Sculpture (from Latin sculptūra) is called the art of molding clay, carving in stone, wood and other materials. The work created by a sculptor is also called sculpture.[1].
It is one of the Fine Arts in which the sculptor expresses himself by creating volumes and shaping spaces. Sculpture includes all the arts of carving and chisel, along with casting and molding. Within sculpture, the use of different combinations of materials and media has given rise to a new artistic repertoire, which includes processes such as constructivism "Constructivism (art)") and assemblage. In a generic sense, sculpture is understood as the plastic artistic work made by the sculptor.
The prologue of Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori, by Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), talks about architecture, sculpture and painting, disciplines grouped under the name "arts of design." The work is an informative and valuable treatise on the artistic techniques used at the time. In reference to the sculpture it begins like this:
Since ancient times, man has had the need to sculpt. At first he did it with the simplest materials that were most at hand: stone, clay and wood. Later he used iron, bronze, gold, lead, wax, plaster, plasticine, polyester resin and plastics with fiberglass reinforcement, concrete, kinetics and light reflection "Reflection (physics)"), among others. Sculpture originally had a single function, practical use; Later a ritual, magical, funerary and religious function was added. This functionality changed with historical evolution, acquiring a mainly aesthetic or simply ornamental one and became a lasting or ephemeral element.[2].
History of sculpture
sculpture of europe
The first sculptural manifestations date back to the Lower Paleolithic, when man cut flint by hitting another stone. Later he used engraving, relief on stone and animal bones. Between 27,000 and 32,000 years ago, exuberant stone female human figures were represented, in an artistic exaltation of fertility;[3] they are the "Paleolithic Venuses", such as the Venus of Willendorf and the Venus of Lespugue.[3] During the Magdalenian period, batons and propellers "Propulsor (weapon)") with ornamental motifs were used. In the Upper Paleolithic, the most abundant examples are carvings or engraved objects that evolved from a more primitive phase, with more schematic decorations, until reaching the representation of animalistic figures that adapted to the structure of the bone.[2] Clay was also a common material. The first known pieces of sculpture come from Egypt, China, India and the Near East, places where around 4000 BC. C. there were already ovens to make pottery objects.[4].
sculptural architecture
Introduction
Sculpture (from Latin sculptūra) is called the art of molding clay, carving in stone, wood and other materials. The work created by a sculptor is also called sculpture.[1].
It is one of the Fine Arts in which the sculptor expresses himself by creating volumes and shaping spaces. Sculpture includes all the arts of carving and chisel, along with casting and molding. Within sculpture, the use of different combinations of materials and media has given rise to a new artistic repertoire, which includes processes such as constructivism "Constructivism (art)") and assemblage. In a generic sense, sculpture is understood as the plastic artistic work made by the sculptor.
The prologue of Le vite de' più eccellenti pittori, scultori e architettori, by Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), talks about architecture, sculpture and painting, disciplines grouped under the name "arts of design." The work is an informative and valuable treatise on the artistic techniques used at the time. In reference to the sculpture it begins like this:
Since ancient times, man has had the need to sculpt. At first he did it with the simplest materials that were most at hand: stone, clay and wood. Later he used iron, bronze, gold, lead, wax, plaster, plasticine, polyester resin and plastics with fiberglass reinforcement, concrete, kinetics and light reflection "Reflection (physics)"), among others. Sculpture originally had a single function, practical use; Later a ritual, magical, funerary and religious function was added. This functionality changed with historical evolution, acquiring a mainly aesthetic or simply ornamental one and became a lasting or ephemeral element.[2].
History of sculpture
sculpture of europe
The first sculptural manifestations date back to the Lower Paleolithic, when man cut flint by hitting another stone. Later he used engraving, relief on stone and animal bones. Between 27,000 and 32,000 years ago, exuberant stone female human figures were represented, in an artistic exaltation of fertility;[3] they are the "Paleolithic Venuses", such as the and the .[3] During the Magdalenian period, batons and propellers "Propulsor (weapon)") with ornamental motifs were used. In the Upper Paleolithic, the most abundant examples are carvings or engraved objects that evolved from a more primitive phase, with more schematic decorations, until reaching the representation of animalistic figures that adapted to the structure of the bone.[2] Clay was also a common material. The first known pieces of sculpture come from Egypt, China, India and the Near East, places where around 4000 BC. C. there were already ovens to make pottery objects.[4].
One of the most important advances in the history of sculpture was the ability to work with metal—first bronze and then iron—which served to make more efficient tools and, in addition, obtain a new material to make sculptural works. The process of constructing the work first in clay and then casting it in bronze was already known in the ancient Greek civilizations and by the Romans, and it is the system that is currently, in the 1st century, still used.[5] From the century BC. C., in the last period of the Iron Age, the Celts developed the La Tène culture, spreading throughout Europe; It represented an evolution of the art of Hallstatt culture. In the decoration of all its objects, swords, shields, brooches and diadems, you can see motifs of animals, plants and human figures. From the century BC. C. the first coins were minted following Hellenic models, as well as figurative works such as the God of Bouray, made of embossed copper sheet.[6].
Many statues, generally female, and baked clay busts are preserved from Punic and Greco-Punic art, along with a variety of ivory and metal amulets that were discovered in the necropolises of Ibiza and Formentera. It is estimated that the oldest are works from the century BC. C. and its manufacture continued until very advanced in Roman domination. Regarding Iberian sculpture, the works found are made of stone and bronze and come from three large areas in the south, center and east of the Iberian Peninsula, highlighting the excellent stone bust of the Lady of Elche, of Greek inspiration.[7].
Archaic statuary was mainly religious. The temples were decorated with images of the gods, their exploits and battles, and the figures were unrealistic. The korai and kouroi are not portraits of specific people, a fictitious smile was added to the faces, a facial gesture known in the art world as an "archaic smile." From this period it is worth mentioning the Head of Dipylon, a fragment of a colossal marble statue from the century BC. C. and the Rampin Horseman (c. 560 BC), a later work that presents a treatment closer to naturalism.[8] Greek sculpture reached a high degree of perfection, a quality that was driven by the search for a better expression of the beauty of the human figure; They came to establish a canon with proportions considered "perfect." Unfortunately, the Charioteer of Delphi, the pair of the Riace Bronzes along with that of the God of Cape Artemisius are part of the few Greek bronze sculptures that are preserved complete.[9] One of the most significant artists of the classical period was Praxiteles, author of the magnificent Hermes with Dionysus the Child. During the Hellenic period it is observed that in the creation of sculptures, there is a clear intention to intensify movement and accentuate emotions as can be seen in the sculptural group of Laocoön and his sons.[10].
Etruscan sculpture (1st century BC - 1st century BC) derived from Greek art, but they also produced works with their own characteristics.[11] Statuary linked to funerary contexts is the most abundant Etruscan production and the material of choice, as a general rule, was terracotta, such as the famous Sarcophagus of the Spouses.[12] Later, Roman sculpture was influenced by Etruscan and Greek sculpture, and Roman artists made numerous copies of Greek works. It is worth highlighting the commemorative sculptures, such as those on the Trajan's Column (114), where several battles are narrated in a continuous spiral that occupies the entire surface of the column, or the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.[13] But one of the types of sculpture that most developed were portraits, realistic works with a marked psychological character that were made throughout the Roman Empire.[14].
The most outstanding sculptural works of the Byzantine Empire are the ornamental works on the capitals; There are good examples in San Vitale in Ravenna. Ivory reliefs applied to chests, diptychs or the famous Chair of Bishop Maximilian, a work carved around the year 550, were common.[15] Characteristic of Ottonian art are small sculptures in ivory and bronze to which inlays of precious stones were added. Also made of bronze are the doors of the church of Saint Michael in Hildesheim, a work related to Byzantine art and Carolingian art. It is worth highlighting the wooden images covered in gold that were used as a reliquary. Among these, the Gero Crucifix (century) stands out, in polychrome wood, which is found in the Cologne Cathedral.[16].
Romanesque sculpture (century - century) was at the service of architecture and many examples are found around the great pilgrimage routes, such as the Camino de Santiago.[17] The sculptors treated various parts of the churches - tympanum "Tympano (architecture)", portals and capitals with stories on biblical themes - with great realism. The Maiestas Domini and the Last Judgment were the most represented iconographic themes.[18] The most used material was wood, which was used to make devotional images such as the "Virgins with Child", widely represented throughout Catalonia and the south of France. But, the most important image of the Romanesque was the Christ in Majesty, highlighted by the Volto Santo of Lucca, in the Cathedral of Milan, and also the Christ of Mig Aran and the Majesty of Batlló in the National Museum of Art of Catalonia.[19].
The door of Chartres Cathedral (1145) is one of the first examples of Gothic sculpture, and on it, among other characters, fabulous animals are represented that give shape to the gargoyles "Gargoyle (architecture)"). In Germany, both outside and inside the Bamberg Cathedral (1st century) there are some very significant sculptures, a good example is the Equestrian Statue of the Knight of Bamberg. An innovation is the sculptures on dramatic themes, with scenes of the Passion of Christ and Pieta. At the end of the Gothic period, some magnificent altarpieces were made in Germany, executed by artists such as Tilman Riemenschneider and Veit Stoss. In the kingdom of Castile, the sculptors Gil de Siloé and Alejo de Vahía worked.[20] As for the kingdom of Aragon, Aloi de Montbrai made the Altarpiece of the Tailors in the Cathedral of Tarragona and Pere Moragues sculpted the tomb of Fernández de Luna, a piece that is in the Cathedral of San Salvador in Zaragoza. Also worth highlighting is the relief of Saint George from the Palace of the Generalitat of Catalonia executed by Pere Joan.[20] Claus Sluter, a Flemish artist, made the cover of the Champmol charterhouse (Dijon) and a pedestal of the cloister well known as the Well of Moses. In Italy, in Pisa and Siena, the sculptors Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni Pisano left works of great quality, where they already announce the step towards a new type of sculpture.[21][20].
Art historians consider that Renaissance sculpture began with the competition to make the doors of the baptistery "Baptistery of Saint John (Florence)") (1401) in the city of Florence, to which Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti entered.[22] The new artistic form of the Renaissance was inspired by the sculpture of classical antiquity, seeking a total exaltation of beauty. Mathematics became his main aid, with the application of certain principles and laws in all the arts, such as perspective. Great patrons emerged, such as the Medici of Florence, the popes of Rome, as well as cardinals, princes and also the guilds.[23] At this time, sculpture was practically detached from architecture and the characters represented showed expressions full of drama, which can be seen in sculptures by Michelangelo such as, for example, David. During the different stages of the quattrocento and cinquecento in Italy, the best works of the Renaissance were created thanks to the activity of great sculptors such as Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, Luca della Robbia, Andrea del Verrocchio and Michelangelo, the great representative artist.[24] In the rest of Europe, the new style was incorporated a little later and under the direct influence of Italy and its sculptors. Many of them traveled to other countries: Andrea Sansovino did so to Portugal and Pietro Torrigiano to England, this artist later went to Spain, where Domenico Fancelli and Jacopo Florentino also worked together with the sculptors of French origin, Felipe Bigarny and Juan de Juni. It is worth highlighting the works of Bartolomé Ordóñez in Barcelona, in the rear choir of the city's cathedral, and of Alonso Berruguete in Castilla. In the Netherlands, Conrad Meit was a portrait specialist and Jacques du Broeuq produced numerous works and was the teacher of Giambologna who would develop his work in Italy. In France, sculptures were made with great Italian influence, thus, Pierre Puget was considered the "French Bernini."[25] One of the most common themes were sepulchral monuments, where the figure of the recumbent was treated with great realism; for example, the Memorial of René Chalon by Ligier Richier.[26].
Giambologna is the one who presents in his sculpture, such as The Abduction of the Sabine Women, the style of Mannerism. At the end of the cinquecento, sculptors treated the figures by lengthening their proportions and showing artificial and opposite poses - woman and man, old age and youth, beauty and ugliness -, and with the sinuosity of forms in (serpentinata), a kind of rotational movement of the figures and sculptural groups.[27] The Council of Trent (1545-1563) marked a new orientation in the religious images; Gian Lorenzo Bernini —author of David, Apollo and Dafne "Apollo and Daphne (sculpture by Bernini)") and Ecstasy of Saint Teresa— was the sculptor who most influenced baroque sculpture, where emotional and dramatic effects were sought.[28] In France, the work of Simon Guillain and Jacques Sarazin stands out making portraits of the nobility, the tomb of Cardinal Richelieu, made by François Girardon, and the sculptures in the garden of the Palace of Versailles by Pierre Puget.[29] In this period, the production of religious sculpture in Spain is surprising, with sculptures for church interiors, facades, private devotions, and for Holy Week processions; Two great schools emerged: the Castilian and the Andalusian. Among the sculptors, Gregorio Fernández, Juan Martínez Montañés, Francisco Salzillo, Pedro de Mena and Alonso Cano can be highlighted.[30].
In the middle of the century, Winckelmann's guidelines "to nourish good taste in direct sources and take example from the works of the Greeks", caused many artists to dedicate themselves to copying instead of imitating; neoclassicism arrived. The work of Jean-Antoine Houdon, originally baroque, adopted a serene character and verism without anecdotal details, in a process to achieve the ideal beauty of classical antiquity; He portrayed many characters of the time, such as Napoleon, Jean de la Fontaine, Voltaire, George Washington. But the most well-known and innovative sculptor was the Italian Antonio Canova, a very versatile author, somewhere between baroque, rococo and neoclassicism. For its part, Bertel Thorvaldsen's production followed the more orthodox line of neoclassicism, with a colder and more static expression.[31] In Catalonia, Damià Campeny stood out, who traveled to Italy and received the influence of Canova, as did the Andalusian José Álvarez Cubero.[32].
Starting in the century, the media played an increasingly important role in the dissemination of art throughout the world. Styles developed more and more rapidly, whether coexisting, juxtaposing or confronting each other. The word artistic avant-garde began to be used at the end of the century, and thus identified artists who promoted activities that were considered to revolutionize art, with the intention of transforming it. They were characterized by freedom of expression and the first avant-garde trends were cubism and futurism. Sculpture could stop imitating reality and value emptiness, plays of light or negative volume, or it could add movement with mechanical actions or atmospheric agents. It is also worth highlighting the use of new materials such as steel, iron, concrete and plastics.[33].
During Romanticism the artist aspired to represent man's entire environment in "the total work of art" that the German painter Philipp Otto Runge had imagined. Sofia Figueroa") had declared that "of all the arts, the one that lends itself least to romantic expression is, without a doubt, sculpture...". It is in France where some romantic works emerged, such as The March of the Volunteers of 1792 (or The Marseillaise) by Sebastián Niño"), located in the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, and the artist Antoine Louis Barye with works on animals.[34] From Impressionism, it is worth highlighting the sculptures of dancers by Degas, in which he reflects the gestural moment, or the works of Auguste Renoir who reproduced his own paintings in reliefs (Relief (sculpture)). But who really was an innovator was Auguste Rodin who, like the impressionists, despised the external appearance of the finish.[35][36] Modernism "Modernism (art)") emerged between the century and the century. The style adopted different names depending on the country: Art nouveau in France, Modern Style in England, Sezession "Sezession (artistic movement)") in Austria and Jugendstil in Germany. In Catalonia, (Catalan modernism) had a great boom, although it was in architecture where it stood out the most, it constituted a movement that encompassed all the arts and sculptures were made both in public and funerary monuments and applied to architecture, highlighting, among others, the artists: Agapito, Venancio Vallmitjana, Mariano Benlliure, Miguel Blay, Josep Llimona, Eusebio Arnau and Josep Clarà.[37] The Italian Medardo Rosso achieved extraordinary original effects with his plaster figures covered in wax. Aristide Maillol, included in the sculptors of symbolism, made works of female nudes inscribed within geometric volumes with great vitality, this type of sculpture is called Mediterranean. Manolo Hugué also enters this same Mediterranean line, although with more or less cubist beginnings.[38].
Picasso explored cubist sculpture, breaking down volume into geometric planes. In some works he used elements such as rope, wire or uncut wood. Aleksandr Rodchenko—Russian sculptor, painter, graphic designer and photographer—, Jacques Lipchitz and Constantin Brancusi, innovated by searching for emptiness, achieving simplification to reach perfect forms through the materials used.[39] Umberto Boccioni knew how to transfer futurism themes to sculpture, such as dynamism and the introduction of all kinds of materials; subjected to figurative art, Unique forms of continuity in space (1913) was one of the key works of this movement.[40] Marcel Duchamp, one of the first sculptors of Dadaism, around 1913 made sculptures from vulgar objects, what was called found art or ready-made, the first work was a bicycle wheel on a stool.[41] Constructivism "Constructivism (art)") was a movement that appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917; Artists such as Vladimir Tatlin, the Naum Gabo brothers and Antoine Pevsner considerably influenced contemporary art.[42] Neoplasticism (De Stijl), at the same time (1917), sought aesthetic renewal and the configuration of a new harmonious order of universal value, with a structure based on the harmony of lines and rectangular masses of various proportions, highlighting the work of Georges Vantongerloo.[43] Some painters surrealists, they made sculptures related to their pictorial ideas; It is worth mentioning Max Ernst (Moon Asparagus, 1935) and Joan Miró, who used rope and pieces of metal combined.[44].
Between the two world wars, a sculptural movement faithful to the tradition of Italian figuration occurred in Italy, led by Arturo Martini. In this period, Julio González and Pablo Gargallo also stand out, with their first works of a modernist nature "Modernism (art)"), but from 1927 they carried out tests with iron work; Julio González innovated with autogenous welding, a more experimental style in the abstract.[45] At this time Henry Moore contributed to developing avant-garde art, although his work does not belong to any specific movement; He created figurative images and studied volume in space.[46] Like Moore, the Swiss Alberto Giacometti was related to surrealism, but from 1947 he opted for the figurative current, with structures where very elongated figures dominate. Other abstract sculptors can be cited, such as Barbara Hepworth, Alexander Calder, Alberto Sánchez Pérez, Pablo Serrano Aguilar, Jorge Oteiza and Eduardo Chillida.[47] Starting in the 1970s, new artistic movements appear, such as minimalist, conceptual art, so-called land art, arte povera, hyperrealism, performance or postmodernism, with artists such as David Smith "David Smith (sculptor)"), Roy Lichtenstein, Donald Judd, Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Sol LeWitt, Richard Serra, Dennis Oppenheim, Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Antonio López García and Yayoi Kusama among others.[48].
African sculpture
More durable materials, such as stone, were used in Ancient Egypt. They came to make highly perfected sculptures, which remained unchanged for many centuries.[49] They represented divinities, pharaohs and other important figures, although they also made small pieces of figures in which domestic work was reflected. Many of these works have been found in the sepulchral chambers.
African sculpture has been essentially religious in nature, of the animism type and therefore its veneration has been in the belief of nature spirits and veneration of its dead, death does not represent its end, but lives in the realm of spirits. This belief in the presence of spirits causes rituals to be carried out, where works of art act as a medium. These works are generally masks, free-standing anthropomorphic sculptures or other objects of worship. Wooden objects were made from a tree trunk or branch with the direct carving technique, that is, from a cylindrical piece that was lowered and carved with primitive tools. Clay has also been used in Nigeria by the Nok culture, around 500 BC. C., stone or ivory. Masks are made in almost the entire continent; the "Baga" who occupy the part of Guinea use a mask with a crocodile head and long striped horns. There are masks covered with a crust formed by dried blood, earth and crushed seed juice, masks with a large nose that elongates to form a beak; There are decorations of shells and crystals. In Ife and Benin, the Yoruba worked terracotta and bronze for their kings since the 17th century, in relief plates or life-size heads. In the Ivory Coast, the Baulé, in addition to free-standing sculptures and masks, carved the lintels of the doors of their houses with geometric motifs.[50].
Sculpture of America
The free-standing sculpture and reliefs constituted an important artistic manifestation of the American people. Among other civilizations, the Olmecs, Mayans and Toltecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru stood out. Within its diversity, there are some common features in the sculpture of these people, its association with architecture in which sculptures and reliefs adorn walls and pilasters, and in its religious character with scenes of gods, demons, sacred rites or warriors. In Olmec sculpture, the attempt to reproduce the human face with great realism stands out. In the enormous heads of La Venta, particular features can be seen such as the broad nose, oblique eyes and the mouth with large lips. These heads are all made of monolithic blocks and reach more than three meters in height. In Tollan-Xicocotitlan there are gigantic warriors about five meters high on a rectangular base, with war clothing and helmets on their heads. The Mayans made figures in jade and the sculpture was mostly attached to the temples of Palenque "Palenque (archaeological zone)"), Tikal and Chichén Itzá, where one of the most famous sculptures, Chac Mool, comes from. This type of sculpture has been found in several temples of Toltec influence.[51] The first civilization of Peru, according to archaeological data reviewed by radiocarbon, dates back to around 1250 BC. C. and it is called Chavin de Huántar, where what had to be the largest temple of this civilization has been found. The exterior of the building is adorned with sculptures, most of them in bas-relief, and steles with engravings of snakes and crocodiles have also been found. Another culture was born in the period between 900 and 1430, the Inca people in southern Peru, who around 1200, were acquiring great power until the arrival of the Spanish in 1532. There is little monumental sculpture, but they were great workers with mastery of metallurgy, mainly in gold, where they embedded precious stones.[52].
Asian sculpture
In Mesopotamia, due to the scarcity of quarries, sculpture was mainly made with clay; in the excavations of Ur (4000 BC) numerous small statues of this material have been found. The Sumerians developed and spread to other civilizations the use of brick, in which a relief was sculpted and then glazed. Some very representative examples are those that adorn the palaces, also the Persian sepulchral surfaces of the palace of Persepolis and the Frieze of the archers, a work in enameled brick found in the Royal Palace of Susa (404-359 BC).[53].
The history of Indian sculpture began around 2500 BC. C. in an area along 1,500 kilometers along the basins of the Ravi and Sutlej rivers, where the Indus Valley culture was established. Its main towns were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, where in archaeological excavations of the 1st century, a great variety of terracotta sculptures representing human figures with symbols related to fertility were found, as well as a small Ballerina in bronze and a Bust of a king-priest in soapstone.[54] Around 1500 BC. C. the Indus culture became extinct and for a long time a period without known artistic manifestations was entered, until the century BC. C., when the Mauryan empire was formed and during which large columns were placed, some still in situ, in a sculptural manner ending in a capital that supported a sculpture of an animal theme, the most famous being the Lions Capital in Sarnath. From this same period there are sculptures with representations of male and female divinities, among which the Iaksí of the Patna museum stands out, which presents great exuberance of the breasts, wide hips and narrow waist, features that are repeated in the demonstration of the ideal of feminine beauty in Indian culture.[55].
During the Kushan Empire there was great cultural development and the traditions of Buddhism and Hinduism were added in the Gandhara region, whose art is called "Greco-Buddhist" due to the influence of classical Greece on the Buddha images made in this period.[56].
In the Gupta Empire it became a "classical art" where pure lines and forms of harmonious balance were achieved, the divinities Brahmá, Vishnu and Shiva were represented. In the sculpture of South India, in Mahabalipuram, there are temples excavated in the rock decorated with magnificent reliefs, including the Descent of the Ganges from the time of the Pallava dynasty. Since the century, eroticism has been the main theme of the scenes in many temples, where illustrations from the Kama Sutra are represented. Despite the Muslim conquest, in the southern part of the country the tradition of its sculpture continued, which was gradually transformed into a clear phase of baroqueism in force until the 19th century.[57].
During the Tang dynasty (618-907) the Chinese manufactured a large quantity of terracotta made under pressure using molds. And also in China, the seven thousand life-size warriors of the Qin dynasty were found, which, although the faces are all different, and therefore modeled by hand, it seems that a mold was used for the bodies; They date from approximately 200 BC. C.[58] When Buddhism was introduced to China, there was a need to make sculptural representations. The oldest known is a gilded bronze one dated to the year 338 and is believed to have been a replica of one from Gandhara. Shrines with colossal statues of Buddha were built in the Yungang Grottoes in the city of Datong. In the last stage of the Tang dynasty, the works of ceramic figurines with various themes gave us a new vision of sculpture that was different and distant from Buddhist sculpture. From here on, sculpture enters into a clear decline, although in the Ming dynasty, large images were installed in their architectural works as "guardians" of the doors of the great palaces or funerary complexes, it is still in the small jade or ceramic sculptures where the best representations can be found. In the century and due to ideological transformations of its leaders, monumental sculpture was once again made with a marked realist style to exalt the feats of the Revolution.[59].
From the Jōmon period, around the century BC. C., along with ceramics, small religious or funerary statues with geometric decoration have been found and later, towards the end of the century, in some tombs from the Yayoi period, terracotta idols in the shape of animals called haniwa. It was in the Asuka period and with the arrival of Buddhism that sculpture reached great importance, it was when the sculptor Kuratsukuri Tori"), of Chinese descent, entered the service of the emperor. Other sculptors contributed Korean influences and all worked with bronze, wood and terracotta in images of Buddha, who in Japan acquired names such as Maitreya. In the Nara period the sculpture changed little, the wood was treated with lacquer and polychrome plaster. In the century , during the Kamakura period, the sculptor Jochi achieved great renown and had numerous disciples, who formed workshops where they created divinities with terrible appearance, in order to frighten evil forces. Sculpture had a decreasing application due to the boom that painting acquired at that time. In the Azuchi-Momoyama period, some sculptures of Zen monks and masks for actors from Theater no. were made.
Oceania sculpture
The art of native Australians is restricted to their traditions and the materials they have available, such as wood, tree bark and flint points. They decorate the shields with geometric lines, they make "churingas" made up of flat stones of a totemic nature where they engrave motifs in relation to their ancestors.
The creation of works by Melanesians has a great variety of styles and forms. New Guinea stands out for the designs of its objects, there are some of a sacred nature that can only be seen by the "initiated", there are some houses for the exclusive use of men where all the trunks that form the pillars "Pilar (architecture)") that support the roof are carved representing totemic beings, in these houses the carvings that represent their ancestors, masks and seats completely engraved with decorations of human or animal figures are kept.[61].
In the New Hebrides, sculpture is related to religious ceremonies, statues represent figures of their dead and masks are used for funerary ceremonies. In New Ireland there is a great abundance of objects, also carved wood where shells, bark from other trees and stones are inserted, which are related to ritual acts. In the Solomon Islands, although they make masks, the most notable are human or animal figures. In the Marquesas Islands, great virtuosity was achieved in the construction of canoes where the bow and stern were decorated with a profusion of carvings. In these islands, images were formerly sculpted with volcanic stone. In the Cook Islands, the venerated images showed faces with large eyes and mouths and the rest of the body of a very small proportion.[62].
The Maori of New Zealand built houses with a large pediment "Fronton (architecture)") completely decorated with anthropomorphic figures with a menacing expression, as well as carved nephrite pendants (hei tiki). On Easter Island there are the moai, enormous anthropomorphic figures 4 to 5 meters high, made of volcanic tuff from the Rano Raraku volcano, where some figures are found in different stages of construction, so it is believed that they were worked in situ, from there and it is assumed that dragged using ropes, they were distributed throughout the various points of the island.[63].
Sculpture function
The people of prehistory made the first clay sculptures representing human or animal figures, they dried them in the sun and they were probably used for religious or magical purposes.[4] Sometimes they were simple amulets or votive figures, which have been found in some civilizations and cultures, in graves or in temples as votive offerings.[64] Among the means to worship people who had already left this world, it is worth highlighting the human skulls found in Jericho (7000 BC), converted into a support for the reproduction, in plaster, of the deceased as a mask, adding shells that represented the eyes.[65].
The Egyptians believed that for the pharaoh to live after his death, he needed an image with his representation to favor the survival of the soul.[66] In the same way, symbols were used with a strong meaning in the structure and clarity of the message that was wanted to be transmitted: harmony and order had to be maintained, since any deviation had an impact on the afterlife, the social hierarchy was represented, among other ways, with different sizes for different characters, thus the pharaoh used to be the largest figure, for example. example, Ramses II in the Great Temple of Abu Simbel.
The Roman representations of Emperor Augustus, more than personal portraits, had the function of presenting him to the people with the symbol of an image of supreme power, such as the well-known sculpture of Augustus of Prima Porta, where he exercises the function of maximum military power and in another portrait of the same emperor, in Augustus of via Labicana, he is dressed in a toga that covers his head, according to the Pontifex Maximus.[67].
Later during the Middle Ages, in the era of Romanesque art, Romanesque sculpture had a close relationship with architecture and fulfilled, in addition to its aesthetic function, a didactic or pedagogical function, to explain certain passages or concepts to the people. Thus, it was common to refer to the reliefs on the tympanum "Tympanum (architecture)") of the porticos as "stone catechisms" or "stone bibles", executed to illustrate and explain stories to the illiterate population. An example is the Portico of Santa María de Ripoll.[68] In this religious function the creation of images has transcended the appearance that must be given to the sculpture with the belief of confusing the image with that of the god represented, this has happened from the image of Buddha to that of Christ.[67].
The ornamental function may be linked to some of the other functions, although sometimes it may be the main objective, as is the case with plant or geometric decoration. In aniconic styles, such as Islamic or Hebrew"), it plays a fundamental role. The practical function is when its usefulness is for some special use, this is seen in portable altars and from very ancient times, in the diptychs of ivory reliefs, which were lightly emptied on the inside, to be able to put a layer of wax where messages were engraved and one sheet was closed over the other, to send it to its recipient. As the wax was easy to erase and rewrite, the same diptych was used for the response.[69].
Another function of sculpture is collecting, which became important after the Renaissance, when nobles acquired works of sculpture to decorate their palaces or gardens. Later, starting in the 19th century, monarchs, businessmen, bourgeois and collectors used it as a means of economic investment "Investment (economy)"), self-satisfaction and a form of prestige.[70].
Types of sculpture
Sculpture is divided into two large branches, statuary and ornamental sculpture, depending on whether it represents the human form and expresses the supersensible conceptions of man or is concerned with artistically reproducing other beings of nature, animals or plants. The first is appropriately called sculpture and has its own ideal, the second playing a secondary role by serving as an auxiliary to the first and to architecture.
Canon of proportions
The canon "Canon (art)") is the set of ideal proportions of the human figure and its rules of composition, widely used by ancient Egyptian and Greek artists. It represents in sculpture and painting what the module does in architecture.
The Egyptians had a standard for the representation of the human body in reliefs, called the profile canon. The model was the right figure and the modules are related to the hand and arm, the closed fist, the width of the hand and the elbow (length of the elbow at the end of the pulse). The standing body measured 18 fists, or 4 cubits or 24 hand widths. From the forehead "Forehead (anatomy)") to the neck two cuffs; from neck to knees 10; from the knees to the soles of the feet 6, the same as the width of the shoulders. In the Late Period of Egypt the figure measured about 21 fists in height.[74].
The Greek artists of the Golden Age (century BC) already had their canon attributed mainly to the sculptor Polykleitos and, although since then it has been experiencing variations in the hands of ancient and modern artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, who in the last years of his life dedicated himself to compiling theoretical studies that he had made on the human canon in the * Treatise on the Proportions of the Body *, which was published posthumously in 1528,[75] and Leon Battista Alberti, who was constantly interested in the search for rules, both theoretical and practical, capable of guiding the work of artists; In his works he names some canons, for example, in De statua, he exposes the proportions of the human body.[76].
It was finally well established by the painter Leonardo da Vinci, at the end of the century, and was adopted by the majority of painters and sculptors. The fundamental measure of the Florentine canon, taken from the well-constituted man, is in the head. This is considered, in height, as one eighth of the entire body, the face being one tenth of it and a height equal to the length of the hand. With the man standing and extending his arms, he determines a perfect square with the lines that go down plumb and pass through the ends of the hands and those that extend horizontally over the head and under the feet. The diagonals of this square are cut at the last lumbar vertebra and fixed in the center of the entire figure. Drawing a horizontal line through said central point, the man is divided into two equal parts and each of these into two others, by parallel lines that cross the middle of the chest and the knees. The head is divided into four equal parts, one of them being the height of the nose.[77].
Materials
Contenido
Los materiales empleados en escultura determinan un resultado del aspecto y textura de la obra con el que adquiere también diversas características. Con el uso de una piedra blanda es más difícil un resultado minucioso, por su desmoronamiento, con un material más duro como el granito, se requiere un mayor esfuerzo físico. Los detalles de formas delicadas y con calados se consiguen mejor con el uso de la madera, como lo demuestra, por ejemplo, los retablos góticos. El trabajo en arcilla permite diversos acabados desde el más fino y pulido a dejarlo con las señales propias de los dedos del artista. Finalmente es el escultor y su propósito el que consigue sacar del material la forma y la textura deseada.
Clay
It is one of the oldest materials used by man, as it is easy to model and does not require special utensils, since you can simply use your hands. With the clay you can make molds and then work with other materials or make reproductions. If it is used as a definitive material, it must be fired; In this case it is called terracotta. For the preparation of clay, industrialization processes have modified and lightened the manual work of pressing and crumbling the clay. Blocks prepared for use by sculptors are already on the market.[64].
The most common types of clay are:[78].
Stone
This material has been used since ancient times because it is found abundantly in nature. To work stone you need special tools. The stone was used in the Paleolithic Venuses, in Greek statues and later Roman copies, the works of great Renaissance sculptors such as Michelangelo, Donatello or Bernini and has been used for a long time in public monuments, practically in all countries.[79].
The most common stones in sculpture are:
Stucco
It is a paste made from lime, marble dust, sand and casein glue. It was already used in ancient times in Greece and Rome to make molds. Islamic art used it by carving it as muqarnas ornaments that can be seen in the Alhambra in Granada. In the Renaissance, its application resurfaced for plaster casts from nature, that is, on various parts of the human body and to make masks for the deceased, which their relatives later kept as a souvenir. But perhaps it was in the Baroque where it was used most, as a decorative motif on the ceilings of palaces. In the last century, sculptors such as George Segal and Claes Oldenburg have created figurative works in plaster.[90][91].
Metal
Copper, bronze, gold and silver plates can be used in the direct production technique, which is worked with a hammer, burins or punches. With small pieces or bas-reliefs, embossing is used. To make a free-standing and larger sculpture, a hard body is used, usually made of wood, which is covered with bitumen for better adhesion of the sheets that are fixed with nails or with seams using metal threads. You have to hit the metal and to continue the work, you have to heat the sheets, thus achieving elasticity to the metal. After this first part, the work is touched up with burins and punches. In the past, these sculptures were often made for use as reliquaries, leaving the interior empty for the safekeeping of relics.[92].
Wood
It is a material highly appreciated by sculptors, for its physical properties and good results. There are many types of wood and depending on its quality, the sculpture can be left in its natural color or, on the contrary, dyed with water-based anilines or alcohol, polychromed or protected with shellac. The so-called noble woods are usually left in their natural color, protected with a neutral wax. They are walnut, oak, beech, cedar, mahogany and others.[96].
The wood is cut at least five years before carrying out the work, in the winter season when the sap is in the roots and in this way it is ensured that it is very dry and without giving rise to decomposition of the material. The trees have trunks with more or less limited diameters and this forces different pieces to be prepared according to the needs of the work. Wood is usually purchased in planks, which prior to gluing must be cut according to the size of the piece to be made; To obtain a wide block of the same plank, the different pieces must be placed on top of each other in the same direction as the original plank. Often, wooden sculptures are lightened by making a hole inside them.[97].
Polychrome wood sculpture has occupied an important place in religious imagery. Once the piece was carved, it was covered with a layer of plaster, or with a thin cloth on which plaster was placed as preparation and painted with tempera or oil colors, sometimes gilding them with sheets of gold leaf.[98].
Ivory
Ivory is obtained from the tusks of various animals, particularly elephants. Work has been done in all countries, mainly in Africa, Japan, China, India, the Mediterranean area and continental Europe. The ornamental use of carving already occurred in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is easy to cut and if you want to obtain flat surfaces, cut the fangs longitudinally and immerse them in a mixture of almond oil and vinegar. When this liquid is absorbed, they soften and can be slightly modeled.[99].
It had a great development in the Romanesque era in areas of Carolingian influence. Ivory works were applied to liturgical objects, book covers or plaques for the fronts of altars. Olifantes were wind instruments carved with delicate miniatures and made from elephant tusks, which were part of the hunting utensils of knights during the Middle Ages. It is believed that the crucifix of Don Fernando and Doña Sancha, dated around the year 1063, was the first made in Hispania that contains the representation of the image of Christ.[100] The ivory carvings made in Mechelen are famous, Rubens even designed sculptures that were carved in this material by Lucas Faydherbe (Mechelen, 1617-1697), who worked for three years in the workshop of the painter.[101].
Concrete
The use of concrete in sculpture is relatively new and has become more important as its use in the architectural facades of buildings has increased. Different textures can be achieved on concrete with the use of chisels or files. It is an economical material and allows it to be exposed outdoors. Henry Moore used it in several works.[102] It is used by making a solid cast inside a plaster mold soaked in water, to prevent it from sucking up the water that this mixture carries when placing the concrete mixture. It is advisable that the concrete mass be as compact as possible so that it maintains its homogeneous density and to avoid air bubbles at the end. Molds made with wooden boxes previously greased with fats or oils can be used.[103].
To make a cast, the plaster mold must be insulated with layers of shellac. The concrete must be placed in layers and with pieces of fiberglass adapting it to the final shape of the sculpture, and two or three interspersed layers must be given.[104].
Concrete can also be modeled on a casing normally made with mild steel rods and a metal mesh. This reinforcement is covered with a thick concrete mixture, reinforcing it with fiberglass. When this layer is almost dry, it is modeled on top of it, with another thicker mass of concrete, until the work is completed.[105].
Techniques
Sculptors usually prepare their work by constructing a small model of the figure, made of clay or plaster.[79] This model is equivalent to the painter's sketch or the architect's "Plan (architecture)" plan. The fundamental and most classic procedure is sculpting, using a chisel, burin or chisel depending on the needs. Even the casting and molding procedures require chisel touch-ups in the details. In addition, other actions are used such as modeling or casting, chiseling, embossing, inlaying, engraving and stamping or die-cutting. It is interesting to realize how little the techniques of modeling and carving have changed over time, compared to the changes that have occurred in other fine art techniques. Only in the century did new work methods begin to be introduced.[106].
[73] ↑ Groves, Jeff David (30 de septiembre de 2004). Video sculpture:spatio-temporal warping (en inglés estadounidense). Texas A&M University. Consultado el 3 de diciembre de 2020.: https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/508
[74] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. I: p.191.
[75] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. VI: p.356.
[76] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. V: p.56.
[77] ↑ Biaggi 1983: p.437-447.
[78] ↑ Midgley 1982: p.36-37.
[79] ↑ a b Fuga 2004: p.153.
[80] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. I: p.205.
[81] ↑ Maltese 2001: p.24.
[82] ↑ Midgley 1982: p.122.
[83] ↑ Midgley 1982: p.123.
[84] ↑ Serra Subirà 1982: p.54.
[85] ↑ Frederick Hartt (1 de mayo de 1989). Arte: historia de la pintura, escultura y arquitectura. Ediciones AKAL. pp. 145-. ISBN 9788476004111. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2010. Escultura de esteatita.: http://books.google.com/books?id=4-PE1IzhRiMC&pg=PA145
[87] ↑ Julian Doyle; Bruce Dickinson (30 de mayo de 2008). Chemical Wedding. Troubador Publishing Ltd. pp. 40-. ISBN 9781906510909. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2010. Crani maia tallat en quars(en inglés).: http://books.google.com/books?id=nOhWmImmc1MC&pg=PA40
[116] ↑ Lajo Pérez, Rosina (1990). Léxico de arte. Madrid - España: Akal. p. 72. ISBN 978-84-460-0924-5. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
Venus of Willendorf
Venus of Lespugue
One of the most important advances in the history of sculpture was the ability to work with metal—first bronze and then iron—which served to make more efficient tools and, in addition, obtain a new material to make sculptural works. The process of constructing the work first in clay and then casting it in bronze was already known in the ancient Greek civilizations and by the Romans, and it is the system that is currently, in the 1st century, still used.[5] From the century BC. C., in the last period of the Iron Age, the Celts developed the La Tène culture, spreading throughout Europe; It represented an evolution of the art of Hallstatt culture. In the decoration of all its objects, swords, shields, brooches and diadems, you can see motifs of animals, plants and human figures. From the century BC. C. the first coins were minted following Hellenic models, as well as figurative works such as the God of Bouray, made of embossed copper sheet.[6].
Many statues, generally female, and baked clay busts are preserved from Punic and Greco-Punic art, along with a variety of ivory and metal amulets that were discovered in the necropolises of Ibiza and Formentera. It is estimated that the oldest are works from the century BC. C. and its manufacture continued until very advanced in Roman domination. Regarding Iberian sculpture, the works found are made of stone and bronze and come from three large areas in the south, center and east of the Iberian Peninsula, highlighting the excellent stone bust of the Lady of Elche, of Greek inspiration.[7].
Archaic statuary was mainly religious. The temples were decorated with images of the gods, their exploits and battles, and the figures were unrealistic. The korai and kouroi are not portraits of specific people, a fictitious smile was added to the faces, a facial gesture known in the art world as an "archaic smile." From this period it is worth mentioning the Head of Dipylon, a fragment of a colossal marble statue from the century BC. C. and the Rampin Horseman (c. 560 BC), a later work that presents a treatment closer to naturalism.[8] Greek sculpture reached a high degree of perfection, a quality that was driven by the search for a better expression of the beauty of the human figure; They came to establish a canon with proportions considered "perfect." Unfortunately, the Charioteer of Delphi, the pair of the Riace Bronzes along with that of the God of Cape Artemisius are part of the few Greek bronze sculptures that are preserved complete.[9] One of the most significant artists of the classical period was Praxiteles, author of the magnificent Hermes with Dionysus the Child. During the Hellenic period it is observed that in the creation of sculptures, there is a clear intention to intensify movement and accentuate emotions as can be seen in the sculptural group of Laocoön and his sons.[10].
Etruscan sculpture (1st century BC - 1st century BC) derived from Greek art, but they also produced works with their own characteristics.[11] Statuary linked to funerary contexts is the most abundant Etruscan production and the material of choice, as a general rule, was terracotta, such as the famous Sarcophagus of the Spouses.[12] Later, Roman sculpture was influenced by Etruscan and Greek sculpture, and Roman artists made numerous copies of Greek works. It is worth highlighting the commemorative sculptures, such as those on the Trajan's Column (114), where several battles are narrated in a continuous spiral that occupies the entire surface of the column, or the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.[13] But one of the types of sculpture that most developed were portraits, realistic works with a marked psychological character that were made throughout the Roman Empire.[14].
The most outstanding sculptural works of the Byzantine Empire are the ornamental works on the capitals; There are good examples in San Vitale in Ravenna. Ivory reliefs applied to chests, diptychs or the famous Chair of Bishop Maximilian, a work carved around the year 550, were common.[15] Characteristic of Ottonian art are small sculptures in ivory and bronze to which inlays of precious stones were added. Also made of bronze are the doors of the church of Saint Michael in Hildesheim, a work related to Byzantine art and Carolingian art. It is worth highlighting the wooden images covered in gold that were used as a reliquary. Among these, the Gero Crucifix (century) stands out, in polychrome wood, which is found in the Cologne Cathedral.[16].
Romanesque sculpture (century - century) was at the service of architecture and many examples are found around the great pilgrimage routes, such as the Camino de Santiago.[17] The sculptors treated various parts of the churches - tympanum "Tympano (architecture)", portals and capitals with stories on biblical themes - with great realism. The Maiestas Domini and the Last Judgment were the most represented iconographic themes.[18] The most used material was wood, which was used to make devotional images such as the "Virgins with Child", widely represented throughout Catalonia and the south of France. But, the most important image of the Romanesque was the Christ in Majesty, highlighted by the Volto Santo of Lucca, in the Cathedral of Milan, and also the Christ of Mig Aran and the Majesty of Batlló in the National Museum of Art of Catalonia.[19].
The door of Chartres Cathedral (1145) is one of the first examples of Gothic sculpture, and on it, among other characters, fabulous animals are represented that give shape to the gargoyles "Gargoyle (architecture)"). In Germany, both outside and inside the Bamberg Cathedral (1st century) there are some very significant sculptures, a good example is the Equestrian Statue of the Knight of Bamberg. An innovation is the sculptures on dramatic themes, with scenes of the Passion of Christ and Pieta. At the end of the Gothic period, some magnificent altarpieces were made in Germany, executed by artists such as Tilman Riemenschneider and Veit Stoss. In the kingdom of Castile, the sculptors Gil de Siloé and Alejo de Vahía worked.[20] As for the kingdom of Aragon, Aloi de Montbrai made the Altarpiece of the Tailors in the Cathedral of Tarragona and Pere Moragues sculpted the tomb of Fernández de Luna, a piece that is in the Cathedral of San Salvador in Zaragoza. Also worth highlighting is the relief of Saint George from the Palace of the Generalitat of Catalonia executed by Pere Joan.[20] Claus Sluter, a Flemish artist, made the cover of the Champmol charterhouse (Dijon) and a pedestal of the cloister well known as the Well of Moses. In Italy, in Pisa and Siena, the sculptors Nicola Pisano and his son Giovanni Pisano left works of great quality, where they already announce the step towards a new type of sculpture.[21][20].
Art historians consider that Renaissance sculpture began with the competition to make the doors of the baptistery "Baptistery of Saint John (Florence)") (1401) in the city of Florence, to which Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti entered.[22] The new artistic form of the Renaissance was inspired by the sculpture of classical antiquity, seeking a total exaltation of beauty. Mathematics became his main aid, with the application of certain principles and laws in all the arts, such as perspective. Great patrons emerged, such as the Medici of Florence, the popes of Rome, as well as cardinals, princes and also the guilds.[23] At this time, sculpture was practically detached from architecture and the characters represented showed expressions full of drama, which can be seen in sculptures by Michelangelo such as, for example, David. During the different stages of the quattrocento and cinquecento in Italy, the best works of the Renaissance were created thanks to the activity of great sculptors such as Donatello, Jacopo della Quercia, Luca della Robbia, Andrea del Verrocchio and Michelangelo, the great representative artist.[24] In the rest of Europe, the new style was incorporated a little later and under the direct influence of Italy and its sculptors. Many of them traveled to other countries: Andrea Sansovino did so to Portugal and Pietro Torrigiano to England, this artist later went to Spain, where Domenico Fancelli and Jacopo Florentino also worked together with the sculptors of French origin, Felipe Bigarny and Juan de Juni. It is worth highlighting the works of Bartolomé Ordóñez in Barcelona, in the rear choir of the city's cathedral, and of Alonso Berruguete in Castilla. In the Netherlands, Conrad Meit was a portrait specialist and Jacques du Broeuq produced numerous works and was the teacher of Giambologna who would develop his work in Italy. In France, sculptures were made with great Italian influence, thus, Pierre Puget was considered the "French Bernini."[25] One of the most common themes were sepulchral monuments, where the figure of the recumbent was treated with great realism; for example, the Memorial of René Chalon by Ligier Richier.[26].
Giambologna is the one who presents in his sculpture, such as The Abduction of the Sabine Women, the style of Mannerism. At the end of the cinquecento, sculptors treated the figures by lengthening their proportions and showing artificial and opposite poses - woman and man, old age and youth, beauty and ugliness -, and with the sinuosity of forms in (serpentinata), a kind of rotational movement of the figures and sculptural groups.[27] The Council of Trent (1545-1563) marked a new orientation in the religious images; Gian Lorenzo Bernini —author of David, Apollo and Dafne "Apollo and Daphne (sculpture by Bernini)") and Ecstasy of Saint Teresa— was the sculptor who most influenced baroque sculpture, where emotional and dramatic effects were sought.[28] In France, the work of Simon Guillain and Jacques Sarazin stands out making portraits of the nobility, the tomb of Cardinal Richelieu, made by François Girardon, and the sculptures in the garden of the Palace of Versailles by Pierre Puget.[29] In this period, the production of religious sculpture in Spain is surprising, with sculptures for church interiors, facades, private devotions, and for Holy Week processions; Two great schools emerged: the Castilian and the Andalusian. Among the sculptors, Gregorio Fernández, Juan Martínez Montañés, Francisco Salzillo, Pedro de Mena and Alonso Cano can be highlighted.[30].
In the middle of the century, Winckelmann's guidelines "to nourish good taste in direct sources and take example from the works of the Greeks", caused many artists to dedicate themselves to copying instead of imitating; neoclassicism arrived. The work of Jean-Antoine Houdon, originally baroque, adopted a serene character and verism without anecdotal details, in a process to achieve the ideal beauty of classical antiquity; He portrayed many characters of the time, such as Napoleon, Jean de la Fontaine, Voltaire, George Washington. But the most well-known and innovative sculptor was the Italian Antonio Canova, a very versatile author, somewhere between baroque, rococo and neoclassicism. For its part, Bertel Thorvaldsen's production followed the more orthodox line of neoclassicism, with a colder and more static expression.[31] In Catalonia, Damià Campeny stood out, who traveled to Italy and received the influence of Canova, as did the Andalusian José Álvarez Cubero.[32].
Starting in the century, the media played an increasingly important role in the dissemination of art throughout the world. Styles developed more and more rapidly, whether coexisting, juxtaposing or confronting each other. The word artistic avant-garde began to be used at the end of the century, and thus identified artists who promoted activities that were considered to revolutionize art, with the intention of transforming it. They were characterized by freedom of expression and the first avant-garde trends were cubism and futurism. Sculpture could stop imitating reality and value emptiness, plays of light or negative volume, or it could add movement with mechanical actions or atmospheric agents. It is also worth highlighting the use of new materials such as steel, iron, concrete and plastics.[33].
During Romanticism the artist aspired to represent man's entire environment in "the total work of art" that the German painter Philipp Otto Runge had imagined. Sofia Figueroa") had declared that "of all the arts, the one that lends itself least to romantic expression is, without a doubt, sculpture...". It is in France where some romantic works emerged, such as The March of the Volunteers of 1792 (or The Marseillaise) by Sebastián Niño"), located in the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, and the artist Antoine Louis Barye with works on animals.[34] From Impressionism, it is worth highlighting the sculptures of dancers by Degas, in which he reflects the gestural moment, or the works of Auguste Renoir who reproduced his own paintings in reliefs (Relief (sculpture)). But who really was an innovator was Auguste Rodin who, like the impressionists, despised the external appearance of the finish.[35][36] Modernism "Modernism (art)") emerged between the century and the century. The style adopted different names depending on the country: Art nouveau in France, Modern Style in England, Sezession "Sezession (artistic movement)") in Austria and Jugendstil in Germany. In Catalonia, (Catalan modernism) had a great boom, although it was in architecture where it stood out the most, it constituted a movement that encompassed all the arts and sculptures were made both in public and funerary monuments and applied to architecture, highlighting, among others, the artists: Agapito, Venancio Vallmitjana, Mariano Benlliure, Miguel Blay, Josep Llimona, Eusebio Arnau and Josep Clarà.[37] The Italian Medardo Rosso achieved extraordinary original effects with his plaster figures covered in wax. Aristide Maillol, included in the sculptors of symbolism, made works of female nudes inscribed within geometric volumes with great vitality, this type of sculpture is called Mediterranean. Manolo Hugué also enters this same Mediterranean line, although with more or less cubist beginnings.[38].
Picasso explored cubist sculpture, breaking down volume into geometric planes. In some works he used elements such as rope, wire or uncut wood. Aleksandr Rodchenko—Russian sculptor, painter, graphic designer and photographer—, Jacques Lipchitz and Constantin Brancusi, innovated by searching for emptiness, achieving simplification to reach perfect forms through the materials used.[39] Umberto Boccioni knew how to transfer futurism themes to sculpture, such as dynamism and the introduction of all kinds of materials; subjected to figurative art, Unique forms of continuity in space (1913) was one of the key works of this movement.[40] Marcel Duchamp, one of the first sculptors of Dadaism, around 1913 made sculptures from vulgar objects, what was called found art or ready-made, the first work was a bicycle wheel on a stool.[41] Constructivism "Constructivism (art)") was a movement that appeared in Russia after the October Revolution of 1917; Artists such as Vladimir Tatlin, the Naum Gabo brothers and Antoine Pevsner considerably influenced contemporary art.[42] Neoplasticism (De Stijl), at the same time (1917), sought aesthetic renewal and the configuration of a new harmonious order of universal value, with a structure based on the harmony of lines and rectangular masses of various proportions, highlighting the work of Georges Vantongerloo.[43] Some painters surrealists, they made sculptures related to their pictorial ideas; It is worth mentioning Max Ernst (Moon Asparagus, 1935) and Joan Miró, who used rope and pieces of metal combined.[44].
Between the two world wars, a sculptural movement faithful to the tradition of Italian figuration occurred in Italy, led by Arturo Martini. In this period, Julio González and Pablo Gargallo also stand out, with their first works of a modernist nature "Modernism (art)"), but from 1927 they carried out tests with iron work; Julio González innovated with autogenous welding, a more experimental style in the abstract.[45] At this time Henry Moore contributed to developing avant-garde art, although his work does not belong to any specific movement; He created figurative images and studied volume in space.[46] Like Moore, the Swiss Alberto Giacometti was related to surrealism, but from 1947 he opted for the figurative current, with structures where very elongated figures dominate. Other abstract sculptors can be cited, such as Barbara Hepworth, Alexander Calder, Alberto Sánchez Pérez, Pablo Serrano Aguilar, Jorge Oteiza and Eduardo Chillida.[47] Starting in the 1970s, new artistic movements appear, such as minimalist, conceptual art, so-called land art, arte povera, hyperrealism, performance or postmodernism, with artists such as David Smith "David Smith (sculptor)"), Roy Lichtenstein, Donald Judd, Carl Andre, Dan Flavin, Sol LeWitt, Richard Serra, Dennis Oppenheim, Christo and Jeanne-Claude, Antonio López García and Yayoi Kusama among others.[48].
African sculpture
More durable materials, such as stone, were used in Ancient Egypt. They came to make highly perfected sculptures, which remained unchanged for many centuries.[49] They represented divinities, pharaohs and other important figures, although they also made small pieces of figures in which domestic work was reflected. Many of these works have been found in the sepulchral chambers.
African sculpture has been essentially religious in nature, of the animism type and therefore its veneration has been in the belief of nature spirits and veneration of its dead, death does not represent its end, but lives in the realm of spirits. This belief in the presence of spirits causes rituals to be carried out, where works of art act as a medium. These works are generally masks, free-standing anthropomorphic sculptures or other objects of worship. Wooden objects were made from a tree trunk or branch with the direct carving technique, that is, from a cylindrical piece that was lowered and carved with primitive tools. Clay has also been used in Nigeria by the Nok culture, around 500 BC. C., stone or ivory. Masks are made in almost the entire continent; the "Baga" who occupy the part of Guinea use a mask with a crocodile head and long striped horns. There are masks covered with a crust formed by dried blood, earth and crushed seed juice, masks with a large nose that elongates to form a beak; There are decorations of shells and crystals. In Ife and Benin, the Yoruba worked terracotta and bronze for their kings since the 17th century, in relief plates or life-size heads. In the Ivory Coast, the Baulé, in addition to free-standing sculptures and masks, carved the lintels of the doors of their houses with geometric motifs.[50].
Sculpture of America
The free-standing sculpture and reliefs constituted an important artistic manifestation of the American people. Among other civilizations, the Olmecs, Mayans and Toltecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru stood out. Within its diversity, there are some common features in the sculpture of these people, its association with architecture in which sculptures and reliefs adorn walls and pilasters, and in its religious character with scenes of gods, demons, sacred rites or warriors. In Olmec sculpture, the attempt to reproduce the human face with great realism stands out. In the enormous heads of La Venta, particular features can be seen such as the broad nose, oblique eyes and the mouth with large lips. These heads are all made of monolithic blocks and reach more than three meters in height. In Tollan-Xicocotitlan there are gigantic warriors about five meters high on a rectangular base, with war clothing and helmets on their heads. The Mayans made figures in jade and the sculpture was mostly attached to the temples of Palenque "Palenque (archaeological zone)"), Tikal and Chichén Itzá, where one of the most famous sculptures, Chac Mool, comes from. This type of sculpture has been found in several temples of Toltec influence.[51] The first civilization of Peru, according to archaeological data reviewed by radiocarbon, dates back to around 1250 BC. C. and it is called Chavin de Huántar, where what had to be the largest temple of this civilization has been found. The exterior of the building is adorned with sculptures, most of them in bas-relief, and steles with engravings of snakes and crocodiles have also been found. Another culture was born in the period between 900 and 1430, the Inca people in southern Peru, who around 1200, were acquiring great power until the arrival of the Spanish in 1532. There is little monumental sculpture, but they were great workers with mastery of metallurgy, mainly in gold, where they embedded precious stones.[52].
Asian sculpture
In Mesopotamia, due to the scarcity of quarries, sculpture was mainly made with clay; in the excavations of Ur (4000 BC) numerous small statues of this material have been found. The Sumerians developed and spread to other civilizations the use of brick, in which a relief was sculpted and then glazed. Some very representative examples are those that adorn the palaces, also the Persian sepulchral surfaces of the palace of Persepolis and the Frieze of the archers, a work in enameled brick found in the Royal Palace of Susa (404-359 BC).[53].
The history of Indian sculpture began around 2500 BC. C. in an area along 1,500 kilometers along the basins of the Ravi and Sutlej rivers, where the Indus Valley culture was established. Its main towns were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, where in archaeological excavations of the 1st century, a great variety of terracotta sculptures representing human figures with symbols related to fertility were found, as well as a small Ballerina in bronze and a Bust of a king-priest in soapstone.[54] Around 1500 BC. C. the Indus culture became extinct and for a long time a period without known artistic manifestations was entered, until the century BC. C., when the Mauryan empire was formed and during which large columns were placed, some still in situ, in a sculptural manner ending in a capital that supported a sculpture of an animal theme, the most famous being the Lions Capital in Sarnath. From this same period there are sculptures with representations of male and female divinities, among which the Iaksí of the Patna museum stands out, which presents great exuberance of the breasts, wide hips and narrow waist, features that are repeated in the demonstration of the ideal of feminine beauty in Indian culture.[55].
During the Kushan Empire there was great cultural development and the traditions of Buddhism and Hinduism were added in the Gandhara region, whose art is called "Greco-Buddhist" due to the influence of classical Greece on the Buddha images made in this period.[56].
In the Gupta Empire it became a "classical art" where pure lines and forms of harmonious balance were achieved, the divinities Brahmá, Vishnu and Shiva were represented. In the sculpture of South India, in Mahabalipuram, there are temples excavated in the rock decorated with magnificent reliefs, including the Descent of the Ganges from the time of the Pallava dynasty. Since the century, eroticism has been the main theme of the scenes in many temples, where illustrations from the Kama Sutra are represented. Despite the Muslim conquest, in the southern part of the country the tradition of its sculpture continued, which was gradually transformed into a clear phase of baroqueism in force until the 19th century.[57].
During the Tang dynasty (618-907) the Chinese manufactured a large quantity of terracotta made under pressure using molds. And also in China, the seven thousand life-size warriors of the Qin dynasty were found, which, although the faces are all different, and therefore modeled by hand, it seems that a mold was used for the bodies; They date from approximately 200 BC. C.[58] When Buddhism was introduced to China, there was a need to make sculptural representations. The oldest known is a gilded bronze one dated to the year 338 and is believed to have been a replica of one from Gandhara. Shrines with colossal statues of Buddha were built in the Yungang Grottoes in the city of Datong. In the last stage of the Tang dynasty, the works of ceramic figurines with various themes gave us a new vision of sculpture that was different and distant from Buddhist sculpture. From here on, sculpture enters into a clear decline, although in the Ming dynasty, large images were installed in their architectural works as "guardians" of the doors of the great palaces or funerary complexes, it is still in the small jade or ceramic sculptures where the best representations can be found. In the century and due to ideological transformations of its leaders, monumental sculpture was once again made with a marked realist style to exalt the feats of the Revolution.[59].
From the Jōmon period, around the century BC. C., along with ceramics, small religious or funerary statues with geometric decoration have been found and later, towards the end of the century, in some tombs from the Yayoi period, terracotta idols in the shape of animals called haniwa. It was in the Asuka period and with the arrival of Buddhism that sculpture reached great importance, it was when the sculptor Kuratsukuri Tori"), of Chinese descent, entered the service of the emperor. Other sculptors contributed Korean influences and all worked with bronze, wood and terracotta in images of Buddha, who in Japan acquired names such as Maitreya. In the Nara period the sculpture changed little, the wood was treated with lacquer and polychrome plaster. In the century , during the Kamakura period, the sculptor Jochi achieved great renown and had numerous disciples, who formed workshops where they created divinities with terrible appearance, in order to frighten evil forces. Sculpture had a decreasing application due to the boom that painting acquired at that time. In the Azuchi-Momoyama period, some sculptures of Zen monks and masks for actors from Theater no. were made.
Oceania sculpture
The art of native Australians is restricted to their traditions and the materials they have available, such as wood, tree bark and flint points. They decorate the shields with geometric lines, they make "churingas" made up of flat stones of a totemic nature where they engrave motifs in relation to their ancestors.
The creation of works by Melanesians has a great variety of styles and forms. New Guinea stands out for the designs of its objects, there are some of a sacred nature that can only be seen by the "initiated", there are some houses for the exclusive use of men where all the trunks that form the pillars "Pilar (architecture)") that support the roof are carved representing totemic beings, in these houses the carvings that represent their ancestors, masks and seats completely engraved with decorations of human or animal figures are kept.[61].
In the New Hebrides, sculpture is related to religious ceremonies, statues represent figures of their dead and masks are used for funerary ceremonies. In New Ireland there is a great abundance of objects, also carved wood where shells, bark from other trees and stones are inserted, which are related to ritual acts. In the Solomon Islands, although they make masks, the most notable are human or animal figures. In the Marquesas Islands, great virtuosity was achieved in the construction of canoes where the bow and stern were decorated with a profusion of carvings. In these islands, images were formerly sculpted with volcanic stone. In the Cook Islands, the venerated images showed faces with large eyes and mouths and the rest of the body of a very small proportion.[62].
The Maori of New Zealand built houses with a large pediment "Fronton (architecture)") completely decorated with anthropomorphic figures with a menacing expression, as well as carved nephrite pendants (hei tiki). On Easter Island there are the moai, enormous anthropomorphic figures 4 to 5 meters high, made of volcanic tuff from the Rano Raraku volcano, where some figures are found in different stages of construction, so it is believed that they were worked in situ, from there and it is assumed that dragged using ropes, they were distributed throughout the various points of the island.[63].
Sculpture function
The people of prehistory made the first clay sculptures representing human or animal figures, they dried them in the sun and they were probably used for religious or magical purposes.[4] Sometimes they were simple amulets or votive figures, which have been found in some civilizations and cultures, in graves or in temples as votive offerings.[64] Among the means to worship people who had already left this world, it is worth highlighting the human skulls found in Jericho (7000 BC), converted into a support for the reproduction, in plaster, of the deceased as a mask, adding shells that represented the eyes.[65].
The Egyptians believed that for the pharaoh to live after his death, he needed an image with his representation to favor the survival of the soul.[66] In the same way, symbols were used with a strong meaning in the structure and clarity of the message that was wanted to be transmitted: harmony and order had to be maintained, since any deviation had an impact on the afterlife, the social hierarchy was represented, among other ways, with different sizes for different characters, thus the pharaoh used to be the largest figure, for example. example, Ramses II in the Great Temple of Abu Simbel.
The Roman representations of Emperor Augustus, more than personal portraits, had the function of presenting him to the people with the symbol of an image of supreme power, such as the well-known sculpture of Augustus of Prima Porta, where he exercises the function of maximum military power and in another portrait of the same emperor, in Augustus of via Labicana, he is dressed in a toga that covers his head, according to the Pontifex Maximus.[67].
Later during the Middle Ages, in the era of Romanesque art, Romanesque sculpture had a close relationship with architecture and fulfilled, in addition to its aesthetic function, a didactic or pedagogical function, to explain certain passages or concepts to the people. Thus, it was common to refer to the reliefs on the tympanum "Tympanum (architecture)") of the porticos as "stone catechisms" or "stone bibles", executed to illustrate and explain stories to the illiterate population. An example is the Portico of Santa María de Ripoll.[68] In this religious function the creation of images has transcended the appearance that must be given to the sculpture with the belief of confusing the image with that of the god represented, this has happened from the image of Buddha to that of Christ.[67].
The ornamental function may be linked to some of the other functions, although sometimes it may be the main objective, as is the case with plant or geometric decoration. In aniconic styles, such as Islamic or Hebrew"), it plays a fundamental role. The practical function is when its usefulness is for some special use, this is seen in portable altars and from very ancient times, in the diptychs of ivory reliefs, which were lightly emptied on the inside, to be able to put a layer of wax where messages were engraved and one sheet was closed over the other, to send it to its recipient. As the wax was easy to erase and rewrite, the same diptych was used for the response.[69].
Another function of sculpture is collecting, which became important after the Renaissance, when nobles acquired works of sculpture to decorate their palaces or gardens. Later, starting in the 19th century, monarchs, businessmen, bourgeois and collectors used it as a means of economic investment "Investment (economy)"), self-satisfaction and a form of prestige.[70].
Types of sculpture
Sculpture is divided into two large branches, statuary and ornamental sculpture, depending on whether it represents the human form and expresses the supersensible conceptions of man or is concerned with artistically reproducing other beings of nature, animals or plants. The first is appropriately called sculpture and has its own ideal, the second playing a secondary role by serving as an auxiliary to the first and to architecture.
Canon of proportions
The canon "Canon (art)") is the set of ideal proportions of the human figure and its rules of composition, widely used by ancient Egyptian and Greek artists. It represents in sculpture and painting what the module does in architecture.
The Egyptians had a standard for the representation of the human body in reliefs, called the profile canon. The model was the right figure and the modules are related to the hand and arm, the closed fist, the width of the hand and the elbow (length of the elbow at the end of the pulse). The standing body measured 18 fists, or 4 cubits or 24 hand widths. From the forehead "Forehead (anatomy)") to the neck two cuffs; from neck to knees 10; from the knees to the soles of the feet 6, the same as the width of the shoulders. In the Late Period of Egypt the figure measured about 21 fists in height.[74].
The Greek artists of the Golden Age (century BC) already had their canon attributed mainly to the sculptor Polykleitos and, although since then it has been experiencing variations in the hands of ancient and modern artists, such as Albrecht Dürer, who in the last years of his life dedicated himself to compiling theoretical studies that he had made on the human canon in the * Treatise on the Proportions of the Body *, which was published posthumously in 1528,[75] and Leon Battista Alberti, who was constantly interested in the search for rules, both theoretical and practical, capable of guiding the work of artists; In his works he names some canons, for example, in De statua, he exposes the proportions of the human body.[76].
It was finally well established by the painter Leonardo da Vinci, at the end of the century, and was adopted by the majority of painters and sculptors. The fundamental measure of the Florentine canon, taken from the well-constituted man, is in the head. This is considered, in height, as one eighth of the entire body, the face being one tenth of it and a height equal to the length of the hand. With the man standing and extending his arms, he determines a perfect square with the lines that go down plumb and pass through the ends of the hands and those that extend horizontally over the head and under the feet. The diagonals of this square are cut at the last lumbar vertebra and fixed in the center of the entire figure. Drawing a horizontal line through said central point, the man is divided into two equal parts and each of these into two others, by parallel lines that cross the middle of the chest and the knees. The head is divided into four equal parts, one of them being the height of the nose.[77].
Materials
Contenido
Los materiales empleados en escultura determinan un resultado del aspecto y textura de la obra con el que adquiere también diversas características. Con el uso de una piedra blanda es más difícil un resultado minucioso, por su desmoronamiento, con un material más duro como el granito, se requiere un mayor esfuerzo físico. Los detalles de formas delicadas y con calados se consiguen mejor con el uso de la madera, como lo demuestra, por ejemplo, los retablos góticos. El trabajo en arcilla permite diversos acabados desde el más fino y pulido a dejarlo con las señales propias de los dedos del artista. Finalmente es el escultor y su propósito el que consigue sacar del material la forma y la textura deseada.
Clay
It is one of the oldest materials used by man, as it is easy to model and does not require special utensils, since you can simply use your hands. With the clay you can make molds and then work with other materials or make reproductions. If it is used as a definitive material, it must be fired; In this case it is called terracotta. For the preparation of clay, industrialization processes have modified and lightened the manual work of pressing and crumbling the clay. Blocks prepared for use by sculptors are already on the market.[64].
The most common types of clay are:[78].
Stone
This material has been used since ancient times because it is found abundantly in nature. To work stone you need special tools. The stone was used in the Paleolithic Venuses, in Greek statues and later Roman copies, the works of great Renaissance sculptors such as Michelangelo, Donatello or Bernini and has been used for a long time in public monuments, practically in all countries.[79].
The most common stones in sculpture are:
Stucco
It is a paste made from lime, marble dust, sand and casein glue. It was already used in ancient times in Greece and Rome to make molds. Islamic art used it by carving it as muqarnas ornaments that can be seen in the Alhambra in Granada. In the Renaissance, its application resurfaced for plaster casts from nature, that is, on various parts of the human body and to make masks for the deceased, which their relatives later kept as a souvenir. But perhaps it was in the Baroque where it was used most, as a decorative motif on the ceilings of palaces. In the last century, sculptors such as George Segal and Claes Oldenburg have created figurative works in plaster.[90][91].
Metal
Copper, bronze, gold and silver plates can be used in the direct production technique, which is worked with a hammer, burins or punches. With small pieces or bas-reliefs, embossing is used. To make a free-standing and larger sculpture, a hard body is used, usually made of wood, which is covered with bitumen for better adhesion of the sheets that are fixed with nails or with seams using metal threads. You have to hit the metal and to continue the work, you have to heat the sheets, thus achieving elasticity to the metal. After this first part, the work is touched up with burins and punches. In the past, these sculptures were often made for use as reliquaries, leaving the interior empty for the safekeeping of relics.[92].
Wood
It is a material highly appreciated by sculptors, for its physical properties and good results. There are many types of wood and depending on its quality, the sculpture can be left in its natural color or, on the contrary, dyed with water-based anilines or alcohol, polychromed or protected with shellac. The so-called noble woods are usually left in their natural color, protected with a neutral wax. They are walnut, oak, beech, cedar, mahogany and others.[96].
The wood is cut at least five years before carrying out the work, in the winter season when the sap is in the roots and in this way it is ensured that it is very dry and without giving rise to decomposition of the material. The trees have trunks with more or less limited diameters and this forces different pieces to be prepared according to the needs of the work. Wood is usually purchased in planks, which prior to gluing must be cut according to the size of the piece to be made; To obtain a wide block of the same plank, the different pieces must be placed on top of each other in the same direction as the original plank. Often, wooden sculptures are lightened by making a hole inside them.[97].
Polychrome wood sculpture has occupied an important place in religious imagery. Once the piece was carved, it was covered with a layer of plaster, or with a thin cloth on which plaster was placed as preparation and painted with tempera or oil colors, sometimes gilding them with sheets of gold leaf.[98].
Ivory
Ivory is obtained from the tusks of various animals, particularly elephants. Work has been done in all countries, mainly in Africa, Japan, China, India, the Mediterranean area and continental Europe. The ornamental use of carving already occurred in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is easy to cut and if you want to obtain flat surfaces, cut the fangs longitudinally and immerse them in a mixture of almond oil and vinegar. When this liquid is absorbed, they soften and can be slightly modeled.[99].
It had a great development in the Romanesque era in areas of Carolingian influence. Ivory works were applied to liturgical objects, book covers or plaques for the fronts of altars. Olifantes were wind instruments carved with delicate miniatures and made from elephant tusks, which were part of the hunting utensils of knights during the Middle Ages. It is believed that the crucifix of Don Fernando and Doña Sancha, dated around the year 1063, was the first made in Hispania that contains the representation of the image of Christ.[100] The ivory carvings made in Mechelen are famous, Rubens even designed sculptures that were carved in this material by Lucas Faydherbe (Mechelen, 1617-1697), who worked for three years in the workshop of the painter.[101].
Concrete
The use of concrete in sculpture is relatively new and has become more important as its use in the architectural facades of buildings has increased. Different textures can be achieved on concrete with the use of chisels or files. It is an economical material and allows it to be exposed outdoors. Henry Moore used it in several works.[102] It is used by making a solid cast inside a plaster mold soaked in water, to prevent it from sucking up the water that this mixture carries when placing the concrete mixture. It is advisable that the concrete mass be as compact as possible so that it maintains its homogeneous density and to avoid air bubbles at the end. Molds made with wooden boxes previously greased with fats or oils can be used.[103].
To make a cast, the plaster mold must be insulated with layers of shellac. The concrete must be placed in layers and with pieces of fiberglass adapting it to the final shape of the sculpture, and two or three interspersed layers must be given.[104].
Concrete can also be modeled on a casing normally made with mild steel rods and a metal mesh. This reinforcement is covered with a thick concrete mixture, reinforcing it with fiberglass. When this layer is almost dry, it is modeled on top of it, with another thicker mass of concrete, until the work is completed.[105].
Techniques
Sculptors usually prepare their work by constructing a small model of the figure, made of clay or plaster.[79] This model is equivalent to the painter's sketch or the architect's "Plan (architecture)" plan. The fundamental and most classic procedure is sculpting, using a chisel, burin or chisel depending on the needs. Even the casting and molding procedures require chisel touch-ups in the details. In addition, other actions are used such as modeling or casting, chiseling, embossing, inlaying, engraving and stamping or die-cutting. It is interesting to realize how little the techniques of modeling and carving have changed over time, compared to the changes that have occurred in other fine art techniques. Only in the century did new work methods begin to be introduced.[106].
[73] ↑ Groves, Jeff David (30 de septiembre de 2004). Video sculpture:spatio-temporal warping (en inglés estadounidense). Texas A&M University. Consultado el 3 de diciembre de 2020.: https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/handle/1969.1/508
[74] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. I: p.191.
[75] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. VI: p.356.
[76] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. V: p.56.
[77] ↑ Biaggi 1983: p.437-447.
[78] ↑ Midgley 1982: p.36-37.
[79] ↑ a b Fuga 2004: p.153.
[80] ↑ Sureda 1988 Vol. I: p.205.
[81] ↑ Maltese 2001: p.24.
[82] ↑ Midgley 1982: p.122.
[83] ↑ Midgley 1982: p.123.
[84] ↑ Serra Subirà 1982: p.54.
[85] ↑ Frederick Hartt (1 de mayo de 1989). Arte: historia de la pintura, escultura y arquitectura. Ediciones AKAL. pp. 145-. ISBN 9788476004111. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2010. Escultura de esteatita.: http://books.google.com/books?id=4-PE1IzhRiMC&pg=PA145
[87] ↑ Julian Doyle; Bruce Dickinson (30 de mayo de 2008). Chemical Wedding. Troubador Publishing Ltd. pp. 40-. ISBN 9781906510909. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2010. Crani maia tallat en quars(en inglés).: http://books.google.com/books?id=nOhWmImmc1MC&pg=PA40