Ancient India

Vastu shastra (literally 'science of architecture') designates the texts on the traditional Indian construction system,[3]​ that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, land preparation, space distribution and spatial geometry. The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of the different parts of the structure and ancestral beliefs through geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments.[4]​.

Varahamihira's Brihat samhita, dated around the 6th century AD, is one of the earliest known Indian texts with chapters dedicated to the principles of architecture. For example, Chapter 53 of the Brihat samhita is titled "On Architecture", and in it and elsewhere elements of vastu shastra such as "the planning of cities and buildings" and "the structures of houses, orientation, plans, construction of balconies", among other topics, are discussed.[5] Other ancient works of vastu shastra are Manasara, etc.[6]​.

Middle Ages

Following the tradition of Vastu shastra, in India several medieval scholars wrote architectural texts. Among them the Manushyalaya Chandrika, on domestic architecture, the work of Thirumangalath Neelakanthan Musath, and the Samrangana Sutradhara, a poetic treatise on classical Indian architecture, written by Bhoja de Dhar").

In the European Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was transmitted in writing, by word of mouth, and practically in the lodges of the master builders.[7] Due to the laborious nature of transcription, few works of architectural theory were written during this time. Most of the works written during this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the Bible. Since architectural theory deals with structures, it was not written down. The Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis by Abbot Suger was an architectural document that emerged with Gothic architecture. Another was the portfolio of drawings by Villard de Honnecourt, from around the 1230s.

During the Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was transmitted by transcription, from the spoken word and technically in the presentations of master builders. Due to the laborious nature of transcription, few examples of architectural theory were written down in this time period. Most of the works of this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the Bible, so the architectural theories were notes on the structures included therein. Abbot Suger wrote Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis, an architectural document that emerged with Gothic architecture. Another was Villard de Honnecourt's portfolio of drawings, from around the 1230s.

In the Chinese Song Dynasty, Li Jie published the Yingzao Fashi in 1103, which was an architectural treatise that codified elements of Chinese architecture.[8]​[9]​.

Renaissance

The first great work of architectural theory of this period is by Leon Battista Alberti, De re aedificatoria, which placed Vitruvius at the center of the deepest theoretical tradition of the Modern Age. According to Alberti, good architecture is validated through the Vitruvian triad (firmness, usefulness and beauty). This triad retained all its validity until the 1st century.

The passage to the century and, ultimately, the Age of Enlightenment, coincided with the advanced mathematical and optical research of the famous architect and geometer Girard Desargues, highlighting his studies on conics, perspective and projective geometry.

Illustration

The Age of Enlightenment saw considerable development of architectural theory on the European continent. New archaeological discoveries, such as those at Pompeii and Herculaneum, spurred new interest in classical architecture and art. Thus the term neoclassicism was coined, used for example in the writings of the Prussian art critic Johann Joachim Winckelmann, to designate the architecture of the 19th century, which sought inspiration for the design of buildings in these classical precedents.[10]​.

The most important architectural theorists of the Enlightenment are Julien-David Le Roy, Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Robert Adam, James Stuart "James Stuart (architect)"), Georg Friedrich Hegel[11]​ and Nicholas Revett.

19th century

A vibrant current of neoclassicism, inherited from Marc-Antoine Laugier's Essai sur l'architecture (1753), provided the foundation for two generations of international activity around the central themes of classicism, primitivism and the "return to nature."

The reaction against the dominance of neoclassical architecture came in the 1820s with Augustus Pugin, who provided a moral and theoretical basis for the rise of neo-Gothic architecture, and in the 1840s with John Ruskin who developed this distinctive character.

The American sculptor Horatio Greenough published the essay American Architecture in August 1843, in which he rejected the imitation of ancient architectural styles and outlined the functional relationship that should exist between architecture and decoration. These theories anticipated the development of functionalism "Functionalism (architecture)") in modern architecture.

Towards the end of the century, there was a flowering of theoretical activity. In England, Ruskin's ideals fostered the emergence of the Art and Crafts movement, exemplified by the writings of William Morris. This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau "Modernism (art)") in the United Kingdom, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced by the Vienna Secession. On the European continent, the theories of Viollet-le-Duc and Gottfried Semper provided the springboard for an enormous vitality of thought dedicated to architectural innovation and the renewal of the concept of style.

Semper in particular had a great international impact, in Germany, England, Switzerland, Austria, Bohemia, France, Italy and the United States. The generation born in the middle of the century was greatly enthralled by the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of history and methodology. However, this generation did not come together in a “movement.” However, it seems that they agreed on Semper's use of the concept of realismus, which is why they have been labeled as defenders of architectural realism. Among the most active architectural realists were: Georg Heuser, Rudolf Redtenbacher, Constantin Lipsius, Hans Auer, Paul Sédille, Lawrence Harvey, Otto Wagner and Richard Streiter.

20th century

In 1889 Camillo Sitte published Der Städtebau nach seinem künstlerischen Grundsätzen (Planning of the city according to its artistic principles) which was not exactly a critique of the architectural form, but rather an aesthetic critique of the urbanism of the century inspired by medieval and baroque city planning. Although it was primarily a theoretical work, it had an immediate impact on architecture by intertwining the two disciplines of architecture and urban planning. The success of the book was such that five German editions appeared between 1889 and 1922 and a French translation came out in 1902 (there was no English edition until 1945). For Sitte, the most important issue was not the silhouette or architectural form of a building but the quality of the urban spaces that the buildings collectively create, the whole being more than the sum of its parts. The Modern Movement "Rationalism (architecture)") rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier strongly rejected this work. Nevertheless, Sitte's work was revisited by postmodern architects and theorists of the 1970s, especially after its reissue in 1986 by Rizzoli in an edition corrected by Collins and Collins. The book is often anachronistically cited today as a vehicle for criticism of the Modern Movement.

Louis Sullivan also addressed the topic of artistic notions in relation to urbanism in his 1896 essay The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered,[12] in which he wrote his famous slogan "form always follows function", a phrase that would later be adopted as a central tenet of modern architectural theory. While later architects adopted the shorthand “form follows function” as a polemic in the service of functionalist doctrine, Sullivan wrote of function in reference to the biological functions of the natural order. Another influential urban planning theorist of this era was Ebenezer Howard, founder of the garden city movement. This movement aimed to form communities with Arts and Crafts style architecture in Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City, and popularized the style as domestic architecture.

In Vienna the idea of ​​a radically new modern architecture had many theorists and defenders. One of the first printed uses of the term "modern architecture" occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner,[13]​[14]​ which offered examples of his own work representative of the Viennese secession with art nouveau illustrations and didactic teachings to his students. Shortly afterwards, Adolf Loos wrote Ornament and Crime, and although his own style is usually seen in the context of Jugendstil "Modernism (art)") ('Young Style' in German), the name given to Modernism in Germany, his demand for "the elimination of ornament" was joined with the slogan "form follows function" as a principle of the so-called Modern Architectural Movement that came to dominate the middle decades of the century. Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier laid the theoretical foundations of the International Style "Rationalism (architecture)"), whose goal was to use industrialized architecture to reshape society. Frank Lloyd Wright, although modern in rejecting historicist revivals, was original in his theory, which he expressed in copious writings. Wright did not adhere to the principles of the International Style, but instead developed what he hoped would be an American modern movement, in contrast to the European one. Wright's style, however, was very personal, as it included his particular views on man and nature. Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the nineteenth-century vision of the creative artist as a unique genius. This limited the relevance of his theoretical proposals. Towards the end of the century, postmodern architecture reacted against the austerity of the principles of the International Style, considered excessively normative and doctrinaire.

Ancient India

Vastu shastra (literally 'science of architecture') designates the texts on the traditional Indian construction system,[3]​ that describe principles of design, layout, measurements, land preparation, space distribution and spatial geometry. The designs aim to integrate architecture with nature, the relative functions of the different parts of the structure and ancestral beliefs through geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments.[4]​.

Varahamihira's Brihat samhita, dated around the 6th century AD, is one of the earliest known Indian texts with chapters dedicated to the principles of architecture. For example, Chapter 53 of the Brihat samhita is titled "On Architecture", and in it and elsewhere elements of vastu shastra such as "the planning of cities and buildings" and "the structures of houses, orientation, plans, construction of balconies", among other topics, are discussed.[5] Other ancient works of vastu shastra are Manasara, etc.[6]​.

Middle Ages

Following the tradition of Vastu shastra, in India several medieval scholars wrote architectural texts. Among them the Manushyalaya Chandrika, on domestic architecture, the work of Thirumangalath Neelakanthan Musath, and the Samrangana Sutradhara, a poetic treatise on classical Indian architecture, written by Bhoja de Dhar").

In the European Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was transmitted in writing, by word of mouth, and practically in the lodges of the master builders.[7] Due to the laborious nature of transcription, few works of architectural theory were written during this time. Most of the works written during this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the Bible. Since architectural theory deals with structures, it was not written down. The Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis by Abbot Suger was an architectural document that emerged with Gothic architecture. Another was the portfolio of drawings by Villard de Honnecourt, from around the 1230s.

During the Middle Ages, architectural knowledge was transmitted by transcription, from the spoken word and technically in the presentations of master builders. Due to the laborious nature of transcription, few examples of architectural theory were written down in this time period. Most of the works of this period were theological, and were transcriptions of the Bible, so the architectural theories were notes on the structures included therein. Abbot Suger wrote Liber de rebus in administratione sua gestis, an architectural document that emerged with Gothic architecture. Another was Villard de Honnecourt's portfolio of drawings, from around the 1230s.

In the Chinese Song Dynasty, Li Jie published the Yingzao Fashi in 1103, which was an architectural treatise that codified elements of Chinese architecture.[8]​[9]​.

Renaissance

The first great work of architectural theory of this period is by Leon Battista Alberti, De re aedificatoria, which placed Vitruvius at the center of the deepest theoretical tradition of the Modern Age. According to Alberti, good architecture is validated through the Vitruvian triad (firmness, usefulness and beauty). This triad retained all its validity until the 1st century.

The passage to the century and, ultimately, the Age of Enlightenment, coincided with the advanced mathematical and optical research of the famous architect and geometer Girard Desargues, highlighting his studies on conics, perspective and projective geometry.

Illustration

The Age of Enlightenment saw considerable development of architectural theory on the European continent. New archaeological discoveries, such as those at Pompeii and Herculaneum, spurred new interest in classical architecture and art. Thus the term neoclassicism was coined, used for example in the writings of the Prussian art critic Johann Joachim Winckelmann, to designate the architecture of the 19th century, which sought inspiration for the design of buildings in these classical precedents.[10]​.

The most important architectural theorists of the Enlightenment are Julien-David Le Roy, Abbé Marc-Antoine Laugier, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, Robert Adam, James Stuart "James Stuart (architect)"), Georg Friedrich Hegel[11]​ and Nicholas Revett.

19th century

A vibrant current of neoclassicism, inherited from Marc-Antoine Laugier's Essai sur l'architecture (1753), provided the foundation for two generations of international activity around the central themes of classicism, primitivism and the "return to nature."

The reaction against the dominance of neoclassical architecture came in the 1820s with Augustus Pugin, who provided a moral and theoretical basis for the rise of neo-Gothic architecture, and in the 1840s with John Ruskin who developed this distinctive character.

The American sculptor Horatio Greenough published the essay American Architecture in August 1843, in which he rejected the imitation of ancient architectural styles and outlined the functional relationship that should exist between architecture and decoration. These theories anticipated the development of functionalism "Functionalism (architecture)") in modern architecture.

Towards the end of the century, there was a flowering of theoretical activity. In England, Ruskin's ideals fostered the emergence of the Art and Crafts movement, exemplified by the writings of William Morris. This in turn formed the basis for Art Nouveau "Modernism (art)") in the United Kingdom, exemplified by the work of Charles Rennie Mackintosh, and influenced by the Vienna Secession. On the European continent, the theories of Viollet-le-Duc and Gottfried Semper provided the springboard for an enormous vitality of thought dedicated to architectural innovation and the renewal of the concept of style.

Semper in particular had a great international impact, in Germany, England, Switzerland, Austria, Bohemia, France, Italy and the United States. The generation born in the middle of the century was greatly enthralled by the opportunities presented by Semper's combination of history and methodology. However, this generation did not come together in a “movement.” However, it seems that they agreed on Semper's use of the concept of realismus, which is why they have been labeled as defenders of architectural realism. Among the most active architectural realists were: Georg Heuser, Rudolf Redtenbacher, Constantin Lipsius, Hans Auer, Paul Sédille, Lawrence Harvey, Otto Wagner and Richard Streiter.

20th century

In 1889 Camillo Sitte published Der Städtebau nach seinem künstlerischen Grundsätzen (Planning of the city according to its artistic principles) which was not exactly a critique of the architectural form, but rather an aesthetic critique of the urbanism of the century inspired by medieval and baroque city planning. Although it was primarily a theoretical work, it had an immediate impact on architecture by intertwining the two disciplines of architecture and urban planning. The success of the book was such that five German editions appeared between 1889 and 1922 and a French translation came out in 1902 (there was no English edition until 1945). For Sitte, the most important issue was not the silhouette or architectural form of a building but the quality of the urban spaces that the buildings collectively create, the whole being more than the sum of its parts. The Modern Movement "Rationalism (architecture)") rejected these thoughts and Le Corbusier strongly rejected this work. Nevertheless, Sitte's work was revisited by postmodern architects and theorists of the 1970s, especially after its reissue in 1986 by Rizzoli in an edition corrected by Collins and Collins. The book is often anachronistically cited today as a vehicle for criticism of the Modern Movement.

Louis Sullivan also addressed the topic of artistic notions in relation to urbanism in his 1896 essay The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered,[12] in which he wrote his famous slogan "form always follows function", a phrase that would later be adopted as a central tenet of modern architectural theory. While later architects adopted the shorthand “form follows function” as a polemic in the service of functionalist doctrine, Sullivan wrote of function in reference to the biological functions of the natural order. Another influential urban planning theorist of this era was Ebenezer Howard, founder of the garden city movement. This movement aimed to form communities with Arts and Crafts style architecture in Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City, and popularized the style as domestic architecture.

In Vienna the idea of ​​a radically new modern architecture had many theorists and defenders. One of the first printed uses of the term "modern architecture" occurred in the title of a book by Otto Wagner,[13]​[14]​ which offered examples of his own work representative of the Viennese secession with art nouveau illustrations and didactic teachings to his students. Shortly afterwards, Adolf Loos wrote Ornament and Crime, and although his own style is usually seen in the context of Jugendstil "Modernism (art)") ('Young Style' in German), the name given to Modernism in Germany, his demand for "the elimination of ornament" was joined with the slogan "form follows function" as a principle of the so-called Modern Architectural Movement that came to dominate the middle decades of the century. Walter Gropius, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier laid the theoretical foundations of the International Style "Rationalism (architecture)"), whose goal was to use industrialized architecture to reshape society. Frank Lloyd Wright, although modern in rejecting historicist revivals, was original in his theory, which he expressed in copious writings. Wright did not adhere to the principles of the International Style, but instead developed what he hoped would be an American modern movement, in contrast to the European one. Wright's style, however, was very personal, as it included his particular views on man and nature. Wright was more poetic and firmly maintained the nineteenth-century vision of the creative artist as a unique genius. This limited the relevance of his theoretical proposals. Towards the end of the century, postmodern architecture reacted against the austerity of the principles of the International Style, considered excessively normative and doctrinaire.