Contenido

• - El convenio 155 de la OIT; Sobre seguridad y salud de los trabajadores,[9]​ y la Recomendación sobre seguridad y salud de los trabajadores, R164, disponen que deben adoptarse medidas políticas nacionales de seguridad y salud en el trabajo, y estipulan las actuaciones necesarias tanto a nivel nacional como a nivel empresarial para impulsar la seguridad y salud en el trabajo y la mejora del medioambiente.

• - El convenio 161 de la OIT sobre los servicios de salud en el trabajo,[10]​ y sus recomendaciones, disponen la creación de servicios de salud laboral que contribuyan a la implantación de las medidas políticas de seguridad y salud en el trabajo.

• - Principios directivos técnicos y éticos relativos a la vigilancia de la salud de los trabajadores, aprobados por la OIT.[11]​.

Argentina

• - Occupational regime.[12]​.

• - Law 19587 on Hygiene and Safety at Work.

• - Law 24557 on occupational risks.[13]​.

Mexico

The Federal Labor Law, in its article 132, section XVI, establishes the obligation of the employer to install and operate the factories, workshops, offices, premises and other places where the work must be carried out, in accordance with the provisions established in the regulations and official Mexican standards on safety, health and work environment, in order to prevent accidents and occupational diseases, as well as to adopt the preventive and corrective measures determined by the labor authority.

In Mexico there are also Standards or NOMs which are technical regulations in a regulatory nature by the government of Mexico, these are mainly to regulate products, processes and services to protect safety, although these were already mentioned at the top of this section, we must highlight NOM 035, which establishes the psychosocial risk factors at work, their identification, analysis and prevention [14]​.

According to its field of application, it applies throughout the national territory, however this standard applies according to the number of workers who work in the workplace[15]​.

Broadly speaking, NOM 035 seeks to psychologically protect the worker from severe traumatic events or events (for example, witnessing the death of a colleague, witnessing or being a victim of harassment or threats that threaten the worker's full life in the workplace) in which they affect their safety, occupational risk and mainly the worker's stay in the company after suffering this type of events [15]​.

In asset security, the very nature of this position is based on the protection of the company's human resources and assets, therefore prevention, action and containment plans are an important factor.

The human factor is essential in any scenario, however all personnel must be trained in various prevention programs and action protocols, in order to carry out an entire property security management program.

Uruguay

Law No. 16,074 declares the mandatory nature of insurance against work accidents and occupational diseases. This law regulates the activities carried out in Uruguay with respect to accidents at work and occupational diseases, the compensation and permanent income derived from them, and the obligations of the employer sector.[16]​.

European Union

Within the European Union, there are the following organizations related to Safety and Health at Work.

• - The Advisory Committee for Safety, Hygiene and Health Protection in the Workplace").

• - European Agency for Safety and Health at Work"), based in Bilbao (Spain).

• - European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions"), based in Dublin (Ireland).

• - The International Commission on Occupational Health") (ICOH).

• - The International Social Security Association") (ISSA)[17]​.

The modification of the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community by the so-called Single Act"), in accordance with Article 118 A), since its entry into force, the Member States have been promoting the improvement of the working environment to achieve the objective of harmonization in the progress of the safety and health conditions of workers. This objective has been reinforced in the Treaty of the European Union through the procedure contemplated therein for the adoption, through Directives "Directive (Right of the European Union)"), of minimum provisions that will have to be applied progressively.

Spain

Since 1976, Spain has entered a new stage in its history with the establishment of the monarchy, after having experienced various forms of government. This change brings with it a resurgence of ideological confrontation between political parties, and, of course, the different positions on the prevention of occupational risks become part of the debate. The concept of Health has various interpretations, in addition to that established in the Preamble of the Constitution of the WHO. 1945. The discussion about the loss of health focuses on the technical CAUSES and the personal FACTORS, until it is finally recognized that the technical causes are the most relevant for the advancement and implementation in the field of prevention.[18]​.

The lack of a clear criterion led to the transformation of the previous PLANHISET into the Social Service of Hygiene and Safety at Work in August 1976. Two years later, in 1978, this service was integrated into the newly created Ministry of Health and Social Security. This body must comply with the provisions of article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, which indicates the obligation of public powers to promote Safety and Hygiene at Work, aligning with the right to health protection, which is mentioned in article 43 of the same Constitution.[18]​.

With the arrival of the Socialist Party to power at the end of 1982, the supervisory and preventive advisory functions carried out by the territorial and provincial bodies of the I.N.S.H.T. through the Provincial Technical Cabinets were almost completely reduced. Even visits at the initiative of the national programming, which had had very positive results in previous years, were eliminated because the Labor Inspection once again assumed all powers. Instead, the development of research programs on methods and techniques of occupational safety and industrial hygiene was promoted, as well as the evaluation of accident statistics, studies on workplaces, raw materials and products that are toxic, dangerous or difficult to handle, in addition to training and updating plans for Safety and Hygiene Technicians. In relation to the National Congresses, we mention the The importance of improving the training of employers and workers to achieve better occupational safety and environmental conditions at work was also discussed. The XI Congress, held in Madrid in 1987, was the last of a general nature convened during the century, which reflects the confusion generated by the dispersion in the control of Occupational Safety and Hygiene in charge of the autonomous communities.[18]​.

In 1985, the functions of the Provincial Commissions of the General Council of Safety and Hygiene at Work were established. However, with the passage of time, these commissions became ineffective, and the voices of the union centers and business organizations that were represented became mere troupes, lacking ideas that would promote effective actions to address workplace accidents.[18]​.

From that moment on, a peculiar stage begins for the only technical body of the Administration that has in-depth knowledge on the prevention of occupational risks, in a context where the European Economic Community seeks to establish itself in the face of the significant economic threat represented, mainly, by the United States and Japan. Europe's response was not long in coming. Territorial unity was promoted as the only tool capable of promoting the social, economic and political approaches necessary to compete with other powers outside Europe. However, any change had to guarantee the maintenance and improvement of working conditions. Following the perspective of Hugues de Jouvenel, it is essential to return to ethical values ​​when facing new technologies, which will transform the ways of working, replacing the concept of "work" with that of "function." Ides Nicaise, from the Catholic University of Louvain, advocates for greater investment by companies in education and training, and demands that States establish an adequate protection system. This is the current situation. To be clear in our presentation, we are going to break down into small sections some of the key aspects of this period, which we consider illuminating with respect to the legislation approved at the end of the century, designed to address the problem of Occupational Health at the beginning of the century.[18]​.

Occupational risk is defined as any aspect of work that has the potential to cause harm (Damage (Law)). The prevention of occupational risks is the discipline that seeks to promote the safety and health of workers through the identification, evaluation and control of the dangers and risks associated with a production process, in addition to promoting the development of activities and measures necessary to prevent the risks derived from the occupation "Work (sociology)")[19]​.

Although it is an area that, at least in Spain, has a history of more than 100 years, this name has been relatively recent, following Law 31/1995, of November 8, on the Prevention of Occupational Risks"),[20]​ which develops article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution, which entrusts public powers, as one of the guiding principles of social and economic policy, to ensure health and safety. occupational.

En España, por ejemplo, la Ley 31/1995, de 8 de noviembre de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales"), en la exposición de motivos, expone entre otros argumentos los siguientes:.

Machinery, equipment, products and work tools

Not only the employer who has a worker is bound by the occupational risk prevention regulations, but obligations are also usually established that affect manufacturers, importers and suppliers of machinery, equipment, products and work tools. Furthermore, the workers themselves are obliged to collaborate with companies in the development and application of occupational risk prevention.[21]​.

To evaluate the magnitude of the risks, there is a method that bases the estimation of the risks for each hazard on the determination of the potential severity of the damage (consequences) and the probability of the event occurring. In this way, in the area of ​​severity of damage, these are classified as slightly harmful (such as superficial damage and discomfort and irritation), harmful (such as burns, concussions, minor fractures, dermatitis, asthma, etc.) and extremely harmful (such as amputations, major fractures, poisoning, cancer or acute illnesses that severely shorten life).

Regarding the probability that the damage will occur, three categories are used: low, when the damage will rarely occur; the average, if it will occur sometimes, and the high, when it will always or almost always occur.

The following diagram summarizes the evaluation of occupational risks in companies:[22][23]​.

• - Previous information, including sector risks and data on accidents and occupational diseases, as well as legal standards and regulations on the prevention of occupational risks.

• - Identification of all related hazards, both in the environment and general facilities, as well as in machinery, tools, means of internal transportation, chemical products, etc.

• - Identification of all exposed workers, both permanent and subcontracted personnel, self-employed, temporary, etc.

• - Global risk assessment: probability and severity of potential damage (accidents, diseases, etc.) that could arise from the identified dangerous elements.

• - Specific evaluation of certain risks.

Next, preventive priorities are established and an order of action on the risks is defined, depending on their severity and the number of workers affected. The order of priority of preventive measures is as follows:[22][23]​.

• - Combat risks at their source.

• - Eliminate risks (substitute or replace processes, supplies, materials, equipment, tools... with others that entail little or no danger).

• - Reduce those risks that cannot be eliminated through the implementation of appropriate control systems.

• - Apply collective protection measures before individual ones.

Risk and safety phrases are sentences standardized by the European Union to indicate the basic handling of dangerous substances and reduce the risk that their handling entails. They are divided into two groups; R-phrases (Risk) and S-phrases (Safety) depending on the descriptive nature of the phrase.

• - List of R phrases.

• - List of S phrases.

These phrases differ from those applied in other countries. For this reason, in 2002, the United Nations created a globally harmonized system for the classification and labeling of chemicals ("GHS").

A efectos de determinación de las capacidades y aptitudes necesarias para la evaluación de los riesgos y el desarrollo de la actividad preventiva, las funciones a realizar se clasifican en los siguientes grupos:[24]​.

• - Funciones de nivel básico.

• - Funciones de nivel intermedio.

• - Funciones de nivel superior, correspondientes a las especialidades y disciplinas preventivas de medicina del trabajo, seguridad en el trabajo"), higiene industrial, y ergonomía y psicosociología aplicada.

Industrial hygiene

Industrial hygiene[25]​ makes up a set of knowledge and techniques dedicated to recognizing, evaluating and controlling those environmental, psychological or stress factors that come from work and can cause illness or deteriorate health.

Industrial hygiene is made up of a set of rules and procedures aimed at protecting the physical and mental integrity of the worker, preserving him from the health risks inherent to the tasks of the position and the physical environment where they are performed.

It is related to the diagnosis and prevention of occupational diseases through the study and control of two variables: man and his work environment.

It has an eminently preventive nature, since it is aimed at the health and comfort of the employee, preventing them from getting sick or being temporarily or permanently absent from work.

• - Recognize the agents of the occupational environment" that can cause illness in workers.

• - Evaluate the agents of the occupational environment to determine the degree of health risk.

• - Eliminate the causes of occupational diseases.

• - Reduce the harmful effects caused by work in people who are sick or have physical defects.

• - Prevent the worsening of diseases and injuries.

• - Maintain the health of workers.

• - Increase productivity by controlling the work environment.

• - Propose control measures that reduce the degree of risk to workers' health.

• - Train workers on the risks present in the occupational environment and how to prevent or minimize undesirable effects.

Ergonomics at work

The ergonomic design of the workplace attempts to obtain an adequate fit between the skills or abilities of the worker and the requirements or demands of the job. The final objective is to optimize the productivity of the worker and the production system, while guaranteeing the satisfaction, safety and health of the workers.

The ergonomic design of the workplace must take into account the anthropometric characteristics of the population, the adaptation of the space, working postures, free space, interference of body parts, visual field, worker strength and biomechanical stress), among other aspects. The organizational aspects of the task are also taken into account.

To correctly design the conditions that a job must meet, it is necessary to take into account, among others, the following factors:

• - Mechanical risks that may exist.

• - The risks caused by an incorrect working posture resulting from an incorrect design of seats, stools and other elements.

• - Risks related to the worker's activity (for example, due to maintained work postures, overexertion) or movements carried out incorrectly during work or the overload suffered by the worker's perception and attention capacities).

• - Risks related to energy (electricity, compressed air, gases, temperature, chemical agents, etc.)[26]​.

The proper design of the workplace should serve to:.

• - Guarantee a correct layout of the workspace.

• - Avoid unnecessary efforts. Efforts should never exceed the physical capacity of the worker.

• - Avoid movements that force the joint systems "Articulation (anatomy)").

• - Avoid excessively repetitive work").

• - Improve worker performance.

• - Health and Safety at Work. The basic principles of ergonomics. International Labor Organization.[27]​.

Los siniestros ocupacionales pueden deberse a condiciones ambientales del centro de trabajo, condiciones físicas del trabajo, condiciones del puesto de trabajo y condiciones derivadas del sistema organizativo del trabajo, es deber de todos hacer que estas condiciones adversas se conviertan en siniestros. Cada riesgo laboral lleva conexo un plan preventivo para evitarlo o paliar su gravedad. Un siniestro puede ocasionarse por ignorancia de los riesgos que se corren, por una actuación negligente, es decir, no tomar las precauciones necesarias para ejecutar una tarea o por una actitud temeraria de rechazar los riesgos que están presentes en el área de trabajo.

Basic tips

• - Protect your eyesight from ultraviolet radiation.

• - Protect yourself from air conditioning.

• - Protection of hands when using chemical products.

• - Hearing protection using earplugs or earmuffs.

• - Head protection using the safety helmet.

• - Use of appropriate clothing against the cold.

• - Protection from sun risk.

• - Correct treatment of possible burns.

• - Action plan in emergency situations "Emergency (disaster)").

In order to reduce and reduce the incidence and severity of occupational accidents, companies must have the following devices in their workplaces:

• - emergency lighting.

• - First aid supplies and premises.

• - personal protective equipment (PPE).

• - cleaning, order and maintenance of work centers").

• - fire protection.

• - safety signage.

• - hygienic services and rest areas.

• - evacuation routes and exits").

Safety at work

The tasks carried out by a worker can be carried out in a specific place, which can be inside a building or outside in the open air, and can also be carried out moving from one place to another. Workplaces, in addition to being located in industrial facilities, can also be in hospitals, educational centers, hotels, offices, commercial premises, etc. In all places where there is a worker, whatever his function, he must be protected by the occupational risk prevention laws that apply to him.

Likewise, workers will have to handle work equipment consisting of any machine, device, instrument or installation used in the work.

The employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the work equipment made available to workers is appropriate for the work to be performed and suitably adapted to it, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers when using said work equipment.

When, in order to avoid or control a specific risk for the safety or health of workers, the use of work equipment must be carried out under certain conditions or forms, which require particular knowledge on the part of those workers, the employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the use of said equipment is reserved for the workers designated for it. The employer must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on the risks arising from the use of work equipment, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.[28]​.

"Overexertion" is physical work carried out above the normal effort that a person can develop in a given task.

Pathologies derived from overexertion are the first cause of illness in professionals. Overexertion accounts for almost 30 percent of minor occupational accidents and rises to 85% in the diseases suffered by professionals.[29]​.

To avoid "musculoskeletal disorders" resulting from overexertion, it is necessary to analyze the occupational risks of working conditions, the evaluation of these occupational risks, training, health monitoring and prevention of fatigue.

Working conditions are seriously altered when physical efforts greater than normal activity limits are required. In addition to physical effort, mental, visual, auditory, and emotional effort should also be considered as disturbing elements.[30]​.

To evaluate physical effort, the nature of the effort must be taken into account, and the postures adopted in the workplace, sitting or standing, and the frequency of uncomfortable positions.[31]​.

La mayor parte de los accidentes ocupacionales ocasionados por sobreesfuerzos son lesiones musculares") pueden ser por causadas por golpes, o por causas internas producidas por alteraciones propias del músculo. Estas lesiones se pueden dividir en distensiones"), calambres, contracturas y las más graves, desgarros.[32]​.

• - Manipular cargas pesadas").

• - Work with forced postures.

• - Perform repetitive movements.

• - Previously suffering from a muscle or bone injury in the affected area.

• - Premature return to work after a poorly healed injury.

To avoid injuries due to overexertion, it is necessary to take appropriate preventive measures and use the necessary personal protective equipment.[33]​.

• - Health and safety at work. The basic principles of ergonomics. International Labor Organization.[27]​.

All people who manipulate any machine, device, instrument or installation at work are obliged to comply with the safety regulations that concern the machines they manipulate. Before ordering the manipulation of a dangerous machine or tool to a worker, they must be thoroughly instructed in the handling of the machine in advance.[34]​.

The most frequent risks that arise from handling machine tools are basically:

• - accidental contact with the tool or moving part;

• - entrapment with the moving parts of the machine;

• - projection of the piece or tool;

• - dermatitis due to contact with cutting fluids used as coolants.

For this reason, employers will have to adopt the necessary measures so that the machines and work equipment that are made available to workers are appropriate for the work to be performed, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers. When it is not possible to fully guarantee the safety and health of workers during the use of work equipment in this way, the employer will take appropriate measures to reduce such risks to a minimum.

The minimum provisions applicable to the handling of machines and tools include, among other issues, the following:

• - The operating devices of a work team that have an impact on safety must be clearly visible and identifiable and, when appropriate, be indicated with appropriate signage.

• - The start-up of a work team can only be carried out through voluntary action on a control device provided for this purpose.

• - Each work equipment must be provided with a control device that allows its total stop in safe conditions.

• - When the mobile elements of a work equipment may entail risks of accident due to mechanical contact, they must be equipped with guards or devices that prevent access to dangerous areas or that stop dangerous maneuvers before accessing said areas.

• - All work equipment must be provided with clearly identifiable devices that allow it to be separated from each of its energy sources.[35]​.

Working conditions can be seriously disturbed if the dimensions of the work premises do not allow workers to have the adequate surface and volume to carry out their work without risks to their safety and health and in acceptable ergonomic conditions.

Separations must be provided between the material elements existing in the workplace. When, for reasons inherent to the workplace, the available free space does not allow the worker to have the freedom of movement necessary to carry out his or her activity, sufficient additional space must be available in the vicinity of the workplace.

Only authorized workers may access areas where the safety of workers may be affected by risks of falls, falling objects and contact or exposure to aggressive elements. Likewise, there must be, to the extent possible, a system that prevents unauthorized workers from accessing these areas.

Areas of the workplace where there is a risk of falling, falling objects or contact or exposure to aggressive elements must be clearly marked.[36]​.

The need to regulate the use and signaling of doors and gates in the workplace is to prevent occupational accidents from occurring when workers pass goods or transit within industrial warehouses. Doors must be designed and manufactured according to their function and around other aspects such as:.

• - The frequency of use: considering the number of people who commonly use the door on a daily basis.

• - Adequate width: (for example to make way for a wheelchair or motorized vehicles).

• - Direction of opening: if the door must open to one side only (and which side it should open) or if it is swinging. Whether it is electric or manual opening.

• - Warning systems: whether the door must have a warning window.

• - Door constituent materials: doors can be categorized according to their properties in relation to the estimated time or duration of a fire since some doors can resist the passage of fire for less or longer than others.[37]​.

In order to avoid occupational accidents due to falls or slipping"), the floors of the work premises must be fixed, stable and non-slippery, without irregularities or dangerous slopes.

Openings or slopes that pose a risk of people falling will be protected by railings or other equivalent safety protection systems, which may have moving parts when it is necessary to have access to the opening. They must be protected, in particular:

• - openings in the floors;

• - openings in walls or partitions, whenever their location and dimensions pose a risk of people falling, and platforms, docks or similar structures.[38]​.

"Load handling devices" inside industrial establishments are made up of cranes "Crane (machine)", overhead cranes, hoists, forklifts, forklifts and the loads themselves that are handled.[39]​.

The risks associated with cargo handling are the following:

• - Falling objects due to poor load securing.

• - Falling objects detached due to breakage of fastening elements (hooks, ropes, cables...).

• - Collisions against moving objects due to load oscillation.

• - Fall of people at different levels.

• - Entrapment by or between moving objects of lifting devices.[40]​.

The prevention devices that must be used with transport elements are the following:.

• - Mobile work teams with transported workers must be adapted in a way that reduces the risks to the worker or workers during movement.

• - Means must be provided for fixing the energy transmission elements between mobile work equipment when there is a risk of said elements getting stuck or damaged when dragged along the ground.

• - Forklifts occupied by one or more workers must be conditioned or equipped to limit the risks of overturning through appropriate measures.

• - Work equipment that, due to its mobility or that of the loads it moves, may pose a risk, under the intended conditions of use, to the safety of workers located in its vicinity, must be provided with acoustic warning signs.

• - Machines for lifting loads must have a clearly visible indication of their nominal load and, where applicable, a load plate that stipulates the nominal load of each configuration of the machine.

• - Permanently installed work equipment must be installed in a way that reduces the risk of the load plummeting, becoming loose, deflecting unintentionally in a dangerous manner, or otherwise striking workers.[41]​.

The risk caused by electrical energy is called electrical risk. This type of risk includes the following:

• - Electrical shock due to contact with elements under tension "Voltage (electricity)") (direct electrical contact), or with masses accidentally placed under tension (indirect electrical contact).

• - Burns due to electric shock, or electric arc.

• - Falls or blows as a result of shock or electric arc.

• - Fires or explosions caused by electricity.

An electrical contact is the action of closing an electrical circuit by joining two elements. Direct electrical contact is the contact of people or animals with active conductors of an electrical installation. An indirect electrical contact is a contact of people or animals accidentally energized or a contact with any active part through a conductive medium.

The electrical current can cause immediate effects such as burns, cramps or fibrillation, and late effects such as mental disorders. It can also cause indirect effects such as falls, bumps or cuts.

The main factors that influence electrical risk are:[42]​.

• - The intensity of electric current.

• - The duration of electrical contact.

• - The impedance of the electrical contact, which depends fundamentally on the humidity, the surface "Surface (mathematical)") of contact and the voltage and frequency of the applied voltage.

• - The applied tension. In itself it is not dangerous but, if the resistance is low, it causes the passage of a high intensity and, therefore, very dangerous. The relationship between intensity and voltage is not linear due to the fact that the impedance of the human body varies with contact voltage.

• - Frequency of the electric current. At higher frequencies, the impedance of the body is lower. This effect decreases with increasing electrical voltage.

• - Current path through the body. When passing through vital organs, such as the heart, very serious injuries can be caused.

Accidents caused by electricity can be minor, serious and even fatal. In the event of the death of the injured party, it is called electrocution.

In the occupational world, employers must adopt the necessary measures so that no risks arise from the use or presence of electrical energy in the workplace for the safety and health of workers or, if this is not possible, so that such risks are reduced to a minimum.

Based on this, the electrical installations in the workplace will be used and maintained in the appropriate manner and the operation of the protection systems will be periodically controlled, according to the instructions of their manufacturers and installers, if they exist, and the operator's own experience.

With this safety objective, employers must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on electrical risk, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.

Work on electrical installations in locations with risk of fire or explosion will be carried out following a procedure that reduces these risks to a minimum; To this end, the presence of flammable substances in the work area will be limited and controlled, as far as possible, and the appearance of ignition sources will be avoided, in particular, if an explosive atmosphere exists, or could form. In this case, carrying out work or operations (changing lamps, fuses, etc.) under voltage is prohibited, unless they are carried out in facilities and with equipment designed to operate under these conditions, which comply with the specific applicable regulations.[43]​.

Vibrations are the oscillations of particles around a point in any balanced physical medium and can be produced as a result of the operation of a machine or piece of equipment.[44]​.

For the purposes of working conditions, there are two types of harmful vibrations:

1. • Vibrations transmitted to the hand-arm system, which is a mechanical vibration that, when transmitted to the human hand-arm system, poses risks to the health and safety of workers, in particular, vascular, bone or joint, nervous or muscular problems.

2. • Vibrations transmitted to the whole body: which is a type of mechanical vibration that, when transmitted to the entire body, carries risks for the health and safety of workers, in particular, low back pain and spinal cord injuries.[45]​.

Preventive measures to reduce the harmful effects of mechanical vibrations.

• - Establish other work methods that reduce the need to be exposed to mechanical vibrations.

• - Choose appropriate work equipment, well designed from an ergonomic point of view and generating the lowest level of vibrations possible, taking into account the work for which it is intended.

• - Choose the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for the work being carried out in order to reduce the risks of injury from vibrations, for example, seats, shock absorbers or other systems that effectively attenuate vibrations transmitted to the entire body and handles, handles or covers that reduce vibrations transmitted to the hand-arm system.

• - Establish appropriate maintenance programs for work equipment, the workplace and jobs.

• - Adequately inform and train workers on the correct and safe handling of work equipment, in order to minimize exposure to mechanical vibrations.

• - Reduce the duration and intensity of the exposure as much as possible.

• - Take necessary measures to protect exposed workers from cold and humidity, including the provision of appropriate clothing.

Coming into contact with the emission of gases, vapors, liquids or dust is a fairly widespread process in fixed and portable machines and devices that workers manipulate.

In general, the emission of the substance involves its subsequent dispersion or diffusion in the air and, finally, its inhalation by the worker. The emission can come from different operations or sources. The nature of the substance determines its danger. Its effects on the body can be very diverse, being able to distinguish, among others:.

To evaluate the risks, it will be necessary to have information on the dangerous properties of the substances and any other information necessary to carry out said evaluation that, where appropriate, must be provided by the supplier, or that can be obtained from it or from any other easily accessible source of information. The magnitude of the exposure of the affected worker must be determined.[47]​.

An explosive atmosphere is understood as the mixture with air, under atmospheric conditions, of flammable substances in the form of gases, vapors, mists or dusts, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture.

To prevent explosions in the workplace, employers must provide protection against them, of a technical or organizational nature depending on the type of activity, to prevent the formation of explosive atmospheres or, when the nature of the activity does not allow it, to avoid the ignition of explosive atmospheres and mitigate the harmful effects of an explosion in a way that guarantees the health and safety of workers.

• - Escapes or release, intentional or unintentional, of vapors, gases, flammable mists or combustible dusts that may give rise to explosion risks must be diverted or evacuated to a safe place. When the explosive atmosphere contains several types of combustible or flammable gases, vapours, mists or dusts, protective measures shall be adjusted to the greatest potential risk.

• - In the event of escapes of explosive substances, workers must be alerted by the emission of optical or acoustic alarm signals and evacuated safely before explosion conditions are reached. To this end, emergency exits will be arranged and maintained in operation that, in the event of danger, allow workers to quickly and safely leave the threatened places.

• - In the event that a power outage could lead to new dangers, an independent system must be in place to keep the equipment and protection systems in safe operating condition independently of the rest of the installation if a power outage were to occur.

• - It must be possible to manually disconnect devices and protection systems included in automatic processes that deviate from the expected operating conditions, provided that this does not compromise safety. The stored energy must be dissipated, by activating the emergency disconnection devices, as quickly and safely as possible or isolated so that it no longer constitutes a danger.[48]​.

• - Directive 1999/92/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, of December 16, 1999, relating to minimum provisions for improving the protection of the health and safety of workers exposed to risks derived from explosive atmospheres.[49]​.

The danger of working handling toxic substances derives mainly from the lack of knowledge that workers may have about the health risks of many chemical substances. The most harmful chemical substances that workers handle are of very varied composition and have very diverse effects on health.

In 2006, the European Parliament approved a regulation establishing a system for the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemical substances (REACH). This regulation requires manufacturers of dangerous chemicals to demonstrate that the substances they are marketing are safe for public health and the environment. The REACH approved by the European Parliament partially entered into force on 1 June 2007. The registration obligation is applicable from 1 June 2008, but in the case of some substances, which must be subject to prior registration, a transitional regime will be put in place, which in some cases will last until 1 June 2018. However, some groups of substances (listed in the Regulation) are exempt from the obligation to register. registration.[50]​.

The general objectives of the REACH regulation are, among others, the following:

• - End the lack of knowledge about the dangers of chemical substances.

• - Protect people and the environment from dangerous compounds.

• - Detect, limit and, if necessary, eliminate risky substances from circulation.

• - Transfer responsibility for substances from authorities to chemical producers.

• - Allow substances to enter the market only if specific information is available.

• - Ensure that there is adequate information on all chemical substances and that this information is transferred to all workers who will be in contact with it.

• - Promote innovation to obtain new, safer substances.

• - Simplify the regulations on chemical products.[50]​.

Reliable workplace toxicity measurements require good quality instruments, a standardized configuration of instrument distribution in the workplace, and an accurate description of the workplace, including aspects such as ventilation and tasks performed during measurements. Each EU Member State has its own procedure for carrying out these measurements. Currently, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) is developing a standard to assess exposure in the workplace.[51]​.

Basic regulations.

• - Frequent serious accidents in the handling of dangerous substances. Basic prevention measures.[52]​.

• - air conditioning.

• - general appearance of the work center.

• - biological contaminants.

• - chemical contaminants.

• - distance to the work center.

• - lightning.

• - radiation.

• - noises.

• - industrial ventilation "Ventilation (architecture)").

Environmental conditions can be harmful to both physical and mental health depending on a series of disturbances, some of which are highly aggressive, such as those derived from the presence in the work environment of chemical, physical or biological agents that can come into contact with people who work and negatively affect their health; These conditions are known as hygienic risk").

There are working conditions whose presence can cause negative feelings that must also be considered and, to the extent possible, corrected. In this section it is worth mentioning, for example, the general appearance of the work center, the distance from the worker's home to the work center, the environment where the work center is located, personal problems unrelated to work that the worker may have, the geographical location of the company and even the social valuation of the company. If these conditions are unfavorable for workers, workers may feel discomfort that prompts them to at least try to change companies.[53]​.

The general appearance of a work center is defined by the structural safety offered by its buildings, that is, absence of risks of landslides or collapse due to being excessively old or overloaded; not be affected by sick building syndrome; absence of environmental risks both with the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere and contamination of water or land due to waste or emissions in drains; control of the physical risks that workers may suffer in their workplaces where they are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE); adequate signage of access to the work center; luminosity and care of the environment and have quick and safe evacuation plans marked and organized.[54]​.

Climatic working conditions are the temperature and humidity in which work is carried out. Physical work") generates heat in the body. To regulate it, the human body has a system that allows it to maintain a constant body temperature around 37 °C. Thermal regulation and the feeling of thermal comfort depend on the heat produced by the body and exchanges with the environment. All of this is a function of:

• - physical activity that is developed;

• - type of clothing;.

• - humidity of the environment;

• - ambient temperature.

Poor thermohygrometric conditions can cause negative effects on health that will vary depending on the characteristics of each person and their ability to acclimatize, thus we can find colds, frostbite, dehydration, heat stroke and increased fatigue, which can affect the appearance of accidents.

When carrying out tasks outside, other climatic factors such as sun exposure must also be taken into account, which can cause skin cancer.

Ergonomics and applied psychosociology

The highly demanding and competitive environment, as well as the precarious conditions in which many workers operate, are causing an increasing appearance of psychological disorders. Specifically, the elements that can cause these disorders are the following:

• - workplace harassment.

• - job insecurity.

• - burnout syndrome "Burnout (syndrome)."

• - work with mental effort.

• - stressful job.

• - monotonous and routine work.

Occupational precariousness is called "occupational precariousness" to the situation experienced by workers who, for one reason or another, suffer from working conditions below the limit considered normal. Occupational precariousness has a special impact when the economic income received from work does not cover the basic needs of a person, since the economy is the factor that is available to cover people's needs.[71]​.

• - The temporary nature of employment contracts is one of the factors that most contribute to occupational precariousness. Another perception of precariousness is the salary remuneration obtained for the work performed, which is often insufficient to cover the minimum vital needs that allow a person to live autonomously. The working hours and the annual occupational calendar can also be perceived as a symptom of precariousness when many people have to work part-time daily, which prevents them from achieving the necessary remuneration or, instead, having to work working hours much higher than the legal one in order to obtain the necessary salary as a consequence of having a very low salary. Precariousness is also considered to be that suffered by workers who are not registered with social security and therefore lack the benefits that entitle those who are protected by Social Security.

Occupational insecurity can cause an increase in psychological suffering and a worsening of the health and quality of life of people who depend on work or the lack of it. The uncertainty about the future presented by precarious work alters the social behavior of the individual, because it increases the difficulties in forming and strengthening individual and collective identities around work. Occupational accident statistics indicate that the incidence of work accidents is higher among the population with precarious work than those with stable employment, due to lack of knowledge and application of safety standards for precarious workers and the fact that they carry out the most harmful and dangerous activities.

Occupational precariousness") is a group that includes inactivity, unemployment, temporary employment, forced part-time employment, and the underground economy that affect women more than men, young people more than older people, and have a greater impact on some regions than others. Likewise, we must highlight the serious situation of some groups such as the long-term unemployed over 40 years of age, ethnic or immigrant minorities, and people with disabilities.[72]​.

Según el Real Decreto 39/1997, de 17 de enero, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de los Servicios de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales,[79]​ se entenderá por servicio de prevención propio el conjunto de medios humanos y materiales de la empresa necesarios para la realización de las actividades de prevención, y por servicio de prevención ajeno el prestado por una entidad especializada que concierte con la empresa la realización de actividades de prevención, el asesoramiento y apoyo que precise en función de los tipos de riesgos o ambas actuaciones conjuntamente. Los servicios de prevención tendrán carácter interdisciplinario, entendiendo como tal la conjunción coordinada de dos o más disciplinas técnicas o científicas en materia de prevención de riesgos laborales (Medicina del Trabajo, Seguridad en el trabajo, Higiene Industrial, y Ergonomía y Psicosociología).[80]​.

Sanitary equipment

In accordance with Royal Decree 843/2011, of June 17, which establishes the basic criteria for the organization of resources to develop the health activity of prevention services,[81]​ the basic health equipment of the health service in the fixed facilities of the prevention service will be as follows:.

• - approved audiometer "Audimeter (sound)") and audiometric cabin, in all other prevention services; In the case of own prevention services, only in the event that the companies they serve have exposure to noise;

• - medication kit, sufficient material and equipment to attend to emergencies and first aid;

• - examination table;

• - sanitary waste containers;.

• - electrocardiograph;.

• - radiodiagnostic equipment: own or contracted;.

• - approved vision control equipment;

• - sphygmomanometer;.

• - approved spirometer or pneumotachometer;

• - stethoscope;.

• - laboratory: own or contracted;.

• - flashlight or external light source;

• - reflex hammer;.

• - negatoscope");.

• - refrigerator with maximum and minimum thermometer;

• - ophthalmoscope;.

• - otoscope;.

• - clinical weight;.

• - rhinoscope;.

• - size.

• - Losardo, Ricardo J.; Binvignat-Gutiérrez, O.: Anatomical graphic symbology in the communication process. International Journal of Morphology, 39 (3): 739-742, 2021 [1].

• - Safety and health at work (ILO).

• - Encyclopedia of health and safety at work (ILO).

• - European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Archived May 16, 2013 at the Wayback Machine.

• - Law 31/1995, of November 8, on the prevention of occupational risks (Spain).

• - National Institute of Safety and Health at Work (INSST) (Spain).

• - National Commission for Safety and Health at Work (CNSST) (Spain).

• - Labor Guide - Prevention of occupational risks.

• - Previpedia - Collaborative encyclopedia of occupational risk prevention.

• - Seguridad y Salud en el Trabajo (SST): Un Enfoque Integral.

• - Where to Find Evidence-Based Information on Occupational Safety and Health?

Contenido

• - El convenio 155 de la OIT; Sobre seguridad y salud de los trabajadores,[9]​ y la Recomendación sobre seguridad y salud de los trabajadores, R164, disponen que deben adoptarse medidas políticas nacionales de seguridad y salud en el trabajo, y estipulan las actuaciones necesarias tanto a nivel nacional como a nivel empresarial para impulsar la seguridad y salud en el trabajo y la mejora del medioambiente.

• - El convenio 161 de la OIT sobre los servicios de salud en el trabajo,[10]​ y sus recomendaciones, disponen la creación de servicios de salud laboral que contribuyan a la implantación de las medidas políticas de seguridad y salud en el trabajo.

• - Principios directivos técnicos y éticos relativos a la vigilancia de la salud de los trabajadores, aprobados por la OIT.[11]​.

Argentina

• - Occupational regime.[12]​.

• - Law 19587 on Hygiene and Safety at Work.

• - Law 24557 on occupational risks.[13]​.

Mexico

The Federal Labor Law, in its article 132, section XVI, establishes the obligation of the employer to install and operate the factories, workshops, offices, premises and other places where the work must be carried out, in accordance with the provisions established in the regulations and official Mexican standards on safety, health and work environment, in order to prevent accidents and occupational diseases, as well as to adopt the preventive and corrective measures determined by the labor authority.

In Mexico there are also Standards or NOMs which are technical regulations in a regulatory nature by the government of Mexico, these are mainly to regulate products, processes and services to protect safety, although these were already mentioned at the top of this section, we must highlight NOM 035, which establishes the psychosocial risk factors at work, their identification, analysis and prevention [14]​.

According to its field of application, it applies throughout the national territory, however this standard applies according to the number of workers who work in the workplace[15]​.

Broadly speaking, NOM 035 seeks to psychologically protect the worker from severe traumatic events or events (for example, witnessing the death of a colleague, witnessing or being a victim of harassment or threats that threaten the worker's full life in the workplace) in which they affect their safety, occupational risk and mainly the worker's stay in the company after suffering this type of events [15]​.

In asset security, the very nature of this position is based on the protection of the company's human resources and assets, therefore prevention, action and containment plans are an important factor.

The human factor is essential in any scenario, however all personnel must be trained in various prevention programs and action protocols, in order to carry out an entire property security management program.

Uruguay

Law No. 16,074 declares the mandatory nature of insurance against work accidents and occupational diseases. This law regulates the activities carried out in Uruguay with respect to accidents at work and occupational diseases, the compensation and permanent income derived from them, and the obligations of the employer sector.[16]​.

European Union

Within the European Union, there are the following organizations related to Safety and Health at Work.

• - The Advisory Committee for Safety, Hygiene and Health Protection in the Workplace").

• - European Agency for Safety and Health at Work"), based in Bilbao (Spain).

• - European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions"), based in Dublin (Ireland).

• - The International Commission on Occupational Health") (ICOH).

• - The International Social Security Association") (ISSA)[17]​.

The modification of the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community by the so-called Single Act"), in accordance with Article 118 A), since its entry into force, the Member States have been promoting the improvement of the working environment to achieve the objective of harmonization in the progress of the safety and health conditions of workers. This objective has been reinforced in the Treaty of the European Union through the procedure contemplated therein for the adoption, through Directives "Directive (Right of the European Union)"), of minimum provisions that will have to be applied progressively.

Spain

Since 1976, Spain has entered a new stage in its history with the establishment of the monarchy, after having experienced various forms of government. This change brings with it a resurgence of ideological confrontation between political parties, and, of course, the different positions on the prevention of occupational risks become part of the debate. The concept of Health has various interpretations, in addition to that established in the Preamble of the Constitution of the WHO. 1945. The discussion about the loss of health focuses on the technical CAUSES and the personal FACTORS, until it is finally recognized that the technical causes are the most relevant for the advancement and implementation in the field of prevention.[18]​.

The lack of a clear criterion led to the transformation of the previous PLANHISET into the Social Service of Hygiene and Safety at Work in August 1976. Two years later, in 1978, this service was integrated into the newly created Ministry of Health and Social Security. This body must comply with the provisions of article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, which indicates the obligation of public powers to promote Safety and Hygiene at Work, aligning with the right to health protection, which is mentioned in article 43 of the same Constitution.[18]​.

With the arrival of the Socialist Party to power at the end of 1982, the supervisory and preventive advisory functions carried out by the territorial and provincial bodies of the I.N.S.H.T. through the Provincial Technical Cabinets were almost completely reduced. Even visits at the initiative of the national programming, which had had very positive results in previous years, were eliminated because the Labor Inspection once again assumed all powers. Instead, the development of research programs on methods and techniques of occupational safety and industrial hygiene was promoted, as well as the evaluation of accident statistics, studies on workplaces, raw materials and products that are toxic, dangerous or difficult to handle, in addition to training and updating plans for Safety and Hygiene Technicians. In relation to the National Congresses, we mention the The importance of improving the training of employers and workers to achieve better occupational safety and environmental conditions at work was also discussed. The XI Congress, held in Madrid in 1987, was the last of a general nature convened during the century, which reflects the confusion generated by the dispersion in the control of Occupational Safety and Hygiene in charge of the autonomous communities.[18]​.

In 1985, the functions of the Provincial Commissions of the General Council of Safety and Hygiene at Work were established. However, with the passage of time, these commissions became ineffective, and the voices of the union centers and business organizations that were represented became mere troupes, lacking ideas that would promote effective actions to address workplace accidents.[18]​.

From that moment on, a peculiar stage begins for the only technical body of the Administration that has in-depth knowledge on the prevention of occupational risks, in a context where the European Economic Community seeks to establish itself in the face of the significant economic threat represented, mainly, by the United States and Japan. Europe's response was not long in coming. Territorial unity was promoted as the only tool capable of promoting the social, economic and political approaches necessary to compete with other powers outside Europe. However, any change had to guarantee the maintenance and improvement of working conditions. Following the perspective of Hugues de Jouvenel, it is essential to return to ethical values ​​when facing new technologies, which will transform the ways of working, replacing the concept of "work" with that of "function." Ides Nicaise, from the Catholic University of Louvain, advocates for greater investment by companies in education and training, and demands that States establish an adequate protection system. This is the current situation. To be clear in our presentation, we are going to break down into small sections some of the key aspects of this period, which we consider illuminating with respect to the legislation approved at the end of the century, designed to address the problem of Occupational Health at the beginning of the century.[18]​.

Occupational risk is defined as any aspect of work that has the potential to cause harm (Damage (Law)). The prevention of occupational risks is the discipline that seeks to promote the safety and health of workers through the identification, evaluation and control of the dangers and risks associated with a production process, in addition to promoting the development of activities and measures necessary to prevent the risks derived from the occupation "Work (sociology)")[19]​.

Although it is an area that, at least in Spain, has a history of more than 100 years, this name has been relatively recent, following Law 31/1995, of November 8, on the Prevention of Occupational Risks"),[20]​ which develops article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution, which entrusts public powers, as one of the guiding principles of social and economic policy, to ensure health and safety. occupational.

En España, por ejemplo, la Ley 31/1995, de 8 de noviembre de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales"), en la exposición de motivos, expone entre otros argumentos los siguientes:.

Machinery, equipment, products and work tools

Not only the employer who has a worker is bound by the occupational risk prevention regulations, but obligations are also usually established that affect manufacturers, importers and suppliers of machinery, equipment, products and work tools. Furthermore, the workers themselves are obliged to collaborate with companies in the development and application of occupational risk prevention.[21]​.

To evaluate the magnitude of the risks, there is a method that bases the estimation of the risks for each hazard on the determination of the potential severity of the damage (consequences) and the probability of the event occurring. In this way, in the area of ​​severity of damage, these are classified as slightly harmful (such as superficial damage and discomfort and irritation), harmful (such as burns, concussions, minor fractures, dermatitis, asthma, etc.) and extremely harmful (such as amputations, major fractures, poisoning, cancer or acute illnesses that severely shorten life).

Regarding the probability that the damage will occur, three categories are used: low, when the damage will rarely occur; the average, if it will occur sometimes, and the high, when it will always or almost always occur.

The following diagram summarizes the evaluation of occupational risks in companies:[22][23]​.

• - Previous information, including sector risks and data on accidents and occupational diseases, as well as legal standards and regulations on the prevention of occupational risks.

• - Identification of all related hazards, both in the environment and general facilities, as well as in machinery, tools, means of internal transportation, chemical products, etc.

• - Identification of all exposed workers, both permanent and subcontracted personnel, self-employed, temporary, etc.

• - Global risk assessment: probability and severity of potential damage (accidents, diseases, etc.) that could arise from the identified dangerous elements.

• - Specific evaluation of certain risks.

Next, preventive priorities are established and an order of action on the risks is defined, depending on their severity and the number of workers affected. The order of priority of preventive measures is as follows:[22][23]​.

• - Combat risks at their source.

• - Eliminate risks (substitute or replace processes, supplies, materials, equipment, tools... with others that entail little or no danger).

• - Reduce those risks that cannot be eliminated through the implementation of appropriate control systems.

• - Apply collective protection measures before individual ones.

Risk and safety phrases are sentences standardized by the European Union to indicate the basic handling of dangerous substances and reduce the risk that their handling entails. They are divided into two groups; R-phrases (Risk) and S-phrases (Safety) depending on the descriptive nature of the phrase.

• - List of R phrases.

• - List of S phrases.

These phrases differ from those applied in other countries. For this reason, in 2002, the United Nations created a globally harmonized system for the classification and labeling of chemicals ("GHS").

A efectos de determinación de las capacidades y aptitudes necesarias para la evaluación de los riesgos y el desarrollo de la actividad preventiva, las funciones a realizar se clasifican en los siguientes grupos:[24]​.

• - Funciones de nivel básico.

• - Funciones de nivel intermedio.

• - Funciones de nivel superior, correspondientes a las especialidades y disciplinas preventivas de medicina del trabajo, seguridad en el trabajo"), higiene industrial, y ergonomía y psicosociología aplicada.

Industrial hygiene

Industrial hygiene[25]​ makes up a set of knowledge and techniques dedicated to recognizing, evaluating and controlling those environmental, psychological or stress factors that come from work and can cause illness or deteriorate health.

Industrial hygiene is made up of a set of rules and procedures aimed at protecting the physical and mental integrity of the worker, preserving him from the health risks inherent to the tasks of the position and the physical environment where they are performed.

It is related to the diagnosis and prevention of occupational diseases through the study and control of two variables: man and his work environment.

It has an eminently preventive nature, since it is aimed at the health and comfort of the employee, preventing them from getting sick or being temporarily or permanently absent from work.

• - Recognize the agents of the occupational environment" that can cause illness in workers.

• - Evaluate the agents of the occupational environment to determine the degree of health risk.

• - Eliminate the causes of occupational diseases.

• - Reduce the harmful effects caused by work in people who are sick or have physical defects.

• - Prevent the worsening of diseases and injuries.

• - Maintain the health of workers.

• - Increase productivity by controlling the work environment.

• - Propose control measures that reduce the degree of risk to workers' health.

• - Train workers on the risks present in the occupational environment and how to prevent or minimize undesirable effects.

Ergonomics at work

The ergonomic design of the workplace attempts to obtain an adequate fit between the skills or abilities of the worker and the requirements or demands of the job. The final objective is to optimize the productivity of the worker and the production system, while guaranteeing the satisfaction, safety and health of the workers.

The ergonomic design of the workplace must take into account the anthropometric characteristics of the population, the adaptation of the space, working postures, free space, interference of body parts, visual field, worker strength and biomechanical stress), among other aspects. The organizational aspects of the task are also taken into account.

To correctly design the conditions that a job must meet, it is necessary to take into account, among others, the following factors:

• - Mechanical risks that may exist.

• - The risks caused by an incorrect working posture resulting from an incorrect design of seats, stools and other elements.

• - Risks related to the worker's activity (for example, due to maintained work postures, overexertion) or movements carried out incorrectly during work or the overload suffered by the worker's perception and attention capacities).

• - Risks related to energy (electricity, compressed air, gases, temperature, chemical agents, etc.)[26]​.

The proper design of the workplace should serve to:.

• - Guarantee a correct layout of the workspace.

• - Avoid unnecessary efforts. Efforts should never exceed the physical capacity of the worker.

• - Avoid movements that force the joint systems "Articulation (anatomy)").

• - Avoid excessively repetitive work").

• - Improve worker performance.

• - Health and Safety at Work. The basic principles of ergonomics. International Labor Organization.[27]​.

Los siniestros ocupacionales pueden deberse a condiciones ambientales del centro de trabajo, condiciones físicas del trabajo, condiciones del puesto de trabajo y condiciones derivadas del sistema organizativo del trabajo, es deber de todos hacer que estas condiciones adversas se conviertan en siniestros. Cada riesgo laboral lleva conexo un plan preventivo para evitarlo o paliar su gravedad. Un siniestro puede ocasionarse por ignorancia de los riesgos que se corren, por una actuación negligente, es decir, no tomar las precauciones necesarias para ejecutar una tarea o por una actitud temeraria de rechazar los riesgos que están presentes en el área de trabajo.

Basic tips

• - Protect your eyesight from ultraviolet radiation.

• - Protect yourself from air conditioning.

• - Protection of hands when using chemical products.

• - Hearing protection using earplugs or earmuffs.

• - Head protection using the safety helmet.

• - Use of appropriate clothing against the cold.

• - Protection from sun risk.

• - Correct treatment of possible burns.

• - Action plan in emergency situations "Emergency (disaster)").

In order to reduce and reduce the incidence and severity of occupational accidents, companies must have the following devices in their workplaces:

• - emergency lighting.

• - First aid supplies and premises.

• - personal protective equipment (PPE).

• - cleaning, order and maintenance of work centers").

• - fire protection.

• - safety signage.

• - hygienic services and rest areas.

• - evacuation routes and exits").

Safety at work

The tasks carried out by a worker can be carried out in a specific place, which can be inside a building or outside in the open air, and can also be carried out moving from one place to another. Workplaces, in addition to being located in industrial facilities, can also be in hospitals, educational centers, hotels, offices, commercial premises, etc. In all places where there is a worker, whatever his function, he must be protected by the occupational risk prevention laws that apply to him.

Likewise, workers will have to handle work equipment consisting of any machine, device, instrument or installation used in the work.

The employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the work equipment made available to workers is appropriate for the work to be performed and suitably adapted to it, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers when using said work equipment.

When, in order to avoid or control a specific risk for the safety or health of workers, the use of work equipment must be carried out under certain conditions or forms, which require particular knowledge on the part of those workers, the employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the use of said equipment is reserved for the workers designated for it. The employer must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on the risks arising from the use of work equipment, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.[28]​.

"Overexertion" is physical work carried out above the normal effort that a person can develop in a given task.

Pathologies derived from overexertion are the first cause of illness in professionals. Overexertion accounts for almost 30 percent of minor occupational accidents and rises to 85% in the diseases suffered by professionals.[29]​.

To avoid "musculoskeletal disorders" resulting from overexertion, it is necessary to analyze the occupational risks of working conditions, the evaluation of these occupational risks, training, health monitoring and prevention of fatigue.

Working conditions are seriously altered when physical efforts greater than normal activity limits are required. In addition to physical effort, mental, visual, auditory, and emotional effort should also be considered as disturbing elements.[30]​.

To evaluate physical effort, the nature of the effort must be taken into account, and the postures adopted in the workplace, sitting or standing, and the frequency of uncomfortable positions.[31]​.

La mayor parte de los accidentes ocupacionales ocasionados por sobreesfuerzos son lesiones musculares") pueden ser por causadas por golpes, o por causas internas producidas por alteraciones propias del músculo. Estas lesiones se pueden dividir en distensiones"), calambres, contracturas y las más graves, desgarros.[32]​.

• - Manipular cargas pesadas").

• - Work with forced postures.

• - Perform repetitive movements.

• - Previously suffering from a muscle or bone injury in the affected area.

• - Premature return to work after a poorly healed injury.

To avoid injuries due to overexertion, it is necessary to take appropriate preventive measures and use the necessary personal protective equipment.[33]​.

• - Health and safety at work. The basic principles of ergonomics. International Labor Organization.[27]​.

All people who manipulate any machine, device, instrument or installation at work are obliged to comply with the safety regulations that concern the machines they manipulate. Before ordering the manipulation of a dangerous machine or tool to a worker, they must be thoroughly instructed in the handling of the machine in advance.[34]​.

The most frequent risks that arise from handling machine tools are basically:

• - accidental contact with the tool or moving part;

• - entrapment with the moving parts of the machine;

• - projection of the piece or tool;

• - dermatitis due to contact with cutting fluids used as coolants.

For this reason, employers will have to adopt the necessary measures so that the machines and work equipment that are made available to workers are appropriate for the work to be performed, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers. When it is not possible to fully guarantee the safety and health of workers during the use of work equipment in this way, the employer will take appropriate measures to reduce such risks to a minimum.

The minimum provisions applicable to the handling of machines and tools include, among other issues, the following:

• - The operating devices of a work team that have an impact on safety must be clearly visible and identifiable and, when appropriate, be indicated with appropriate signage.

• - The start-up of a work team can only be carried out through voluntary action on a control device provided for this purpose.

• - Each work equipment must be provided with a control device that allows its total stop in safe conditions.

• - When the mobile elements of a work equipment may entail risks of accident due to mechanical contact, they must be equipped with guards or devices that prevent access to dangerous areas or that stop dangerous maneuvers before accessing said areas.

• - All work equipment must be provided with clearly identifiable devices that allow it to be separated from each of its energy sources.[35]​.

Working conditions can be seriously disturbed if the dimensions of the work premises do not allow workers to have the adequate surface and volume to carry out their work without risks to their safety and health and in acceptable ergonomic conditions.

Separations must be provided between the material elements existing in the workplace. When, for reasons inherent to the workplace, the available free space does not allow the worker to have the freedom of movement necessary to carry out his or her activity, sufficient additional space must be available in the vicinity of the workplace.

Only authorized workers may access areas where the safety of workers may be affected by risks of falls, falling objects and contact or exposure to aggressive elements. Likewise, there must be, to the extent possible, a system that prevents unauthorized workers from accessing these areas.

Areas of the workplace where there is a risk of falling, falling objects or contact or exposure to aggressive elements must be clearly marked.[36]​.

The need to regulate the use and signaling of doors and gates in the workplace is to prevent occupational accidents from occurring when workers pass goods or transit within industrial warehouses. Doors must be designed and manufactured according to their function and around other aspects such as:.

• - The frequency of use: considering the number of people who commonly use the door on a daily basis.

• - Adequate width: (for example to make way for a wheelchair or motorized vehicles).

• - Direction of opening: if the door must open to one side only (and which side it should open) or if it is swinging. Whether it is electric or manual opening.

• - Warning systems: whether the door must have a warning window.

• - Door constituent materials: doors can be categorized according to their properties in relation to the estimated time or duration of a fire since some doors can resist the passage of fire for less or longer than others.[37]​.

In order to avoid occupational accidents due to falls or slipping"), the floors of the work premises must be fixed, stable and non-slippery, without irregularities or dangerous slopes.

Openings or slopes that pose a risk of people falling will be protected by railings or other equivalent safety protection systems, which may have moving parts when it is necessary to have access to the opening. They must be protected, in particular:

• - openings in the floors;

• - openings in walls or partitions, whenever their location and dimensions pose a risk of people falling, and platforms, docks or similar structures.[38]​.

"Load handling devices" inside industrial establishments are made up of cranes "Crane (machine)", overhead cranes, hoists, forklifts, forklifts and the loads themselves that are handled.[39]​.

The risks associated with cargo handling are the following:

• - Falling objects due to poor load securing.

• - Falling objects detached due to breakage of fastening elements (hooks, ropes, cables...).

• - Collisions against moving objects due to load oscillation.

• - Fall of people at different levels.

• - Entrapment by or between moving objects of lifting devices.[40]​.

The prevention devices that must be used with transport elements are the following:.

• - Mobile work teams with transported workers must be adapted in a way that reduces the risks to the worker or workers during movement.

• - Means must be provided for fixing the energy transmission elements between mobile work equipment when there is a risk of said elements getting stuck or damaged when dragged along the ground.

• - Forklifts occupied by one or more workers must be conditioned or equipped to limit the risks of overturning through appropriate measures.

• - Work equipment that, due to its mobility or that of the loads it moves, may pose a risk, under the intended conditions of use, to the safety of workers located in its vicinity, must be provided with acoustic warning signs.

• - Machines for lifting loads must have a clearly visible indication of their nominal load and, where applicable, a load plate that stipulates the nominal load of each configuration of the machine.

• - Permanently installed work equipment must be installed in a way that reduces the risk of the load plummeting, becoming loose, deflecting unintentionally in a dangerous manner, or otherwise striking workers.[41]​.

The risk caused by electrical energy is called electrical risk. This type of risk includes the following:

• - Electrical shock due to contact with elements under tension "Voltage (electricity)") (direct electrical contact), or with masses accidentally placed under tension (indirect electrical contact).

• - Burns due to electric shock, or electric arc.

• - Falls or blows as a result of shock or electric arc.

• - Fires or explosions caused by electricity.

An electrical contact is the action of closing an electrical circuit by joining two elements. Direct electrical contact is the contact of people or animals with active conductors of an electrical installation. An indirect electrical contact is a contact of people or animals accidentally energized or a contact with any active part through a conductive medium.

The electrical current can cause immediate effects such as burns, cramps or fibrillation, and late effects such as mental disorders. It can also cause indirect effects such as falls, bumps or cuts.

The main factors that influence electrical risk are:[42]​.

• - The intensity of electric current.

• - The duration of electrical contact.

• - The impedance of the electrical contact, which depends fundamentally on the humidity, the surface "Surface (mathematical)") of contact and the voltage and frequency of the applied voltage.

• - The applied tension. In itself it is not dangerous but, if the resistance is low, it causes the passage of a high intensity and, therefore, very dangerous. The relationship between intensity and voltage is not linear due to the fact that the impedance of the human body varies with contact voltage.

• - Frequency of the electric current. At higher frequencies, the impedance of the body is lower. This effect decreases with increasing electrical voltage.

• - Current path through the body. When passing through vital organs, such as the heart, very serious injuries can be caused.

Accidents caused by electricity can be minor, serious and even fatal. In the event of the death of the injured party, it is called electrocution.

In the occupational world, employers must adopt the necessary measures so that no risks arise from the use or presence of electrical energy in the workplace for the safety and health of workers or, if this is not possible, so that such risks are reduced to a minimum.

Based on this, the electrical installations in the workplace will be used and maintained in the appropriate manner and the operation of the protection systems will be periodically controlled, according to the instructions of their manufacturers and installers, if they exist, and the operator's own experience.

With this safety objective, employers must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on electrical risk, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.

Work on electrical installations in locations with risk of fire or explosion will be carried out following a procedure that reduces these risks to a minimum; To this end, the presence of flammable substances in the work area will be limited and controlled, as far as possible, and the appearance of ignition sources will be avoided, in particular, if an explosive atmosphere exists, or could form. In this case, carrying out work or operations (changing lamps, fuses, etc.) under voltage is prohibited, unless they are carried out in facilities and with equipment designed to operate under these conditions, which comply with the specific applicable regulations.[43]​.

Vibrations are the oscillations of particles around a point in any balanced physical medium and can be produced as a result of the operation of a machine or piece of equipment.[44]​.

For the purposes of working conditions, there are two types of harmful vibrations:

1. • Vibrations transmitted to the hand-arm system, which is a mechanical vibration that, when transmitted to the human hand-arm system, poses risks to the health and safety of workers, in particular, vascular, bone or joint, nervous or muscular problems.

2. • Vibrations transmitted to the whole body: which is a type of mechanical vibration that, when transmitted to the entire body, carries risks for the health and safety of workers, in particular, low back pain and spinal cord injuries.[45]​.

Preventive measures to reduce the harmful effects of mechanical vibrations.

• - Establish other work methods that reduce the need to be exposed to mechanical vibrations.

• - Choose appropriate work equipment, well designed from an ergonomic point of view and generating the lowest level of vibrations possible, taking into account the work for which it is intended.

• - Choose the appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) for the work being carried out in order to reduce the risks of injury from vibrations, for example, seats, shock absorbers or other systems that effectively attenuate vibrations transmitted to the entire body and handles, handles or covers that reduce vibrations transmitted to the hand-arm system.

• - Establish appropriate maintenance programs for work equipment, the workplace and jobs.

• - Adequately inform and train workers on the correct and safe handling of work equipment, in order to minimize exposure to mechanical vibrations.

• - Reduce the duration and intensity of the exposure as much as possible.

• - Take necessary measures to protect exposed workers from cold and humidity, including the provision of appropriate clothing.

Coming into contact with the emission of gases, vapors, liquids or dust is a fairly widespread process in fixed and portable machines and devices that workers manipulate.

In general, the emission of the substance involves its subsequent dispersion or diffusion in the air and, finally, its inhalation by the worker. The emission can come from different operations or sources. The nature of the substance determines its danger. Its effects on the body can be very diverse, being able to distinguish, among others:.

To evaluate the risks, it will be necessary to have information on the dangerous properties of the substances and any other information necessary to carry out said evaluation that, where appropriate, must be provided by the supplier, or that can be obtained from it or from any other easily accessible source of information. The magnitude of the exposure of the affected worker must be determined.[47]​.

An explosive atmosphere is understood as the mixture with air, under atmospheric conditions, of flammable substances in the form of gases, vapors, mists or dusts, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture.

To prevent explosions in the workplace, employers must provide protection against them, of a technical or organizational nature depending on the type of activity, to prevent the formation of explosive atmospheres or, when the nature of the activity does not allow it, to avoid the ignition of explosive atmospheres and mitigate the harmful effects of an explosion in a way that guarantees the health and safety of workers.

• - Escapes or release, intentional or unintentional, of vapors, gases, flammable mists or combustible dusts that may give rise to explosion risks must be diverted or evacuated to a safe place. When the explosive atmosphere contains several types of combustible or flammable gases, vapours, mists or dusts, protective measures shall be adjusted to the greatest potential risk.

• - In the event of escapes of explosive substances, workers must be alerted by the emission of optical or acoustic alarm signals and evacuated safely before explosion conditions are reached. To this end, emergency exits will be arranged and maintained in operation that, in the event of danger, allow workers to quickly and safely leave the threatened places.

• - In the event that a power outage could lead to new dangers, an independent system must be in place to keep the equipment and protection systems in safe operating condition independently of the rest of the installation if a power outage were to occur.

• - It must be possible to manually disconnect devices and protection systems included in automatic processes that deviate from the expected operating conditions, provided that this does not compromise safety. The stored energy must be dissipated, by activating the emergency disconnection devices, as quickly and safely as possible or isolated so that it no longer constitutes a danger.[48]​.

• - Directive 1999/92/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, of December 16, 1999, relating to minimum provisions for improving the protection of the health and safety of workers exposed to risks derived from explosive atmospheres.[49]​.

The danger of working handling toxic substances derives mainly from the lack of knowledge that workers may have about the health risks of many chemical substances. The most harmful chemical substances that workers handle are of very varied composition and have very diverse effects on health.

In 2006, the European Parliament approved a regulation establishing a system for the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemical substances (REACH). This regulation requires manufacturers of dangerous chemicals to demonstrate that the substances they are marketing are safe for public health and the environment. The REACH approved by the European Parliament partially entered into force on 1 June 2007. The registration obligation is applicable from 1 June 2008, but in the case of some substances, which must be subject to prior registration, a transitional regime will be put in place, which in some cases will last until 1 June 2018. However, some groups of substances (listed in the Regulation) are exempt from the obligation to register. registration.[50]​.

The general objectives of the REACH regulation are, among others, the following:

• - End the lack of knowledge about the dangers of chemical substances.

• - Protect people and the environment from dangerous compounds.

• - Detect, limit and, if necessary, eliminate risky substances from circulation.

• - Transfer responsibility for substances from authorities to chemical producers.

• - Allow substances to enter the market only if specific information is available.

• - Ensure that there is adequate information on all chemical substances and that this information is transferred to all workers who will be in contact with it.

• - Promote innovation to obtain new, safer substances.

• - Simplify the regulations on chemical products.[50]​.

Reliable workplace toxicity measurements require good quality instruments, a standardized configuration of instrument distribution in the workplace, and an accurate description of the workplace, including aspects such as ventilation and tasks performed during measurements. Each EU Member State has its own procedure for carrying out these measurements. Currently, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) is developing a standard to assess exposure in the workplace.[51]​.

Basic regulations.

• - Frequent serious accidents in the handling of dangerous substances. Basic prevention measures.[52]​.

• - air conditioning.

• - general appearance of the work center.

• - biological contaminants.

• - chemical contaminants.

• - distance to the work center.

• - lightning.

• - radiation.

• - noises.

• - industrial ventilation "Ventilation (architecture)").

Environmental conditions can be harmful to both physical and mental health depending on a series of disturbances, some of which are highly aggressive, such as those derived from the presence in the work environment of chemical, physical or biological agents that can come into contact with people who work and negatively affect their health; These conditions are known as hygienic risk").

There are working conditions whose presence can cause negative feelings that must also be considered and, to the extent possible, corrected. In this section it is worth mentioning, for example, the general appearance of the work center, the distance from the worker's home to the work center, the environment where the work center is located, personal problems unrelated to work that the worker may have, the geographical location of the company and even the social valuation of the company. If these conditions are unfavorable for workers, workers may feel discomfort that prompts them to at least try to change companies.[53]​.

The general appearance of a work center is defined by the structural safety offered by its buildings, that is, absence of risks of landslides or collapse due to being excessively old or overloaded; not be affected by sick building syndrome; absence of environmental risks both with the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere and contamination of water or land due to waste or emissions in drains; control of the physical risks that workers may suffer in their workplaces where they are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE); adequate signage of access to the work center; luminosity and care of the environment and have quick and safe evacuation plans marked and organized.[54]​.

Climatic working conditions are the temperature and humidity in which work is carried out. Physical work") generates heat in the body. To regulate it, the human body has a system that allows it to maintain a constant body temperature around 37 °C. Thermal regulation and the feeling of thermal comfort depend on the heat produced by the body and exchanges with the environment. All of this is a function of:

• - physical activity that is developed;

• - type of clothing;.

• - humidity of the environment;

• - ambient temperature.

Poor thermohygrometric conditions can cause negative effects on health that will vary depending on the characteristics of each person and their ability to acclimatize, thus we can find colds, frostbite, dehydration, heat stroke and increased fatigue, which can affect the appearance of accidents.

When carrying out tasks outside, other climatic factors such as sun exposure must also be taken into account, which can cause skin cancer.

Ergonomics and applied psychosociology

The highly demanding and competitive environment, as well as the precarious conditions in which many workers operate, are causing an increasing appearance of psychological disorders. Specifically, the elements that can cause these disorders are the following:

• - workplace harassment.

• - job insecurity.

• - burnout syndrome "Burnout (syndrome)."

• - work with mental effort.

• - stressful job.

• - monotonous and routine work.

Occupational precariousness is called "occupational precariousness" to the situation experienced by workers who, for one reason or another, suffer from working conditions below the limit considered normal. Occupational precariousness has a special impact when the economic income received from work does not cover the basic needs of a person, since the economy is the factor that is available to cover people's needs.[71]​.

• - The temporary nature of employment contracts is one of the factors that most contribute to occupational precariousness. Another perception of precariousness is the salary remuneration obtained for the work performed, which is often insufficient to cover the minimum vital needs that allow a person to live autonomously. The working hours and the annual occupational calendar can also be perceived as a symptom of precariousness when many people have to work part-time daily, which prevents them from achieving the necessary remuneration or, instead, having to work working hours much higher than the legal one in order to obtain the necessary salary as a consequence of having a very low salary. Precariousness is also considered to be that suffered by workers who are not registered with social security and therefore lack the benefits that entitle those who are protected by Social Security.

Occupational insecurity can cause an increase in psychological suffering and a worsening of the health and quality of life of people who depend on work or the lack of it. The uncertainty about the future presented by precarious work alters the social behavior of the individual, because it increases the difficulties in forming and strengthening individual and collective identities around work. Occupational accident statistics indicate that the incidence of work accidents is higher among the population with precarious work than those with stable employment, due to lack of knowledge and application of safety standards for precarious workers and the fact that they carry out the most harmful and dangerous activities.

Occupational precariousness") is a group that includes inactivity, unemployment, temporary employment, forced part-time employment, and the underground economy that affect women more than men, young people more than older people, and have a greater impact on some regions than others. Likewise, we must highlight the serious situation of some groups such as the long-term unemployed over 40 years of age, ethnic or immigrant minorities, and people with disabilities.[72]​.

Según el Real Decreto 39/1997, de 17 de enero, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de los Servicios de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales,[79]​ se entenderá por servicio de prevención propio el conjunto de medios humanos y materiales de la empresa necesarios para la realización de las actividades de prevención, y por servicio de prevención ajeno el prestado por una entidad especializada que concierte con la empresa la realización de actividades de prevención, el asesoramiento y apoyo que precise en función de los tipos de riesgos o ambas actuaciones conjuntamente. Los servicios de prevención tendrán carácter interdisciplinario, entendiendo como tal la conjunción coordinada de dos o más disciplinas técnicas o científicas en materia de prevención de riesgos laborales (Medicina del Trabajo, Seguridad en el trabajo, Higiene Industrial, y Ergonomía y Psicosociología).[80]​.

Sanitary equipment

In accordance with Royal Decree 843/2011, of June 17, which establishes the basic criteria for the organization of resources to develop the health activity of prevention services,[81]​ the basic health equipment of the health service in the fixed facilities of the prevention service will be as follows:.

• - approved audiometer "Audimeter (sound)") and audiometric cabin, in all other prevention services; In the case of own prevention services, only in the event that the companies they serve have exposure to noise;

• - medication kit, sufficient material and equipment to attend to emergencies and first aid;

• - examination table;

• - sanitary waste containers;.

• - electrocardiograph;.

• - radiodiagnostic equipment: own or contracted;.

• - approved vision control equipment;

• - sphygmomanometer;.

• - approved spirometer or pneumotachometer;

• - stethoscope;.

• - laboratory: own or contracted;.

• - flashlight or external light source;

• - reflex hammer;.

• - negatoscope");.

• - refrigerator with maximum and minimum thermometer;

• - ophthalmoscope;.

• - otoscope;.

• - clinical weight;.

• - rhinoscope;.

• - size.

• - Losardo, Ricardo J.; Binvignat-Gutiérrez, O.: Anatomical graphic symbology in the communication process. International Journal of Morphology, 39 (3): 739-742, 2021 [1].

• - Safety and health at work (ILO).

• - Encyclopedia of health and safety at work (ILO).

• - European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Archived May 16, 2013 at the Wayback Machine.

• - Law 31/1995, of November 8, on the prevention of occupational risks (Spain).

• - National Institute of Safety and Health at Work (INSST) (Spain).

• - National Commission for Safety and Health at Work (CNSST) (Spain).

• - Labor Guide - Prevention of occupational risks.

• - Previpedia - Collaborative encyclopedia of occupational risk prevention.

• - Seguridad y Salud en el Trabajo (SST): Un Enfoque Integral.

• - Where to Find Evidence-Based Information on Occupational Safety and Health?