de construcción.
El impacto ambiental del diseño edilicio, su construcción y operación son enormes. Como ejemplo, los edificios en los Estados Unidos son responsables del 39 % de las emisiones de CO, del 40 % del consumo de energía primaria, el 13 % del consumo de agua potable y el 15 % de PBI por año.[15].
Efficient heating
HVAC systems (heating or cooling) are a primary focus for sustainable architecture because they typically consume the most energy in buildings. In a passive solar building, the design allows them to efficiently harness the sun's energy without the use of certain special mechanisms, such as: photovoltaic cells, solar panels, solar collectors (water heating, heating, cooling, swimming pools), valuing the design of the windows. These special mechanisms fall within the so-called active solar systems. Buildings conceived through passive solar design incorporate thermal inertia through the use of construction materials that allow the accumulation of heat in their thermal mass such as concrete, common brick masonry, stone, adobe, rammed earth, cement soil, water, among others (Trombe-Michel wall case "Jacques Michel (architect)"). In addition, it is necessary to use thermal insulation to conserve the heat accumulated during a sunny day. Furthermore, to minimize heat loss, buildings are sought to be compact and this is achieved through a low surface area of walls, ceilings and windows with respect to the volume they contain. This means that very open multi-wing or spine-shaped designs should be avoided in favor of more compact and centralized structures. Traditional high compact buildings in very cold climates are a good historical model for an energy efficient building.
Windows are used to maximize the entry of light and energy from the sun into the interior environment while seeking to minimize heat loss through the glass (a very poor thermal insulator). This generally involves installing a larger glass surface in the direction with the greatest solar exposure, to capture the sun in winter and restricting the glass surfaces to the opposite side as much as possible. This strategy is suitable in temperate to very cold climates. In warm to tropical climates other strategies are used. The use of airtight double glazing (DVH) reduces heat losses by half although its cost is significantly higher. It is advisable to plant deciduous trees in front of windows facing greater solar exposure, to block excessive sun in summer and at the same time allow sunlight to pass through in winter, when their leaves disappear. Perennials are often planted to the south of the building to act as a barrier against cold southerly winds.[16].
Efficient cooling
When the use of passive cooling is impossible due to particular conditions, such as buildings in very dense urban sectors in climates with hot summers or with uses that involve a large generation of heat inside (artificial lighting, electromechanical equipment, people and others), the use of air conditioning systems will be necessary. Since these systems usually require a large energy expenditure to extract heat from the interior of the building, it is necessary to use strong and active sustainable design strategies. Among others:
• - Adequate sun protection on all glass surfaces.
• - Avoid the use of glazing on ceilings.
• - Good thermal insulation in walls, ceilings and glass.
• - Concentrate spaces with high heat emission (computers, kitchens, etc.) and give them good ventilation.
• - Sectorize spaces according to uses.
• - Use air conditioning systems with energy certification in order to know how efficient they are.
• - Ventilate buildings at night.
This will help reduce global warming and the ozone hole in the atmosphere.
Passive cooling
In very hot climates where cooling is necessary, passive solar design also provides effective solutions. Building materials with high thermal mass have the ability to maintain cool night temperatures throughout the day. For this, wall or ceiling thicknesses that vary between 15 to 60 cm are necessary and thus use the building envelope as a heat storage system. It is necessary to provide adequate ventilation "Ventilation (architecture)") at night that sweeps the largest internal surface avoiding the accumulation of daytime heat. Ventilation inside the premises can be significantly improved with the installation of a solar chimney.
During the day ventilation should be minimal. Thus, as the walls and ceilings are cooler, they will absorb body heat, giving a feeling of freshness.
In very hot climates, buildings are designed to capture and channel existing winds, particularly those coming from nearby sources of moisture such as lakes or forests. Many of these valuable strategies are employed in certain ways by the traditional architecture of warm regions.[17].
In very hot and dry climates with a high content of atmospheric dust, wind collectors can be used to direct the air to low points, and can also filter and humidify the air to remove heat through evaporative cooling") or direct it to internal patios with fountains or ponds and in this way cool the interior environment.[18].
Production of alternative energies in buildings
Alternative energies in architecture involve the use of active solar devices, such as photovoltaic panels or wind generators that help provide sustainable electricity for any use. If the roofs have slopes, try to locate them towards solar noon with a slope that optimizes the capture of solar energy so that the photovoltaic panels generate with maximum efficiency. To know the optimal slope of the photovoltaic panel in winter (when the day is shorter and the solar radiation weaker) the angle of the sun's height must be subtracted from the value of the latitude of the place. We will obtain the height of the star from a solar chart"). Buildings have been built that even move through the day to follow the sun. Wind generators are increasingly being used in areas where the wind speed is sufficient with sizes less than 8 m in diameter. Water-active solar heating systems fully or partially cover the heating needs throughout the year in a sustainable way. Buildings that use a combination of these methods reach the highest goal of zero energy demand and in the 80s They were called self-sufficient. A new trend consists of generating energy and selling it to the grid, for which it is necessary to have specific legislation, policies to promote renewable energy and state subsidy programs. In this way, the excessive costs represented by energy accumulation systems in buildings are avoided. One of the most notable examples is the Mont-Cenis Academy in Germany by the architects Jourda & Perroudin, inaugurated in 1999.[19].
Other forms of energy generation based on renewable sources are solar thermal energy (for heating, domestic hot water and air conditioning), biomass "Biomass (energy)") or even geothermal. The ideal way to guarantee energy supply throughout the year, under changing climatic and environmental conditions, is to combine the different sources.
Sustainable skyscrapers: green architecture
It is possible to create skyscraper architecture that respects the environment and, above all, is sustainable, as is the case with vertical architecture. It would be produced from the building's own resources, which would be areas such as all types of apartments and establishments, but self-sufficient with renewable and non-polluting energy. In short, skyscrapers can be adapted to green and sustainable architecture.
Green architecture does not only refer to the implementation of vegetables and plants in urban buildings and buildings, as has been traditionally considered, but also to the use of techniques based on sustainability and renewable energies. The term green does not refer only to plants, but the color of an entire movement in favor of taking care of the environment and therefore our planet.
If cities continue to experience vertical growth in the coming years, how will architects design the skyscrapers of the future? This is the question asked every year by the architecture magazine eVolo, which has organized the 'eVolo Skycraper Competition' since 2006, a competition in which renowned architects choose the best designs for the possible skyscrapers of tomorrow for their creativity, ingenuity and their way of understanding vertical communities.
The organizers have received more than 480 original projects from all corners of the planet, and this year the first prize has gone to four Polish urban planners and architects from the BOMP studio for their project 'Essence Skycraper', a gigantic megastructure that houses not only boring office buildings, but up to eleven different landscapes inside.
Oceans, jungles, caves and waterfalls can be architectural elements in this secret garden of immense proportions, where we will no longer even have to leave the building to go to nature and get away from the frenetic pace of the city.
Energy recycling
The most economical alternative to achieve an energy efficient building is to include the issue from the project phase. But it is possible to take an existing building and, using a technique called energy recycling known by its Anglo-Saxon roots as retrofit[20], give the building a new sustainable life cycle.
Among the first tasks is to carry out an energy audit to know what the energy inputs and outputs are to the building as a system, always seeking to maintain hygrothermal comfort, health and safety.[21].
Implementation and location
The location of the building is a central aspect in sustainable architecture and is often not taken into account. Although many ecological architects suggest locating the ideal home or offices in the middle of nature or the forest, this is not always the most advisable; since it is harmful to the natural environment. First, such structures often serve as the last line of attraction for the suburbs of cities and can generate tension that favors their growth. Secondly, being isolated they increase the energy consumption required for transportation and generally lead to unnecessary greenhouse gas emissions. An urban or suburban location should be sought close to communication routes, seeking to improve and strengthen the area. This is the current trend of the new urban movement. Careful mixed zoning between industrial (clean), commercial, and residential areas implies better accessibility to travel on foot, by bicycle, or using public transportation.[22][23].
Materials for sustainable buildings
Products can communicate environmental impacts throughout their life cycle based on a series of impact categories defined in the International Standard ISO 14025 through an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD).[24] EPDs are a type of Eco-Labels defined in international ISO standards (International Organization for Standardization). The impact categories included, based on a life cycle analysis, refer, among other parameters, to resource depletion or global warming potential. At the European level there is a framework standard for DAP, EN 15804, issued by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN). Both standards are published in Spanish by AENOR.
DAPs are verified through a Program Administrator. In Europe ECO Platform[25] brings together the main DAP verification Administrators. In Spain, the Program Administrators are the College of Quantity Surveyors, Technical Architects and Building Engineers of Barcelona, which issues DAP under the name DAPcons[26] and AENOR, which issues DAP under the name GlobalEPD.[27].
The evaluation at the building level based on Environmental Declarations can be done based on the European Standard EN 15978, also issued by CEN and which uses the same modular structure to define the different stages of the life of the building as that used in the European EPD standard (EN 15804).
Materials suitable for use in sustainable buildings must have characteristics such as low energy content, low emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2 - NOx - SOx - particulate matter, be recycled, contain the highest percentage of reused materials, among others. The construction industry consumes 50% of all global resources and becomes the least sustainable activity on the planet. In the case of wood, avoid wood from native forests and use wood from crops such as pine, eucalyptus, among other species.
Among the materials used in construction that have the most own energy are primary aluminum (215 MJ/kg), commercial aluminum with 30% recycled (160 MJ/kg), neoprene (120 MJ/kg), synthetic paints and varnishes (100 MJ/kg), expanded or extruded polystyrene (100 MJ/kg) and primary copper (90 MJ/kg), along with polyurethanes, polypropylenes and polyvinyl chloride PVC.[28].
Waste management
Sustainable architecture focuses on the use and treatment of waste on site, incorporating such things as gray water treatment systems using filters and biological stabilization with reeds and other aquatic plant varieties. These methods, when combined with the production of compost from organic waste, the separation of garbage, can help minimize the production of waste in a home.
Modular construction has established itself as one of the solutions that favor sustainable architecture, since it allows the generation of waste on site to be significantly reduced and improves the energy efficiency of finished buildings.[29].
Sustainable architecture has worked on waste management on several occasions, in order to better contribute to the reduction of environmental impacts, according to the CEMDA (Mexican Center for Environmental Law), this center mentions three fundamental tips for the proper management of waste, which are related to the three R's, reduce, recycle and reuse.
Waste management greatly influences respecting what is related to it on a large scale, which involves the proper use of materials, as well as the management and reduction of different elements that may affect the environment.
Recycling of structures and materials
Sustainable architecture can use recycled or second-hand materials. The reduction in the use of new materials generates a reduction in the use of the energy of each material in its manufacturing process. Architects try to adapt old structures and constructions to respond to new needs and thus avoid constructions that start from scratch as much as possible.[30].
Recycled materials
Among the materials possible to recycle are:
• - masonry in the form of crushed rubble to make subfloors or Roman wells.
• - wood of various squares for ceilings, panels and floors.
• - pavement concrete, which is crushed again and used in structures with lower load commitments.
• - doors, windows and other openings.
• - thermoacoustic insulators.
• - majolica and other ceramic coverings.
• - metal pipes.
• - sheet metal covers for construction fences.
• - structural iron for minor works.
• - bars.
In undeveloped countries, it is common for there to be a large recovery of demolitions and sites where these products are concentrated for later reuse. In Argentina they are called Chacaritas") in reference to the largest cemetery in Buenos Aires.
Architecture and social sustainability
Architecture generates a great social impact on the population and good examples are necessary in each local community to show society the paths to follow. In each culture, new types of buildings emerged over time, but only some of these buildings became models to be repeated by society.
The first concept model was made by architect George Fred Keck in 1933 for the Chicago World's Fair and was called the House of Tomorrow. Around 1940, Keck built a passive solar house for real estate businessman Howard Sloan in Glenview, Illinois, which was called "Solar house" by the Chicago Tribune newspaper, and is the first known use of the term.
In the experimental field, the first systematic developments were brought together in what was called the "List of Pioneer Solar Buildings" that shows continuous production by the academic world since 1939 when the MIT Solar House #1 was built in Michigan by H.C. Hottel of the Massachusetts Institute of Technologies - MIT.
While in the United States houses of light construction (100 to 150 kg/m²) are common, in South America they are mostly of heavy construction (>150 kg/m²). The materials and construction methods are different, probably due to the culture that each building type brought. Since changes in customs are not simple, enormous efforts are required to generate valid alternatives that are adopted by society.
Concepts such as what is the initial cost of a building"), what is the cost throughout its useful life") (estimated at 30 to 50 years),[31] the Vulnerability of buildings and risk analysis, can a family or a society pay these costs? "Can the environmental cost be met?") These are all questions that each local society must answer and the leadership must provide adequate and sustainable responses.
Local initiatives
Local initiatives arise from specific problems by NGOs or figures with high media impact. One of these initiatives is Make It Right carried out by the American actor Brad Pitt in order to rebuild a hundred homes in a poor neighborhood of New Orleans devastated by Hurricane Katrina.
The novelty of the initiative is that prestigious local and international architects have donated sustainable housing projects.[32] Each example is one more step in social and sustainable matters to generate proposals when governments and politicians fail or deny the needs of human society.
In Argentina, for example, the Oran technical school (No. 3134) has built social housing using bamboo cane. The main structure of these buildings is made of bamboo, while the walls were made with plates of recycled garbage. Initiatives like this have been replicated by various organizations in Colombia, Brazil, Chile and Bolivia. Meanwhile, in Peru, only the Bahías organization, Ecological Condominiums, has been concerned with building so-called ecological or green homes.
One of the big questions that human beings ask is what effects this type of buildings will produce and the answer seems clear:.
Conservation of resources (materials, water, energy).
Principle of the three “Rs”: recycle, recover, reuse.
Analysis of the life cycle management of the raw materials used, with the aim of reducing the generation of waste and GHG emissions.
Rational use of energy.
Rational use of water.
Increase in the quality and health of life for the user/owner and the community in which it is located (urbanization).
General environmental protection of the environment in which it is located.
Building environmental certification, qualification and labeling
«El sector de la vivienda y de los servicios (compuesto en su mayoría por edificios), absorbe más del 40 % del consumo final de energía en la Comunidad Económica Europea. Se encuentra además en fase de expansión, que hará aumentar el consumo de energía...»[33] En el caso de países con menor nivel de industrialización y alta urbanización puede alcanzar hasta el 50 % del consumo final de energía primaria.
Estas afirmaciones pueden encontrarse en gran cantidad de directivas y reglamentaciones que priorizan la necesidad de reducir el consumo energético del sector edificación, tanto para avanzar en el cumplimiento de los compromisos ambientales (protocolo de Kioto) como para reducir la dependencia energética de combustibles fósiles o fuentes de energía convencionales.
EDGE Certification
EDGE (Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies) is an international sustainable construction certification system created by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), part of the World Bank Group. Its objective is to promote the construction of more efficient buildings in terms of energy, water and materials, transforming the way buildings are designed and operated, with a focus on emerging markets.[34][35].
The system is based on three key areas of efficiency:[36].
• - Energy: reducing energy consumption in the operation of the building.
• - Water: reducing the use of water compared to conventional buildings.
• - Materials: reducing the carbon incorporated in construction materials.
To obtain certification, a building must demonstrate at least 20% savings in these three areas compared to conventional construction. If 40% energy savings are achieved, the building can qualify for the "EDGE Advanced" level, and those that achieve 100% efficiency in energy use can receive "Zero Carbon" certification.[35][37].
The EDGE certification process consists of three phases:[36][38].
Evaluation with the EDGE Tool: The project is evaluated using a free online tool that allows developers to project savings in energy, water and materials, providing a comprehensive analysis of the environmental impact of the design.
EDGE Preliminary Certificate: An accredited auditor reviews the project plans and specifications to validate that the proposed strategies are viable and achieve the required savings. If the requirements are met, the project receives a Preliminary Certificate.
Final EDGE Certification: After construction, an auditor performs an on-site inspection to ensure that the approved design strategies were correctly implemented. By verifying the projected reductions, the project receives Final Certification.
EDGE certification offers several benefits, such as reducing operating costs through lower energy and water consumption, which also helps mitigate climate change. In addition, it increases the value of properties by making them more attractive to buyers and tenants interested in sustainability.[35][39] The certification is applicable to both new projects and existing buildings, and covers a wide variety of typologies, including single-family homes, commercial buildings, hotels, hospitals, schools, among others.[34][35].
Governments and financial entities can also take advantage of EDGE certification. For governments, it is a tool to encourage green construction through policies and incentives, while financial institutions can reduce risks by requiring certification as a condition for financing.[39].
There are three levels of EDGE certification:[37].
• - EDGE Certified: 20% savings in energy, water and materials.
• - EDGE Advanced: 40% savings in energy, with 20% in water and materials.
• - Zero Carbon: 100% energy savings, with 20% in water and materials.
EDGE is an internationally recognized certification system managed by Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI). It is applicable in more than 170 countries, reflecting its global relevance in the sustainable construction sector. Its development has been supported by international donors such as Switzerland and the United Kingdom, among others, which reinforces its validity in various contexts.[34][35] The accessibility of the system, together with its low certification costs, has facilitated its adoption in projects of various scales, consolidating EDGE as a key tool for the development of sustainable buildings.[34][38].
Certification and Accreditation of Sustainable Construction[40]
La construcción sostenible, orientada a minimizar el impacto ambiental de los edificios a lo largo de su ciclo de vida, se ha convertido en una prioridad global. Para garantizar que las edificaciones cumplan con los estándares de sostenibilidad, se han desarrollado diversos sistemas de certificación y acreditación a nivel internacional y nacional. Estos sistemas proporcionan un marco de referencia y una metodología para evaluar, medir y validar el desempeño ambiental de los edificios.
Main certification systems
• - LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design): Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), LEED is one of the most recognized certification systems worldwide. It evaluates the sustainability of buildings in different categories, including energy efficiency, water use, material selection and indoor environmental quality.
• - BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method): Originating in the United Kingdom, BREEAM is another widely used certification system. It analyzes a wide range of aspects, from project management to the ecology of the site, to the health and well-being of the occupants.
• - VERDE (Building Reference Efficiency Assessment): Developed by the Green Building Council Spain (GBCe), VERDE is a certification system adapted to the particularities of the Spanish market. It evaluates the sustainability of buildings based on criteria such as energy efficiency, water use, materials and resources, and the quality of the indoor environment.
• - Passivhaus: More than a certification system, Passivhaus is a building standard that focuses on energy efficiency and thermal comfort. Passivhaus buildings are characterized by a high level of insulation, mechanical ventilation with heat recovery and a design that minimizes energy losses.
• - WELL Building Standard: This certification system focuses on the health and well-being of building occupants. It evaluates aspects such as air quality, lighting, nutrition, fitness and acoustic comfort.
Certification benefits
• - Market recognition: Certified buildings obtain greater recognition in the real estate market.
• - Improvement of brand image: Certifications demonstrate the commitment of owners and developers to sustainability.
• - Reduced operating costs: Certified buildings usually have lower operating costs thanks to their energy efficiency.
• - Improved quality of life: Sustainable buildings offer a healthier and more comfortable indoor environment for their occupants.
Certification process
The certification process usually involves a detailed evaluation of the project by an independent certifying body. This evaluation is based on a series of specific criteria and requirements for each certification system. Once the requirements are met, the corresponding certification is granted.
In summary, sustainable construction certification and accreditation systems play a fundamental role in promoting more efficient, healthy and environmentally friendly buildings. By providing a clear and transparent framework, these systems help drive the transition towards more sustainable construction.
Optimization of natural resources
La utilización correcta y moderada de los recursos naturales hace a la arquitectura sustentable. No alcanza con solo utilizarlos sino también cuidarlos.
Los recursos naturales no son ilimitados, y para que sean sotenibles debe ser gestionado basándose en tres principios: Ningún recurso renovable deberá utilizarse a un ritmo superior al de su generación. Ningún contaminante deberá producirse a un ritmo superior al que pueda ser reciclado, neutralizado o absorbido por el medio ambiente. Ningún recurso no renovable deberá aprovecharse a mayor velocidad de la necesaria para sustituirlo por un recurso renovable utilizado de manera sostenible.
Casos:.
• - la Directiva 93/76/CEE"),.
• - en El Libro Verde") de la UE (Hacia una estrategia para la seguridad de suministro energético en la UE, 2000),.
• - la Directiva 2002/91/CE"),.
• - la Directiva de eficiencia energética en edificios,.
• - el Código Técnico de la Edificación (CTE), y su Registro de certificaciones ambientales de producto[41] España.
• - la Certificación Energética (CALENER")), España.
• - el Informe de evaluación del edificio, España.
• - el Etiquetado tipo III GlobalEPD, España.
• - el Etiquetado energético en Alemania").
• - el Etiquetado energético en Francia HQE.
• - el Etiquetado energético en USA"). Certificado LEED - Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design.
• - la certificación BREEAM") del Building Research Establishment en Reino Unido.
• - la certificación WELL Standard del International WELL Building Institute (IWBI)[42].
• - el concepto Embodied Energy").
• - el Programa LIDER").
• - el proyecto de Etiquetado Energético para la UE: Proyecto PREDAC") (Promoting Actions for Renewable Energies).
• - la Certificación Passiv Haus"), Alemania.
• - la Certificación Plus Energie Haus"), Alemania.
• - la Regulación energética edilicia en Argentina y el Etiquetado energético de edificios.
• - la Ley 13059/03") de la Provincia de Buenos Aires y su Decreto Reglamentario 1030/10"), Argentina.
• - la Ley 4458/12") de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
• - el Código de Edificación de la Ciudad de Rosario,Ordenanza N.º 8757/2011 .
• - el Código de Edificación de la Ciudad de Olavarría, Argentina.[43].
• - el Etiquetado Energético en Argentina") con base en la Norma IRAM 11900").
Uno de los motivos que pueden justificar el escaso debate sobre los procesos de regulación y certificación energética de viviendas en casi todo el mundo es la elevada complejidad técnica del sistema edificio desde un punto de vista energético. Esto sin duda ha alejado al resto de sectores sociales del debate destinado a definir los procedimientos a seguir para implementar las Directivas citadas (Caso UE).
Sin embargo, en el sector de la edificación, tal y como han mostrado las experiencias en muchos países europeos, es fundamental la aceptación de distintos sectores de la sociedad para que una herramienta como la certificación energética tenga alguna utilidad. Un inicio es que estas certificaciones sean voluntarias hasta que logre impactar al mercado inmobiliario.[44].
International initiatives
• - The Sustainable Building Alliance[45].
• - IPCC Fourth Assessment Report[46].
• - UNEP and Climate change[47].
• - GHG Indicator[48].
• - Agenda 21[49].
• - FIDIC's PSM[50].
• - iiSBE's SBtool[51].
• - BREEAM ES[52].
Descriptive frameworks for the environmental impacts of construction are being standardized internationally:
• - At the level of the (ISO) International Organization for Standardization's Technical Committee 59 (ISO TC59) - Building Construction.
• - At the level of the European committee for standardization: European Committee for Standardization's CEN TC350 -Sustainability of Construction Works.
• - In Argentina the Sustainable Construction subcommittee of IRAM[53].
• - In the United States, Standard 189.1-2009 ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.[54].
Bioclimatic data
The design of an ECD (Environmentally Conscious Design) building requires quantitative information about the site where the building will be implemented to incorporate the most appropriate passive design measures. Obtaining bioclimatic data is not easy, especially in undeveloped countries. These data include: temperature (°C), relative humidity (%), absolute humidity (g/kg; mm Hg/kg; kPa/kg), solar radiation (W/m²), wind frequency, direction and speed. Each country has meteorological services that can be used to obtain information, although they are not always free.
NASA has a free service where you can obtain calculated monthly average data (the error is indicated) of practically all the usual parameters for the design of the building and its facilities with renewable energy; work. Other sites such as Tu Tiempo.net[57] provide information generated by weather stations throughout the planet on a monthly or daily basis free of charge. The One Building organization offers climate files in .TMY format to be used in numerical simulation programs for hundreds of cities around the world.[58].
Architects who contribute to sustainable architecture
En la arquitectura sostenible existen tres corrientes convergentes que interactúan y se retro-alimentan en una línea de tiempo. La primigenia formada en la práctica en los años 1930-40 como George Fred Keck (1895-1980) o en la teoría en investigación académica como Victor Olgyay (1919-1970) que desde EE. UU. llevaron al desarrollo de los métodos de diseño expresados en la Arquitectura solar primero que evolucionó en Arquitectura solar pasiva y Arquitectura bioclimática. Allí se suman el Ing. Felix Trombe (1906-1985) y el Arq. Jacques Michel "Jacques Michel (arquitecto)") en Francia, Baruch Givoni (1920- ) en Israel, Jaime López de Asiain (1933- ) en España, Enrico Tedeschi (1910-1978) en Argentina junto a Elías Rosenfeld (1934-2012) y Elio Di Bernardo") (1920- 2018). En EE. UU. Edward Mazria (1939- ) junto a físicos e ingenieros del Laboratorio de los Álamos genera el primer programa de simulación energética que en la actualidad permite predecir el comportamiento ambiental de los edificios y llevó a la certificación de estos. Desde Inglaterra Brenda & Robert Vale (1950- ) propusieron la idea de una vivienda autosuficiente que hoy es el modelo a seguir en las edificaciones energía plus.
Otra corriente de arquitectos empíricos y comprometidos con movimientos sociales en los ´70, principalmente en EE. UU., avanzaron en la recuperación de tradiciones constructivas ancestrales, redefiniéndolas al presente. El uso de la tierra cruda como material junto a la Arquitectura solar pasiva tuvo en David Wright un gran exponente. Con visiones concurrentes en relación con confrontar con el consumismo se destacaron Michael Reynolds y Tom Bender en EE. UU. En Alemania Gernot Minke desde una visión académica como arquitecto y doctor en ingeniería buscó experimentar y monitorear el comportamiento de construcciones con contenido energético cercano a cero en el ciclo de vida de sus edificios. Su trabajo tiene muchos seguidores en el mundo. En Japón se destaca el aporte de hacer construcciones con materiales comunes o de reciclado de Shigeru Ban (1957- ). Más cercano a la visión de la corporación de la arquitectura Glenn Murcutt (1936- ) desde Australia se enrola en una visión de baja tecnología y obtuvo el premio Pritzker en 2002.
El tercer grupo lo integran arquitectos que originalmente adscribían a la Arquitectura high-tech, y luego incorporaron la sostenibilidad con el concurso de asesores. Sus obras se encuentran entre las más costosas y sofisticadas de la arquitectura contemporánea. Tiene como sus máximos representantes a Norman Foster (1935- ) y Richard Rogers (1933- ), con el concurso de la empresa consultora de ingeniería británica ARUP.
The technological, formalist or modern, reformed into sustainable ones
Together they represent, from professional practice, scientific inquiry and experimentation, ideological commitment and teaching vocation, more than 80 years of a common position regarding making architecture.
Areas that contribute to Sustainable Architecture
There are various areas that contribute in this area, however, some are more common than others. One of them, as the title says, is Architecture, and together with Design, they are responsible for offering an aesthetic space including green areas and environmentally friendly objects. An example is the “Green Roofs” whose main function is to oxygenate the environment and compensate for the loss that has been generated in the construction processes. They also have an energy saving of 25%, according to an article in EcoHabitar magazine published in 2015. On the other hand, Civil Engineering ensures that the design is feasible, in addition to including ecological techniques in the construction process. "Natural Topography is used to optimize the use of energy. This leads to the reduction of operating costs by optimizing the use of resources. Green architecture [...] focuses on the use of natural materials for the construction of the work itself.
"We work with thermal walls, thermal mass in buildings in order to reduce energy consumption and loss”[63] Other engineering areas also contribute, such as Electronics, Operational Systems, Environmental, Electrical, Nanotechnology, Renewable Energy, etc. Mainly, these can influence the quality of the devices that will be in the house, and optimize them in terms of the energy they require and the lifespan they have. This way you can save energy and reduce costs. “The use of advanced technologies for energy saving in homes makes it possible to generate enormous reductions in the demand for fossil fuels and in greenhouse gas emissions.”[64].
General
Entities and organizations that promote sustainable architecture
• - Sustainable Building Alliance, an international initiative promoted by the United Nations.
• - Argentine Association of Renewable Energies and Environment[65].
• - International Solar Energy Society[66].
• - Argentina Green Building Council.
• - Building Research Establishment[67].
• - n'UNDO.
Many works have their original texts in other languages. An attempt has been made to show the translations into Spanish. It is a representative list although not complete. A chronological review of the bibliography can be found in Annexes.
[3] ↑ * Gauzin-Müller (2001). L'Architecture écologique. Edit Groupe Monitor. Versión en español: Arquitectura ecológica publicada en 2002 por Edit G. Gili. ISBN 978-84-252-1918-4.
[4] ↑ Nuestras propias soluciones. Cien testimonios. Actas de la ECO´92 en Río de Janeiro.
[5] ↑ Kim, Jong-Jin; Rigdon, Brenda. «Pollution Prevention in Architecture. National Pollution Prevention Center For Higher Education» (pdf) (en inglés). Universidad de Míchigan. p. 30. Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2008.: http://www.umich.edu/~nppcpub/resources/compendia/ARCHpdfs/ARCHintIntro.pdf
[6] ↑ Rosenfeld, E.; Czajkowski J.; San Juan, G. (2004) en Diccionario de Arquitectura en la Argentina. Edit. Clarín. Tomo 1, pág 157. ISBN 950-782-423-5.
[7] ↑ Cátedra de Instalaciones Czajkowski - Gómez - FAU-UNLP (2006). Arquitectura Sustentable. Edit Clarín. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
[11] ↑ Maestría en Diseño Arquitectónico Sustentable. Instituto Superior de Arquitectura y Diseño. [4] Archivado el 5 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine.: http://www.isad.edu.mx/site/?page_id=140
[15] ↑ Prólogo del Estándar 189.1-2009 ANSI/ASHRAE/USGBC/IES. Atlanta, EEUU.
[16] ↑ Javier Neila González, F. (2004) Arquitectura bioclimática en un entorno sostenible. Edit Munilla-Lería, Madrid.
[17] ↑ Givoni B, A. (1976) Man, Climate and Architecture. Architectural Science Serves. Publishers. Ltd. London.
[18] ↑ Yáñez Paradera, Guillermo. (2008) Arquitectura solar e iluminación natural. en capítulo 9: Evaporación del agua. Torres de refrigeración. "captadores de viento", pág 358. Editorial Munilla-lería ISBN 978-84-89150-81-2.
[19] ↑ Jones, D.L.(2002) Arquitectura y entorno. El diseño de la construcción bioclimática. Edit Blume. Barcelona. ISBN 84-9593-01-0.
[21] ↑ Clark, William H. 1998. Análisis y gestión energética de edificios. Métodos, proyectos y sistemas de ahorro energético. Ed. Mc Graw Hill. ISBN 84-481-2102-3.
[22] ↑ Paris, O. et al. (2002). Construyendo ciudades sustentables. Edit i+p. ISBN 978-987-1385-01-0.
[23] ↑ Jenks, M. & Dempsey, N. (2005). Future forms and design for sustainable cities. Edit Architectural Press, London ISBN 0-7506-6309-X.
[26] ↑ «Programa DAPconstrucción | Agenda de la Construcció Sostenible». www.csostenible.net. Consultado el 24 de noviembre de 2016.: http://www.csostenible.net/dapcons?locale=es
[31] ↑ Ejemplo para el cálculo de costos en sistemas complejos en edificaciones Gestión integral en obras hidráulicas - Rentabilidad y calidad en la conducción de agua.: http://www.sonia-bueno.net/45591.html
[34] ↑ a b c d Consultores, G. E. A. (3 de enero de 2019). «Certificación Ambiental de Edificios - EDGE». GEA Consultores Ambientales. Consultado el 25 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.geaconsultores.com/certificacion-edge/