Contenido

Los problemas de limpieza y eliminación de desechos surgen cuando se trata de entornos de baja gravedad. En la Estación Espacial Internacional no hay duchas, y los astronautas toman baños cortos de esponja, con un paño para lavar y otro para enjuagar. Dado que la tensión superficial hace que el agua y las burbujas de jabón se adhieran a la piel, se necesita muy poca agua.[5]​[6]​ Se utiliza jabón especial que no se enjuaga, así como champús especiales que no se enjuagan.[7]​ Dado que un inodoro con descarga de agua no funcionaría en entornos de baja gravedad, se diseñó un inodoro especial que tiene capacidad de succión.[8]​ Si bien el diseño es casi el mismo, el concepto utiliza el flujo de aire en lugar de agua. En el caso del transbordador espacial, las aguas residuales se ventilan por la borda al espacio y los desechos sólidos se comprimen y se retiran del área de almacenamiento una vez que el transbordador regresa a la tierra.[9]​ El modelo de inodoro actual se voló por primera vez en STS-54 en 1993 y cuenta con una capacidad de almacenamiento ilimitada, en comparación con la capacidad de solo 14 días de los inodoros lanzadera originales, y el nuevo modelo tiene un entorno libre de olores.

Gas control in spacecraft

Toxic gases are produced as a release of gases from astronauts and materials such as non-metallic surface coatings, adhesives, elastomers, solvents, cleaning agents, heat exchanger liquids etc. Above specific concentrations, if inhaled, the gases could impair the crew's ability to carry out their duties effectively.[10]​.

Most toxicological data on gas exposure are based on the 8-hour work period of the ground worker and are therefore not suitable for spacecraft work. New exposure times (astronautical hygiene data) have had to be established for space missions in which exposure can be uninterrupted for 2 weeks or more without daily or weekend periods.

Exposure limits are based on:.

• - "Normal" operating conditions of the spacecraft.

• - An "emergency" situation.

Under normal conditions, there are traces of polluting gases, such as ammonia, from normal gas emissions at room temperature and elevated temperatures. Other gases arise from breathing gas supply tanks and from the crew members themselves. In an emergency, gases can arise from overheating, spills, rupture of the refrigerant circuit (ethylene glycol) and pyrolysis of non-metallic components. Carbon monoxide is a major concern for space crews; this was evident during the Apollo missions. Emitted trace gases can be controlled using lithium hydroxide filters to trap carbon dioxide and activated carbon filters to trap other gases.

Gases in the cabin can be tested using gas chromatography, mass spectrometry and infrared spectrophotometry. Air samples from the spacecraft are examined before and after flight to determine their gas concentrations. Activated carbon filters can be examined for signs of trace gases. Measured concentrations can be compared to appropriate exposure limits. If exposures are high, health risks increase. Continuous sampling of hazardous substances is essential so that appropriate action can be taken if exposure is high.

A large number of volatile substances detected during the flight are mainly within their threshold limit values ​​and the maximum allowable concentration limits of the NASA spacecraft. If spacecraft cabin exposure to specific chemicals is below their TLV and SMAC, health risks following inhalation exposure are expected to be reduced.

Maximum permitted concentrations of spacecraft

SMACs guide chemical exposure during normal and emergency operations aboard spacecraft. Short-term SMACs refer to concentrations of substances in the air, such as gas and vapor, that will not compromise astronauts' performance of specific tasks during emergency conditions or cause serious toxic effects. Long-term SMACs are intended to avoid adverse health effects and prevent notable changes in crew performance under continuous exposure to chemicals for a period of up to 180 days.[11]​.

The astronautical hygiene data needed to develop SMACs includes:.

• - Chemical-physical characterization of the toxic chemical.

• - animal toxicity studies.

• - clinical studies in humans.

• - accidental human exposures.

• - epidemiological studies.

• - in vitro toxicity studies.

For many years menstruation was used as an excuse to prevent women from becoming astronauts, although experiments were never carried out to prove that this was an impediment. One of NASA's main concerns was the risk of peritonitis, in case the lack of gravity prevented the uterus from expelling waste.

For the Mercury mission, the first manned by people, NASA subjected 32 men and 19 women to physical and psychological tests; in the end only men were chosen for the space trip. In 1964, three years later, the program for female astronauts was eliminated on the grounds that menstruation made women too temperamental, physically and psychologically, to travel to space.[14]

One of the anecdotes that demonstrated the ignorance of male NASA personnel regarding menstruation and its hygiene was when in 1983, engineers asked Sally Ride, the first American astronaut, if 100 tampons were the appropriate amount for the one-week mission.[14][15]​.

According to space gynecologist, Varsha Jain), the follicle-stimulating hormone does not change during space travel; this means that the menstrual cycle, both in people and animals that have participated in space missions, does not present alterations.[12]​.

In 1980, when women began participating in NASA's space programs, another option had to be added so that it could be used by both genders: a unisex maximum absorbency diaper.[14]​.

Jain, along with her colleague, Virginia Wotring"), have pointed out that the waste disposal systems on the International Space Station were not created to handle menstrual waste.[16] There are two bathrooms on the ISS, one on the American side and one on the Russian side; women who are menstruating must use the Russian bathroom, as it is the only one that can process menstrual blood.[14]

Many astronauts prefer not to menstruate while in space, so the oral contraceptive is the favorite and most convenient method, 5 since for a three-year mission, approximately 1,100 pills are required, the weight and dimensions of which are smaller than those of tampons or sanitary pads to meet this biological need.[16]​.

Although it is difficult to obtain reliable research on the long-term side effects of the pill in astronauts,[17]​ so far, this method has not presented any risk,[17][13]​ Furthermore, the estrogen it contains helps reduce the loss of bone density, a side effect of stays in space.[13]​.

In February 2025, Hypatia Mars scientists participated in the simulation of a manned mission to Mars "Mars (planet)") at the Mars Research Desert Station (MDRS)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Mars Research Desert Station (MDRS) (not yet written)"), located in the Utah desert, United States, to conduct research on menstruation, nutrition, sleep cycles and other physiological variables in the women.[18][19]​.

Anna Bach, executive director of the mission, pointed out that they seek to study how the menstrual cycle works to improve mission management and provide other alternatives so that astronauts do not have to suppress their periods. In addition, scientists raise the possibility of collecting menstrual blood and using it as plant fertilizer.[19]​.

El polvo lunar o regolito es la capa de partículas en la superficie de la Luna y tiene aproximadamente <100 um.[20]​ Las formas de los granos tienden a alargarse. La exposición por inhalación a este polvo puede causar dificultades respiratorias porque el polvo es tóxico. También puede nublar las viseras de los astronautas cuando trabajan en la superficie de la Luna. Además, se adhiere a los trajes espaciales tanto mecánicamente (debido a las formas de púas) como electrostáticamente . Durante el Apolo, se descubrió que el polvo causaba desgaste en la tela del traje espacial.[21]​.

Durante la exploración lunar, será necesario evaluar los riesgos de exposición al polvo lunar y, por lo tanto, instigar los controles de exposición adecuados. Las medidas necesarias pueden incluir la medición de concentraciones de polvo exosférico, campos eléctricos de superficie, masa de polvo, velocidad, carga y sus características del plasma "Plasma (estado de la materia)").

Deposition of inhaled particles

The extent of the inflammatory response in the lung will depend on where the lunar dust particles settle. In 1G deposition, the more central airways will reduce the transport of fine particles to the lung periphery. On the Moon with fractional gravity, inhaled fine particles will settle in more peripheral regions of the lung. Therefore, due to the reduced sedimentation rate in lunar gravity, fine dust particles will be deposited in the alveolar region of the lung. This will exacerbate the potential for lung damage.[22][23]​.

Control dust exposure

The use of high-gradient magnetic separation techniques should be developed to remove dust from spacesuits after exploration, as the fine fraction of lunar dust is magnetic.[24] Additionally, vacuum cleaners can be used to remove dust from spacesuits.

Mass spectrometry has been used to monitor spacecraft cabin air quality.[25] The results obtained can be used to assess risks during spaceflight, for example by comparing VOC concentrations with their SMACs. If levels are too high, appropriate corrective measures will be required to reduce concentrations and health risks.

Durante el vuelo espacial, habrá transferencia de microbios entre los miembros de la tripulación. La tripulación del Skylab 1 experimentó varias enfermedades bacterianas asociadas. Se encontró que la contaminación microbiana en el Skylab era muy alta. Staphylococcus aureus y Aspergillus spp se han aislado comúnmente del aire y las superficies durante varias misiones espaciales. Los microbios no se sedimentan en microgravedad, lo que da como resultado aerosoles persistentes en el aire y altas densidades microbianas en el aire de la cabina, en particular si los sistemas de filtrado de aire de la cabina no están bien mantenidos. Durante una misión se encontró un aumento en el número y diseminación de hongos y estreptococos patógenos.

Los dispositivos de recolección de orina acumulan la bacteria Proteus mirabilis, que está asociada con la infección del tracto urinario . Por esta razón, los astronautas pueden ser susceptibles a infecciones del tracto urinario . Un ejemplo es la misión Apolo 13, durante la cual el piloto del módulo lunar experimentó una infección aguda del tracto urinario que requirió dos semanas de terapia con antibióticos para resolverse.[26]​.

Las biopelículas que pueden contener una mezcla de bacterias y hongos tienen el potencial de dañar los equipos electrónicos al oxidar varios componentes, por ejemplo, cables de cobre . Estos organismos prosperan porque sobreviven con la materia orgánica liberada por la piel del astronauta. Los ácidos orgánicos producidos por microbios, en particular hongos, pueden corroer el acero, el vidrio y el plástico. Además, debido al aumento de la exposición a la radiación en una nave espacial, es probable que haya más mutaciones microbianas.

Debido a la posibilidad de que los microbios causen infecciones en los astronautas y puedan degradar varios componentes que pueden ser vitales para el funcionamiento de la nave espacial, se deben evaluar los riesgos y, en su caso, gestionar los niveles de crecimiento microbiano controlados por la nave espacial. uso de una buena higiene astronáutica. Por ejemplo, muestreando con frecuencia el aire y las superficies de la cabina espacial para detectar signos tempranos de un aumento de la contaminación microbiana, manteniendo las superficies limpias mediante el uso de ropa desinfectada, asegurando que todo el equipo esté bien mantenido, en particular los sistemas de soporte vital y por Aspiración regular de la nave espacial para eliminar el polvo, etc. Es probable que durante las primeras misiones tripuladas a Marte se subestimen los riesgos de contaminación microbiana a menos que se apliquen los principios de buenas prácticas de higiene astronáutica. Por lo tanto, se necesitan más investigaciones en este campo para poder evaluar los riesgos de exposición y desarrollar las medidas necesarias para mitigar el crecimiento microbiano.

Microbes and microgravity in space

There are more than one hundred strains of bacteria and fungi that have been identified on manned space missions. These microorganisms survive and spread in space.[27] Much effort is being made to ensure that the risks of exposure to microbes are significantly reduced. Spacecraft are sterilized as a good control practice by washing with antimicrobial agents such as ethylene oxide and methyl chloride, and astronauts are quarantined for several days before a mission. However, these measures only reduce microbial populations rather than eliminating them. Microgravity can increase the virulence of specific microbes. Therefore, it is important that the mechanisms responsible for this problem are studied and appropriate controls are implemented to ensure that astronauts, particularly immunocompromised ones, are not affected.

El trabajo de Cain (2007) y otros[28]​ han visto la necesidad de comprender los peligros y riesgos de trabajar en un entorno de baja gravedad. Los efectos generales sobre el cuerpo de los vuelos espaciales o la reducción de la gravedad, por ejemplo, como puede ocurrir en la Luna o durante la exploración de Marte, incluyen factores físicos modificados como la disminución del peso, la presión de los fluidos, la convección y la sedimentación. Estos cambios afectarán los fluidos corporales, los receptores de gravedad y las estructuras que soportan peso. El cuerpo se adaptará a estos cambios durante el tiempo que pase en el espacio. También habrá cambios psicosociales causados por viajar en el espacio confinado de una nave espacial. La higiene astronáutica (y la medicina espacial) debe abordar estos problemas, en particular, los probables cambios de comportamiento de la tripulación, de lo contrario, las medidas desarrolladas para controlar los posibles peligros y riesgos para la salud no se mantendrán. Cualquier disminución en la comunicación, el desempeño y la resolución de problemas, por ejemplo, podría tener efectos devastadores.

Durante la exploración espacial, existe la posibilidad de que se desarrolle dermatitis de contacto, en particular si hay exposición a sensibilizantes de la piel como los acrilatos . Dicha enfermedad de la piel podría poner en peligro una misión a menos que se tomen las medidas adecuadas para identificar la fuente de exposición, evaluar los riesgos para la salud y, por lo tanto, determinar los medios para mitigar la exposición.[29]​.

Noise

Fans, compressors "Compressor (machine)"), motors, transformers, pumps, etc. of the International Space Station (ISS) generate noise. As more equipment is required on the space station, there is the potential for more noise. Astronaut Tom Jones noted that noise was more of a problem in the early days of the space station when astronauts wore hearing protection. Today, hearing protection is not required and sleeping chambers are soundproof.[30]​.

The Russian space program has never given a high priority to the noise levels experienced by its cosmonauts (for example, on Mir (space station) noise levels reached 70-72 dB). Less than 75 decibels are unlikely to cause hearing loss.[31] See Noise-Induced Hearing Loss for more information. This could cause hazard warning alarms to not be heard over background noise. To reduce noise risks, NASA engineers built hardware with built-in noise reduction. A depressurized pump producing 100 dB can reduce noise levels to 60 dB by installing four isolation supports. The use of hearing protectors is not recommended because they block alarm signals. More research is needed for this field, as well as in other areas of astronautical hygiene, for example, measures to reduce the risks of radiation exposure, methods to create artificial gravity, more sensitive sensors to monitor hazardous substances, better life support systems, and more toxicological data on the dangers of lunar and Martian dust.

La radiación espacial consiste en partículas de alta energía como protones, alfa y partículas más pesadas que se originan en fuentes tales como rayos cósmicos galácticos, partículas solares energéticas de llamaradas solares y cinturones de radiación atrapados. La exposición de la tripulación de la estación espacial será mucho mayor que la de la Tierra y los astronautas sin blindaje pueden experimentar efectos graves para la salud si no están protegidos. La radiación cósmica galáctica es extremadamente penetrante y puede que no sea posible construir escudos de suficiente profundidad para prevenir o controlar la exposición.

Trapped radiation

The Earth's magnetic field is responsible for the formation of the trapped radiation belts that surround the Earth. The ISS orbits between 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) and 270 nautical miles (500 km), known as low Earth orbit (LEO). Radiation doses trapped in LEO decrease during solar maximum and increase during solar minimum. The highest exposures occur in the South Atlantic Anomaly region.

Galactic cosmic radiation

This radiation originates outside the solar system and is formed by ionized charged atomic nuclei of hydrogen, helium, and uranium. Due to its energy, galactic cosmic radiation is very penetrating. Thin to moderate shielding is effective in reducing the projected equivalent dose, but as the thickness of the shielding increases, the effectiveness of the shielding decreases.

Solar particle events

These are injections of energetic electrons, protons and alpha particles into interplanetary space during solar flare eruptions. During periods of maximum solar activity, the frequency and intensity of solar flares will increase. Solar proton events generally occur only once or twice per solar cycle.

The intensity and spectral alteration of SPEs have a significant impact on shield effectiveness. Solar flares occur without much warning, so they are difficult to predict. SPEs will represent the greatest threat to unprotected crews in polar, geostationary or interplanetary orbits. Fortunately, most SPEs are short-lived (less than 1 to 2 days), allowing small-volume “storm shelters” to be feasible.

Others

Radiation hazards can also come from artificial sources, for example medical research, from radio-isotope energy generators or from small experiments like on Earth. Lunar and Martian missions may include nuclear reactors for energy or related nuclear propulsion systems. Astronautical hygienists will need to evaluate the risks from these other radiation sources and take appropriate measures to mitigate exposure.

Laboratory tests published in the Journal of Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion[32]​ indicate that a magnetic "umbrella" could be developed to deflect harmful space radiation away from the spacecraft. Such an "umbrella" would protect astronauts from ultrafast charged particles moving away from the Sun. It would provide a protective field around the spacecraft similar to the magnetosphere that surrounds the Earth. This form of control against solar radiation will be necessary if a man is to explore the planets and reduce the health risks of exposure to the deadly effects of radiation. More research is needed to develop and test a practical system.

• - Bioastronautics.

• - Effect of space flights on the human body.

• - International Space Station.

• - Space flight of the British Interplanetary Society (BIS) - Letters and emails (September 2006, p 353).

• - BIS Spaceflight - Letters and emails (December 2007, p 477).

• - How do you wash your hair in space? Archived December 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. - Expedition 36 Flight Engineer Archived December 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Karen Nyberg.

Contenido

Los problemas de limpieza y eliminación de desechos surgen cuando se trata de entornos de baja gravedad. En la Estación Espacial Internacional no hay duchas, y los astronautas toman baños cortos de esponja, con un paño para lavar y otro para enjuagar. Dado que la tensión superficial hace que el agua y las burbujas de jabón se adhieran a la piel, se necesita muy poca agua.[5]​[6]​ Se utiliza jabón especial que no se enjuaga, así como champús especiales que no se enjuagan.[7]​ Dado que un inodoro con descarga de agua no funcionaría en entornos de baja gravedad, se diseñó un inodoro especial que tiene capacidad de succión.[8]​ Si bien el diseño es casi el mismo, el concepto utiliza el flujo de aire en lugar de agua. En el caso del transbordador espacial, las aguas residuales se ventilan por la borda al espacio y los desechos sólidos se comprimen y se retiran del área de almacenamiento una vez que el transbordador regresa a la tierra.[9]​ El modelo de inodoro actual se voló por primera vez en STS-54 en 1993 y cuenta con una capacidad de almacenamiento ilimitada, en comparación con la capacidad de solo 14 días de los inodoros lanzadera originales, y el nuevo modelo tiene un entorno libre de olores.

Gas control in spacecraft

Toxic gases are produced as a release of gases from astronauts and materials such as non-metallic surface coatings, adhesives, elastomers, solvents, cleaning agents, heat exchanger liquids etc. Above specific concentrations, if inhaled, the gases could impair the crew's ability to carry out their duties effectively.[10]​.

Most toxicological data on gas exposure are based on the 8-hour work period of the ground worker and are therefore not suitable for spacecraft work. New exposure times (astronautical hygiene data) have had to be established for space missions in which exposure can be uninterrupted for 2 weeks or more without daily or weekend periods.

Exposure limits are based on:.

• - "Normal" operating conditions of the spacecraft.

• - An "emergency" situation.

Under normal conditions, there are traces of polluting gases, such as ammonia, from normal gas emissions at room temperature and elevated temperatures. Other gases arise from breathing gas supply tanks and from the crew members themselves. In an emergency, gases can arise from overheating, spills, rupture of the refrigerant circuit (ethylene glycol) and pyrolysis of non-metallic components. Carbon monoxide is a major concern for space crews; this was evident during the Apollo missions. Emitted trace gases can be controlled using lithium hydroxide filters to trap carbon dioxide and activated carbon filters to trap other gases.

Gases in the cabin can be tested using gas chromatography, mass spectrometry and infrared spectrophotometry. Air samples from the spacecraft are examined before and after flight to determine their gas concentrations. Activated carbon filters can be examined for signs of trace gases. Measured concentrations can be compared to appropriate exposure limits. If exposures are high, health risks increase. Continuous sampling of hazardous substances is essential so that appropriate action can be taken if exposure is high.

A large number of volatile substances detected during the flight are mainly within their threshold limit values ​​and the maximum allowable concentration limits of the NASA spacecraft. If spacecraft cabin exposure to specific chemicals is below their TLV and SMAC, health risks following inhalation exposure are expected to be reduced.

Maximum permitted concentrations of spacecraft

SMACs guide chemical exposure during normal and emergency operations aboard spacecraft. Short-term SMACs refer to concentrations of substances in the air, such as gas and vapor, that will not compromise astronauts' performance of specific tasks during emergency conditions or cause serious toxic effects. Long-term SMACs are intended to avoid adverse health effects and prevent notable changes in crew performance under continuous exposure to chemicals for a period of up to 180 days.[11]​.

The astronautical hygiene data needed to develop SMACs includes:.

• - Chemical-physical characterization of the toxic chemical.

• - animal toxicity studies.

• - clinical studies in humans.

• - accidental human exposures.

• - epidemiological studies.

• - in vitro toxicity studies.

For many years menstruation was used as an excuse to prevent women from becoming astronauts, although experiments were never carried out to prove that this was an impediment. One of NASA's main concerns was the risk of peritonitis, in case the lack of gravity prevented the uterus from expelling waste.

For the Mercury mission, the first manned by people, NASA subjected 32 men and 19 women to physical and psychological tests; in the end only men were chosen for the space trip. In 1964, three years later, the program for female astronauts was eliminated on the grounds that menstruation made women too temperamental, physically and psychologically, to travel to space.[14]

One of the anecdotes that demonstrated the ignorance of male NASA personnel regarding menstruation and its hygiene was when in 1983, engineers asked Sally Ride, the first American astronaut, if 100 tampons were the appropriate amount for the one-week mission.[14][15]​.

According to space gynecologist, Varsha Jain), the follicle-stimulating hormone does not change during space travel; this means that the menstrual cycle, both in people and animals that have participated in space missions, does not present alterations.[12]​.

In 1980, when women began participating in NASA's space programs, another option had to be added so that it could be used by both genders: a unisex maximum absorbency diaper.[14]​.

Jain, along with her colleague, Virginia Wotring"), have pointed out that the waste disposal systems on the International Space Station were not created to handle menstrual waste.[16] There are two bathrooms on the ISS, one on the American side and one on the Russian side; women who are menstruating must use the Russian bathroom, as it is the only one that can process menstrual blood.[14]

Many astronauts prefer not to menstruate while in space, so the oral contraceptive is the favorite and most convenient method, 5 since for a three-year mission, approximately 1,100 pills are required, the weight and dimensions of which are smaller than those of tampons or sanitary pads to meet this biological need.[16]​.

Although it is difficult to obtain reliable research on the long-term side effects of the pill in astronauts,[17]​ so far, this method has not presented any risk,[17][13]​ Furthermore, the estrogen it contains helps reduce the loss of bone density, a side effect of stays in space.[13]​.

In February 2025, Hypatia Mars scientists participated in the simulation of a manned mission to Mars "Mars (planet)") at the Mars Research Desert Station (MDRS)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Mars Research Desert Station (MDRS) (not yet written)"), located in the Utah desert, United States, to conduct research on menstruation, nutrition, sleep cycles and other physiological variables in the women.[18][19]​.

Anna Bach, executive director of the mission, pointed out that they seek to study how the menstrual cycle works to improve mission management and provide other alternatives so that astronauts do not have to suppress their periods. In addition, scientists raise the possibility of collecting menstrual blood and using it as plant fertilizer.[19]​.

El polvo lunar o regolito es la capa de partículas en la superficie de la Luna y tiene aproximadamente <100 um.[20]​ Las formas de los granos tienden a alargarse. La exposición por inhalación a este polvo puede causar dificultades respiratorias porque el polvo es tóxico. También puede nublar las viseras de los astronautas cuando trabajan en la superficie de la Luna. Además, se adhiere a los trajes espaciales tanto mecánicamente (debido a las formas de púas) como electrostáticamente . Durante el Apolo, se descubrió que el polvo causaba desgaste en la tela del traje espacial.[21]​.

Durante la exploración lunar, será necesario evaluar los riesgos de exposición al polvo lunar y, por lo tanto, instigar los controles de exposición adecuados. Las medidas necesarias pueden incluir la medición de concentraciones de polvo exosférico, campos eléctricos de superficie, masa de polvo, velocidad, carga y sus características del plasma "Plasma (estado de la materia)").

Deposition of inhaled particles

The extent of the inflammatory response in the lung will depend on where the lunar dust particles settle. In 1G deposition, the more central airways will reduce the transport of fine particles to the lung periphery. On the Moon with fractional gravity, inhaled fine particles will settle in more peripheral regions of the lung. Therefore, due to the reduced sedimentation rate in lunar gravity, fine dust particles will be deposited in the alveolar region of the lung. This will exacerbate the potential for lung damage.[22][23]​.

Control dust exposure

The use of high-gradient magnetic separation techniques should be developed to remove dust from spacesuits after exploration, as the fine fraction of lunar dust is magnetic.[24] Additionally, vacuum cleaners can be used to remove dust from spacesuits.

Mass spectrometry has been used to monitor spacecraft cabin air quality.[25] The results obtained can be used to assess risks during spaceflight, for example by comparing VOC concentrations with their SMACs. If levels are too high, appropriate corrective measures will be required to reduce concentrations and health risks.

Durante el vuelo espacial, habrá transferencia de microbios entre los miembros de la tripulación. La tripulación del Skylab 1 experimentó varias enfermedades bacterianas asociadas. Se encontró que la contaminación microbiana en el Skylab era muy alta. Staphylococcus aureus y Aspergillus spp se han aislado comúnmente del aire y las superficies durante varias misiones espaciales. Los microbios no se sedimentan en microgravedad, lo que da como resultado aerosoles persistentes en el aire y altas densidades microbianas en el aire de la cabina, en particular si los sistemas de filtrado de aire de la cabina no están bien mantenidos. Durante una misión se encontró un aumento en el número y diseminación de hongos y estreptococos patógenos.

Los dispositivos de recolección de orina acumulan la bacteria Proteus mirabilis, que está asociada con la infección del tracto urinario . Por esta razón, los astronautas pueden ser susceptibles a infecciones del tracto urinario . Un ejemplo es la misión Apolo 13, durante la cual el piloto del módulo lunar experimentó una infección aguda del tracto urinario que requirió dos semanas de terapia con antibióticos para resolverse.[26]​.

Las biopelículas que pueden contener una mezcla de bacterias y hongos tienen el potencial de dañar los equipos electrónicos al oxidar varios componentes, por ejemplo, cables de cobre . Estos organismos prosperan porque sobreviven con la materia orgánica liberada por la piel del astronauta. Los ácidos orgánicos producidos por microbios, en particular hongos, pueden corroer el acero, el vidrio y el plástico. Además, debido al aumento de la exposición a la radiación en una nave espacial, es probable que haya más mutaciones microbianas.

Debido a la posibilidad de que los microbios causen infecciones en los astronautas y puedan degradar varios componentes que pueden ser vitales para el funcionamiento de la nave espacial, se deben evaluar los riesgos y, en su caso, gestionar los niveles de crecimiento microbiano controlados por la nave espacial. uso de una buena higiene astronáutica. Por ejemplo, muestreando con frecuencia el aire y las superficies de la cabina espacial para detectar signos tempranos de un aumento de la contaminación microbiana, manteniendo las superficies limpias mediante el uso de ropa desinfectada, asegurando que todo el equipo esté bien mantenido, en particular los sistemas de soporte vital y por Aspiración regular de la nave espacial para eliminar el polvo, etc. Es probable que durante las primeras misiones tripuladas a Marte se subestimen los riesgos de contaminación microbiana a menos que se apliquen los principios de buenas prácticas de higiene astronáutica. Por lo tanto, se necesitan más investigaciones en este campo para poder evaluar los riesgos de exposición y desarrollar las medidas necesarias para mitigar el crecimiento microbiano.

Microbes and microgravity in space

There are more than one hundred strains of bacteria and fungi that have been identified on manned space missions. These microorganisms survive and spread in space.[27] Much effort is being made to ensure that the risks of exposure to microbes are significantly reduced. Spacecraft are sterilized as a good control practice by washing with antimicrobial agents such as ethylene oxide and methyl chloride, and astronauts are quarantined for several days before a mission. However, these measures only reduce microbial populations rather than eliminating them. Microgravity can increase the virulence of specific microbes. Therefore, it is important that the mechanisms responsible for this problem are studied and appropriate controls are implemented to ensure that astronauts, particularly immunocompromised ones, are not affected.

El trabajo de Cain (2007) y otros[28]​ han visto la necesidad de comprender los peligros y riesgos de trabajar en un entorno de baja gravedad. Los efectos generales sobre el cuerpo de los vuelos espaciales o la reducción de la gravedad, por ejemplo, como puede ocurrir en la Luna o durante la exploración de Marte, incluyen factores físicos modificados como la disminución del peso, la presión de los fluidos, la convección y la sedimentación. Estos cambios afectarán los fluidos corporales, los receptores de gravedad y las estructuras que soportan peso. El cuerpo se adaptará a estos cambios durante el tiempo que pase en el espacio. También habrá cambios psicosociales causados por viajar en el espacio confinado de una nave espacial. La higiene astronáutica (y la medicina espacial) debe abordar estos problemas, en particular, los probables cambios de comportamiento de la tripulación, de lo contrario, las medidas desarrolladas para controlar los posibles peligros y riesgos para la salud no se mantendrán. Cualquier disminución en la comunicación, el desempeño y la resolución de problemas, por ejemplo, podría tener efectos devastadores.

Durante la exploración espacial, existe la posibilidad de que se desarrolle dermatitis de contacto, en particular si hay exposición a sensibilizantes de la piel como los acrilatos . Dicha enfermedad de la piel podría poner en peligro una misión a menos que se tomen las medidas adecuadas para identificar la fuente de exposición, evaluar los riesgos para la salud y, por lo tanto, determinar los medios para mitigar la exposición.[29]​.

Noise

Fans, compressors "Compressor (machine)"), motors, transformers, pumps, etc. of the International Space Station (ISS) generate noise. As more equipment is required on the space station, there is the potential for more noise. Astronaut Tom Jones noted that noise was more of a problem in the early days of the space station when astronauts wore hearing protection. Today, hearing protection is not required and sleeping chambers are soundproof.[30]​.

The Russian space program has never given a high priority to the noise levels experienced by its cosmonauts (for example, on Mir (space station) noise levels reached 70-72 dB). Less than 75 decibels are unlikely to cause hearing loss.[31] See Noise-Induced Hearing Loss for more information. This could cause hazard warning alarms to not be heard over background noise. To reduce noise risks, NASA engineers built hardware with built-in noise reduction. A depressurized pump producing 100 dB can reduce noise levels to 60 dB by installing four isolation supports. The use of hearing protectors is not recommended because they block alarm signals. More research is needed for this field, as well as in other areas of astronautical hygiene, for example, measures to reduce the risks of radiation exposure, methods to create artificial gravity, more sensitive sensors to monitor hazardous substances, better life support systems, and more toxicological data on the dangers of lunar and Martian dust.

La radiación espacial consiste en partículas de alta energía como protones, alfa y partículas más pesadas que se originan en fuentes tales como rayos cósmicos galácticos, partículas solares energéticas de llamaradas solares y cinturones de radiación atrapados. La exposición de la tripulación de la estación espacial será mucho mayor que la de la Tierra y los astronautas sin blindaje pueden experimentar efectos graves para la salud si no están protegidos. La radiación cósmica galáctica es extremadamente penetrante y puede que no sea posible construir escudos de suficiente profundidad para prevenir o controlar la exposición.

Trapped radiation

The Earth's magnetic field is responsible for the formation of the trapped radiation belts that surround the Earth. The ISS orbits between 200 nautical miles (370.4 km) and 270 nautical miles (500 km), known as low Earth orbit (LEO). Radiation doses trapped in LEO decrease during solar maximum and increase during solar minimum. The highest exposures occur in the South Atlantic Anomaly region.

Galactic cosmic radiation

This radiation originates outside the solar system and is formed by ionized charged atomic nuclei of hydrogen, helium, and uranium. Due to its energy, galactic cosmic radiation is very penetrating. Thin to moderate shielding is effective in reducing the projected equivalent dose, but as the thickness of the shielding increases, the effectiveness of the shielding decreases.

Solar particle events

These are injections of energetic electrons, protons and alpha particles into interplanetary space during solar flare eruptions. During periods of maximum solar activity, the frequency and intensity of solar flares will increase. Solar proton events generally occur only once or twice per solar cycle.

The intensity and spectral alteration of SPEs have a significant impact on shield effectiveness. Solar flares occur without much warning, so they are difficult to predict. SPEs will represent the greatest threat to unprotected crews in polar, geostationary or interplanetary orbits. Fortunately, most SPEs are short-lived (less than 1 to 2 days), allowing small-volume “storm shelters” to be feasible.

Others

Radiation hazards can also come from artificial sources, for example medical research, from radio-isotope energy generators or from small experiments like on Earth. Lunar and Martian missions may include nuclear reactors for energy or related nuclear propulsion systems. Astronautical hygienists will need to evaluate the risks from these other radiation sources and take appropriate measures to mitigate exposure.

Laboratory tests published in the Journal of Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion[32]​ indicate that a magnetic "umbrella" could be developed to deflect harmful space radiation away from the spacecraft. Such an "umbrella" would protect astronauts from ultrafast charged particles moving away from the Sun. It would provide a protective field around the spacecraft similar to the magnetosphere that surrounds the Earth. This form of control against solar radiation will be necessary if a man is to explore the planets and reduce the health risks of exposure to the deadly effects of radiation. More research is needed to develop and test a practical system.

• - Bioastronautics.

• - Effect of space flights on the human body.

• - International Space Station.

• - Space flight of the British Interplanetary Society (BIS) - Letters and emails (September 2006, p 353).

• - BIS Spaceflight - Letters and emails (December 2007, p 477).

• - How do you wash your hair in space? Archived December 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. - Expedition 36 Flight Engineer Archived December 5, 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Karen Nyberg.