Forced cultural assimilation was very common in the European colonial empires of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Colonial policies regarding religious conversion, elimination of children, division of community property, and changing gender roles primarily affected North and South America, Australia, Africa, and Asia. Voluntary assimilation has also been part of history dating back to the Spanish Inquisition of the late 14th and 15th centuries, when many Muslims and Jews converted to Roman Catholicism in response to religious prosecution while secretly continuing their original practices. Another example is when Europeans moved to the United States.

At the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the decolonization processes, a change occurred. The creation of the League of Nations in 1920 and the UN in 1945 revealed the need for communication between different peoples and cultures. The United States, as the hegemonic power of the time, and within the context of the Cold War, was very interested in cementing its foreign influence. Thus, intercultural communication became an important strategic instrument.

In the 1960s, in the United States, this field of study received a double boost. An endogenous one, brought about by the vindication of some minorities of their own culture, as is the case of African-Americans. The other, initially exogenous, had its origin in the wars in Southeast Asia, which meant not only contact with the cultures of these countries, but also a large number of people from Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam taking refuge in the United States. To these migratory flows we must add those from Latin American countries. Around this time, the ethnocentric vision that considered that the problem of development could be solved by mechanically applying the Western political and economic system in the third world was also broken.

In the 1970s, in the United States, intercultural communication was consolidated as an academic discipline, and soon studies in this field also began in other countries. And interpersonal communication studies will be promoted to the detriment of mass communication. In fact, in many definitions of intercultural communication only interpersonal communication is taken into account.[9]​.

The ability to carry out intercultural communication refers to the ability of a person or organization or company to be able to work constructively and effectively between different cultures and avoid errors and setbacks due to cultural clashes, whether with clients, collaborators or foreign suppliers. Knowing how to detect cultural differences between people and their foreign interlocutor is the best way to have an important competitive advantage in the globalized world.

Contenido

La Comunicación Intercultural es considerada una Comunicación Interpersonal donde intervienen personas con referentes culturales diferentes, pero percibidos como simétricos que, motivadas a un encuentro intercultural, superan algunas de las barreras para así poder llevar a cabo esta comunicación de forma eficaz. Entre los modelos planteados para su tratamiento, se destacan:.

Theories based on the role of language

Theory of Coordinated Management of Meanings and Rule.

The objective of communication is coordination, which gives meaning and coherence to the participants. Managing shared meanings involves assigning a single interpretation to the message by each participant. Rules play a prominent role, as they help in conversations and in the interpretation of what others communicate. Coordinated meaning management refers to how individuals establish and use those communication rules. Information transactions depend on personal and interpersonal meaning. This process is carried out through two types of rules: constitutive rules that define meaning, and regulative rules that guide behavior.

Rhetorical theory.

The rhetorical fact is a communicative phenomenon that includes the speaker who delivers the speech, those who hear the speech and the speech itself, as well as the channel of communication, the code, the referent of the speech and the context of the communication. The explanation of the rhetorical fact can be done with the help of the adaptation to the rhetoric of the linguistic fact, that is, its context.

Aristotle in his "Rhetoric" explains the communication that we currently designate as semiotics. The speech consists of whoever pronounces it, what is spoken about and who hears it (Aristotle, Rhet.: 1358a39- 2 1358b8) implies a discursivization of the entire rhetorical fact. The implication of the speech itself in these three components is proof of the dynamism that according to Aristotle is inherent to speech and rhetorical communication.

Direct and indirect messages.

The channels through which a message is transmitted are seen differently depending on how the sender expresses himself; these can be messages with direct or indirect content. To illustrate:

• - English speakers prefer to use written communication channels because they are process-oriented cultures. These cultures adapt quickly to technological advances, systems and products thanks to their results orientation. Furthermore, the low costs of high-speed Internet and the ease of sending information turn out to be written channels that characterize efficiency in the United States and Western Europe. English speakers prefer to send a message in a concrete way with direct content, which goes from being an idea or a thought to a fact. This direction of the message makes it be taken as sincere and avoids misinterpretation by the recipients.

• - Relationships and feelings are the most used channels in countries like Greece, Italy, Malaysia, Indonesia and places in the Middle East. Written language has less relevance for these cultures. Personal communication is essential in the communication of these cultures. As for cultures that prefer to communicate with intrapersonal channels, the content of the message is broken down after a preamble or introduction in order to catch the recipient's attention. If a direct message is broadcast in these cultures, it is perceived as rude, rude or abrupt.

Formation of the individual's communication skills in the social environment.

Culture is a determining factor in the creation of interpersonal relationships. This is why it has been taken as a source of mental programming, which intervenes in the process of adaptation and development in a different cultural environment. There are three aspects to consider within the composition of human behavior: human nature, culture, and personality. Human nature is inherited and known as instinct, it is not learned. Culture is learned and is typical of a specific group of people. Personality is partly inherited and partly learned, it is intrinsic to the individual and its characteristics depend on the social and family environment.

Adaptation to a new cultural environment is composed of the following factors: behavioral patterns, social environment and individual perception. Each of these factors manifests itself to a different extent following the cultural bases of the individual. Firstly, the deepest manifestation is values, these can be evidenced in patterns of behavior and interaction. Secondly, the rituals that are exclusive customs of the culture. Third, the heroes; These are emblematic characters who have marked the culture in a certain way. In the most superficial part of cultural manifestations we have symbols, the use of words or expressions typical of an area. All these layers of cultural manifestations are united for their practice; that is, behavior based on manifestations.

The adaptation of the individual based on cultural manifestations and mental programming is the basis of intercultural communication, which is why it has innumerable fields of application, whether in business or diplomatic relations.[10]​.

Theories based on the cognitive organization of actors

Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics deals with the cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing messages; proposes linguistic creativity to produce and understand based on rules and norms. Study the functions that language plays in:.

• - Production: The transformation of information within the mind into sounds, signs or letters.

• - Comprehension: Interpretation of the message issued, whether verbal or written.

• - Acquisition: The transmission of languages ​​(Adult to child).

• - Disorders: Temporary problems within the speech production and comprehension system.

The role of language in the development of the individual's thinking is analyzed. For Piaget, thoughts are rooted in action, and the transformation of thought develops simultaneously with the acquisition of language. That is, verbal signals are closely linked to a set of symbols, imitations and mental images. Apart from language, there are, as forms of individual symbolism, deferred imitation and mental images, which are derived from imitation, which is considered for Piaget as an important term between representative behaviors and sensory-motor behaviors.

Identifying the effects of psycholinguistics has been one of the greatest challenges of research in this field. Its variables to be considered are: the frequency of the words and their duration, the age of acquisition, among others. These variables grow and change over time, so choosing variables can cause problems since very few contain exact and unchangeable data. It is important to be aware that the majority of studies in this regard are open to various interpretations.[11] Several authors have undertaken the task of defining the concept of psycholinguistics. Xavier Frías defines it as a discipline whose objective is to understand how language is produced and understood, and in the same way, how it is lost. For this, it involves understanding the processes involved in language, its evolutionary and pathological aspects. Psycholinguistics requires three linguistic rules: syntagmatic, paradigmatic and pragmatic. In the same way, its pillars constitute biology and computing[12]​.

Constructivism

Its main exponent, Jean Piaget, provides a constructivist vision of mental schemes, proposing participation on the part of culture when organizing them. The construction and interpretation of the meanings and actions of others presupposes great variability depending on the cultural context. Furthermore, this theory aims to study the primordial mental mechanisms and maintains that after developing sensory-motor intelligence, the individual will be able to acquire language. Constructivism defends that language is not inherited, but transmitted, the only aspect that is inherited within the language learning process is the capacity with which the individual is born so that he can acquire the language. Within the process of language transmission, the individual is influenced by several entities such as the family and the school; these factors will determine the use and learning.[13]​.

Theories that respond to the analysis of the communicative process

Emerging patterns of global communication have promoted a consumer culture that is supported by global and internal frameworks. These cultural dimensions or global frameworks have promoted a socioeconomic culture that in turn enhances the interaction between cultures (Mowlana 1996). Global communication has been a vehicle of social and economic exchange between countries. This exchange resulted as a new world order or establishment of a free market economy. A new world establishment that allowed the expansion of a global communication process that has somehow increased and strengthened minorities in the international community, giving them an affinity with Western culture (Mowlana, 1996).

Uncertainty and anxiety reduction theory

There are two theories that propose controlling the anxiety that occurs at the initial moment of the intercultural encounter and that would make communication difficult.

The first is known as “Initial Interaction Theory” initiated by Charles Berger.

The objective of this theory is to reduce uncertainty between strangers who make their first contact in the course of their relationship. To illustrate, there are two subprocesses used by people who feel the need to explain and predict their first encounters.

The first is prediction, which is a capacity through which people provide the behavioral options that make the person available to a relationship with another individual. The second is the explanation, which is the attempt to interpret the actions of the other individual with whom a relationship is established.

The second theory is called "Uncertainty Management" which was proposed by William Gudykunst that describes encounters between foreign people.

It is explained that there must be effective communication to minimize misunderstandings. For this, Gudykunst proposes that both feelings (anxiety and uncertainty) are dependent on the degree of difference between the local member of a culture and a foreigner. Although it mentions that when there is a minimum level of anxiety and uncertainty it is positive for communication due to the motivation to improve it. In summary, the author states that for fluid communication three qualities are needed: motivation, knowledge and ability to effectively manage the two feelings and ensure good behavior in communication.[15]​.

In intercultural relations, this theory is applied in the study of Gender Inequality"). To exemplify, the behavior and degree of uncertainty and anxiety of individuals from different cultures are observed with the role of men and women in the society to which they belong and with foreign societies[16].

Theory of cross-cultural communicative adaptation

Theories that consider the development of interpersonal relationships

Relationships are the result of the communication process between the parties. Every relationship goes through a four-phase communication process: development, maintenance, cognitive process, and influence. The first phase, relationship development, will establish the principles under which the relationship will develop in the future. Without proper development there will be no relationship, which is why it is imperative to achieve the highest possible level of communication between individuals from the birth of the relationship. Three theories try to explain human behavior at the beginning of any relationship: social penetration theory, uncertainty reduction theory, and cultural exchange theory.

The social penetration theory seeks to understand the development of a relationship between individuals. The theory proposes an evolution of the relationship - from a beginning where communication is superficial to a state of intimacy and trust in the relationship. Intimacy goes beyond the physical aspect, and encompasses intellectual and emotional aspects and the extent to which said couple shares various activities.[17]​.

The theory has four basic premises or hypotheses. These are: relationships evolve from non-intimate to intimate (although in some cases they can remain somewhere in the middle), relational development is generally systematic and predictable, relational development includes depenetration and dissolution, and self-disclosure is at the core of the relationship - self-revelation understood as the involuntary process of revealing to others information of an important nature about oneself. Thus, the process of social penetration has four systematic stages:

1. • Orientation: revealing small pieces of information about ourselves to others.

2. • Exploratory affective exchange: moment in which the private expands towards the public; the person's personality emerges.

3. • Affective exchange: spontaneous communication and use of personal terms, which imply a greater commitment to the other. It is in this phase that relationships become unique.

4. • Stable exchange: efficient communication; establishment of a stable communication system. There is total spontaneity, honesty and trust. There are few errors or misunderstandings, and a proper communication system is maintained.

The uncertainty reduction theory establishes that when two strangers meet, their main concern is to reduce uncertainty, or make the predictability of their behaviors grow. Uncertainty is understood as a cognitive process that conditions thoughts about others, and anxiety as the emotional component in situations that may have negative consequences in advance,[17]​.

Es indispensable tomar en cuenta valores culturales como las 5 dimensiones de Hofstede, ya que de esto depende el futuro de las decisiones. La cultura colectiva es ; La cultura colectiva es la toma de decisiones del equipo de 1. Analyzing the negotiation process, 2. Enhancing your persuasiveness, 3. Understanding International Law.

Schwartz's theory of cultural values

Shalom Schwartz's theory of values ​​arises from social psychology and focuses mainly on research currents in the field of political culture. Schwartz proposes multidimensional value structures that are different at the individual and societal levels.[18]​.

Additionally, Schwartz[19] emphasizes that values:

• They belong to final states of being desirable behaviors.

• They transcend specific situations.

• They guide the selection or evaluation of behavior.

• They are ordered by their relative importance to an individual or a culture.

• The identification of universal aspects of the content of values ​​and their structure makes it possible to investigate specific cultural aspects.

In this way, this theory considers that the cultural dimensions of values ​​reflect the basic issues or conflicts that society must face with the objective of regulating human activity.[20]​ According to Schwartz, these basic problems are: the nature of the relationships between the individual and the group, guaranteeing responsible behavior between people in order to help preserve societies and maintaining a relationship of the human species with nature and the social world.[20]​.

To analyze the solution to these three basic social problems, it states that there are seven types of cultural values ​​that are as follows.

Traditionalism, Intellectual Autonomy, Affective Autonomy, Hierarchy, equality, skill and harmony.[21]​.

Cultural Values ​​and Economic Development

Following the Weberian thesis, Gudykunst analyzed the impact of modernization on the motivational orientations of the individual, achievement motivation, and of these on economic development. Gudykunst studied the economic development of 18 modern nations and the level of achievement motivation expressed in the books read in the public schools of these nations.[22]​.

The results showed that nations that had a greater achievement motivation had higher percentages of economic development, measured in macroeconomic variables.

Later, this same author verified that this relationship was related to the indirect effect that education, whether public or private, had on development. More recently, Hofstede has related economic conditions to the values ​​of individualism.[23]​.

In this work, antecedent economic conditions are correlated with the values ​​of individualism a few years later and these same values ​​with subsequent economic conditions; The time factor is decisive for the comparison. The author finds that both relationships were significant but that economic development is more responsible for individualism than it is for economic development.[24]​.

Cultural Values ​​and their Convergence in Latin America

The ethnic and cultural multiplicity of the inhabitants of Latin America are integrated into a set of cultural, administrative and political values ​​that have been imposed by their conquerors and colonizers. This is why the cultural values ​​of the dominator have been taken as instruments of political and cultural liberation of the dominated.[25]​ According to Huntington as cited by Sopeña,[26]​ culture and its values, more than politics, is what determines the progress of nations and human beings in general. These cultural values, one could even say, are what shape politicians. Well, institutions, governance and the State function better when these values ​​serve as the basis for correct and effective interaction. This is when development is measured by the capacity of countries to know how to profitably use the available knowledge.[26]​.

However, in Latin America, the idiosyncratic preeminence in the culture of the region is found in common traits such as the transgression of norms, a certain level of omnipotence or authoritarianism, which together with the creative capacity to adapt to critical situations cause an impact on the development of certain behaviors in Latin Americans mediated by the structure of the personality itself.[27] The capacity of the human being to face the adversities of life goes hand in hand with cultural values. that determine their resilience. And that is why when talking about human development, the emphasis should be on promoting human potential rather than the possible harm it may cause, and thus these factors and values ​​determine the individual and his social environment, overcoming adversity and leading to a developed society and region.

Verbal communication consists of messages issued and received continuously between the person speaking and his or her interlocutor. The way in which the messages are formulated is important. Verbal communication is based on language and the use of expression, the volume with which the speaker establishes communication can determine how the message is received and in what context. This type of communication allows people to express their ideas, emotions, experiences, knowledge, information, etc.

Factors that affect verbal communication:.

• - Tone of voice.

• - Use of descriptive words.

• - Emphasis on certain phrases.

• - Voice volume.

The way a message is received depends on these factors since they allow the receiver to better interpret the meaning of the message. If a certain phrase is emphasized through the tone of the voice, it indicates its importance and the need to pay special attention.

In addition to these attributes, verbal communication is accompanied by non-verbal elements. These other elements make the message clearer and indicate to the interlocutor the way in which the information should be received.[28] Among the non-verbal elements are: facial expressions, hand gestures, the use of objects, and body movement.

Existe un tipo de canales de comunicación que no requieren del intercambio de palabras. Se ha estimado que dependiendo de la cultura entre el 65 al 90% de la comunicación es no verbal, y su importancia varía ampliamente entre culturas. La comunicación no verbal incluye el contacto visual, la expresión facial, los gestos de las manos, el uso del espacio físico y el silencio. Este tipo de comunicación puede afectar la emisión y recepción del mensaje debido a que no todas las culturas se manifiestan a través del lenguaje corporal, haciendo que el mensaje no se comunique con éxito durante la conversación.[29]​ La actitud relativa de la cultura hacia el tiempo se considera parte de la comunicación no verbal. La comunicación no verbal es un aspecto esencial en desarrollo de una negociación.

eye contact

Much research has recorded differences in eye behavior when speaking and listening between cultures. Eye contact is an outstanding factor of non-verbal communication and is considered an important element of the active listening process.[30]​ The gaze is related to people's mood, so good control of it is essential for effective communication.[31]​.

Even though you can learn to control non-verbal language so as not to show your feelings, the eyes can give the person away. For example, pupils dilate when something is attractive, and the level of eye contact can determine whether what the interlocutor is saying is boring or unpleasant.[32]​ Eye contact is a good regulator of communication and there are times where it becomes the message itself.[30]​.

The look establishes commitment or adds credibility to the message.[30]​ It is sometimes said that when the interlocutor does not look the other party in the eye, he is hiding something, which creates distrust in the recipient.[31]​ In fact, during a conversation, it is recommended to maintain direct eye contact between 40 and 60% of the total time.[32]​.

Eye contact varies according to a person's hierarchy. This communication through the eyes can be direct or indirect in which direct eye contact indicates that in the conversation between two or more people there is trust when communicating, so this communication takes place at the same level of hierarchy while indirect eye contact shows communication that indicates respect towards the superior.[33]​.

Eye contact also serves to make the other person feel that you want to establish a communication process.[30]​ However, the way in which this interaction is carried out is influenced by cultural principles. For example, in China, direct eye contact with the interlocutor is understood as a lack of respect, while in the United Kingdom visual interaction is established only with trusted people.[34]​.

In the case of most Western cultures, to ensure that the communication process with gaze is carried out in the best possible way, it is recommended that the speaker be looked directly in the eyes and that he or she is expected to do the same. In addition, you should look from the front and avoid side glances. It is also important to alternate eye contact with reflective glances and maintain concentration on the sender's words. Finally, attention must be paid to the personality of the counterparty and their cultural context so as not to make them uncomfortable.[30]​.

facial expressions

Facial expressions are a communication complement that allows us to express emotions through the body. Combinations of facial movements of the eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose and cheeks help to express different moods in an individual. Head pose and gaze also play an important role in the expression of affection and in the communication of social signals. Pose and facial expressions also play a role in the expression of pride and shame, for example, the raised chin and active gaze denote pride, while the tilted face and vacant gaze denote shame.[36]​.

Facial expressions are an important factor in intercultural communication, since they vary from one culture to another and can lead to misunderstandings. For example, when someone feels embarrassed after making a mistake, in China, people may laugh. People from the West may think that they are laughing at them and the mistake they have made and also feel humiliated. However, in reality, laughter in China in that context means "it doesn't matter", and shows your sense of humor to avoid awkward moments, without making fun of the mistakes of others. That is why in a negotiation, people who do not know this information can become angry and break off business cooperation. Some facial expressions may be similar across cultures, however their frequency, acceptable occasions, and interpretation of emotion are specifically culture-oriented. For all this, it is important to understand the value of culture and the initial intention of facial expression in intercultural interaction.[37]​.

hand gestures

In certain cultures, hand gestures and their position are indicators of what a person feels. A human being is capable of reflecting what he thinks or what he feels with his posture, and a very important factor is the gesture of the hands. For its correct interpretation, it is necessary to know the culture of the interlocutors, since various cultures have characteristic gestures that may not have the same meaning in other cultures.

Bringing your hand to your face, and the distance and strength applied when shaking hands, can express important implicit messages.

The movement of the hands indicates the condition in which the person is. For example, the more the hands move, the more anxiety and nerves are shown on the part of that person, just as the shaking of the hands shows nervousness.[38]​ Likewise, there are gestures that contain ambiguous or double meanings. An example is having your palms on your forearms and keeping your thumbs up. Having the palms of the hands in that place shows a defensive attitude and position, while having the thumbs up shows a positive attitude.

Greeting and use of space

The use of space in greeting behavior is often consistent with other non-verbal communications within each culture.

• Bow: In Japan, bowing is an integral part of proper greeting behavior, to the extent that it is not uncommon to see businessmen in Tokyo bow when speaking to the other person on a cell phone.

• Folded hands: In Hindu culture, the gesture of "namaste" (hands folded and head quickly bowed) indicates respect for someone of rank. The Thai "wai" and Laotian "nop" have similar appearances and functions.

• Handshake: While strong handshakes may be the norm in cultures such as the Netherlands and the United States, a softer, lighter handshake is common in France, India, and many Asian countries.

• Kissing: Some Mediterranean cultures practice "hugging" in greeting people of both sexes, which may involve hugging and patting. Additionally, some Slavic and European cultures "air kiss" on alternating cheeks. In Latin America, greetings are generally handshakes or kisses on the cheeks.

Silence: Silence and the rhythm of language vary depending on what the culture teaches. That is, the appropriate pause between a question and an answer or a statement and an answer can vary widely. In some cultures, verbal communication overlaps. In other cultures, there may be a second or several seconds between the question and the answer or the statement and the response. Silence – or the lack thereof – is a powerful part of non-verbal communication Munter, Mary M. (2011) .

Generally in Latin America. Silence does lead to a response from the counterparty. Depending on the scope, but silence does have messages behind it.

Time or Chronemic

Chronemics studies the role of time in communication. Chronemics comprises interrelated observations and theories of man's use of time as a specialized elaboration of culture, the way time is perceived and valued, how time is structured, and how humans react to the time frames of communication. In all cultures, time perception plays an important role in the non-verbal communication process. Perceptions of time include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. Time use can affect lifestyle, daily schedules, speech rate, movements, and how long people are willing to listen. The way different cultures perceive time influences communication.

Cultures are sometimes considered monochronic or polychronic.

A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into small, precise units. Under this system time is scheduled and managed. As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote of the American view of time in the business world, "the task schedule is sacred." Hall says that for monochronic cultures, such as American culture, "time is tangible" and is considered a commodity where "time is money" or "time is wasted." The result of this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic cultures, such as Germany and Switzerland, place a premium on schedules, tasks, and getting work done on time.

These cultures use regimented schedules and may consider those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time to be disrespectful. Monochronic cultures include Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom, Türkiye, South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Canada, Switzerland, and the Scandinavian countries.

A polychronic time system is a system in which multiple tasks can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling the use of time.

Polychronic cultures contrast with monochronic cultures. Unlike most West Asian and East Asian cultures, Latin American, African, South Asian, and Arab cultures use polychronic time systems. These cultures are less focused on the precision of time for each moment. As Raymond Cohen points out, polychronic cultures are deeply immersed in tradition and relationships rather than tasks.

Polychronic culture is more focused on relationships, rather than looking at time. They have no problem being late to an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a less formal perception of time. They are not governed by precise calendars and schedules. In fact, cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously, making staying on the calendar an impossibility.

La comunicación es esencial para el ser humano y a pesar de ser una parte cotidiana de nuestras vidas, nos enfrentamos a ciertas dificultades para este proceso. Existen casos en los que la comunicación no es eficaz a pesar de los esfuerzos que pongan el emisor y el receptor.[39]​.

Las interferencias sobre un proceso de comunicación eficaz y eficiente, también llamadas barreras, son producto de nuestra condición humana o de circunstancias ambientales externas fuera de nuestro control.[40]​ La comunicación intercultural abunda en malentendidos y estados de incomprensión, ya que las personas con diferencias culturales evalúan e interpretan de diferente manera un mismo mensaje y por ende actúan de manera distinta a la esperada.[41]​.

Según Gumperz situaciones donde surgen los malentendidos ocurren de manera más frecuente en el proceso de comunicación intercultural ya que pueden desencadenarse en la percepción, en la interpretación y en la evaluación de las situaciones interculturales. Un ejemplo de estas situaciones puede darse en la llegada a un país extranjero del que no tenemos previo conocimiento, en esta situación intercultural nuestra percepción será diferente de las personas originarias del país. Interpretaremos el contexto extranjero de acuerdo a nuestra visión interna y evaluaremos la situación con base en nuestro pensamiento, más no en la realidad en la que nos encontramos. Las diferentes causas para estos malos entendidos se dividen en dos: obstáculos personales y obstáculos contextuales. Los primeros son aquellos obstáculos referentes a los aspectos o características de las personas y los segundos son aquellos que hacen referencia a las especificidades de la situación o del contexto.[42]​.

Personal obstacles

They are those obstacles related to the person who interacts in the process of intercultural communication in relation to factors such as ignorance, lack of cultural skills and demotivation.[26]​ These factors can develop due to the inability to achieve linguistic and conceptual understanding, to exchange messages with common meanings accepted by both parties, since there are deep codes that only the most initiated in each language and each discipline can decipher.[43]​.

A cognitive element that is a barrier to intercultural communication is the way each person perceives and processes information. Through perception, individuals select, organize and evaluate the stimuli that come from their environment. Perception is inaccurate, selective and is the result of a culturally learned process, which is why it is the culture that gives the meaning to interpret what we perceive and in this way the attribution process is manifested, which can also generate misunderstandings in communication given that there are different meaning attribution processes. For example, at the time when intercultural differences arise, people tend to show an attitude of projection of similarity, since people tend to feel more comfortable because of the similarities than because of the differences that may exist between them.[26]​.

A person can communicate with another accepting a certain degree of misunderstandings, but if these increase then communication will become very difficult, which is why it is necessary to develop the ability to metacommunicate, that is, to have the ability to express what one really wants to say. Being able to metacommunicate means talking about the meaning of our messages, but not only about what they mean but even about what effects they are supposed to cause.[44]​.

To avoid these types of personal obstacles and minimize the barriers and disagreements that may impede intercultural communication, there must be a certain degree of interest in cultures other than one's own and thus avoid a “culture shock”.[43]​.

Contextual obstacles

The intercultural communicative relationship can be affected by the characteristics that differentiate one culture from another, such as music, art, traditions and language, because they can cause acrimony between the participants. The wider the cultural differences, the more intercultural competencies are tested[45]​.

The example of racial prejudice, historically linked to power inequalities, tends to become more acute due to economic and social differences between individuals.[46]​.

Another factor that makes intercultural communication difficult is the little importance given to cultural differences, maintaining the behavior that is usually followed, which without the necessary care can be misinterpreted and can be seen as an offense towards the other person. It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of other cultures to avoid harshness between interlocutors and avoid disrespectful and intolerant behavior.[47]​.

However, adapting should not be confused with adopting because it could create a new limitation in intercultural communication. The adoption of cultural practices with the aim of improving communication will not always be seen well, because it can be considered a lack of respect and even a sign of hypocrisy. It is for this reason that it is better to adapt rather than adopt. Respect is the essential idea.[47]​.

Según Deborah Valentine, el conocimiento de la comunicación intercultural es de suma importancia para llevar a cabo negociaciones en el ámbito laboral. Es por ende que propone un proceso para tomar estas estrategias y convertirlas a su favor.[48]​.

Analysis of the negotiation process

In order to carry out an effective negotiation process at an international level (that is, when we are dealing with different cultures, it is recommended to follow the following recommendations:

• - Establish objectives: having delimited goals helps reduce the negotiation space in order to reach an agreement. However, aspects such as times and specifications that may change or be determined by the culture of the other party must be considered.

• - Choose team members: The aspects to consider within the team that is going to carry out the negotiation are: hierarchical position, personal experience, knowledge, image and that values ​​are shared between the parties.

• - Focus on needs: It is important to take into consideration that not all cultures appreciate the same things. To carry out an effective negotiation it is better to know the needs of the counterparty.

• - Choosing a translator: is a factor that can add value to the negotiation. Having a translator who not only has experience in the language, but also the culture can help in the process.

• - Decide your position: It is important to consider what you are looking for in the negotiation, whether it is going to be competitive or collaborative. Take into account that there are cultures that prefer to collaborate and others that prefer to face the other party.

• - Consider the time: It is important to know the schedules that the counterparty manages as well as consider the aspects of dates, regarding festivities or vacations. There are cultures that prioritize certain issues over negotiation.

• - Interpret negative responses: Keep in mind that you will encounter negotiators who prefer to hesitate rather than say “no” (especially in low-context cultures). The non-verbal reactions of the counterpart can provide more information than verbal communication.

• - Plan to make concessions: Always analyze whether the counterparty is inflexible or can accept your terms. It is important to always allow for a certain level of concession, trying not to go beyond your needs and not neglect those of the counterpart.

• - Geneva School of Psychology, 1990, Theories of Psycholinguistics, Geneva, 42:137-168.

• - Groh, Arnold (2007). Globalization: a threat to cultural diversity. In: FAPCI (Ed.): Health and cultural diversity in the world. Barcelona, ​​47-70. Online PDF: https://s-a-c-s.net/files/FAPCI.pdf.

• - Groh, Arnold. (2020). Theories of Culture. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-66865-2.

• - Höffe, Otfried, Intercultural Law, Barcelona, ​​Gedisa, ISBN 978-84-9784-330-0.

• - Appadurai, A. 1990. Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy. Theory, Culture & Society, 7:295-310.

• - Habermas, J. 1998. The European nation-state: On the past and future of sovereignty and citizenship. Public Culture 10 (2):397-416.

• - Habermas, J. 1999. The European nation-state and the pressures of globalization. New Left Review 235:46-50.

• - Heider, F. 1958. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships..

• - Larry Samovar 2010. Intercultural Communication 13th Edition.Approaches to International Communication (10-15).

• - Munter, Mary M. (2011) Guide to Cross-Cultural Communications, 2nd Edition, Pearson.

• - Carley Dodd (1977). Perspective on Cross Cultural Communication. (8-9).

• - Rodrigo, M. (1996a) "Els estudis de comunicació intercultural", dCIDOB, 56:10-12.

• - (Kymlicka, 1996:36) Multicultural citizenship. Barcelona: Paidós.

• - Vertovec, S. (1996) "Multiculturalism, Culturalism and Public Incorporation", Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 19, 1:49-69.

• - Internations. (2013). Intercultural communication. An introduction. Masaryk University. Retrieved from: https://is.muni.cz/el/1421/jaro2014/CJVAIK/reading\_1\_-\_Intercultural\_communication.pdf.

• - Samovar, L et al. (2010). Intercultural Communication: a reader. Wadsworth. Retrieved from: ISBN 978-0-495-89831-3.

• - Warner, k. (2010). Global environmental change and migration: Governance challenges. Elsevier. Retrieved from: http://www.stockholmresilience.org/download/18.3eea013f128a65019c2800010454/1459560566462/Warner+2010.pdf.

• - Mendieta, I. (2002). Importance of intercultural communication in international negotiations (Multilingual Dissertation in International Business and Exchanges). Quito: Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador.

• - Ayala, E. (s.f). Interculturality in Ecuador. Recovered from: http://www.uasb.edu.ec/UserFiles/380/File/Interculturalidad%20en%20el%20Ecuador.pdf Archived December 15, 2017 at the Wayback Machine.

• - ACYV. (August 29, 2015). Keys to non-verbal language: the four looks that work. Obtained from El Confidencial: https://www.elconfidencial.com/alma-corazon-vida/2015-08-29/claves-del-lenguaje-no-verbal-las-cuatro-miradas-que-Functionan\_981136/.

• - Álvarez, M. (February 9, 2016). What your look says: non-verbal communication. Obtained from Protocol and label: http://abcblogs.abc.es/protocolo-etiqueta/2016/02/09/lo-que-dice-tu-mirada-comunicacion-no-verbal/.

• - Ontraining. (2012). Intercultural non-verbal communication: 5 key aspects. Obtained from Ontraining: http://www.ontraining.es/comunicacion-no-verbal-intercultural-5-aspectos-clave/.

• - Toledo, C. (February 27, 2016). Eye contact and non-verbal communication: it all starts with a look. Obtained from Analysisnoverbal.com: http://www.analisisnoverbal.com/contacto-visual-y-comunicacion-no-verbal/.

• - Tiechuan, M. (May 1, 2016). Study of verbal communication in intercultural relationships. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (AJHSS). Retrieved from: http://ajhss.org/pdfs/Vol4Issue1/1.pdf.

• - Baltrusaitis, T. (2014). Analysis of facial expressions. University of Cambridge. Retrieved from: https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/techreports/UCAM-CL-TR-861.pdf.

• - Kurien, D. (2010). Body Language: Silent communication in the workplace. Researchgate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228271422\_Body\_Language\_Silent\_Communicator\_at\_the\_Workplace.

• - James, J. (2007). Body language. Paidós. Barcelona. Obtained from: http://www.ellenguajenoverbal.com/bibliografia/el\_lenguaje\_corporal.pdf.

• - Pease, A. (N/A). Non-verbal communication (The language of the body. Communication in organizations. Obtained from: https://utncomunicacionprofesional.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/allanpease-ellenguajedelcuerpo.pdf.

• - Ferrari, L. (N/A). How to know people by their body language. Obtained from tusbuenoslibros.com: http://www.tusbuenoslibros.com/resumenes/como\_conocer\_a\_las\_personas\_por\_su\_lenguaje\_corporal.pdf.

• - Interculturality.

• - Intercultural capacity.

• - Enculturation.

• - Acculturation.

• - Culture shock.

• - IATIS.

• - Communication.

• - Technical communication.

• - Advertising communication.

• - A dozen good rules to avoid intercultural misunderstandings by Elmar Holenstein.

• - Dahl, Stephan Overview of Intercultural Research (Middlesex University Business School, London) - in English.

• - CICB Center of Intercultural Competence.

Forced cultural assimilation was very common in the European colonial empires of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Colonial policies regarding religious conversion, elimination of children, division of community property, and changing gender roles primarily affected North and South America, Australia, Africa, and Asia. Voluntary assimilation has also been part of history dating back to the Spanish Inquisition of the late 14th and 15th centuries, when many Muslims and Jews converted to Roman Catholicism in response to religious prosecution while secretly continuing their original practices. Another example is when Europeans moved to the United States.

At the end of the Second World War and the beginning of the decolonization processes, a change occurred. The creation of the League of Nations in 1920 and the UN in 1945 revealed the need for communication between different peoples and cultures. The United States, as the hegemonic power of the time, and within the context of the Cold War, was very interested in cementing its foreign influence. Thus, intercultural communication became an important strategic instrument.

In the 1960s, in the United States, this field of study received a double boost. An endogenous one, brought about by the vindication of some minorities of their own culture, as is the case of African-Americans. The other, initially exogenous, had its origin in the wars in Southeast Asia, which meant not only contact with the cultures of these countries, but also a large number of people from Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam taking refuge in the United States. To these migratory flows we must add those from Latin American countries. Around this time, the ethnocentric vision that considered that the problem of development could be solved by mechanically applying the Western political and economic system in the third world was also broken.

In the 1970s, in the United States, intercultural communication was consolidated as an academic discipline, and soon studies in this field also began in other countries. And interpersonal communication studies will be promoted to the detriment of mass communication. In fact, in many definitions of intercultural communication only interpersonal communication is taken into account.[9]​.

The ability to carry out intercultural communication refers to the ability of a person or organization or company to be able to work constructively and effectively between different cultures and avoid errors and setbacks due to cultural clashes, whether with clients, collaborators or foreign suppliers. Knowing how to detect cultural differences between people and their foreign interlocutor is the best way to have an important competitive advantage in the globalized world.

Contenido

La Comunicación Intercultural es considerada una Comunicación Interpersonal donde intervienen personas con referentes culturales diferentes, pero percibidos como simétricos que, motivadas a un encuentro intercultural, superan algunas de las barreras para así poder llevar a cabo esta comunicación de forma eficaz. Entre los modelos planteados para su tratamiento, se destacan:.

Theories based on the role of language

Theory of Coordinated Management of Meanings and Rule.

The objective of communication is coordination, which gives meaning and coherence to the participants. Managing shared meanings involves assigning a single interpretation to the message by each participant. Rules play a prominent role, as they help in conversations and in the interpretation of what others communicate. Coordinated meaning management refers to how individuals establish and use those communication rules. Information transactions depend on personal and interpersonal meaning. This process is carried out through two types of rules: constitutive rules that define meaning, and regulative rules that guide behavior.

Rhetorical theory.

The rhetorical fact is a communicative phenomenon that includes the speaker who delivers the speech, those who hear the speech and the speech itself, as well as the channel of communication, the code, the referent of the speech and the context of the communication. The explanation of the rhetorical fact can be done with the help of the adaptation to the rhetoric of the linguistic fact, that is, its context.

Aristotle in his "Rhetoric" explains the communication that we currently designate as semiotics. The speech consists of whoever pronounces it, what is spoken about and who hears it (Aristotle, Rhet.: 1358a39- 2 1358b8) implies a discursivization of the entire rhetorical fact. The implication of the speech itself in these three components is proof of the dynamism that according to Aristotle is inherent to speech and rhetorical communication.

Direct and indirect messages.

The channels through which a message is transmitted are seen differently depending on how the sender expresses himself; these can be messages with direct or indirect content. To illustrate:

• - English speakers prefer to use written communication channels because they are process-oriented cultures. These cultures adapt quickly to technological advances, systems and products thanks to their results orientation. Furthermore, the low costs of high-speed Internet and the ease of sending information turn out to be written channels that characterize efficiency in the United States and Western Europe. English speakers prefer to send a message in a concrete way with direct content, which goes from being an idea or a thought to a fact. This direction of the message makes it be taken as sincere and avoids misinterpretation by the recipients.

• - Relationships and feelings are the most used channels in countries like Greece, Italy, Malaysia, Indonesia and places in the Middle East. Written language has less relevance for these cultures. Personal communication is essential in the communication of these cultures. As for cultures that prefer to communicate with intrapersonal channels, the content of the message is broken down after a preamble or introduction in order to catch the recipient's attention. If a direct message is broadcast in these cultures, it is perceived as rude, rude or abrupt.

Formation of the individual's communication skills in the social environment.

Culture is a determining factor in the creation of interpersonal relationships. This is why it has been taken as a source of mental programming, which intervenes in the process of adaptation and development in a different cultural environment. There are three aspects to consider within the composition of human behavior: human nature, culture, and personality. Human nature is inherited and known as instinct, it is not learned. Culture is learned and is typical of a specific group of people. Personality is partly inherited and partly learned, it is intrinsic to the individual and its characteristics depend on the social and family environment.

Adaptation to a new cultural environment is composed of the following factors: behavioral patterns, social environment and individual perception. Each of these factors manifests itself to a different extent following the cultural bases of the individual. Firstly, the deepest manifestation is values, these can be evidenced in patterns of behavior and interaction. Secondly, the rituals that are exclusive customs of the culture. Third, the heroes; These are emblematic characters who have marked the culture in a certain way. In the most superficial part of cultural manifestations we have symbols, the use of words or expressions typical of an area. All these layers of cultural manifestations are united for their practice; that is, behavior based on manifestations.

The adaptation of the individual based on cultural manifestations and mental programming is the basis of intercultural communication, which is why it has innumerable fields of application, whether in business or diplomatic relations.[10]​.

Theories based on the cognitive organization of actors

Psycholinguistics

Psycholinguistics deals with the cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing messages; proposes linguistic creativity to produce and understand based on rules and norms. Study the functions that language plays in:.

• - Production: The transformation of information within the mind into sounds, signs or letters.

• - Comprehension: Interpretation of the message issued, whether verbal or written.

• - Acquisition: The transmission of languages ​​(Adult to child).

• - Disorders: Temporary problems within the speech production and comprehension system.

The role of language in the development of the individual's thinking is analyzed. For Piaget, thoughts are rooted in action, and the transformation of thought develops simultaneously with the acquisition of language. That is, verbal signals are closely linked to a set of symbols, imitations and mental images. Apart from language, there are, as forms of individual symbolism, deferred imitation and mental images, which are derived from imitation, which is considered for Piaget as an important term between representative behaviors and sensory-motor behaviors.

Identifying the effects of psycholinguistics has been one of the greatest challenges of research in this field. Its variables to be considered are: the frequency of the words and their duration, the age of acquisition, among others. These variables grow and change over time, so choosing variables can cause problems since very few contain exact and unchangeable data. It is important to be aware that the majority of studies in this regard are open to various interpretations.[11] Several authors have undertaken the task of defining the concept of psycholinguistics. Xavier Frías defines it as a discipline whose objective is to understand how language is produced and understood, and in the same way, how it is lost. For this, it involves understanding the processes involved in language, its evolutionary and pathological aspects. Psycholinguistics requires three linguistic rules: syntagmatic, paradigmatic and pragmatic. In the same way, its pillars constitute biology and computing[12]​.

Constructivism

Its main exponent, Jean Piaget, provides a constructivist vision of mental schemes, proposing participation on the part of culture when organizing them. The construction and interpretation of the meanings and actions of others presupposes great variability depending on the cultural context. Furthermore, this theory aims to study the primordial mental mechanisms and maintains that after developing sensory-motor intelligence, the individual will be able to acquire language. Constructivism defends that language is not inherited, but transmitted, the only aspect that is inherited within the language learning process is the capacity with which the individual is born so that he can acquire the language. Within the process of language transmission, the individual is influenced by several entities such as the family and the school; these factors will determine the use and learning.[13]​.

Theories that respond to the analysis of the communicative process

Emerging patterns of global communication have promoted a consumer culture that is supported by global and internal frameworks. These cultural dimensions or global frameworks have promoted a socioeconomic culture that in turn enhances the interaction between cultures (Mowlana 1996). Global communication has been a vehicle of social and economic exchange between countries. This exchange resulted as a new world order or establishment of a free market economy. A new world establishment that allowed the expansion of a global communication process that has somehow increased and strengthened minorities in the international community, giving them an affinity with Western culture (Mowlana, 1996).

Uncertainty and anxiety reduction theory

There are two theories that propose controlling the anxiety that occurs at the initial moment of the intercultural encounter and that would make communication difficult.

The first is known as “Initial Interaction Theory” initiated by Charles Berger.

The objective of this theory is to reduce uncertainty between strangers who make their first contact in the course of their relationship. To illustrate, there are two subprocesses used by people who feel the need to explain and predict their first encounters.

The first is prediction, which is a capacity through which people provide the behavioral options that make the person available to a relationship with another individual. The second is the explanation, which is the attempt to interpret the actions of the other individual with whom a relationship is established.

The second theory is called "Uncertainty Management" which was proposed by William Gudykunst that describes encounters between foreign people.

It is explained that there must be effective communication to minimize misunderstandings. For this, Gudykunst proposes that both feelings (anxiety and uncertainty) are dependent on the degree of difference between the local member of a culture and a foreigner. Although it mentions that when there is a minimum level of anxiety and uncertainty it is positive for communication due to the motivation to improve it. In summary, the author states that for fluid communication three qualities are needed: motivation, knowledge and ability to effectively manage the two feelings and ensure good behavior in communication.[15]​.

In intercultural relations, this theory is applied in the study of Gender Inequality"). To exemplify, the behavior and degree of uncertainty and anxiety of individuals from different cultures are observed with the role of men and women in the society to which they belong and with foreign societies[16].

Theory of cross-cultural communicative adaptation

Theories that consider the development of interpersonal relationships

Relationships are the result of the communication process between the parties. Every relationship goes through a four-phase communication process: development, maintenance, cognitive process, and influence. The first phase, relationship development, will establish the principles under which the relationship will develop in the future. Without proper development there will be no relationship, which is why it is imperative to achieve the highest possible level of communication between individuals from the birth of the relationship. Three theories try to explain human behavior at the beginning of any relationship: social penetration theory, uncertainty reduction theory, and cultural exchange theory.

The social penetration theory seeks to understand the development of a relationship between individuals. The theory proposes an evolution of the relationship - from a beginning where communication is superficial to a state of intimacy and trust in the relationship. Intimacy goes beyond the physical aspect, and encompasses intellectual and emotional aspects and the extent to which said couple shares various activities.[17]​.

The theory has four basic premises or hypotheses. These are: relationships evolve from non-intimate to intimate (although in some cases they can remain somewhere in the middle), relational development is generally systematic and predictable, relational development includes depenetration and dissolution, and self-disclosure is at the core of the relationship - self-revelation understood as the involuntary process of revealing to others information of an important nature about oneself. Thus, the process of social penetration has four systematic stages:

1. • Orientation: revealing small pieces of information about ourselves to others.

2. • Exploratory affective exchange: moment in which the private expands towards the public; the person's personality emerges.

3. • Affective exchange: spontaneous communication and use of personal terms, which imply a greater commitment to the other. It is in this phase that relationships become unique.

4. • Stable exchange: efficient communication; establishment of a stable communication system. There is total spontaneity, honesty and trust. There are few errors or misunderstandings, and a proper communication system is maintained.

The uncertainty reduction theory establishes that when two strangers meet, their main concern is to reduce uncertainty, or make the predictability of their behaviors grow. Uncertainty is understood as a cognitive process that conditions thoughts about others, and anxiety as the emotional component in situations that may have negative consequences in advance,[17]​.

Es indispensable tomar en cuenta valores culturales como las 5 dimensiones de Hofstede, ya que de esto depende el futuro de las decisiones. La cultura colectiva es ; La cultura colectiva es la toma de decisiones del equipo de 1. Analyzing the negotiation process, 2. Enhancing your persuasiveness, 3. Understanding International Law.

Schwartz's theory of cultural values

Shalom Schwartz's theory of values ​​arises from social psychology and focuses mainly on research currents in the field of political culture. Schwartz proposes multidimensional value structures that are different at the individual and societal levels.[18]​.

Additionally, Schwartz[19] emphasizes that values:

• They belong to final states of being desirable behaviors.

• They transcend specific situations.

• They guide the selection or evaluation of behavior.

• They are ordered by their relative importance to an individual or a culture.

• The identification of universal aspects of the content of values ​​and their structure makes it possible to investigate specific cultural aspects.

In this way, this theory considers that the cultural dimensions of values ​​reflect the basic issues or conflicts that society must face with the objective of regulating human activity.[20]​ According to Schwartz, these basic problems are: the nature of the relationships between the individual and the group, guaranteeing responsible behavior between people in order to help preserve societies and maintaining a relationship of the human species with nature and the social world.[20]​.

To analyze the solution to these three basic social problems, it states that there are seven types of cultural values ​​that are as follows.

Traditionalism, Intellectual Autonomy, Affective Autonomy, Hierarchy, equality, skill and harmony.[21]​.

Cultural Values ​​and Economic Development

Following the Weberian thesis, Gudykunst analyzed the impact of modernization on the motivational orientations of the individual, achievement motivation, and of these on economic development. Gudykunst studied the economic development of 18 modern nations and the level of achievement motivation expressed in the books read in the public schools of these nations.[22]​.

The results showed that nations that had a greater achievement motivation had higher percentages of economic development, measured in macroeconomic variables.

Later, this same author verified that this relationship was related to the indirect effect that education, whether public or private, had on development. More recently, Hofstede has related economic conditions to the values ​​of individualism.[23]​.

In this work, antecedent economic conditions are correlated with the values ​​of individualism a few years later and these same values ​​with subsequent economic conditions; The time factor is decisive for the comparison. The author finds that both relationships were significant but that economic development is more responsible for individualism than it is for economic development.[24]​.

Cultural Values ​​and their Convergence in Latin America

The ethnic and cultural multiplicity of the inhabitants of Latin America are integrated into a set of cultural, administrative and political values ​​that have been imposed by their conquerors and colonizers. This is why the cultural values ​​of the dominator have been taken as instruments of political and cultural liberation of the dominated.[25]​ According to Huntington as cited by Sopeña,[26]​ culture and its values, more than politics, is what determines the progress of nations and human beings in general. These cultural values, one could even say, are what shape politicians. Well, institutions, governance and the State function better when these values ​​serve as the basis for correct and effective interaction. This is when development is measured by the capacity of countries to know how to profitably use the available knowledge.[26]​.

However, in Latin America, the idiosyncratic preeminence in the culture of the region is found in common traits such as the transgression of norms, a certain level of omnipotence or authoritarianism, which together with the creative capacity to adapt to critical situations cause an impact on the development of certain behaviors in Latin Americans mediated by the structure of the personality itself.[27] The capacity of the human being to face the adversities of life goes hand in hand with cultural values. that determine their resilience. And that is why when talking about human development, the emphasis should be on promoting human potential rather than the possible harm it may cause, and thus these factors and values ​​determine the individual and his social environment, overcoming adversity and leading to a developed society and region.

Verbal communication consists of messages issued and received continuously between the person speaking and his or her interlocutor. The way in which the messages are formulated is important. Verbal communication is based on language and the use of expression, the volume with which the speaker establishes communication can determine how the message is received and in what context. This type of communication allows people to express their ideas, emotions, experiences, knowledge, information, etc.

Factors that affect verbal communication:.

• - Tone of voice.

• - Use of descriptive words.

• - Emphasis on certain phrases.

• - Voice volume.

The way a message is received depends on these factors since they allow the receiver to better interpret the meaning of the message. If a certain phrase is emphasized through the tone of the voice, it indicates its importance and the need to pay special attention.

In addition to these attributes, verbal communication is accompanied by non-verbal elements. These other elements make the message clearer and indicate to the interlocutor the way in which the information should be received.[28] Among the non-verbal elements are: facial expressions, hand gestures, the use of objects, and body movement.

Existe un tipo de canales de comunicación que no requieren del intercambio de palabras. Se ha estimado que dependiendo de la cultura entre el 65 al 90% de la comunicación es no verbal, y su importancia varía ampliamente entre culturas. La comunicación no verbal incluye el contacto visual, la expresión facial, los gestos de las manos, el uso del espacio físico y el silencio. Este tipo de comunicación puede afectar la emisión y recepción del mensaje debido a que no todas las culturas se manifiestan a través del lenguaje corporal, haciendo que el mensaje no se comunique con éxito durante la conversación.[29]​ La actitud relativa de la cultura hacia el tiempo se considera parte de la comunicación no verbal. La comunicación no verbal es un aspecto esencial en desarrollo de una negociación.

eye contact

Much research has recorded differences in eye behavior when speaking and listening between cultures. Eye contact is an outstanding factor of non-verbal communication and is considered an important element of the active listening process.[30]​ The gaze is related to people's mood, so good control of it is essential for effective communication.[31]​.

Even though you can learn to control non-verbal language so as not to show your feelings, the eyes can give the person away. For example, pupils dilate when something is attractive, and the level of eye contact can determine whether what the interlocutor is saying is boring or unpleasant.[32]​ Eye contact is a good regulator of communication and there are times where it becomes the message itself.[30]​.

The look establishes commitment or adds credibility to the message.[30]​ It is sometimes said that when the interlocutor does not look the other party in the eye, he is hiding something, which creates distrust in the recipient.[31]​ In fact, during a conversation, it is recommended to maintain direct eye contact between 40 and 60% of the total time.[32]​.

Eye contact varies according to a person's hierarchy. This communication through the eyes can be direct or indirect in which direct eye contact indicates that in the conversation between two or more people there is trust when communicating, so this communication takes place at the same level of hierarchy while indirect eye contact shows communication that indicates respect towards the superior.[33]​.

Eye contact also serves to make the other person feel that you want to establish a communication process.[30]​ However, the way in which this interaction is carried out is influenced by cultural principles. For example, in China, direct eye contact with the interlocutor is understood as a lack of respect, while in the United Kingdom visual interaction is established only with trusted people.[34]​.

In the case of most Western cultures, to ensure that the communication process with gaze is carried out in the best possible way, it is recommended that the speaker be looked directly in the eyes and that he or she is expected to do the same. In addition, you should look from the front and avoid side glances. It is also important to alternate eye contact with reflective glances and maintain concentration on the sender's words. Finally, attention must be paid to the personality of the counterparty and their cultural context so as not to make them uncomfortable.[30]​.

facial expressions

Facial expressions are a communication complement that allows us to express emotions through the body. Combinations of facial movements of the eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose and cheeks help to express different moods in an individual. Head pose and gaze also play an important role in the expression of affection and in the communication of social signals. Pose and facial expressions also play a role in the expression of pride and shame, for example, the raised chin and active gaze denote pride, while the tilted face and vacant gaze denote shame.[36]​.

Facial expressions are an important factor in intercultural communication, since they vary from one culture to another and can lead to misunderstandings. For example, when someone feels embarrassed after making a mistake, in China, people may laugh. People from the West may think that they are laughing at them and the mistake they have made and also feel humiliated. However, in reality, laughter in China in that context means "it doesn't matter", and shows your sense of humor to avoid awkward moments, without making fun of the mistakes of others. That is why in a negotiation, people who do not know this information can become angry and break off business cooperation. Some facial expressions may be similar across cultures, however their frequency, acceptable occasions, and interpretation of emotion are specifically culture-oriented. For all this, it is important to understand the value of culture and the initial intention of facial expression in intercultural interaction.[37]​.

hand gestures

In certain cultures, hand gestures and their position are indicators of what a person feels. A human being is capable of reflecting what he thinks or what he feels with his posture, and a very important factor is the gesture of the hands. For its correct interpretation, it is necessary to know the culture of the interlocutors, since various cultures have characteristic gestures that may not have the same meaning in other cultures.

Bringing your hand to your face, and the distance and strength applied when shaking hands, can express important implicit messages.

The movement of the hands indicates the condition in which the person is. For example, the more the hands move, the more anxiety and nerves are shown on the part of that person, just as the shaking of the hands shows nervousness.[38]​ Likewise, there are gestures that contain ambiguous or double meanings. An example is having your palms on your forearms and keeping your thumbs up. Having the palms of the hands in that place shows a defensive attitude and position, while having the thumbs up shows a positive attitude.

Greeting and use of space

The use of space in greeting behavior is often consistent with other non-verbal communications within each culture.

• Bow: In Japan, bowing is an integral part of proper greeting behavior, to the extent that it is not uncommon to see businessmen in Tokyo bow when speaking to the other person on a cell phone.

• Folded hands: In Hindu culture, the gesture of "namaste" (hands folded and head quickly bowed) indicates respect for someone of rank. The Thai "wai" and Laotian "nop" have similar appearances and functions.

• Handshake: While strong handshakes may be the norm in cultures such as the Netherlands and the United States, a softer, lighter handshake is common in France, India, and many Asian countries.

• Kissing: Some Mediterranean cultures practice "hugging" in greeting people of both sexes, which may involve hugging and patting. Additionally, some Slavic and European cultures "air kiss" on alternating cheeks. In Latin America, greetings are generally handshakes or kisses on the cheeks.

Silence: Silence and the rhythm of language vary depending on what the culture teaches. That is, the appropriate pause between a question and an answer or a statement and an answer can vary widely. In some cultures, verbal communication overlaps. In other cultures, there may be a second or several seconds between the question and the answer or the statement and the response. Silence – or the lack thereof – is a powerful part of non-verbal communication Munter, Mary M. (2011) .

Generally in Latin America. Silence does lead to a response from the counterparty. Depending on the scope, but silence does have messages behind it.

Time or Chronemic

Chronemics studies the role of time in communication. Chronemics comprises interrelated observations and theories of man's use of time as a specialized elaboration of culture, the way time is perceived and valued, how time is structured, and how humans react to the time frames of communication. In all cultures, time perception plays an important role in the non-verbal communication process. Perceptions of time include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. Time use can affect lifestyle, daily schedules, speech rate, movements, and how long people are willing to listen. The way different cultures perceive time influences communication.

Cultures are sometimes considered monochronic or polychronic.

A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and time is segmented into small, precise units. Under this system time is scheduled and managed. As communication scholar Edward T. Hall wrote of the American view of time in the business world, "the task schedule is sacred." Hall says that for monochronic cultures, such as American culture, "time is tangible" and is considered a commodity where "time is money" or "time is wasted." The result of this perspective is that Americans and other monochronic cultures, such as Germany and Switzerland, place a premium on schedules, tasks, and getting work done on time.

These cultures use regimented schedules and may consider those who do not subscribe to the same perception of time to be disrespectful. Monochronic cultures include Germany, the United States, the United Kingdom, Türkiye, South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, Canada, Switzerland, and the Scandinavian countries.

A polychronic time system is a system in which multiple tasks can be done at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling the use of time.

Polychronic cultures contrast with monochronic cultures. Unlike most West Asian and East Asian cultures, Latin American, African, South Asian, and Arab cultures use polychronic time systems. These cultures are less focused on the precision of time for each moment. As Raymond Cohen points out, polychronic cultures are deeply immersed in tradition and relationships rather than tasks.

Polychronic culture is more focused on relationships, rather than looking at time. They have no problem being late to an event if they are with family or friends, because the relationship is what really matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a less formal perception of time. They are not governed by precise calendars and schedules. In fact, cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule multiple appointments simultaneously, making staying on the calendar an impossibility.

La comunicación es esencial para el ser humano y a pesar de ser una parte cotidiana de nuestras vidas, nos enfrentamos a ciertas dificultades para este proceso. Existen casos en los que la comunicación no es eficaz a pesar de los esfuerzos que pongan el emisor y el receptor.[39]​.

Las interferencias sobre un proceso de comunicación eficaz y eficiente, también llamadas barreras, son producto de nuestra condición humana o de circunstancias ambientales externas fuera de nuestro control.[40]​ La comunicación intercultural abunda en malentendidos y estados de incomprensión, ya que las personas con diferencias culturales evalúan e interpretan de diferente manera un mismo mensaje y por ende actúan de manera distinta a la esperada.[41]​.

Según Gumperz situaciones donde surgen los malentendidos ocurren de manera más frecuente en el proceso de comunicación intercultural ya que pueden desencadenarse en la percepción, en la interpretación y en la evaluación de las situaciones interculturales. Un ejemplo de estas situaciones puede darse en la llegada a un país extranjero del que no tenemos previo conocimiento, en esta situación intercultural nuestra percepción será diferente de las personas originarias del país. Interpretaremos el contexto extranjero de acuerdo a nuestra visión interna y evaluaremos la situación con base en nuestro pensamiento, más no en la realidad en la que nos encontramos. Las diferentes causas para estos malos entendidos se dividen en dos: obstáculos personales y obstáculos contextuales. Los primeros son aquellos obstáculos referentes a los aspectos o características de las personas y los segundos son aquellos que hacen referencia a las especificidades de la situación o del contexto.[42]​.

Personal obstacles

They are those obstacles related to the person who interacts in the process of intercultural communication in relation to factors such as ignorance, lack of cultural skills and demotivation.[26]​ These factors can develop due to the inability to achieve linguistic and conceptual understanding, to exchange messages with common meanings accepted by both parties, since there are deep codes that only the most initiated in each language and each discipline can decipher.[43]​.

A cognitive element that is a barrier to intercultural communication is the way each person perceives and processes information. Through perception, individuals select, organize and evaluate the stimuli that come from their environment. Perception is inaccurate, selective and is the result of a culturally learned process, which is why it is the culture that gives the meaning to interpret what we perceive and in this way the attribution process is manifested, which can also generate misunderstandings in communication given that there are different meaning attribution processes. For example, at the time when intercultural differences arise, people tend to show an attitude of projection of similarity, since people tend to feel more comfortable because of the similarities than because of the differences that may exist between them.[26]​.

A person can communicate with another accepting a certain degree of misunderstandings, but if these increase then communication will become very difficult, which is why it is necessary to develop the ability to metacommunicate, that is, to have the ability to express what one really wants to say. Being able to metacommunicate means talking about the meaning of our messages, but not only about what they mean but even about what effects they are supposed to cause.[44]​.

To avoid these types of personal obstacles and minimize the barriers and disagreements that may impede intercultural communication, there must be a certain degree of interest in cultures other than one's own and thus avoid a “culture shock”.[43]​.

Contextual obstacles

The intercultural communicative relationship can be affected by the characteristics that differentiate one culture from another, such as music, art, traditions and language, because they can cause acrimony between the participants. The wider the cultural differences, the more intercultural competencies are tested[45]​.

The example of racial prejudice, historically linked to power inequalities, tends to become more acute due to economic and social differences between individuals.[46]​.

Another factor that makes intercultural communication difficult is the little importance given to cultural differences, maintaining the behavior that is usually followed, which without the necessary care can be misinterpreted and can be seen as an offense towards the other person. It is necessary to take into account the characteristics of other cultures to avoid harshness between interlocutors and avoid disrespectful and intolerant behavior.[47]​.

However, adapting should not be confused with adopting because it could create a new limitation in intercultural communication. The adoption of cultural practices with the aim of improving communication will not always be seen well, because it can be considered a lack of respect and even a sign of hypocrisy. It is for this reason that it is better to adapt rather than adopt. Respect is the essential idea.[47]​.

Según Deborah Valentine, el conocimiento de la comunicación intercultural es de suma importancia para llevar a cabo negociaciones en el ámbito laboral. Es por ende que propone un proceso para tomar estas estrategias y convertirlas a su favor.[48]​.

Analysis of the negotiation process

In order to carry out an effective negotiation process at an international level (that is, when we are dealing with different cultures, it is recommended to follow the following recommendations:

• - Establish objectives: having delimited goals helps reduce the negotiation space in order to reach an agreement. However, aspects such as times and specifications that may change or be determined by the culture of the other party must be considered.

• - Choose team members: The aspects to consider within the team that is going to carry out the negotiation are: hierarchical position, personal experience, knowledge, image and that values ​​are shared between the parties.

• - Focus on needs: It is important to take into consideration that not all cultures appreciate the same things. To carry out an effective negotiation it is better to know the needs of the counterparty.

• - Choosing a translator: is a factor that can add value to the negotiation. Having a translator who not only has experience in the language, but also the culture can help in the process.

• - Decide your position: It is important to consider what you are looking for in the negotiation, whether it is going to be competitive or collaborative. Take into account that there are cultures that prefer to collaborate and others that prefer to face the other party.

• - Consider the time: It is important to know the schedules that the counterparty manages as well as consider the aspects of dates, regarding festivities or vacations. There are cultures that prioritize certain issues over negotiation.

• - Interpret negative responses: Keep in mind that you will encounter negotiators who prefer to hesitate rather than say “no” (especially in low-context cultures). The non-verbal reactions of the counterpart can provide more information than verbal communication.

• - Plan to make concessions: Always analyze whether the counterparty is inflexible or can accept your terms. It is important to always allow for a certain level of concession, trying not to go beyond your needs and not neglect those of the counterpart.

• - Geneva School of Psychology, 1990, Theories of Psycholinguistics, Geneva, 42:137-168.

• - Groh, Arnold (2007). Globalization: a threat to cultural diversity. In: FAPCI (Ed.): Health and cultural diversity in the world. Barcelona, ​​47-70. Online PDF: https://s-a-c-s.net/files/FAPCI.pdf.

• - Groh, Arnold. (2020). Theories of Culture. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-66865-2.

• - Höffe, Otfried, Intercultural Law, Barcelona, ​​Gedisa, ISBN 978-84-9784-330-0.

• - Appadurai, A. 1990. Disjuncture and difference in the global cultural economy. Theory, Culture & Society, 7:295-310.

• - Habermas, J. 1998. The European nation-state: On the past and future of sovereignty and citizenship. Public Culture 10 (2):397-416.

• - Habermas, J. 1999. The European nation-state and the pressures of globalization. New Left Review 235:46-50.

• - Heider, F. 1958. The Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships..

• - Larry Samovar 2010. Intercultural Communication 13th Edition.Approaches to International Communication (10-15).

• - Munter, Mary M. (2011) Guide to Cross-Cultural Communications, 2nd Edition, Pearson.

• - Carley Dodd (1977). Perspective on Cross Cultural Communication. (8-9).

• - Rodrigo, M. (1996a) "Els estudis de comunicació intercultural", dCIDOB, 56:10-12.

• - (Kymlicka, 1996:36) Multicultural citizenship. Barcelona: Paidós.

• - Vertovec, S. (1996) "Multiculturalism, Culturalism and Public Incorporation", Ethnic and Racial Studies, Vol. 19, 1:49-69.

• - Internations. (2013). Intercultural communication. An introduction. Masaryk University. Retrieved from: https://is.muni.cz/el/1421/jaro2014/CJVAIK/reading\_1\_-\_Intercultural\_communication.pdf.

• - Samovar, L et al. (2010). Intercultural Communication: a reader. Wadsworth. Retrieved from: ISBN 978-0-495-89831-3.

• - Warner, k. (2010). Global environmental change and migration: Governance challenges. Elsevier. Retrieved from: http://www.stockholmresilience.org/download/18.3eea013f128a65019c2800010454/1459560566462/Warner+2010.pdf.

• - Mendieta, I. (2002). Importance of intercultural communication in international negotiations (Multilingual Dissertation in International Business and Exchanges). Quito: Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador.

• - Ayala, E. (s.f). Interculturality in Ecuador. Recovered from: http://www.uasb.edu.ec/UserFiles/380/File/Interculturalidad%20en%20el%20Ecuador.pdf Archived December 15, 2017 at the Wayback Machine.

• - ACYV. (August 29, 2015). Keys to non-verbal language: the four looks that work. Obtained from El Confidencial: https://www.elconfidencial.com/alma-corazon-vida/2015-08-29/claves-del-lenguaje-no-verbal-las-cuatro-miradas-que-Functionan\_981136/.

• - Álvarez, M. (February 9, 2016). What your look says: non-verbal communication. Obtained from Protocol and label: http://abcblogs.abc.es/protocolo-etiqueta/2016/02/09/lo-que-dice-tu-mirada-comunicacion-no-verbal/.

• - Ontraining. (2012). Intercultural non-verbal communication: 5 key aspects. Obtained from Ontraining: http://www.ontraining.es/comunicacion-no-verbal-intercultural-5-aspectos-clave/.

• - Toledo, C. (February 27, 2016). Eye contact and non-verbal communication: it all starts with a look. Obtained from Analysisnoverbal.com: http://www.analisisnoverbal.com/contacto-visual-y-comunicacion-no-verbal/.

• - Tiechuan, M. (May 1, 2016). Study of verbal communication in intercultural relationships. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences (AJHSS). Retrieved from: http://ajhss.org/pdfs/Vol4Issue1/1.pdf.

• - Baltrusaitis, T. (2014). Analysis of facial expressions. University of Cambridge. Retrieved from: https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/techreports/UCAM-CL-TR-861.pdf.

• - Kurien, D. (2010). Body Language: Silent communication in the workplace. Researchgate. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228271422\_Body\_Language\_Silent\_Communicator\_at\_the\_Workplace.

• - James, J. (2007). Body language. Paidós. Barcelona. Obtained from: http://www.ellenguajenoverbal.com/bibliografia/el\_lenguaje\_corporal.pdf.

• - Pease, A. (N/A). Non-verbal communication (The language of the body. Communication in organizations. Obtained from: https://utncomunicacionprofesional.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/allanpease-ellenguajedelcuerpo.pdf.

• - Ferrari, L. (N/A). How to know people by their body language. Obtained from tusbuenoslibros.com: http://www.tusbuenoslibros.com/resumenes/como\_conocer\_a\_las\_personas\_por\_su\_lenguaje\_corporal.pdf.

• - Interculturality.

• - Intercultural capacity.

• - Enculturation.

• - Acculturation.

• - Culture shock.

• - IATIS.

• - Communication.

• - Technical communication.

• - Advertising communication.

• - A dozen good rules to avoid intercultural misunderstandings by Elmar Holenstein.

• - Dahl, Stephan Overview of Intercultural Research (Middlesex University Business School, London) - in English.

• - CICB Center of Intercultural Competence.