Contenido

La expansión romana tiene inicio durante el siglo a. C. poco después de la fundación de la república. Sin embargo, no fue hasta el siglo a. C. que Roma comenzó con la anexión de las provincias, es decir, los territorios situados fuera de la península itálica.[8]​ En ese momento, y cuatro siglos antes de alcanzar su mayor extensión territorial, Roma y sus dominios ya constituían un «imperio», aunque su sistema de gobierno continuó siendo el de una república.[9]​[10]​[11]​ La República romana no era un estado en el sentido contemporáneo del término, sino más bien una red de ciudades, en la que cada una contaba con un grado diferente de autonomía en relación con el Senado romano. Las provincias eran administradas por cónsules y pretores, que eran elegidos para ejercer un mandato de un año.[12]​ El poder militar de los cónsules tenía como base la noción jurídica de imperium o comando militar.[13]​ Ocasionalmente, a los cónsules triunfantes se les otorgaba el título de imperator, del que proviene el término «emperador».[14]​.

Augustus and the transition from the Republic to the Empire

Since the end of the century BC. C., Rome suffered a series of social conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars, while consolidating its influence beyond the Italian peninsula. The century BC C. was marked by a period of instability formed by a series of both military and political revolts that paved the way for the implementation of an imperial regime.[15]​[16]​[17]​ In the year 44 BC. C., Julius Caesar was proclaimed perpetual dictator "Dictator (Ancient Rome)") before being assassinated.[18]​ A year later, Octavian, Caesar's grandnephew and adopted son, and one of the most prominent republican generals, became one of the members of the Second Triumvirate "Second Triumvirate (Ancient Rome)")—a political alliance with Lepidus and Mark Antony—.[19]​ After the battle of Philippi in 42 BC C., the relationship between Octavian and Mark Antony began to deteriorate, which led to the dissolution of the triumvirate and a war between them. This ended with the battle of Actium, in which Mark Antony and his beloved Cleopatra were defeated. The subsequent confrontation "Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)") in Alexandria in 30 BC. C. led to the annexation of Ptolemaic Egypt by Octavian.[18]​.

Principality

In 27 BC C, the Senate and the Roman people proclaimed Octavian princeps (first citizen) and granted him the power of proconsular imperium and the title of Augustus "Augustus (title)"). This event began the period known as the Principality "Principality (Ancient Rome)"), the first era of the imperial period, which lasted between 27 BC. C. and 284. The government of Augustus put an end to a century full of civil wars and began an era of social and economic stability called the Pax Romana (Roman peace), which was promulgated during the following two centuries. Revolts in the provinces were rare and were quickly stopped.[20] As the sole ruler of Rome, Augustus was able to carry out a series of large-scale military, political and economic reforms. The Senate gave him the power to appoint his own senators and authority over provincial governors, creating de facto the position that would later be called emperor.[21]​.

Augustus implemented the principles of dynastic succession, so he was succeeded in the Julio-Claudian dynasty by Tiberius (r. 14-37), Caligula (r. 37-41), Claudius (r. 41-54), and Nero (r. 54-68). The latter's suicide led to a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, which concluded with the victory of Vespasian (r. 69-79) and the founding of the short-lived Flavian dynasty, remembered for being responsible for the construction of the Colosseum in Rome. This was succeeded by the Antonine dynasty, which included the emperors Nerva (r. 96-98), Trajan (r. 98-117), Hadrian (r. 117-138), Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180), the so-called "five good emperors." In 212, through the Edict of Caracalla promulgated by the emperor of the same name (r. 211-217), Roman citizenship was granted to all free citizens of the Empire. However, despite this universal gesture, the Severan dynasty was marked by several revolts and disasters throughout the crisis of the century, a time of invasions, social instability, economic difficulties and plague. In periodization, this crisis is generally considered the moment of transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity.[22]​.

Dominated

Diocletian (r. 284-305) renounced the office of princeps and adopted the title of dominus (master or lord), which marked the transition from the Principality "Principality (Ancient Rome)") to the Dominated - a state of absolute monarchy that lasted from 284 until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476.[23] Diocletian prevented the collapse of the empire, although his reign was marked by the persecution of Christianity. During his rule, a tetrarchy was established and the empire was divided into four regions, each ruled by a different emperor.[24] In 313, the tetrarchy collapsed and, after a series of civil wars, Constantine I (r. 306-337) emerged as sole emperor. This was the first emperor to convert to Christianity and established Constantinople as the capital of the Eastern Empire. Throughout the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided into a western and eastern half and power was shared between Rome and Constantinople. The succession of Christian emperors was briefly interrupted by Julian (r. 361-363) as he attempted to restore traditional religion in his own way. Theodosius (r. 378-395) was the last emperor to rule the empire as a whole, he died in 395, after Christianity was declared the official religion of the empire.[25]

Fragmentation and decline

Starting in the 2nd century, the Roman Empire began to fragment as a result of migrations, which outnumbered the empire's capacity to assimilate migrants. Although the Roman army was able to repel the invaders, the most notable of whom was Attila the Hun (r. 434-453; which was romanized "Romanization (acculturation)"), it had assimilated so many peoples of dubious loyalty that the Empire began to dismember. Most historians date the fall of the Western Roman Empire to 476, the year in which the usurper Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476) was overthrown by Flavius Odoacer (r. 476-493).[26] However, instead of assuming the title of emperor, Odoacer restored Julius Nepos and swore allegiance to Flavius Zeno "Zenón." (emperor)"), rewarding him with the title of dux Italiae (duke of Italy) and patrician. During the following century, the eastern empire, known today as the Byzantine Empire, gradually lost control of the western part. The Byzantine Empire ceased in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453) and the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire.[27]​.

The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history. It dominated a continuous territorial expanse across Europe, North Africa and the Near East,[28]​ from Hadrian's Wall in rainy England to the sunny shores of the Euphrates River in Syria "Syria (Roman province)"), from the fertile plains of Central Europe to the lush margins of the Nile Valley in Egypt.[29]​ The notion of imperium sine fine (empire without end) manifested the ideology. Roman that its empire was not limited in space and time.[30] Most of Roman expansion took place during the republic, although some territories in northern and central Europe were not conquered until the century AD. C., a period that corresponded to the consolidation of Roman power in the provinces.[31]​ Res gestae, a first-person account of Emperor Augustus that narrates his life and, above all, his works, highlights the number of towns in the regions of the empire.[32]​ The imperial administration carried out frequent censuses and maintained meticulous geographical records.[33]​.

The empire reached its greatest territorial extension during the reign of Trajan (r. 98-117),[35]​ corresponding to an area of approximately 5 million km² and currently divided by forty countries.[36]​ Traditionally, it was estimated that the population during this period reached between fifty-five and sixty million inhabitants,[29]​ which would be between a sixth and a quarter of the world's population and the largest number of inhabitants of any political unit in the West until mid-century.[37]​[38]​ However, more recent studies estimated that the population could have reached between seventy and one hundred million inhabitants.[39]​ Each of the three largest cities of the empire—Rome, Alexandria and Antioch—was twice the size of any European city until the beginning of the century.[40]​ Hadrian, Trajan's successor, abandoned the expansionist policy and opted for one of territorial consolidation, so he defended, He fortified and patrolled the border regions.[41]​.

Los idiomas de los romanos eran el latín, que Virgilio destacó como fuente de unidad y tradición romana.[42]​ Aunque el latín fuera el idioma principal en los tribunales y la administración pública del Imperio Occidental y del ejército de todo el imperio, no se impuso oficialmente a los pueblos bajo el dominio romano.[43]​ Al conquistar nuevos territorios, los romanos conservaron las tradiciones y los idiomas locales e introdujeron gradualmente el latín a través de la administración pública y los documentos oficiales.[44]​ Esta política contrasta con la de Alejandro Magno, quien impuso el griego helenístico como idioma oficial de su imperio.[45]​ Esto hizo que el griego antiguo se convirtiera en la lengua franca de la mitad oriental del Imperio romano, en todo el Mediterráneo oriental y Asia Menor.[46]​[47]​ En Occidente, el latín vulgar reemplazó gradualmente a las lenguas celta e itálica, ambas con las mismas raíces indoeuropeas, lo que facilitó su adopción.[48]​.

Aunque los emperadores julio-claudios alentaron el uso del latín en la realización de asuntos oficiales en todo el imperio, el griego siguió siendo el idioma literario entre la élite cultural romana y la mayoría de los gobernantes lo hablaban con fluidez. Claudio intentó limitar el uso del griego, incluso revocando la ciudadanía a quienes no sabían latín, aunque en el propio Senado había embajadores nativos griegos.[49]​ En el Imperio de Oriente, las leyes y los documentos oficiales se tradujeron regularmente del latín al griego.[50]​ El uso simultáneo de ambos idiomas se puede ver en inscripciones bilingües compuestas por los dos idiomas.[51]​[52]​ En 212, cuando se otorgó la ciudadanía a todos los hombres libres del imperio, se esperaba que los ciudadanos que no sabían latín adquirieran algunas nociones básicas del idioma.[53]​ A principios del siglo , Justiniano I se esforzó por promover el latín como lengua de derecho en Oriente, aunque perdió gradualmente su influencia y existencia como lengua viva.[54]​.

The constant reference to interpreters in literature and official documents indicates the vulgarity and prevalence in the Roman Empire of a large number of local languages. Roman jurists themselves were concerned with ensuring that laws and oaths were correctly translated and understood in local languages, such as Punic, Gaulish, Aramaic or even Coptic, predominant in Egypt, or the Germanic languages, influential in the Rhine and Danube regions.[55] In some regions, such as in the African province "Africa (Roman province)"), Punic was used on coins and inscriptions on buildings. public, some bilingual along with Latin. However, the hegemony of the latter among the elites and as the official language of written documents compromised the continuity of several local languages, since all cultures within the empire were predominantly of oral tradition.[56]​.

El mando supremo del ejército correspondía al emperador. Fuera de Italia "Italia (época romana)"), en los territorios provinciales, el mando correspondía al gobernador provincial (pero este a su vez estaba supeditado al emperador que podía apartarlo cuando quisiera), pudiendo también asumirlo temporalmente el emperador. El número de legiones osciló en toda la época imperial, con un número máximo cercano a la treintena.

Las clases altas de caballeros y senadores fueron desapareciendo del ejército, de modo que las legiones debían reclutarse entre los ciudadanos, primero en Italia y después progresivamente en las provincias donde estaban acantonadas (destacaron los mauros, los tracios y sobre todo los ilirios), de modo que desde Adriano el reclutamiento se hizo casi exclusivamente en las provincias donde servía la legión, y por fin se recurrió a mercenarios extranjeros (sobre todo germanos). Con la entrada de los proletarios el ejército se profesionalizó, si bien estos soldados tenían más facilidad para el motín y el saqueo. Los ascensos se ganaban por méritos, por favores o por dinero. El tiempo de servicio fue aumentado progresivamente y no eran excepcionales servicios de treinta o más años, tras lo cual se conseguía un estipendio económico, la ciudadanía y privilegios como el acceso a algunos cargos municipales.

La legión disponía de arsenales (armamentos) y de talleres de fabricación y reparación. Los soldados recibían un sueldo, donativos imperiales en ocasión del acceso al trono, las fiestas o los motines, regalos (stillaturae) y el botín de guerra. La ración de alimentos diaria fue creciendo y se le proporcionaba trigo, sal, vino, vinagre, carne fresca y carne salada.

Los campamentos se convirtieron en plazas fuertes. Disponían de murallas y torreones y se dividían interiormente en cuatro partes marcadas por dos vías perpendiculares. Contenían sala de baños, sala de reuniones, capillas, oficinas, cárcel, hospital y almacenes. Los mercaderes, artistas, prostitutas y otros acudían a sus alrededores y se establecían constituyéndose aglomeraciones urbanas, y crecían los barrios exteriores para la población civil (canabae) con casas de baños, anfiteatros y otros edificios públicos. Los terrenos próximos se utilizaban como pastos para el ganado, que se arrendaban a los agricultores de la zona.

Legion structure

A typical Roman legion (whose emblem was a silver eagle) consisted of ten cohorts (with their respective banner) each with five or six centuries of eighty men subdivided into ten contuberniums (basic unit of eight legionaries who shared a tent), each legion thus counting five or six thousand men of infantry, divided into fifty or sixty centuries. It also had regular auxiliary and cavalry guerrillas (alae) with one hundred and twenty cavalry men.

The emperor and in his name the provincial governor appointed the legatus legionis, lieutenants of the legion with praetor functions, and their assistants the military tribunes and centurions.

Along with the legatees of the legion were the benefiaciarii (in charge of missions of trust), the strato (squires), the commentarienses (archivers), the cornicularii (accountants) and the actuario (scribes). The military tribunes were divided into laticlavii (affects the administration) and angusticlavii (properly military missions). Centurions were the basic infantry officers (the centuria of 80 men) and cavalry (the turma of 30 men). Each centuria and turma had a non-commissioned officer called optio (equivalent to sergeant), who also performed administrative functions. The decuriones were non-commissioned officers who in the infantry commanded a decuria (nine men) and in the cavalry of the auxiliary units they commanded a squadron or turma (30 horsemen). Other non-commissioned officers were the tesserarius (equivalent to a sergeant), the signifer or vexillarius (standard bearer), the aquilifer (the bearer of the legionary eagle), the campiductor (instructor) and the pecunarius (furriel).

The cohorts were structured in ten rows of 40 or 60 rows, which in Trajan's time were reduced to five rows. With Hadrian the family cohort emerged (composed of 1,200 chosen soldiers) while the remaining cohorts were called quingentaries and numbered 500 soldiers.

Several specialized cohorts were structured: the infantry (peditata), the cavalry or mixed cohort (equitativa), the police (togata), the surveillance cohort (excubitoria), the garrison in a city (urbana), the one in charge of putting out fires (Vigilio) and the one in charge of the guard and imperial custody or of a leader (Praetorina). This personal guard of the general-in-chief was common in the Empire. There was the headquarters (Praetorian Guard or guard of the general in chief), the members had more salaries and were exempt from camp work, and they became the arbiters of the Empire.

The centuries were commanded by centurions (the most prestigious centurion was the primus pilus usually the most senior), above whom there were six tribunes of the legion of equestrian rank, and the legatus of the legion, of senatorial rank, who had previously been praetor (in the provinces where there was only one legion, the legatus of the province and that of the Legion was the same person).

Equipment

The equipment of the legionnaires changed substantially depending on the rank. During campaigns, legionaries were equipped with armor (lorica segmentata), shield (scutum), helmet (galae), a heavy and a light spear (pilum), a short sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio), a pair of sandals (caligae), a sarcina (marching backpack), and food and water for two weeks, cooking equipment, two stakes (Sude murale) for the construction of walls, and a shovel or basket.

The Roman Navy (in Latin classis, literally fleet) comprised the naval forces of the ancient Roman State. Despite playing a decisive role in Roman expansion across the Mediterranean, the navy never had the prestige of the Roman legions. Throughout their history, the Romans were an essentially terrestrial people, and they left nautical issues in the hands of people more familiar with them, such as the Greeks and Egyptians, to build ships and command them. Partially because of this, the navy was never fully embraced by the Roman state, and was considered "non-Roman."[57] In ancient times, navies and commercial fleets did not have the logistical autonomy they do today. Unlike modern naval forces, the Roman navy, even at its peak, did not exist autonomously, but instead operated as an adjunct to the Roman Army.

Over the course of the First Punic War the navy was massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman victory and the rise of the Roman Republic to hegemony in the Mediterranean. During the first half of the century BC. C. Rome destroyed Carthage and subjugated the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete control of all the shores of the inland sea, which they called Mare Nostrum. The Roman fleets once again had a predominant role in the century BC. C. in the wars against pirates and in the civil wars that caused the fall of the Republic, whose campaigns extended throughout the Mediterranean. In 31 BC C. The Battle of Actium ended the civil wars with the final victory of Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire.

During the imperial period the Mediterranean was a peaceful "Roman lake" due to the absence of a maritime rival, and the navy was largely reduced to patrol and transportation tasks.[58]​.

However, on the borders of the Empire, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against barbarian invasions, the Roman fleets were fully involved. The decline of the Empire in the century AD. C. felt in the navy, that it was reduced to the shadow of itself, both in size and combat capacity. In the successive waves of barbarian peoples against the borders of the Empire, the navy could only play a secondary role. At the beginning of the century the borders of the empire were broken and barbarian kingdoms soon appeared on the shores of the western Mediterranean. One of them, the Vandal people, created their own fleet and attacked the coasts of the Mediterranean, even sacking Rome, while the diminished Roman fleets were unable to offer resistance. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the century and the subsequent Roman navy of the enduring Eastern Roman Empire is called by historians the Byzantine Army.

La economía del Imperio se basaba en una red de economías regionales, en las que el Estado intervenía y regulaba el comercio para asegurarse sus propios ingresos.[59]​ La expansión territorial permitió que se reorganizara el uso de la tierra, lo que condujo a la producción de excedentes agrícolas y una progresiva división del trabajo, particularmente en el norte de África. Algunas ciudades se definían a sí mismas como los principales centros regionales de una determinada industria o actividad comercial. La escala de los edificios en las áreas urbanas indicaba una industria de la construcción completamente desarrollada. Documentos en papiro demuestran métodos de contabilidad complejos que sugieren elementos de racionalismo económico en una economía altamente monetizada.")[60]​ Durante los primeros siglos del Imperio, las redes de carreteras y transporte se expandieron significativamente, uniendo rápidamente las economías regionales. El crecimiento económico, aunque no es comparable al de las economías modernas, fue superior al de la mayoría de sociedades previas a la industrialización.[61]​.

Currency and banking

The Empire's economy was universally monetized. The standardization of money and payment methods promoted commercial and economic integration in the provinces.[62]​ Until the 17th century, the basic monetary unit was the sestertius,[63]​ although at the beginning of the Severe dynasty the silver denarius was also used, which was worth four sesterces.[64]​ The lowest-value current currency was the bronze ace "Ace (coin)", which was worth a quarter of a sestertius.[65]​ The ingot did not It was considered currency and was used only in business in the border regions. The Romans of the centuries and counted coins instead of weighing them, indicating that the value was attributed according to their fiduciary value, and not the value of the metal.[66]​.

Rome had no central bank, so regulation of the banking system was minimal. The reserves of banks in classical antiquity were generally lower than the total deposits of clients. Most banks had only one branch, although some of the largest had up to fifteen branches.[66] A commercial banker called argentarius received and held deposits for an indefinite period or fixed term, also making loans to third parties.[67] An individual with debt could use it as a form of payment, transferring it to another party and without any exchange of money. The banking system was present in all regions and allowed large amounts of money to be exchanged anywhere without the need for physical currency transfers, which reduced the risk associated with transportation. There is knowledge of at least one credit crisis in the Empire, which occurred in the year 33, during which the central government intervened in the market with a financial rescue (mensae) of 100 million sesterces.[66]​.

The government did not borrow money: in the absence of public debt, the deficit had to be financed with monetary reserves. During the crisis of the century, the decline of long-distance trade, the interruption of mining and the transfer of values ​​abroad by invaders significantly reduced the money in circulation. Emperors of the Antonine and Sever dynasties drastically devalued the currency, particularly the denarius, due to pressure with payment to the military.[70]​ The sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus (r. 180-192) put the credit market at risk. Although Roman currency always had a fiat value, during the reign of Aurelian (r. 270-275) the economic crisis reached its peak, causing bankers to lose confidence in the money issued by the central government. Diocletian (r. 286-305) implemented several monetary reforms and introduced the gold solid, but the credit market never recovered its former strength.[66]​.

Transportation and communications

The Romans favored transporting goods by sea or river, since transport by land was more difficult.[71]​. Roman sailing ships sailed not only the Mediterranean (Mare Nostrum), but also all the major rivers of the empire, including the Guadalquivir, the Ebro, the Rhône, the Rhine, the Tiber and the Nile.[72]​.

Land transportation made use of a complex and advanced network of Roman roads. Taxes in kind paid by local communities required frequent travel by administrative officials, animals, and public vehicles (Cursus publicus, the state postal and transportation system implemented by Augustus).[73]​ The first way, the Appian Way, was created in 312 BC. C. by Appius Claudius the Blind, to unite Rome with the city of Capua.[74]​ As the empire expanded, the administration adapted the same scheme in provinces. At its peak, the Roman road network had up to 400,000 km of roads, 80,500 of which were paved.[75]​[76]​.

Every seven or twelve Roman miles there was a mansio, a service station for public officials maintained by the State. Among the employees in these positions were drivers, secretaries, blacksmiths, veterinarians, and some military personnel. The distance between mansions was determined by the distance a cart could travel in the course of a day, and some could grow into small towns or trading warehouses.[77] In addition to mansions, some taverns offered lodging, animal feed, and, at one time, prostitution services.[78] The most common transport animals were mules, which traveled at a speed of four miles per hour.[79] To get an idea of the time of communication, a messenger needed nine days to travel between Rome and Mogontiacum, in the province of Germania Superior.[80]​ The roads were marked by milestones placed at intervals of about a thousand paces (1,480 meters).[81]​.

El Imperio romano era una sociedad multicultural, con una sorprendente capacidad de cohesión capaz de crear un sentido de identidad común asimilando a los pueblos más diversos.[82]​ La preocupación romana por la creación de monumentos y espacios comunitarios abiertos al público, como foros, anfiteatros, circos o balnearios, ayudó a establecer el sentimiento de «romanidad» común.[83]​ Si bien la sociedad romana poseía un complejo sistema de jerarquías, este es difícilmente compatible con el concepto moderno de «clase social».[84]​.

Las dos décadas de guerra civil previas al gobierno de Augusto dejaron a la sociedad romana tradicional en un estado de confusión y conmoción.[85]​ Sin embargo, la dilución de la rígida jerarquía de la república condujo a una creciente movilidad social entre los romanos,[86]​[87]​ tanto hacia arriba como hacia abajo, y más expresiva que en cualquier otra sociedad antigua documentada.[88]​ Las mujeres y los esclavos tuvieron oportunidades que antes les estaban prohibidas.[89]​ La vida en sociedad en el Imperio, particularmente para aquellos con recursos limitados, fue impulsada aún más por la proliferación de asociaciones voluntarias y hermandades (collegia y sodalitates) formadas para diversos fines: gremios profesionales y comerciales, grupos de veteranos, asociaciones religiosas, gastronómicas clubes[90]​ y compañías artísticas.[91]​ En el gobierno de Nerón no era raro que un esclavo fuera más rico que un ciudadano nacido libre, o un équite más influyente que un senador.[92]​.

Citizenship

According to the jurist Gaius, the main distinction between persons in Roman law was between free citizens (liberi) and slaves (servi).[93]​ The legal status of free citizens could still be specified according to their citizenship. During the beginning of the empire, only a limited number of men had full rights to Roman citizenship, allowing them to vote, stand for election, and be ordained priests. Most citizens had only limited rights, but they were entitled to legal protection and other privileges that were prohibited to those without citizenship. Free men who lived within the empire, but who were not considered citizens, had the status of peregrinus, who were considered "non-Romans".[94]​ In the year 212, through the Edict of Caracalla, the emperor extended the right of citizenship to all inhabitants of the empire, revoking all laws that distinguished citizens from non-citizens.[95]​.

In the time of Augustus, about 35% of the residents of Italy "Italy (Roman times)")[96]​ were slaves.[97]​ Slavery was a complex and economically useful institution that sustained the Roman social structure, since industry and agriculture depended on it.[98]​ In the cities, slaves could practice various professions, including teachers, doctors, cooks, and accountants, although most performed only low-skilled tasks. Outside Italy, slaves made up on average 10–20% of the population.[99] Although slavery declined in the 2nd centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 2nd century, gradually disappearing during the 2nd centuries. This occurred in parallel with the decline of urban centers and the disintegration of the complex economic system.[100]​.

Roman slavery was not based on racial discrimination.[101]​[102]​ During the republican expansion, a period in which slavery became widespread, the main source of slaves were prisoners of war of the most diverse ethnicities. The conquest of Greece brought a large number of extremely skilled and educated slaves to Rome. Slaves could also be sold in markets and occasionally by pirates. Other sources of slaves included child abandonment and self-slavery among the poorest.[103] Vernas (vernae) were slaves born to a slave mother who were born and raised in the home of their owners. Although they did not have any particular legal protection, the owner who mistreated or did not take care of his property was frowned upon by society, since they were considered part of his family, and could even be children of the free men of the family.[104][105][106]​.

La legislación sobre esclavitud es bastante compleja.[107]​ Según el derecho romano, los esclavos se consideraban propiedad y no tenían personalidad jurídica. A slave may be subjected to forms of corporal punishment prohibited to citizens, such as sexual exploitation, torture, and execution. In legal terms, a slave cannot “be raped,” since rape can only be exercised on free people; el violador de un esclavo tendría que ser acusado por el propietario por daños materiales.[108]​[109]​ Los esclavos no tenían derecho a casarse, aunque a veces se reconocían las uniones y podían casarse si ambos eran liberados.[110]​ Técnicamente, un esclavo no podía poseer propiedades,[111]​ aunque un esclavo que realizaba negocios podía tener acceso a un fondo o cuenta individual (peculium), del que podía disponer libremente. The terms of this varied depending on the relationship of trust between the owner and the slave. Un esclavo con aptitud para los negocios podría tener una autonomía considerable para administrar empresas y otros esclavos.[112]​ Dentro de una residencia o taller, era común tener una jerarquía entre los esclavos, con uno de estos liderando al resto.[113]​ Los esclavos exitosos podían acumular suficiente dinero para comprar su libertad o ser liberados por los servicios prestados. Manumission (freeing of slaves) became so common that, in the century BC. C., a law limited the number of slaves that an owner could free.[114]​.

In the aftermath of the Servile Wars (131-71 BC), legislation attempted to lessen the threat of slave rebellions by limiting the size of work parties and harassing runaways.[115] Over the centuries, slaves gained increasing legal protection, including the right to bring charges against their masters. A purchase contract could avoid the provision of a slave, since the majority of male and female prostitutes were slaves.[116]​ The growth of the eunuch slave trade at the end of the century promoted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will.[117]​.

Unlike the Greek polis, Rome allowed freed slaves to become citizens, even having the right to vote.[118] A slave who obtained libertas was called a freedman (libertus; "freed person") in relation to his former master, who later became his patron (patronus). However, the two parties continued to have legal obligations to each other. The social class of freedmen was known as "libertines" (libertini), although later the terms freedman and libertine (libertinus) were used interchangeably.[119] A libertine could not hold positions in public administration or in the state priesthood, although he could exercise the priesthood in the imperial cult. A freedman could not marry a woman from a family of the senatorial order nor be part of it, although during the beginning of the empire the freedmen held important positions in the administration.[120]​.

Orders

In the context of the Roman Empire, an order (ordo; plural ordine) means an aristocratic class. One of the purposes of censuses was to determine the order to which a particular person belonged. In Rome, the two orders with the highest status were the senatorial order (ordo senatorius) and the equestrian order (ordo equester). Outside Rome, the decurions (ordo decurionum) represented the local aristocracy. The position of "senator" was not an elective position. A citizen was admitted to the Senate after being elected and serving for at least one term as a magistrate. A senator must also have a wealth of at least one million sesterces.[121][122] Not all men who met the criteria of the senatorial order accepted a seat in the Senate, which required domicile in Rome. Since the Senate consisted of 600 seats, emperors usually filled vacant seats by direct appointment.[123] The son of a senator legitimately belonged to the order of the Senate, although he had to qualify on his own merits to be admitted to the Senate. Senators could be expelled for violating rules of moral conduct; for example, they could not marry a freedwoman or fight in the arena.[124] In Nero's time, senators came mainly from Rome and other parts of Italy, with other groups coming from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France. During the government of Vespasian, senators from the eastern provinces began to join.[125]​ During the Severe dynasty, the Italics were already less than half of the senate.[126]​.

The position of Roman senator was the highest position and was considered the culmination of the political course (cursus publicus). However, members of the equestrian order in many cases had greater wealth and power. Admission to the order was based on a person's wealth and possessions, which qualified by a census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and at least three generations of free births.[127] The eques progressed throughout a military career (tres militiae) with the goal of becoming prefects and prosecutors of the imperial administration.[128]​[129]​.

The integration of provincial men into the orders reveals the social mobility that existed during the early empire. The Roman aristocracy was based on competition and, unlike the later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its status only through the inheritance of titles or lands.[130]​[131]​ Admission to higher orders brought with it not only privileges and prestige, but also a number of responsibilities. Maintaining the statute required large personal expenses, since the financing of public works, events and services in Roman cities depended on their most prominent citizens and not on the taxes collected, which were mainly intended to finance the army.[132]​.

Women

During the Republic and the Empire, free Roman women were considered citizens and, although women's suffrage did not exist, they managed to hold political positions and even serve in the army.[133]​[134]​ Roman women maintained their maiden name throughout their lives. Most often, children chose to take their father's surname, although in imperial times they were also able to keep their mother's.[135] Roman women could own property, enter into contracts, and conduct business, including manufacturing, transportation, and bank lending.[136][137] It was common for women to finance public works, indicating that many of them owned or managed considerable fortunes.[138] Women had the same rights as men with regarding inheritance without a will from the father.[139]​[140]​[141]​ The right to own and manage property, including the terms of their own will, provided Roman women with enormous influence over their children, even into adulthood.[142]​.

Marriage

The archaic form of marriage cum manum, by which the woman was subject to the authority of her husband, fell into disuse during the imperial period. A married Roman woman remained the owner of the property she brought to the wedding. Technically, even after moving into her husband's residence, she was still under her father's authority, and only when her father died was she legally emancipated.[143] This principle demonstrates the relative degree of independence of the Roman woman compared to other cultures from ancient times and into modern times.[144] Although the Roman woman had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free to manage everyday life and her husband had no legal power over her. her.[145]​[146]​ Although it was a matter of social pride to have married only once, the social stigma regarding divorce or remarriage was practically non-existent.[147]​.

Después de la crisis republicana y la transición al imperio, la religión del estado se adaptó para apoyar al nuevo régimen. Augusto implementó un vasto programa de avivamiento y reformas religiosas. Los votos públicos, que antes pedían a las divinidades la seguridad de la república, ahora tenían como objetivo el bienestar del emperador. El culto a la personalidad vulgarizó las prácticas de veneración de los antepasados y el genio "Genio (mitología romana)"), la divinidad tutelar de cada individuo. Era posible que el propio emperador se convirtiera en una deidad estatal mientras aún estaba vivo a través de una votación en el Senado. El culto imperial "Culto imperial (Antigua Roma)"), influenciado por la religión helenística, se convirtió en una de las principales formas de que Roma anunciara su presencia en las provincias, cultivando la lealtad y compartiendo la misma identidad cultural en todo el imperio.[148]​.

Roman religion

Religion in Ancient Rome encompasses not only the practices and beliefs that the Romans saw as theirs, but also the various cults imported to Rome and the cults practiced in the provinces. The Romans saw themselves as deeply religious, attributing their economic and military prosperity to a good relationship with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have been instituted by the first kings of Rome provided the foundations of me los maiorum, or "tradition", the basilar social code in Roman identity.[149] There was no separation of Church and State, so religious positions in the State were filled by the same people who occupied places in the public administration. During the imperial period, the maximum pontiff was the emperor himself.[149]​.

Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des ("I give you what you can offer"). Religion had as its principles the knowledge and correct practice of prayer, rituals and sacrifice, and not faith or dogma. For the common citizen, religion was part of everyday life.[150] Most residences had a domestic altar on which prayer and libation were performed. The cities were decorated by neighborhood altars and places considered sacred, such as water springs and caves, and it was common for people to make a vow or offer some fruit when they passed by a place of worship.[151]​[152]​ The Roman calendar was organized based on religious commemorations. During the imperial period, there were 135 days of the year dedicated to religious festivities and games (ludi).[150]​.

One of the main characteristics of Roman religion was the large number of deities worshiped[153][154]​ and the parallel reverence of Roman deities with local deities.[150]​ The policy of Roman conquest consisted of the assimilation of divinities and cults of the conquered peoples, and not their eradication.[155]​ Rome promoted stability between different peoples by supporting different religious heritages, building temples for local deities that framed them. indigenous practices in the hierarchy of Roman religion.[156]​[157]​[158]​ At the height of the empire, international deities were worshiped in Rome, whose cult had spread to the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona and the gods of solar monism, such as Mithras and Sol unconquered.[159]​.

Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation after death, were practiced in a manner complementary to family rituals and participation in public religion. However, the mysteries involved secrecy and exclusive oaths, which Roman conservatives viewed with suspicion and as characteristic elements of magic, conspiracy, and subversive activity. Various attempts were made to suppress sects that seemed to threaten traditional unity and morality, some of them violently. In Gaul, several attempts were made to check the power of the druids, initially by banning Roman citizens from belonging to the order and then by banning druidism entirely. However, Celtic traditions themselves were reinterpreted in the context of imperial theology, giving rise to Gallo-Roman culture.[160]​.

Solar monism

As the Empire declined, mystery religions gained strength while traditional religions declined. From among the new religions, Mithraism emerged, which gained weight in the military establishment until it was introduced into the court by the soldier-emperors like Aurelian; To this we must add that from the traditional Roman religion itself and by the hand of philosophers such as the Neoplatonists (such as Plotinus), the monotheistic idea was gaining strength, seeing the Sun (similar to what happened in the times of Akhenaten) as the original being or power from which the rest of the gods came, these being avatars of the first. This process of syncretization allowed a natural transition to Christianity, contrary to the unpopular belief of its imposition by force.[161]​.

Christianization

The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for the Roman policy of religious tolerance. When political and religious conflicts became irreconcilable, several revolts arose between Jews and Romans. The siege of Jerusalem "Siege of Jerusalem (70)") in the year 70 was the cause of the sacking of the city's temple and the dispersion of Jewish political power.[162] Christianity emerged in the province of Judea "Judea (Roman province)") in the century as a Jewish religious sect, and the apostle Peter played an important role in that period.[163] The religion gradually expanded to Jerusalem, initially establishing important centers in Antioch and Alexandria, and from there throughout the empire. Official persecutions were few and sporadic and most martyrdoms occurred at the initiative of local authorities.[164]​[165]​[166]​[167]​[168]​[169]​.

At the beginning of the century, Constantine I with the Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, being baptized shortly before dying, becoming the first Christian emperor, marking the beginning of an era of Christian hegemony. Emperor Julian made a brief attempt to revive traditional religion in his own way, but this was short-lived. In 391, Theodosius I the Great made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire, permanently excluding all others. From the century onwards, the Church Fathers began to condemn remaining religious practices, calling them collectively "pagan".[170] At the same time, calls for religious tolerance by traditionalists were rejected and Christian monotheism became one of the features of imperial rule. All heretics and non-Christians could be persecuted or excluded from public life. However, Christian practices have been influenced by much of the Roman religious hierarchy and by many aspects of Roman rituals, and many of these practices still survive through local Christian festivals and traditions.[171][172]​.

La red de ciudades a lo largo del territorio imperial (colonias, municipios, o polis) fue un elemento de cohesión que fomentó la Pax Romana.[173]​ Los romanos del Imperio temprano fueron alentados por la propaganda imperial a respetar y disfrutar de los valores del tiempo de paz.[174]​ Incluso el polemista Tertuliano declaró que el siglo fue más ordenado y culto que en épocas anteriores: «En todas partes hay casas, en todas partes hay gente, en todas partes hay res publica, causa del pueblo, hay vida en todas partes».[175]​ Muchas de las características asociadas a la cultura imperial, como el culto público, los juegos y festividades, los concursos de artistas, oradores y deportistas, así como la gran mayoría de obras de arte y edificios públicos, fueron financiados por particulares, cuyos gastos del beneficio de la comunidad ayudó a justificar su poder económico y privilegios legales y provinciales.[176]​ El declive de las ciudades y la vida cívica en el siglo , cuando las clases pudientes ya no podían financiar la obra pública, fue uno de los signos de la inminente disolución del imperio.[177]​.

Life in the cities

In classical antiquity, cities were considered territories that fostered civilization if they were properly designed, ordered and decorated.[174] Roman city planning and urban lifestyle were influenced by Greek civilization of earlier periods.[178] In the eastern part of the empire, Roman rule accelerated the development of cities that already had a marked Hellenistic character. Some cities, such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus, and Gerasa, modified some aspects of architecture and urban planning in accordance with imperial canons, while expressing their individual identity and regional prominence.[179]​[180]​ In the westernmost parts of the empire, inhabited by Celtic-speaking people, Rome encouraged the development of planned urban centers, equipped with temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres. These new cities were often designed in the vicinity or on the site of pre-existing walled settlements (opidos).[181]​[182]​ Urbanization in North Africa has expanded Greek and Punic cities along the coast.[181]​.

Augustus carried out a vast building program in Rome that served as a model for the rest of the empire's cities, financing public works of art that expressed the new imperial ideology and reorganizing the city into locally administered neighborhoods (vicos; vici) with police and fire services. of equestrian sports and physical exercise for young people. There the Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis) and the obelisk of Montecitorio were built, imported from Egypt, which formed the pointer (gnomon) of a monumental sundial. Equipped with public gardens, the Champ de Mars has become one of the main attractions of Rome.[184]​.

The Romans were pioneers in the engineering and construction of sophisticated infrastructure such as plumbing, aqueducts, roads and bridges.[185] The works spread throughout the empire, which was made possible largely thanks to the extensive road network. In addition to environmental sanitation, infrastructure included facilities such as spas, forums, theaters, amphitheaters and monuments.[186]​[187]​ Aqueducts built throughout the empire supplied drinking water to farms and cities. The flow was generally with a free surface, presenting a minimum slope so that the water could flow, and they were built in masonry. The crossing of valleys was carried out on arched structures. In addition to this, they had the help of hydraulic pumps. The wastewater was collected in a sophisticated sewer network, an example of which is the Great Sewer in Rome, one of the oldest sewer networks in the world,[188]​ built in Rome at the end of the century BC. C., started by Tarquínio Prisco,[189]​ who took advantage of the experience developed by Etruscan engineering to drain wastewater into the Tiber River. The operation of the Cloaca Maxima and other Roman sewer networks, such as that of Eboraco (present-day York, England) continued for quite some time after the fall of the Roman Empire.[190]​.

In the city of Rome, most of the population resided in multi-story apartment buildings (insulae), which offered very little fire safety. Public facilities, such as thermal baths, sanitary facilities (latrinae) and drinking water sources,[191]​ as well as mass entertainment, were intended mainly for ordinary people living on the insula.[186]​.

Wealthy families in Rome generally owned two or more homes: an urban home (domus) and at least one country house (vila) in the province. The domus was a private single-family home that could include private spas.[192] Although some of Rome's neighborhoods had a large concentration of wealthy homes, the upper classes did not live in segregated enclaves and wanted their homes to be visible and accessible to the population. The atrium was the reception space, in which the head of the family (paterfamilias) received clients and visitors every morning, from equally rich friends to needy dependents who received alms. It was often rented to shops (taverns; tabernae).[195] In addition to a small orchard, the domus generally had a formal garden framed by a peristyle.[196][197]​.

On the other hand, the town corresponded to an escape from the urban bustle, portrayed in literature as a symbol of a lifestyle that balances appreciation for art and culture with appreciation for nature and the agricultural cycle.[198] Villages were generally located in centers of agricultural production or in seaside resort regions along the coast. Ideally, they would have a view over the surrounding region, carefully framed by the architectural design.[199]​ The interior of the dwellings was often decorated with paintings of gardens, fountains, landscapes, plant motifs,[199]​ and animals, particularly birds and marine species, which were portrayed with such precision that contemporary archaeologists sometimes manage to identify the species.[200]​.

Public baths had a hygienic, social and cultural function. The public baths were the center of daily socialization after the work day, in the evening before dinner, and were open to both men and women.[201] The thermal tradition is related to the cult of the Greek goddess Hygia "Hygia (mythology)") (or Salus "Hygia (mythology)"), her Roman equivalent) and Panacea "Panacea (mythology)"), daughters of Aesculapius, goddesses of health and cleanliness, and with the recommendations of Hippocratic medicine. The oldest known Roman baths date back to the century BC. C. in Delos and Olympia, although the best known are the thermal baths of Caracalla. The development of aqueducts allowed the widespread construction throughout the imperial territory of thermal spas, large public thermal complexes, and spas, small spas, public or private.[202]​.

The Roman baths had services that ensured body hygiene and hydrotherapy.[203] The different rooms offered communal baths at three different temperatures, which could be complemented by different services, such as exercise and training rooms, saunas, exfoliation spas "Exfoliation (dermatology)") (in which the skin was massaged with oils and a strigil was used), games area or an outdoor swimming pool. The thermal baths were heated by hypocaust, the floor being based on ducts through which hot air circulated.[204] Although some spas offered segregated facilities for men and women, mixed nude bathing between the sexes was relatively common. Public baths were part of urban culture in all provinces, although from the end of the 19th century onwards, community baths began to give way to private baths.[205] Christians were advised to attend baths for reasons of hygiene and health, and not for pleasure,[206] although they were also advised not to attend public games, which were part of religious festivals that they considered "pagan".[207]

Education

Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories focused on great personalities were intended to instill Roman values ​​(mores maiorum) in young people. Parents and family were expected to act as role models and parents with a profession would pass this knowledge on to their children, who could then become apprentices.[209] Urban elites across the empire shared a literary culture imbued with Greek educational ideals (paideia).[210] Many Greek cities funded higher schools and, in addition to literacy and arithmetic, the curriculum also included music and sports.[211] Athens, home to the empire's most renowned schools of rhetoric and philosophy, was the destination of many young Romans.[212] As a general rule, all daughters of members of equestrian and senatorial orders received instruction.[213] The level of qualification varied, from educated aristocrats to women trained to be calligraphers or scribes.[214][215] Augustinian poetry praises the ideal of women. cultured, independent and versed in art,[216]​ and a woman with high qualifications represented an asset to any family that had social ambitions.[217]​.

Formal education was accessible only to families who could afford it.[218]​[219]​ The most privileged children could take classes at home with a private tutor.[220]​ The youngest children were taught by a pedagogue, usually a Greek slave or former slave.[221]​ The pedagogue was responsible for the children's safety, taught them self-discipline and notions of behavior in public, and gave them reading, writing, and reading classes. arithmetic.[222]​[223]​ The remaining children attended a private school run by a teacher (ludi magister), financed through monthly payments from individual parents.[224]​ The number of schools gradually increased during the empire, creating more and better educational opportunities.[219]​ Classes could be held regularly in their own rented space or in any available public space, even abroad. Primary education was provided to children between 7 and 12 years old and classes were not separated by years or sexes.[225]​.

At the age of 14, men from the wealthiest classes performed the ritual of passage to adulthood. A partir de esa edad, comienzan a recibir formación para llegar a ocupar un posible cargo de liderazgo político, religioso o militar, formación que suele ser impartida por un miembro mayor o amigo de la familia.[212]​[226]​ La educación secundaria fue impartida por gramáticos (grammatici) o rectores (retórica).[227]​ Los gramáticos enseñaron principalmente literatura griega y latina, complementada con lecciones de historia, geografía, filosofía y matemáticas.[228]​ Después del reinado de Augusto, los autores latinos también se convirtieron en parte del plan de estudios.[229]​ El rector era profesor de oratoria y retórica. El arte de «hablar bien» (ars dicendi) era muy valorado como indicador de superioridad social e intelectual, y la elocuencia () se consideraba el elemento agregador de cualquier sociedad civilizada.[230]​ La educación superior brindó oportunidades para el avance profesional, especialmente para los miembros de la orden ecuestre. Eloquence and culture were considered fundamental characteristics of cultured men and worthy of reward.[231]​.

Recreation and shows

During the rule of Augustus, public spectacles were held 77 days a year, a figure which by the reign of Marcus Aurelius was 135. The singular Latin ludus ("game, sport, training") had a wide range of meanings, from word games, theatrical performances, board games, primary school, and even gladiator training schools, such as Ludus Magnus, the largest of these camps in Rome.[253][254]​.

Circus games (ludi circensis) were held in structures inspired by Greek hippodromes. Circuses were the largest regularly constructed structure in the Roman world.[255]​ The games were preceded by an elaborate parade, the circus pageant.[256]​ Competition events were also held in smaller venues, such as amphitheaters and stadiums. Among the sports modalities, inspired by Greek models, were the stadium (race) "Stadium (race)"), boxing, wrestling and pankration.[257] There were several modalities that were carried out in their own pools, such as naumachia and a form of aquatic ballet.[258] The theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on the steps of the temples, in the great stone theaters or in small theaters called odeons.[259]​ Although the games originated as religious celebrations, over time their religious meaning ended up being lost in favor of their recreational value.[260]​[261]​[262]​[252]​ The patronage of the events and shows in the arenas was in charge of local elites. Despite the high economic costs, its organization was a source of prestige and social status.[263]​.

The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in all of Rome, with an audience of around 150,000 spectators.[264] Opened in the year 80, the Colosseum became a regular venue for violent sports in the city,[265] with more than 50,000 seats and more than 10,000 feet.[264] The physical layout of the amphitheater represented the hierarchy of the Roman society: the emperor presided over its opulent pulpit; senators and high-ranking military officers had the best seats reserved; the women sat protected from the action; The slaves sat in the worst places and the rest sat where there was a place between the two groups.[266]​[267]​[268]​ The crowd could demand a result by whistling or applauding, although it was the emperor who had the last word. Shows could quickly become sites of political and social protest, so emperors often resorted to force to dominate the population.[269][270]​ One of the most notable cases was the Nika Riots of 532, which ended with the intervention of Justinian I's army and the massacre of thousands of citizens.[271][272][273][274]​.

The competition was dangerous, but the drivers were among the most famous and awarded athletes of antiquity.[275] One of the stars of the sport was Gaius Apuleius Diocles of Lusitania (present-day Portugal), who drove chariots for 24 years and accumulated earnings of 35 million sesterces.[276] Horses were also quite popular, celebrated in art and remembered in inscriptions, often for their name.[277][278]​ The design of Roman circuses evolved to ensure that neither team had any advantage and to minimize the number of collisions,[279][280]​ although these continued to be frequent, to the delight of the crowd.[281][282]​ The races were shrouded in an aura of mystery due to their association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective. or good luck, and the drivers were often suspected of witchcraft.[283]​[284]​[285]​[286]​ Chariot racing continued during the Byzantine period, still with imperial patronage, although the decline of the cities over the centuries precipitated their demise.[255]​.

Feeding

Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, although stoves were frequently used.[327]​[328]​ Taverns, bars, inns, and thermopolias sold prepared meals, although eating there or taking food home was common only among the lower classes.[329]​ The wealthier classes preferred reserved meals in their own residence, which usually had a cook and kitchen assistants,[330]​ or at banquets. organized in private clubs.[331]​.

Most of the population obtained 70% of their daily calorie intake by eating cereals and vegetables.[332]​ One of the main Roman preparations was puls, a porridge based on sliced vegetables, pieces of meat, cheese or aromatic herbs, with which dishes similar to polenta or risotto could be made.[333]​ The urban population and the army preferred to consume cereals converted into bread.[332]​ Normally, grinding and cooking were done in the same shop. During the reign of Aurelian, the state began distributing the annona, a daily ration of bread, oil, wine, and pork, to the citizens of Rome.[334]​[335]​[336]​.

Changing rooms

In a society as status-conscious as the Roman, clothing and personal accessories offered an immediate indication of a person's etiquette.[337]​ Dressing correctly was considered a reflection of an orderly society.[338]​ The toga was the characteristic national dress of the Roman man, although it was heavy and impractical, and was worn mainly to address political matters, religious rituals, and presence at courts.[339]​[340]​ Contrary to popular notion, the informal dress of The Romans could be dark or colorful, and the most common outfit among men during daily life would be a tunic, cape, and trousers in some regions.[341] It is difficult to study the way Romans dressed in everyday life due to a lack of direct evidence, as portraiture often presents the figure in symbolic clothing and surviving fabrics from this period are rare.[342][343][344]​.

The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or social status, was a simple tunic with sleeves. The length differed depending on the user: the men's ones reached half the height between the knee and the ankle, although the soldiers' ones were shorter; The women had their tunics up to their ankles and the girls up to their knees. Tunics for poor people and slaves were made of carded wool and the length was determined according to the type of work performed. The best tunics were made of processed wool or linen. A man who belonged to a senatorial or equestrian order wore a purple tunic with two ribbons (clavi), and the larger the dimension, the higher the status of the wearer.[345]​.

The imperial toga was made of white wool and, due to its weight, it was not possible to dress it properly without assistance.[339]​ In his work on oratory, Quintilian describes in detail how a public speaker must orchestrate his gestures in relation to his tunic.[346]​[340]​[347]​ In the technique, the toga is shown with the longest tip hanging between the feet, a curved pleat at the front, and a protruding flap at the back. middle.[348]​ Over the centuries, curtains became more intricate and structured, and by the end of the empire, the fabric formed a firm fold around the chest.[349]​ The toga praetexta, with a violet stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children up to the age of ten and by executive magistrates and by priests of the state. Only the emperor was allowed to wear an all-purple toga (picga toga).[350]​.

In the 19th century, emperors and men of status were often depicted wearing the palio "Palio (religious clothing)"), a cloak of Greek origin folded around the body, which was occasionally also depicted on women. Tertullian considered the canopy a suitable garment for Christians, unlike the toga, and also for literate people, due to its association with philosophers.[351]​[352]​[353]​ By the middle of the century, the toga was practically replaced by the pallium as a symbolic garment of social union.[354]​.

Sexuality

The idea of unbridled sexual debauchery in the Roman Empire is essentially a later Christian interpretation.[358][359][360] In reality, sex in the Greco-Roman world was governed by sobriety and the art of managing sexual pleasure.[361] Sexuality was one of the themes of the mos maiorum, the set of social norms that guided public, private, and military life, and sexual conduct was moderated by notions of modesty and shame.[362] Roman censors, magistrates who determined each person's social class, had the power to remove citizenship from men of the equestrian or senatorial order who engaged in inappropriate sexual conduct.[363]​[364]​ Moral legislation introduced during the reign of Augustus attempted to regulate women's conduct as a way to promote family values. Adultery, which during the republic had been a private matter, was classified as a crime[365]​ and defined as an illicit sexual act (stuprum) that occurs between a man and a married woman.[366]​[367]​[368]​[369]​.

Roman society was patriarchal "Patriarchy (feminism)"). Masculinity was associated with the ideal of virtue (virtus) and self-discipline, while the female correspondent was modesty (puductia).[370] Roman religion promoted sexuality as a sign of prosperity, with religious or common practices to strengthen erotic life or reproductive health. Prostitution was legal, public and quite common in the cities. Pornographic paintings or mosaics were prominent pieces among art collections, even in the wealthiest and most respectable houses.[371] Homosexuality was not reprehensible and it was considered natural for men to be attracted to adolescents of both sexes, as long as they belonged to a lower social status.[372]​[373]​ However, hypersexuality was reprehensible in both men and women.[374]​.

Roma construyó una sociedad que daba gran importancia a las artes en sus más variadas manifestaciones. Además de jugar un papel decorativo, las artes también tenían un papel educativo y socializador en un contexto donde una gran parte de la población era analfabeta o con poco acceso a la literatura más sofisticada. El arte consagró ideologías, narró hechos históricos, integró festividades cívicas y rituales religiosos y glorificó a personajes eminentes, actuando de hecho como una lengua franca a la que tenía acceso toda la población.[375]​ El arte romano se desarrolló inicialmente a partir de la tradición etrusca[376]​ y posteriormente absorbió las referencias de la cultura griega,[377]​ haciendo de su arte en gran medida una extensión y variación de esta, y convirtiendo a los romanos en el principales preservadores del legado artístico griego para la posteridad.[378]​[379]​.

Si bien los romanos adaptaron diversos modelos extranjeros, especialmente provenientes de Grecia, estos fueron capaces de desarrollar una tradición que al final del período republicano y durante todo el período imperial adquirió características innovadoras y originales, ganando una significativa independencia de la herencia recibida y formando una identidad propia. Aun así, en el Imperio hubo varias fases de oscilación entre tendencias más helenísticas e imitativas y otras más progresistas y creativas. Esto, sumado a las múltiples variaciones regionales, la incorporación de influencias orientales, los importantes cambios surgidos de la cristianización y el fuerte y permanente amor romano por el eclecticismo, hacen del arte de la Roma imperial un complejo mosaico de tendencias, a veces bastante divergente, siendo imposible caracterizarlo como un bloque estético monolítico.[380]​[381]​ A pesar del enorme valor otorgado a las obras de arte, los artistas tenían un estatus social más bajo, incluso si se trataban de individuos reconocidos. Los romanos y griegos veían a los artistas y artesanos como trabajadores manuales, aunque al mismo tiempo se reconocía la pericia necesaria para producir arte de calidad, incluso considerándose una ofrenda divina.[382]​.

Architecture

The semicircular arches "Arch (architecture)"), vaults and domes are characteristics of Roman architecture that distinguish it from Greek architecture. The introduction of these elements, of a dimension unprecedented in history, was possible thanks to the invention of concrete. This material, known to the Romans as opus caementicium, was made from volcanic ashes discovered in the vicinity of Vesuvius, called pozzolans, which were crushed and mixed with calcium oxide.[383] The concrete core of the buildings was usually faced with stucco, brick, stone or marble. In some cases, golden sculptures were added to create a dazzling and ostentatious effect of power and prosperity. The construction quality introduced into Roman architecture significantly increased its durability. Many of the Roman buildings are still intact and in use, most of which are buildings converted into churches during the Christian era. However, in many of the ruins the marble covering has been removed, as is the case of the Basilica of Constantine.[384]​.

Domes were a common presence in spas, villas, palaces and tombs. The audience rooms of many of the imperial palaces were crowned by domes and were also very common in garden pavilions.[385] They generally assumed a hemispherical shape and were totally or partially hidden from the outside, being in many cases surmounted by an oculus and sometimes covered by a conical or polygonal roof.[386] With the collapse of the Western Empire, vaulted construction declined. However, this style continued in force in the East through Byzantine architecture.[387]​.

It was during the governments of Trajan (r. 98-117) and Hadrian (r. 117-138) that the empire reached its maximum territorial and artistic apogee, having begun an immense program for the construction of monuments, assemblies, gardens, aqueducts, spas, palaces, pavilions, sarcophagi and temples.[388]​ The introduction of the arch, the dome and the use of concrete allowed the construction of large vaulted ceilings. in public and complex spaces such as spas or basilicas. Among the most notable examples of domes are the Pantheon of Agrippa, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. The Pantheon, dedicated to all the planetary gods, is the best preserved temple of antiquity in the world and its dome is still intact.[384]​ The last major building programs in Rome took place during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306-337), including the Arch of Constantine near the Colosseum in Rome.[389]​.

Paint

Painting was one of the most popular arts of the Roman Empire, but little is known about it because the vast majority of records have been lost over time. Much of what is known about Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private residences, particularly the frescoes that have been preserved at Pompeii. This city, discovered in the 19th century, was buried under the eruption of Vesuvius in 79, which allowed it to be preserved relatively intact. From this set of works—which, although rich and varied, is a tiny fraction of what was produced and covers a very limited period—a chronology of styles was established that has been applied to the entire imperial pictorial legacy. According to this proposal, Roman painting evolved from Greek examples of purely geometric wall decoration, progressively incorporating figurative elements into architectural or landscape settings, often using Greek models or citing famous Greek works in creative reinterpretations, presenting in some examples great sophistication and sumptuousness. In addition to decorative friezes and panels with geometric and vegetal motifs, the mural paintings represent scenes from mythology, landscapes and gardens, recreation, shows, work and daily life, and even erotic scenes. Birds, animals and marine life are often depicted with special care regarding artistic details.[390]​[391]​[392]​.

Through literary records and scarce remnants scattered throughout the Empire, it is known that mural painting was only one of the types of painting practiced, with records of works made on fabric, metal, stone, ivory and other supports, using various pigments of plant and mineral origin.[393] Portraits painted on wooden boards and metal plates were highly appreciated, especially in funerary contexts, but also as a glorification of characters. illustrious, presented in processions that reaffirmed the prestige of patrician families and other public festivities. Ordinary citizens could also have their faces immortalized, as the technique was relatively low cost. It survives a good set of encaustic funerary portraits in Egypt, displaying exquisite technique and great realism.[394] The Fayoum portraits are an indicator of why ancient literary sources marveled at the realism of artistic representations.[395] Another popular genre was that of triumphant paintings, executed on large panels depicting battles and maps of military campaigns, presented in the processions of generals. victorious.[396]​ It is also worth highlighting the production of illuminated manuscripts, of which very few copies remain.[397]​.

Much of the portrait sculpture would have been painted, although painting has rarely survived over the centuries. From the century onwards, with the expansion of Christianity, a completely new theme related to this religion emerged, early Christian art, at the same time that a growing simplification and geometrization of forms was observed. However, there are still some refined examples of late-imperial painting that refer to the classical tradition, mainly in Dura Europos, with Hebrew themes, and in Luxor, with Christian themes.[398]​[399]​.

Sculpture

Sculpture was one of the most important artistic expressions of the Romans and was present in all aspects of their life, from the domestic to the public, from the religious to the civil and military, in large and small dimensions, in stone, metal or ceramic, for decorative, commemorative, celebratory or educational purposes. The most important part of imperial sculpture is figurative, but it is also applied to utilitarian objects.[375]​[400]​ It was common to apply decorative paint to the surface of sculptures.[401]​.

The Greek tradition continued to be a central reference throughout the entire history of sculptural art in Rome, but, as with other artistic expressions, several innovations of its own were introduced. This was especially visible in portraiture, which since the Republic had enjoyed special esteem, with examples of intense expressiveness and great realism, and in the decoration of great public monuments, such as the triumphal arches, the Ara Pacis and Trajan's Column, where a narrative style was developed that was configured as typically Roman.[402][403][404]​.

Throughout the Empire, Eastern influences caused a slow but growing move away from the Greek canon towards a formal simplification that laid the foundations for Byzantine, early Christian and medieval sculpture. Even so, there were several phases in which classical archaisms were recovered, such as in the time of Augustus, when elements that reinforced continuity with a prestigious past were exalted, which at the same time served to create political and cultural cohesion. With the rise of Christianity, new themes appeared, but the classical heritage continued to offer important models for the constitution of a renewed iconography.[381]​[377][405]​.

During the Augustan period, portraits used classical proportions and youthful features, later evolving towards a combination of realism and idealism.[406] Portraits from the Republican period demonstrate intense realism, although from the century BC onwards. C. progressively adopted the concept of heroic nudity, often for the portrait of conquering generals.[407] Imperial sculpture can present an adult face, sometimes aged, on a young naked or semi-naked body with perfect musculature. In fact, it was common to place busts on a body created for another purpose.[408]​ Dressed in a tunic or military uniform, the body communicates the sphere of activity, and not the characteristics of the sitter.[409]​ Women of the imperial family were often depicted dressed similarly to goddesses or divine personifications, such as Pax "Pax (mythology)").[395]​.

Marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the period between the 2nd centuries,[410]​ of which there are at least 10,000 surviving examples.[411]​ Although mythological scenes are those whose study is most in-depth,[412]​ reliefs on sarcophagi are the richest source of Roman iconography,[413]​ and may represent the living occupation of the dead and military scenes, among others. themes.[414]​ The habit of copying and rereading Greek models was essential to preserve the legacy of Greek sculpture, most of which were lost.[405]​ Already during the Modern Age, Roman production would become an important influence for the artistic movements of the Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassicism.[415]​.

decorative arts

Among the most common decorative art objects, aimed at wealthy consumers, are ceramic pieces, silver and bronze vessels and utensils, and glass artifacts. The production of ceramics of various qualities and the metallurgy and glass industries played an important economic role in trade and employment. Imports stimulated new regional production centers, such as southern Gaul, which became the main producer of terra sigillata, high-quality pottery and one of the main items traded in Europe during the 1st century.[416] The Romans also mastered the technique of glassblowing, which originated in Syria during the century BC. C.[417]​[418]​.

Mosaics are one of the most enduring forms of Roman decorative art and can be found on the surfaces of floors, walls, ceilings, and columns in public or private spaces.[419] Figurative mosaics share many of the themes with painting and, in some cases, depict the same themes in almost identical compositions. Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes are recurring motifs throughout the empire, several local expressions also exist. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, the preferred subjects on private estates were scenes of everyday life: hunting, agriculture and local wildlife.[420]​ The master (pictor) ran a mosaic workshop. The most common technique was opus tessellatum, created from uniform pieces (tessera) of materials such as stone and glass. Mosaics were generally produced locally, although they were sometimes produced and sold in prefabricated panels. Opus sectile was a technique in which smooth stone, usually colored marble, was cut into precise shapes that formed geometric or figurative patterns. This more complex technique was particularly valuable and became extremely popular during the 19th century.[422]​.

performing arts

Music and dance have been popular artistic manifestations since the founding, probably developed from the imitation of Greek precursors. The little that is known about him is derived from bibliographical and iconographic sources.[423]​[424]​ The presence of music was common in practically all social events and in funeral ceremonies. At sacrifices it was customary to play an aulós "Aulós (instrument)") (tibia), a wind instrument whose sound was believed to ward off bad influences.[425]​[426]​ Music was believed to reflect the order of the cosmos, being associated with mathematics and knowledge.[427]​ Among the most common musical instruments were wood, brass, percussion instruments and strings, such as the Greek zither.[428]​ The cornu "Cornu (instrument)"), a brass wind instrument that curved along the musician's body, was used in parades and military signals.[429]​ The hydraulic organ called hydraulis was one of the most significant musical and technical feats of Antiquity, after gladiatorial combats, events in amphitheaters and theatrical performances.[430]​.

The exclusively male Greek mask theater continued during the Roman Empire, staging the tragedies and comedies of Latin literature. However, the most popular form of theater was the mime "Mime (Ancient Greece)"), a genre characterized by works that mixed a written script with improvisation and other elements such as action sequences, satire, among others. They were also interspersed with dance numbers, acrobatics, juggling, tightrope walking, stripping, and even dancing bears.[433]​[434]​[435]​ Mime was performed without masks and promoted stylistic realism on stage. The female roles were played by women, not by men in costume.[436]​ This genre was related to another called pantomime (pantomimus), a primitive form of narrative ballet, instrumental music and musical libretto, often on mythological themes that could be tragic or comic.[437]​[438]​.

Although some forms of dance were not accepted in the empire and were seen as foreign or inhuman, dance was incorporated into the religious rituals of archaic Rome.[439] Dances were a feature of mystery religion, particularly the cult of Cybele practiced by eunuch priests[440] and the cult of Isis. On the secular side, the dancers of Syria "Syria (Roman province)") and Cádiz were extremely popular.[441] Like the gladiators, the entertainers were infamous in the eyes of the law and had little higher status in relation to slaves, although they were technically free. However, great stars could enjoy considerable wealth and status, allowing them to associate with the upper classes and even emperors, often sexually.[442] Artists supported each other by forming guilds.[443] Theater and dance were often condemned by Christian groups during the late empire.[423] Those Christians who integrated dance or music into their religious practices were considered pagans by the Fathers of the Roman Empire. Church.[444]​.

Literature

In the Western canon, literature during the period of Augustus and the end of the Republic is seen as the golden age of Latin literature, incorporating the classical ideals of the unity of the whole, proportion between the parts, and careful articulation of the composition.[445] This period includes Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, considered some of the most influential classical Latin poets in history. Virgil wrote the Aeneid, a national epic for Rome in the same way that Homer's epics were for Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek meter in Latin poetry. Ovid's erotic poetry was very popular, although a victim of Augustus's moral program, which led him to exile. The Metamorphoses of Ovid is a continuous poem of fifteen books, covering themes from Greco-Roman mythology and the imperial cult "Imperial Cult (Ancient Rome)") towards Julius Caesar. Ovid's versions of Greek myths have become one of the main sources of classical mythology. His influence was particularly influential in the medieval literature of the 2nd centuries, which were collectively called the "Age of Ovid".[446]

The period from mid-century to mid-century is conventionally called the "Silver Age" of Latin literature. During Nero's rule, writers reacted against Augustinianism.[447]​ The three main writers of this period were the philosopher and playwright Seneca, his nephew Lucan, who transformed the Second Civil War into the epic Pharsalia; and the novelist Petrónio, author of El Satiricón. They all committed suicide after losing the emperor's favor. Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania, as was the epigram Martial.[448]​ On the other hand, the work of the poet Statius would exert an enormous influence on Renaissance literature.[449]​.

The books were expensive, as each copy had to be handwritten on a papyrus roll by specialized scribes.[450] Commercial book production began during the final period of the Republic. In the century some neighborhoods of Rome were known for their bookstores (tabernae librariae), which also existed in many cities of the western provinces.[451] The quality of the editions varied significantly and some authors complained of copies full of errors, plagiarism or forgeries, since copyright did not exist.[452] The codex was still a novelty in the century, but by the end of the century it had already been replaced by the volume "Volume (book)")[453][454]​ and was the most common medium among books with Christian content.[455]​ However, while the book format emphasized continuity of the text, the codex encouraged partial reading and fragmented interpretations.[456]​ Although the Church Fathers were educated, they considered classical literature to be dangerous and useless, so they often reinterpreted it through metaphors and allegories. Julian, the only emperor to reject Christianity after Constantine I, forbade Christians from teaching the classical curriculum on the grounds that they corrupted the young.[457]

The Roman Empire and its notions of autocracy, law and citizenship left a profound impact on European history. The feeling of sharing a common culture and identity, rather than a single language or literature, was due to the very nature of the Empire.[458]​.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, several states claimed to be its successors, a concept known as the translatio imperii ("transfer of dominion"). This was the case of the Holy Roman Empire, an entity established after the coronation of Charlemagne, king of the Franks, by Pope Leo III on Christmas in the year 800. Charlemagne was crowned "Roman emperor" (Imperator Romanorum),[459]​ although this event did not immediately found a new state. The translatio imperii passed from the Franks to the German people after the coronation of Otto I in 962, beginning a series of "Roman emperors" who continued to be titled as such until the end of the Empire in 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars.[460]​.

In the East, the Roman legacy continued through the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Greeks continued to call themselves "Romans" (Romanioi) and their state as the "Roman Empire" (Basileia Rhōmaíōn) until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although they were never recognized in the West.[461] Mehmed II the Conqueror made Constantinople the new capital of the Ottoman Turkish Empire and proclaimed himself as "Caesar of Rome" (Kayser-i Rum),[462]​ thus assuming the translatio imperii. At the same time, the Principality of Moscow, significantly influenced by the Byzantine Orthodox Church and the Greco-Roman tradition, also declared itself heir to the Roman Empire. Ivan III the Great proclaimed his city as the "Third Rome" (Constantinople being the second), an idea that would later be reinforced with the adoption of the titles of Autocrator, Tsar (for Caesar "Caesar (title)")) and, from Peter the Great, Imperator and Pater Patriae.[463]​[464]​.

Another of Rome's main legacies was the Christian religion. The Pax Romana created a huge region of stability and political union that allowed the expansion of the Catholic Church, which is essentially an absolute monarchy based on the Roman model. The popes assume the title of the Roman high priest, the maximum pontiff (Pontifex Maximus), and proclaim themselves heirs of Caesar.[465]​ The seven centuries of Roman domination in Italy also left a strong cultural legacy that significantly influenced Italian nationalism and the "risorgimento" of 1861,[466]​ also serving as the fundamental basis of Italian fascism during the time of Benedict. Mussolini.[467]​ In the artistic field, Roman art influenced Renaissance architecture and Romanesque architecture in southern Europe, as well as in the Orthodox territories of the East. Many of the classical Roman elements formed the aesthetic bases of the Renaissance and Neoclassicism.[468]​[469]​[470]​.

In the Romanized regions of the Western Empire, the pre-Latin languages ​​progressively became extinct and Latin became the mother tongue of the majority of the inhabitants.[471]​ In this way, Latin developed into several branches that would evolve into modern Romance languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian, in addition to having an enormous influence on the English language. Despite its fragmentation, Latin remained the international language par excellence in teaching, literature, diplomacy and intellectual life until the 2nd century, still being present in legal and ecclesiastical works of the Roman Church.[472]​[458]​ This was not the case in the Eastern Empire, where the majority of Greek speakers were concentrated around Greece and the coastal regions. Several Afroasiatic languages, mainly Coptic in Egypt and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia, were never completely replaced by Greek.[47]

Historiography

• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Roman Empire.

• - Edward Gibbon: History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-89), work in English at Project Gutenberg.

• - Guglielmo Ferrero: Greatness and Decline of Rome (1901-7), work in Spanish: Vol. I, II, III, IV.

• - Atlas of the Roman Empire.

• - The Roman Law Library; in English.

• - Text in Spanish on the World Digital Library site.

Contenido

La expansión romana tiene inicio durante el siglo a. C. poco después de la fundación de la república. Sin embargo, no fue hasta el siglo a. C. que Roma comenzó con la anexión de las provincias, es decir, los territorios situados fuera de la península itálica.[8]​ En ese momento, y cuatro siglos antes de alcanzar su mayor extensión territorial, Roma y sus dominios ya constituían un «imperio», aunque su sistema de gobierno continuó siendo el de una república.[9]​[10]​[11]​ La República romana no era un estado en el sentido contemporáneo del término, sino más bien una red de ciudades, en la que cada una contaba con un grado diferente de autonomía en relación con el Senado romano. Las provincias eran administradas por cónsules y pretores, que eran elegidos para ejercer un mandato de un año.[12]​ El poder militar de los cónsules tenía como base la noción jurídica de imperium o comando militar.[13]​ Ocasionalmente, a los cónsules triunfantes se les otorgaba el título de imperator, del que proviene el término «emperador».[14]​.

Augustus and the transition from the Republic to the Empire

Since the end of the century BC. C., Rome suffered a series of social conflicts, conspiracies and civil wars, while consolidating its influence beyond the Italian peninsula. The century BC C. was marked by a period of instability formed by a series of both military and political revolts that paved the way for the implementation of an imperial regime.[15]​[16]​[17]​ In the year 44 BC. C., Julius Caesar was proclaimed perpetual dictator "Dictator (Ancient Rome)") before being assassinated.[18]​ A year later, Octavian, Caesar's grandnephew and adopted son, and one of the most prominent republican generals, became one of the members of the Second Triumvirate "Second Triumvirate (Ancient Rome)")—a political alliance with Lepidus and Mark Antony—.[19]​ After the battle of Philippi in 42 BC C., the relationship between Octavian and Mark Antony began to deteriorate, which led to the dissolution of the triumvirate and a war between them. This ended with the battle of Actium, in which Mark Antony and his beloved Cleopatra were defeated. The subsequent confrontation "Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)") in Alexandria in 30 BC. C. led to the annexation of Ptolemaic Egypt by Octavian.[18]​.

Principality

In 27 BC C, the Senate and the Roman people proclaimed Octavian princeps (first citizen) and granted him the power of proconsular imperium and the title of Augustus "Augustus (title)"). This event began the period known as the Principality "Principality (Ancient Rome)"), the first era of the imperial period, which lasted between 27 BC. C. and 284. The government of Augustus put an end to a century full of civil wars and began an era of social and economic stability called the Pax Romana (Roman peace), which was promulgated during the following two centuries. Revolts in the provinces were rare and were quickly stopped.[20] As the sole ruler of Rome, Augustus was able to carry out a series of large-scale military, political and economic reforms. The Senate gave him the power to appoint his own senators and authority over provincial governors, creating de facto the position that would later be called emperor.[21]​.

Augustus implemented the principles of dynastic succession, so he was succeeded in the Julio-Claudian dynasty by Tiberius (r. 14-37), Caligula (r. 37-41), Claudius (r. 41-54), and Nero (r. 54-68). The latter's suicide led to a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, which concluded with the victory of Vespasian (r. 69-79) and the founding of the short-lived Flavian dynasty, remembered for being responsible for the construction of the Colosseum in Rome. This was succeeded by the Antonine dynasty, which included the emperors Nerva (r. 96-98), Trajan (r. 98-117), Hadrian (r. 117-138), Antoninus Pius (r. 138-161) and Marcus Aurelius (r. 161-180), the so-called "five good emperors." In 212, through the Edict of Caracalla promulgated by the emperor of the same name (r. 211-217), Roman citizenship was granted to all free citizens of the Empire. However, despite this universal gesture, the Severan dynasty was marked by several revolts and disasters throughout the crisis of the century, a time of invasions, social instability, economic difficulties and plague. In periodization, this crisis is generally considered the moment of transition from Classical Antiquity to Late Antiquity.[22]​.

Dominated

Diocletian (r. 284-305) renounced the office of princeps and adopted the title of dominus (master or lord), which marked the transition from the Principality "Principality (Ancient Rome)") to the Dominated - a state of absolute monarchy that lasted from 284 until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476.[23] Diocletian prevented the collapse of the empire, although his reign was marked by the persecution of Christianity. During his rule, a tetrarchy was established and the empire was divided into four regions, each ruled by a different emperor.[24] In 313, the tetrarchy collapsed and, after a series of civil wars, Constantine I (r. 306-337) emerged as sole emperor. This was the first emperor to convert to Christianity and established Constantinople as the capital of the Eastern Empire. Throughout the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties, the empire was divided into a western and eastern half and power was shared between Rome and Constantinople. The succession of Christian emperors was briefly interrupted by Julian (r. 361-363) as he attempted to restore traditional religion in his own way. Theodosius (r. 378-395) was the last emperor to rule the empire as a whole, he died in 395, after Christianity was declared the official religion of the empire.[25]

Fragmentation and decline

Starting in the 2nd century, the Roman Empire began to fragment as a result of migrations, which outnumbered the empire's capacity to assimilate migrants. Although the Roman army was able to repel the invaders, the most notable of whom was Attila the Hun (r. 434-453; which was romanized "Romanization (acculturation)"), it had assimilated so many peoples of dubious loyalty that the Empire began to dismember. Most historians date the fall of the Western Roman Empire to 476, the year in which the usurper Romulus Augustulus (r. 475-476) was overthrown by Flavius Odoacer (r. 476-493).[26] However, instead of assuming the title of emperor, Odoacer restored Julius Nepos and swore allegiance to Flavius Zeno "Zenón." (emperor)"), rewarding him with the title of dux Italiae (duke of Italy) and patrician. During the following century, the eastern empire, known today as the Byzantine Empire, gradually lost control of the western part. The Byzantine Empire ceased in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI (r. 1449-1453) and the conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire.[27]​.

The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history. It dominated a continuous territorial expanse across Europe, North Africa and the Near East,[28]​ from Hadrian's Wall in rainy England to the sunny shores of the Euphrates River in Syria "Syria (Roman province)"), from the fertile plains of Central Europe to the lush margins of the Nile Valley in Egypt.[29]​ The notion of imperium sine fine (empire without end) manifested the ideology. Roman that its empire was not limited in space and time.[30] Most of Roman expansion took place during the republic, although some territories in northern and central Europe were not conquered until the century AD. C., a period that corresponded to the consolidation of Roman power in the provinces.[31]​ Res gestae, a first-person account of Emperor Augustus that narrates his life and, above all, his works, highlights the number of towns in the regions of the empire.[32]​ The imperial administration carried out frequent censuses and maintained meticulous geographical records.[33]​.

The empire reached its greatest territorial extension during the reign of Trajan (r. 98-117),[35]​ corresponding to an area of approximately 5 million km² and currently divided by forty countries.[36]​ Traditionally, it was estimated that the population during this period reached between fifty-five and sixty million inhabitants,[29]​ which would be between a sixth and a quarter of the world's population and the largest number of inhabitants of any political unit in the West until mid-century.[37]​[38]​ However, more recent studies estimated that the population could have reached between seventy and one hundred million inhabitants.[39]​ Each of the three largest cities of the empire—Rome, Alexandria and Antioch—was twice the size of any European city until the beginning of the century.[40]​ Hadrian, Trajan's successor, abandoned the expansionist policy and opted for one of territorial consolidation, so he defended, He fortified and patrolled the border regions.[41]​.

Los idiomas de los romanos eran el latín, que Virgilio destacó como fuente de unidad y tradición romana.[42]​ Aunque el latín fuera el idioma principal en los tribunales y la administración pública del Imperio Occidental y del ejército de todo el imperio, no se impuso oficialmente a los pueblos bajo el dominio romano.[43]​ Al conquistar nuevos territorios, los romanos conservaron las tradiciones y los idiomas locales e introdujeron gradualmente el latín a través de la administración pública y los documentos oficiales.[44]​ Esta política contrasta con la de Alejandro Magno, quien impuso el griego helenístico como idioma oficial de su imperio.[45]​ Esto hizo que el griego antiguo se convirtiera en la lengua franca de la mitad oriental del Imperio romano, en todo el Mediterráneo oriental y Asia Menor.[46]​[47]​ En Occidente, el latín vulgar reemplazó gradualmente a las lenguas celta e itálica, ambas con las mismas raíces indoeuropeas, lo que facilitó su adopción.[48]​.

Aunque los emperadores julio-claudios alentaron el uso del latín en la realización de asuntos oficiales en todo el imperio, el griego siguió siendo el idioma literario entre la élite cultural romana y la mayoría de los gobernantes lo hablaban con fluidez. Claudio intentó limitar el uso del griego, incluso revocando la ciudadanía a quienes no sabían latín, aunque en el propio Senado había embajadores nativos griegos.[49]​ En el Imperio de Oriente, las leyes y los documentos oficiales se tradujeron regularmente del latín al griego.[50]​ El uso simultáneo de ambos idiomas se puede ver en inscripciones bilingües compuestas por los dos idiomas.[51]​[52]​ En 212, cuando se otorgó la ciudadanía a todos los hombres libres del imperio, se esperaba que los ciudadanos que no sabían latín adquirieran algunas nociones básicas del idioma.[53]​ A principios del siglo , Justiniano I se esforzó por promover el latín como lengua de derecho en Oriente, aunque perdió gradualmente su influencia y existencia como lengua viva.[54]​.

The constant reference to interpreters in literature and official documents indicates the vulgarity and prevalence in the Roman Empire of a large number of local languages. Roman jurists themselves were concerned with ensuring that laws and oaths were correctly translated and understood in local languages, such as Punic, Gaulish, Aramaic or even Coptic, predominant in Egypt, or the Germanic languages, influential in the Rhine and Danube regions.[55] In some regions, such as in the African province "Africa (Roman province)"), Punic was used on coins and inscriptions on buildings. public, some bilingual along with Latin. However, the hegemony of the latter among the elites and as the official language of written documents compromised the continuity of several local languages, since all cultures within the empire were predominantly of oral tradition.[56]​.

El mando supremo del ejército correspondía al emperador. Fuera de Italia "Italia (época romana)"), en los territorios provinciales, el mando correspondía al gobernador provincial (pero este a su vez estaba supeditado al emperador que podía apartarlo cuando quisiera), pudiendo también asumirlo temporalmente el emperador. El número de legiones osciló en toda la época imperial, con un número máximo cercano a la treintena.

Las clases altas de caballeros y senadores fueron desapareciendo del ejército, de modo que las legiones debían reclutarse entre los ciudadanos, primero en Italia y después progresivamente en las provincias donde estaban acantonadas (destacaron los mauros, los tracios y sobre todo los ilirios), de modo que desde Adriano el reclutamiento se hizo casi exclusivamente en las provincias donde servía la legión, y por fin se recurrió a mercenarios extranjeros (sobre todo germanos). Con la entrada de los proletarios el ejército se profesionalizó, si bien estos soldados tenían más facilidad para el motín y el saqueo. Los ascensos se ganaban por méritos, por favores o por dinero. El tiempo de servicio fue aumentado progresivamente y no eran excepcionales servicios de treinta o más años, tras lo cual se conseguía un estipendio económico, la ciudadanía y privilegios como el acceso a algunos cargos municipales.

La legión disponía de arsenales (armamentos) y de talleres de fabricación y reparación. Los soldados recibían un sueldo, donativos imperiales en ocasión del acceso al trono, las fiestas o los motines, regalos (stillaturae) y el botín de guerra. La ración de alimentos diaria fue creciendo y se le proporcionaba trigo, sal, vino, vinagre, carne fresca y carne salada.

Los campamentos se convirtieron en plazas fuertes. Disponían de murallas y torreones y se dividían interiormente en cuatro partes marcadas por dos vías perpendiculares. Contenían sala de baños, sala de reuniones, capillas, oficinas, cárcel, hospital y almacenes. Los mercaderes, artistas, prostitutas y otros acudían a sus alrededores y se establecían constituyéndose aglomeraciones urbanas, y crecían los barrios exteriores para la población civil (canabae) con casas de baños, anfiteatros y otros edificios públicos. Los terrenos próximos se utilizaban como pastos para el ganado, que se arrendaban a los agricultores de la zona.

Legion structure

A typical Roman legion (whose emblem was a silver eagle) consisted of ten cohorts (with their respective banner) each with five or six centuries of eighty men subdivided into ten contuberniums (basic unit of eight legionaries who shared a tent), each legion thus counting five or six thousand men of infantry, divided into fifty or sixty centuries. It also had regular auxiliary and cavalry guerrillas (alae) with one hundred and twenty cavalry men.

The emperor and in his name the provincial governor appointed the legatus legionis, lieutenants of the legion with praetor functions, and their assistants the military tribunes and centurions.

Along with the legatees of the legion were the benefiaciarii (in charge of missions of trust), the strato (squires), the commentarienses (archivers), the cornicularii (accountants) and the actuario (scribes). The military tribunes were divided into laticlavii (affects the administration) and angusticlavii (properly military missions). Centurions were the basic infantry officers (the centuria of 80 men) and cavalry (the turma of 30 men). Each centuria and turma had a non-commissioned officer called optio (equivalent to sergeant), who also performed administrative functions. The decuriones were non-commissioned officers who in the infantry commanded a decuria (nine men) and in the cavalry of the auxiliary units they commanded a squadron or turma (30 horsemen). Other non-commissioned officers were the tesserarius (equivalent to a sergeant), the signifer or vexillarius (standard bearer), the aquilifer (the bearer of the legionary eagle), the campiductor (instructor) and the pecunarius (furriel).

The cohorts were structured in ten rows of 40 or 60 rows, which in Trajan's time were reduced to five rows. With Hadrian the family cohort emerged (composed of 1,200 chosen soldiers) while the remaining cohorts were called quingentaries and numbered 500 soldiers.

Several specialized cohorts were structured: the infantry (peditata), the cavalry or mixed cohort (equitativa), the police (togata), the surveillance cohort (excubitoria), the garrison in a city (urbana), the one in charge of putting out fires (Vigilio) and the one in charge of the guard and imperial custody or of a leader (Praetorina). This personal guard of the general-in-chief was common in the Empire. There was the headquarters (Praetorian Guard or guard of the general in chief), the members had more salaries and were exempt from camp work, and they became the arbiters of the Empire.

The centuries were commanded by centurions (the most prestigious centurion was the primus pilus usually the most senior), above whom there were six tribunes of the legion of equestrian rank, and the legatus of the legion, of senatorial rank, who had previously been praetor (in the provinces where there was only one legion, the legatus of the province and that of the Legion was the same person).

Equipment

The equipment of the legionnaires changed substantially depending on the rank. During campaigns, legionaries were equipped with armor (lorica segmentata), shield (scutum), helmet (galae), a heavy and a light spear (pilum), a short sword (gladius), a dagger (pugio), a pair of sandals (caligae), a sarcina (marching backpack), and food and water for two weeks, cooking equipment, two stakes (Sude murale) for the construction of walls, and a shovel or basket.

The Roman Navy (in Latin classis, literally fleet) comprised the naval forces of the ancient Roman State. Despite playing a decisive role in Roman expansion across the Mediterranean, the navy never had the prestige of the Roman legions. Throughout their history, the Romans were an essentially terrestrial people, and they left nautical issues in the hands of people more familiar with them, such as the Greeks and Egyptians, to build ships and command them. Partially because of this, the navy was never fully embraced by the Roman state, and was considered "non-Roman."[57] In ancient times, navies and commercial fleets did not have the logistical autonomy they do today. Unlike modern naval forces, the Roman navy, even at its peak, did not exist autonomously, but instead operated as an adjunct to the Roman Army.

Over the course of the First Punic War the navy was massively expanded and played a vital role in the Roman victory and the rise of the Roman Republic to hegemony in the Mediterranean. During the first half of the century BC. C. Rome destroyed Carthage and subjugated the Hellenistic kingdoms of the eastern Mediterranean, achieving complete control of all the shores of the inland sea, which they called Mare Nostrum. The Roman fleets once again had a predominant role in the century BC. C. in the wars against pirates and in the civil wars that caused the fall of the Republic, whose campaigns extended throughout the Mediterranean. In 31 BC C. The Battle of Actium ended the civil wars with the final victory of Augustus and the establishment of the Roman Empire.

During the imperial period the Mediterranean was a peaceful "Roman lake" due to the absence of a maritime rival, and the navy was largely reduced to patrol and transportation tasks.[58]​.

However, on the borders of the Empire, in new conquests or, increasingly, in defense against barbarian invasions, the Roman fleets were fully involved. The decline of the Empire in the century AD. C. felt in the navy, that it was reduced to the shadow of itself, both in size and combat capacity. In the successive waves of barbarian peoples against the borders of the Empire, the navy could only play a secondary role. At the beginning of the century the borders of the empire were broken and barbarian kingdoms soon appeared on the shores of the western Mediterranean. One of them, the Vandal people, created their own fleet and attacked the coasts of the Mediterranean, even sacking Rome, while the diminished Roman fleets were unable to offer resistance. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the century and the subsequent Roman navy of the enduring Eastern Roman Empire is called by historians the Byzantine Army.

La economía del Imperio se basaba en una red de economías regionales, en las que el Estado intervenía y regulaba el comercio para asegurarse sus propios ingresos.[59]​ La expansión territorial permitió que se reorganizara el uso de la tierra, lo que condujo a la producción de excedentes agrícolas y una progresiva división del trabajo, particularmente en el norte de África. Algunas ciudades se definían a sí mismas como los principales centros regionales de una determinada industria o actividad comercial. La escala de los edificios en las áreas urbanas indicaba una industria de la construcción completamente desarrollada. Documentos en papiro demuestran métodos de contabilidad complejos que sugieren elementos de racionalismo económico en una economía altamente monetizada.")[60]​ Durante los primeros siglos del Imperio, las redes de carreteras y transporte se expandieron significativamente, uniendo rápidamente las economías regionales. El crecimiento económico, aunque no es comparable al de las economías modernas, fue superior al de la mayoría de sociedades previas a la industrialización.[61]​.

Currency and banking

The Empire's economy was universally monetized. The standardization of money and payment methods promoted commercial and economic integration in the provinces.[62]​ Until the 17th century, the basic monetary unit was the sestertius,[63]​ although at the beginning of the Severe dynasty the silver denarius was also used, which was worth four sesterces.[64]​ The lowest-value current currency was the bronze ace "Ace (coin)", which was worth a quarter of a sestertius.[65]​ The ingot did not It was considered currency and was used only in business in the border regions. The Romans of the centuries and counted coins instead of weighing them, indicating that the value was attributed according to their fiduciary value, and not the value of the metal.[66]​.

Rome had no central bank, so regulation of the banking system was minimal. The reserves of banks in classical antiquity were generally lower than the total deposits of clients. Most banks had only one branch, although some of the largest had up to fifteen branches.[66] A commercial banker called argentarius received and held deposits for an indefinite period or fixed term, also making loans to third parties.[67] An individual with debt could use it as a form of payment, transferring it to another party and without any exchange of money. The banking system was present in all regions and allowed large amounts of money to be exchanged anywhere without the need for physical currency transfers, which reduced the risk associated with transportation. There is knowledge of at least one credit crisis in the Empire, which occurred in the year 33, during which the central government intervened in the market with a financial rescue (mensae) of 100 million sesterces.[66]​.

The government did not borrow money: in the absence of public debt, the deficit had to be financed with monetary reserves. During the crisis of the century, the decline of long-distance trade, the interruption of mining and the transfer of values ​​abroad by invaders significantly reduced the money in circulation. Emperors of the Antonine and Sever dynasties drastically devalued the currency, particularly the denarius, due to pressure with payment to the military.[70]​ The sudden inflation during the reign of Commodus (r. 180-192) put the credit market at risk. Although Roman currency always had a fiat value, during the reign of Aurelian (r. 270-275) the economic crisis reached its peak, causing bankers to lose confidence in the money issued by the central government. Diocletian (r. 286-305) implemented several monetary reforms and introduced the gold solid, but the credit market never recovered its former strength.[66]​.

Transportation and communications

The Romans favored transporting goods by sea or river, since transport by land was more difficult.[71]​. Roman sailing ships sailed not only the Mediterranean (Mare Nostrum), but also all the major rivers of the empire, including the Guadalquivir, the Ebro, the Rhône, the Rhine, the Tiber and the Nile.[72]​.

Land transportation made use of a complex and advanced network of Roman roads. Taxes in kind paid by local communities required frequent travel by administrative officials, animals, and public vehicles (Cursus publicus, the state postal and transportation system implemented by Augustus).[73]​ The first way, the Appian Way, was created in 312 BC. C. by Appius Claudius the Blind, to unite Rome with the city of Capua.[74]​ As the empire expanded, the administration adapted the same scheme in provinces. At its peak, the Roman road network had up to 400,000 km of roads, 80,500 of which were paved.[75]​[76]​.

Every seven or twelve Roman miles there was a mansio, a service station for public officials maintained by the State. Among the employees in these positions were drivers, secretaries, blacksmiths, veterinarians, and some military personnel. The distance between mansions was determined by the distance a cart could travel in the course of a day, and some could grow into small towns or trading warehouses.[77] In addition to mansions, some taverns offered lodging, animal feed, and, at one time, prostitution services.[78] The most common transport animals were mules, which traveled at a speed of four miles per hour.[79] To get an idea of the time of communication, a messenger needed nine days to travel between Rome and Mogontiacum, in the province of Germania Superior.[80]​ The roads were marked by milestones placed at intervals of about a thousand paces (1,480 meters).[81]​.

El Imperio romano era una sociedad multicultural, con una sorprendente capacidad de cohesión capaz de crear un sentido de identidad común asimilando a los pueblos más diversos.[82]​ La preocupación romana por la creación de monumentos y espacios comunitarios abiertos al público, como foros, anfiteatros, circos o balnearios, ayudó a establecer el sentimiento de «romanidad» común.[83]​ Si bien la sociedad romana poseía un complejo sistema de jerarquías, este es difícilmente compatible con el concepto moderno de «clase social».[84]​.

Las dos décadas de guerra civil previas al gobierno de Augusto dejaron a la sociedad romana tradicional en un estado de confusión y conmoción.[85]​ Sin embargo, la dilución de la rígida jerarquía de la república condujo a una creciente movilidad social entre los romanos,[86]​[87]​ tanto hacia arriba como hacia abajo, y más expresiva que en cualquier otra sociedad antigua documentada.[88]​ Las mujeres y los esclavos tuvieron oportunidades que antes les estaban prohibidas.[89]​ La vida en sociedad en el Imperio, particularmente para aquellos con recursos limitados, fue impulsada aún más por la proliferación de asociaciones voluntarias y hermandades (collegia y sodalitates) formadas para diversos fines: gremios profesionales y comerciales, grupos de veteranos, asociaciones religiosas, gastronómicas clubes[90]​ y compañías artísticas.[91]​ En el gobierno de Nerón no era raro que un esclavo fuera más rico que un ciudadano nacido libre, o un équite más influyente que un senador.[92]​.

Citizenship

According to the jurist Gaius, the main distinction between persons in Roman law was between free citizens (liberi) and slaves (servi).[93]​ The legal status of free citizens could still be specified according to their citizenship. During the beginning of the empire, only a limited number of men had full rights to Roman citizenship, allowing them to vote, stand for election, and be ordained priests. Most citizens had only limited rights, but they were entitled to legal protection and other privileges that were prohibited to those without citizenship. Free men who lived within the empire, but who were not considered citizens, had the status of peregrinus, who were considered "non-Romans".[94]​ In the year 212, through the Edict of Caracalla, the emperor extended the right of citizenship to all inhabitants of the empire, revoking all laws that distinguished citizens from non-citizens.[95]​.

In the time of Augustus, about 35% of the residents of Italy "Italy (Roman times)")[96]​ were slaves.[97]​ Slavery was a complex and economically useful institution that sustained the Roman social structure, since industry and agriculture depended on it.[98]​ In the cities, slaves could practice various professions, including teachers, doctors, cooks, and accountants, although most performed only low-skilled tasks. Outside Italy, slaves made up on average 10–20% of the population.[99] Although slavery declined in the 2nd centuries, it remained an integral part of Roman society until the 2nd century, gradually disappearing during the 2nd centuries. This occurred in parallel with the decline of urban centers and the disintegration of the complex economic system.[100]​.

Roman slavery was not based on racial discrimination.[101]​[102]​ During the republican expansion, a period in which slavery became widespread, the main source of slaves were prisoners of war of the most diverse ethnicities. The conquest of Greece brought a large number of extremely skilled and educated slaves to Rome. Slaves could also be sold in markets and occasionally by pirates. Other sources of slaves included child abandonment and self-slavery among the poorest.[103] Vernas (vernae) were slaves born to a slave mother who were born and raised in the home of their owners. Although they did not have any particular legal protection, the owner who mistreated or did not take care of his property was frowned upon by society, since they were considered part of his family, and could even be children of the free men of the family.[104][105][106]​.

La legislación sobre esclavitud es bastante compleja.[107]​ Según el derecho romano, los esclavos se consideraban propiedad y no tenían personalidad jurídica. A slave may be subjected to forms of corporal punishment prohibited to citizens, such as sexual exploitation, torture, and execution. In legal terms, a slave cannot “be raped,” since rape can only be exercised on free people; el violador de un esclavo tendría que ser acusado por el propietario por daños materiales.[108]​[109]​ Los esclavos no tenían derecho a casarse, aunque a veces se reconocían las uniones y podían casarse si ambos eran liberados.[110]​ Técnicamente, un esclavo no podía poseer propiedades,[111]​ aunque un esclavo que realizaba negocios podía tener acceso a un fondo o cuenta individual (peculium), del que podía disponer libremente. The terms of this varied depending on the relationship of trust between the owner and the slave. Un esclavo con aptitud para los negocios podría tener una autonomía considerable para administrar empresas y otros esclavos.[112]​ Dentro de una residencia o taller, era común tener una jerarquía entre los esclavos, con uno de estos liderando al resto.[113]​ Los esclavos exitosos podían acumular suficiente dinero para comprar su libertad o ser liberados por los servicios prestados. Manumission (freeing of slaves) became so common that, in the century BC. C., a law limited the number of slaves that an owner could free.[114]​.

In the aftermath of the Servile Wars (131-71 BC), legislation attempted to lessen the threat of slave rebellions by limiting the size of work parties and harassing runaways.[115] Over the centuries, slaves gained increasing legal protection, including the right to bring charges against their masters. A purchase contract could avoid the provision of a slave, since the majority of male and female prostitutes were slaves.[116]​ The growth of the eunuch slave trade at the end of the century promoted legislation that prohibited the castration of a slave against his will.[117]​.

Unlike the Greek polis, Rome allowed freed slaves to become citizens, even having the right to vote.[118] A slave who obtained libertas was called a freedman (libertus; "freed person") in relation to his former master, who later became his patron (patronus). However, the two parties continued to have legal obligations to each other. The social class of freedmen was known as "libertines" (libertini), although later the terms freedman and libertine (libertinus) were used interchangeably.[119] A libertine could not hold positions in public administration or in the state priesthood, although he could exercise the priesthood in the imperial cult. A freedman could not marry a woman from a family of the senatorial order nor be part of it, although during the beginning of the empire the freedmen held important positions in the administration.[120]​.

Orders

In the context of the Roman Empire, an order (ordo; plural ordine) means an aristocratic class. One of the purposes of censuses was to determine the order to which a particular person belonged. In Rome, the two orders with the highest status were the senatorial order (ordo senatorius) and the equestrian order (ordo equester). Outside Rome, the decurions (ordo decurionum) represented the local aristocracy. The position of "senator" was not an elective position. A citizen was admitted to the Senate after being elected and serving for at least one term as a magistrate. A senator must also have a wealth of at least one million sesterces.[121][122] Not all men who met the criteria of the senatorial order accepted a seat in the Senate, which required domicile in Rome. Since the Senate consisted of 600 seats, emperors usually filled vacant seats by direct appointment.[123] The son of a senator legitimately belonged to the order of the Senate, although he had to qualify on his own merits to be admitted to the Senate. Senators could be expelled for violating rules of moral conduct; for example, they could not marry a freedwoman or fight in the arena.[124] In Nero's time, senators came mainly from Rome and other parts of Italy, with other groups coming from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France. During the government of Vespasian, senators from the eastern provinces began to join.[125]​ During the Severe dynasty, the Italics were already less than half of the senate.[126]​.

The position of Roman senator was the highest position and was considered the culmination of the political course (cursus publicus). However, members of the equestrian order in many cases had greater wealth and power. Admission to the order was based on a person's wealth and possessions, which qualified by a census valuation of 400,000 sesterces and at least three generations of free births.[127] The eques progressed throughout a military career (tres militiae) with the goal of becoming prefects and prosecutors of the imperial administration.[128]​[129]​.

The integration of provincial men into the orders reveals the social mobility that existed during the early empire. The Roman aristocracy was based on competition and, unlike the later European nobility, a Roman family could not maintain its status only through the inheritance of titles or lands.[130]​[131]​ Admission to higher orders brought with it not only privileges and prestige, but also a number of responsibilities. Maintaining the statute required large personal expenses, since the financing of public works, events and services in Roman cities depended on their most prominent citizens and not on the taxes collected, which were mainly intended to finance the army.[132]​.

Women

During the Republic and the Empire, free Roman women were considered citizens and, although women's suffrage did not exist, they managed to hold political positions and even serve in the army.[133]​[134]​ Roman women maintained their maiden name throughout their lives. Most often, children chose to take their father's surname, although in imperial times they were also able to keep their mother's.[135] Roman women could own property, enter into contracts, and conduct business, including manufacturing, transportation, and bank lending.[136][137] It was common for women to finance public works, indicating that many of them owned or managed considerable fortunes.[138] Women had the same rights as men with regarding inheritance without a will from the father.[139]​[140]​[141]​ The right to own and manage property, including the terms of their own will, provided Roman women with enormous influence over their children, even into adulthood.[142]​.

Marriage

The archaic form of marriage cum manum, by which the woman was subject to the authority of her husband, fell into disuse during the imperial period. A married Roman woman remained the owner of the property she brought to the wedding. Technically, even after moving into her husband's residence, she was still under her father's authority, and only when her father died was she legally emancipated.[143] This principle demonstrates the relative degree of independence of the Roman woman compared to other cultures from ancient times and into modern times.[144] Although the Roman woman had to answer to her father in legal matters, she was free to manage everyday life and her husband had no legal power over her. her.[145]​[146]​ Although it was a matter of social pride to have married only once, the social stigma regarding divorce or remarriage was practically non-existent.[147]​.

Después de la crisis republicana y la transición al imperio, la religión del estado se adaptó para apoyar al nuevo régimen. Augusto implementó un vasto programa de avivamiento y reformas religiosas. Los votos públicos, que antes pedían a las divinidades la seguridad de la república, ahora tenían como objetivo el bienestar del emperador. El culto a la personalidad vulgarizó las prácticas de veneración de los antepasados y el genio "Genio (mitología romana)"), la divinidad tutelar de cada individuo. Era posible que el propio emperador se convirtiera en una deidad estatal mientras aún estaba vivo a través de una votación en el Senado. El culto imperial "Culto imperial (Antigua Roma)"), influenciado por la religión helenística, se convirtió en una de las principales formas de que Roma anunciara su presencia en las provincias, cultivando la lealtad y compartiendo la misma identidad cultural en todo el imperio.[148]​.

Roman religion

Religion in Ancient Rome encompasses not only the practices and beliefs that the Romans saw as theirs, but also the various cults imported to Rome and the cults practiced in the provinces. The Romans saw themselves as deeply religious, attributing their economic and military prosperity to a good relationship with the gods (pax deorum). The archaic religion believed to have been instituted by the first kings of Rome provided the foundations of me los maiorum, or "tradition", the basilar social code in Roman identity.[149] There was no separation of Church and State, so religious positions in the State were filled by the same people who occupied places in the public administration. During the imperial period, the maximum pontiff was the emperor himself.[149]​.

Roman religion was practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des ("I give you what you can offer"). Religion had as its principles the knowledge and correct practice of prayer, rituals and sacrifice, and not faith or dogma. For the common citizen, religion was part of everyday life.[150] Most residences had a domestic altar on which prayer and libation were performed. The cities were decorated by neighborhood altars and places considered sacred, such as water springs and caves, and it was common for people to make a vow or offer some fruit when they passed by a place of worship.[151]​[152]​ The Roman calendar was organized based on religious commemorations. During the imperial period, there were 135 days of the year dedicated to religious festivities and games (ludi).[150]​.

One of the main characteristics of Roman religion was the large number of deities worshiped[153][154]​ and the parallel reverence of Roman deities with local deities.[150]​ The policy of Roman conquest consisted of the assimilation of divinities and cults of the conquered peoples, and not their eradication.[155]​ Rome promoted stability between different peoples by supporting different religious heritages, building temples for local deities that framed them. indigenous practices in the hierarchy of Roman religion.[156]​[157]​[158]​ At the height of the empire, international deities were worshiped in Rome, whose cult had spread to the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona and the gods of solar monism, such as Mithras and Sol unconquered.[159]​.

Mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation after death, were practiced in a manner complementary to family rituals and participation in public religion. However, the mysteries involved secrecy and exclusive oaths, which Roman conservatives viewed with suspicion and as characteristic elements of magic, conspiracy, and subversive activity. Various attempts were made to suppress sects that seemed to threaten traditional unity and morality, some of them violently. In Gaul, several attempts were made to check the power of the druids, initially by banning Roman citizens from belonging to the order and then by banning druidism entirely. However, Celtic traditions themselves were reinterpreted in the context of imperial theology, giving rise to Gallo-Roman culture.[160]​.

Solar monism

As the Empire declined, mystery religions gained strength while traditional religions declined. From among the new religions, Mithraism emerged, which gained weight in the military establishment until it was introduced into the court by the soldier-emperors like Aurelian; To this we must add that from the traditional Roman religion itself and by the hand of philosophers such as the Neoplatonists (such as Plotinus), the monotheistic idea was gaining strength, seeing the Sun (similar to what happened in the times of Akhenaten) as the original being or power from which the rest of the gods came, these being avatars of the first. This process of syncretization allowed a natural transition to Christianity, contrary to the unpopular belief of its imposition by force.[161]​.

Christianization

The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for the Roman policy of religious tolerance. When political and religious conflicts became irreconcilable, several revolts arose between Jews and Romans. The siege of Jerusalem "Siege of Jerusalem (70)") in the year 70 was the cause of the sacking of the city's temple and the dispersion of Jewish political power.[162] Christianity emerged in the province of Judea "Judea (Roman province)") in the century as a Jewish religious sect, and the apostle Peter played an important role in that period.[163] The religion gradually expanded to Jerusalem, initially establishing important centers in Antioch and Alexandria, and from there throughout the empire. Official persecutions were few and sporadic and most martyrdoms occurred at the initiative of local authorities.[164]​[165]​[166]​[167]​[168]​[169]​.

At the beginning of the century, Constantine I with the Edict of Milan legalized Christianity, being baptized shortly before dying, becoming the first Christian emperor, marking the beginning of an era of Christian hegemony. Emperor Julian made a brief attempt to revive traditional religion in his own way, but this was short-lived. In 391, Theodosius I the Great made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire, permanently excluding all others. From the century onwards, the Church Fathers began to condemn remaining religious practices, calling them collectively "pagan".[170] At the same time, calls for religious tolerance by traditionalists were rejected and Christian monotheism became one of the features of imperial rule. All heretics and non-Christians could be persecuted or excluded from public life. However, Christian practices have been influenced by much of the Roman religious hierarchy and by many aspects of Roman rituals, and many of these practices still survive through local Christian festivals and traditions.[171][172]​.

La red de ciudades a lo largo del territorio imperial (colonias, municipios, o polis) fue un elemento de cohesión que fomentó la Pax Romana.[173]​ Los romanos del Imperio temprano fueron alentados por la propaganda imperial a respetar y disfrutar de los valores del tiempo de paz.[174]​ Incluso el polemista Tertuliano declaró que el siglo fue más ordenado y culto que en épocas anteriores: «En todas partes hay casas, en todas partes hay gente, en todas partes hay res publica, causa del pueblo, hay vida en todas partes».[175]​ Muchas de las características asociadas a la cultura imperial, como el culto público, los juegos y festividades, los concursos de artistas, oradores y deportistas, así como la gran mayoría de obras de arte y edificios públicos, fueron financiados por particulares, cuyos gastos del beneficio de la comunidad ayudó a justificar su poder económico y privilegios legales y provinciales.[176]​ El declive de las ciudades y la vida cívica en el siglo , cuando las clases pudientes ya no podían financiar la obra pública, fue uno de los signos de la inminente disolución del imperio.[177]​.

Life in the cities

In classical antiquity, cities were considered territories that fostered civilization if they were properly designed, ordered and decorated.[174] Roman city planning and urban lifestyle were influenced by Greek civilization of earlier periods.[178] In the eastern part of the empire, Roman rule accelerated the development of cities that already had a marked Hellenistic character. Some cities, such as Athens, Aphrodisias, Ephesus, and Gerasa, modified some aspects of architecture and urban planning in accordance with imperial canons, while expressing their individual identity and regional prominence.[179]​[180]​ In the westernmost parts of the empire, inhabited by Celtic-speaking people, Rome encouraged the development of planned urban centers, equipped with temples, forums, monumental fountains, and amphitheatres. These new cities were often designed in the vicinity or on the site of pre-existing walled settlements (opidos).[181]​[182]​ Urbanization in North Africa has expanded Greek and Punic cities along the coast.[181]​.

Augustus carried out a vast building program in Rome that served as a model for the rest of the empire's cities, financing public works of art that expressed the new imperial ideology and reorganizing the city into locally administered neighborhoods (vicos; vici) with police and fire services. of equestrian sports and physical exercise for young people. There the Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis) and the obelisk of Montecitorio were built, imported from Egypt, which formed the pointer (gnomon) of a monumental sundial. Equipped with public gardens, the Champ de Mars has become one of the main attractions of Rome.[184]​.

The Romans were pioneers in the engineering and construction of sophisticated infrastructure such as plumbing, aqueducts, roads and bridges.[185] The works spread throughout the empire, which was made possible largely thanks to the extensive road network. In addition to environmental sanitation, infrastructure included facilities such as spas, forums, theaters, amphitheaters and monuments.[186]​[187]​ Aqueducts built throughout the empire supplied drinking water to farms and cities. The flow was generally with a free surface, presenting a minimum slope so that the water could flow, and they were built in masonry. The crossing of valleys was carried out on arched structures. In addition to this, they had the help of hydraulic pumps. The wastewater was collected in a sophisticated sewer network, an example of which is the Great Sewer in Rome, one of the oldest sewer networks in the world,[188]​ built in Rome at the end of the century BC. C., started by Tarquínio Prisco,[189]​ who took advantage of the experience developed by Etruscan engineering to drain wastewater into the Tiber River. The operation of the Cloaca Maxima and other Roman sewer networks, such as that of Eboraco (present-day York, England) continued for quite some time after the fall of the Roman Empire.[190]​.

In the city of Rome, most of the population resided in multi-story apartment buildings (insulae), which offered very little fire safety. Public facilities, such as thermal baths, sanitary facilities (latrinae) and drinking water sources,[191]​ as well as mass entertainment, were intended mainly for ordinary people living on the insula.[186]​.

Wealthy families in Rome generally owned two or more homes: an urban home (domus) and at least one country house (vila) in the province. The domus was a private single-family home that could include private spas.[192] Although some of Rome's neighborhoods had a large concentration of wealthy homes, the upper classes did not live in segregated enclaves and wanted their homes to be visible and accessible to the population. The atrium was the reception space, in which the head of the family (paterfamilias) received clients and visitors every morning, from equally rich friends to needy dependents who received alms. It was often rented to shops (taverns; tabernae).[195] In addition to a small orchard, the domus generally had a formal garden framed by a peristyle.[196][197]​.

On the other hand, the town corresponded to an escape from the urban bustle, portrayed in literature as a symbol of a lifestyle that balances appreciation for art and culture with appreciation for nature and the agricultural cycle.[198] Villages were generally located in centers of agricultural production or in seaside resort regions along the coast. Ideally, they would have a view over the surrounding region, carefully framed by the architectural design.[199]​ The interior of the dwellings was often decorated with paintings of gardens, fountains, landscapes, plant motifs,[199]​ and animals, particularly birds and marine species, which were portrayed with such precision that contemporary archaeologists sometimes manage to identify the species.[200]​.

Public baths had a hygienic, social and cultural function. The public baths were the center of daily socialization after the work day, in the evening before dinner, and were open to both men and women.[201] The thermal tradition is related to the cult of the Greek goddess Hygia "Hygia (mythology)") (or Salus "Hygia (mythology)"), her Roman equivalent) and Panacea "Panacea (mythology)"), daughters of Aesculapius, goddesses of health and cleanliness, and with the recommendations of Hippocratic medicine. The oldest known Roman baths date back to the century BC. C. in Delos and Olympia, although the best known are the thermal baths of Caracalla. The development of aqueducts allowed the widespread construction throughout the imperial territory of thermal spas, large public thermal complexes, and spas, small spas, public or private.[202]​.

The Roman baths had services that ensured body hygiene and hydrotherapy.[203] The different rooms offered communal baths at three different temperatures, which could be complemented by different services, such as exercise and training rooms, saunas, exfoliation spas "Exfoliation (dermatology)") (in which the skin was massaged with oils and a strigil was used), games area or an outdoor swimming pool. The thermal baths were heated by hypocaust, the floor being based on ducts through which hot air circulated.[204] Although some spas offered segregated facilities for men and women, mixed nude bathing between the sexes was relatively common. Public baths were part of urban culture in all provinces, although from the end of the 19th century onwards, community baths began to give way to private baths.[205] Christians were advised to attend baths for reasons of hygiene and health, and not for pleasure,[206] although they were also advised not to attend public games, which were part of religious festivals that they considered "pagan".[207]

Education

Traditional Roman education was moral and practical. Stories focused on great personalities were intended to instill Roman values ​​(mores maiorum) in young people. Parents and family were expected to act as role models and parents with a profession would pass this knowledge on to their children, who could then become apprentices.[209] Urban elites across the empire shared a literary culture imbued with Greek educational ideals (paideia).[210] Many Greek cities funded higher schools and, in addition to literacy and arithmetic, the curriculum also included music and sports.[211] Athens, home to the empire's most renowned schools of rhetoric and philosophy, was the destination of many young Romans.[212] As a general rule, all daughters of members of equestrian and senatorial orders received instruction.[213] The level of qualification varied, from educated aristocrats to women trained to be calligraphers or scribes.[214][215] Augustinian poetry praises the ideal of women. cultured, independent and versed in art,[216]​ and a woman with high qualifications represented an asset to any family that had social ambitions.[217]​.

Formal education was accessible only to families who could afford it.[218]​[219]​ The most privileged children could take classes at home with a private tutor.[220]​ The youngest children were taught by a pedagogue, usually a Greek slave or former slave.[221]​ The pedagogue was responsible for the children's safety, taught them self-discipline and notions of behavior in public, and gave them reading, writing, and reading classes. arithmetic.[222]​[223]​ The remaining children attended a private school run by a teacher (ludi magister), financed through monthly payments from individual parents.[224]​ The number of schools gradually increased during the empire, creating more and better educational opportunities.[219]​ Classes could be held regularly in their own rented space or in any available public space, even abroad. Primary education was provided to children between 7 and 12 years old and classes were not separated by years or sexes.[225]​.

At the age of 14, men from the wealthiest classes performed the ritual of passage to adulthood. A partir de esa edad, comienzan a recibir formación para llegar a ocupar un posible cargo de liderazgo político, religioso o militar, formación que suele ser impartida por un miembro mayor o amigo de la familia.[212]​[226]​ La educación secundaria fue impartida por gramáticos (grammatici) o rectores (retórica).[227]​ Los gramáticos enseñaron principalmente literatura griega y latina, complementada con lecciones de historia, geografía, filosofía y matemáticas.[228]​ Después del reinado de Augusto, los autores latinos también se convirtieron en parte del plan de estudios.[229]​ El rector era profesor de oratoria y retórica. El arte de «hablar bien» (ars dicendi) era muy valorado como indicador de superioridad social e intelectual, y la elocuencia () se consideraba el elemento agregador de cualquier sociedad civilizada.[230]​ La educación superior brindó oportunidades para el avance profesional, especialmente para los miembros de la orden ecuestre. Eloquence and culture were considered fundamental characteristics of cultured men and worthy of reward.[231]​.

Recreation and shows

During the rule of Augustus, public spectacles were held 77 days a year, a figure which by the reign of Marcus Aurelius was 135. The singular Latin ludus ("game, sport, training") had a wide range of meanings, from word games, theatrical performances, board games, primary school, and even gladiator training schools, such as Ludus Magnus, the largest of these camps in Rome.[253][254]​.

Circus games (ludi circensis) were held in structures inspired by Greek hippodromes. Circuses were the largest regularly constructed structure in the Roman world.[255]​ The games were preceded by an elaborate parade, the circus pageant.[256]​ Competition events were also held in smaller venues, such as amphitheaters and stadiums. Among the sports modalities, inspired by Greek models, were the stadium (race) "Stadium (race)"), boxing, wrestling and pankration.[257] There were several modalities that were carried out in their own pools, such as naumachia and a form of aquatic ballet.[258] The theatrical events (ludi scaenici) took place on the steps of the temples, in the great stone theaters or in small theaters called odeons.[259]​ Although the games originated as religious celebrations, over time their religious meaning ended up being lost in favor of their recreational value.[260]​[261]​[262]​[252]​ The patronage of the events and shows in the arenas was in charge of local elites. Despite the high economic costs, its organization was a source of prestige and social status.[263]​.

The Circus Maximus was the largest stadium in all of Rome, with an audience of around 150,000 spectators.[264] Opened in the year 80, the Colosseum became a regular venue for violent sports in the city,[265] with more than 50,000 seats and more than 10,000 feet.[264] The physical layout of the amphitheater represented the hierarchy of the Roman society: the emperor presided over its opulent pulpit; senators and high-ranking military officers had the best seats reserved; the women sat protected from the action; The slaves sat in the worst places and the rest sat where there was a place between the two groups.[266]​[267]​[268]​ The crowd could demand a result by whistling or applauding, although it was the emperor who had the last word. Shows could quickly become sites of political and social protest, so emperors often resorted to force to dominate the population.[269][270]​ One of the most notable cases was the Nika Riots of 532, which ended with the intervention of Justinian I's army and the massacre of thousands of citizens.[271][272][273][274]​.

The competition was dangerous, but the drivers were among the most famous and awarded athletes of antiquity.[275] One of the stars of the sport was Gaius Apuleius Diocles of Lusitania (present-day Portugal), who drove chariots for 24 years and accumulated earnings of 35 million sesterces.[276] Horses were also quite popular, celebrated in art and remembered in inscriptions, often for their name.[277][278]​ The design of Roman circuses evolved to ensure that neither team had any advantage and to minimize the number of collisions,[279][280]​ although these continued to be frequent, to the delight of the crowd.[281][282]​ The races were shrouded in an aura of mystery due to their association with chthonic rituals: circus images were considered protective. or good luck, and the drivers were often suspected of witchcraft.[283]​[284]​[285]​[286]​ Chariot racing continued during the Byzantine period, still with imperial patronage, although the decline of the cities over the centuries precipitated their demise.[255]​.

Feeding

Most apartments in Rome lacked kitchens, although stoves were frequently used.[327]​[328]​ Taverns, bars, inns, and thermopolias sold prepared meals, although eating there or taking food home was common only among the lower classes.[329]​ The wealthier classes preferred reserved meals in their own residence, which usually had a cook and kitchen assistants,[330]​ or at banquets. organized in private clubs.[331]​.

Most of the population obtained 70% of their daily calorie intake by eating cereals and vegetables.[332]​ One of the main Roman preparations was puls, a porridge based on sliced vegetables, pieces of meat, cheese or aromatic herbs, with which dishes similar to polenta or risotto could be made.[333]​ The urban population and the army preferred to consume cereals converted into bread.[332]​ Normally, grinding and cooking were done in the same shop. During the reign of Aurelian, the state began distributing the annona, a daily ration of bread, oil, wine, and pork, to the citizens of Rome.[334]​[335]​[336]​.

Changing rooms

In a society as status-conscious as the Roman, clothing and personal accessories offered an immediate indication of a person's etiquette.[337]​ Dressing correctly was considered a reflection of an orderly society.[338]​ The toga was the characteristic national dress of the Roman man, although it was heavy and impractical, and was worn mainly to address political matters, religious rituals, and presence at courts.[339]​[340]​ Contrary to popular notion, the informal dress of The Romans could be dark or colorful, and the most common outfit among men during daily life would be a tunic, cape, and trousers in some regions.[341] It is difficult to study the way Romans dressed in everyday life due to a lack of direct evidence, as portraiture often presents the figure in symbolic clothing and surviving fabrics from this period are rare.[342][343][344]​.

The basic garment for all Romans, regardless of gender or social status, was a simple tunic with sleeves. The length differed depending on the user: the men's ones reached half the height between the knee and the ankle, although the soldiers' ones were shorter; The women had their tunics up to their ankles and the girls up to their knees. Tunics for poor people and slaves were made of carded wool and the length was determined according to the type of work performed. The best tunics were made of processed wool or linen. A man who belonged to a senatorial or equestrian order wore a purple tunic with two ribbons (clavi), and the larger the dimension, the higher the status of the wearer.[345]​.

The imperial toga was made of white wool and, due to its weight, it was not possible to dress it properly without assistance.[339]​ In his work on oratory, Quintilian describes in detail how a public speaker must orchestrate his gestures in relation to his tunic.[346]​[340]​[347]​ In the technique, the toga is shown with the longest tip hanging between the feet, a curved pleat at the front, and a protruding flap at the back. middle.[348]​ Over the centuries, curtains became more intricate and structured, and by the end of the empire, the fabric formed a firm fold around the chest.[349]​ The toga praetexta, with a violet stripe representing inviolability, was worn by children up to the age of ten and by executive magistrates and by priests of the state. Only the emperor was allowed to wear an all-purple toga (picga toga).[350]​.

In the 19th century, emperors and men of status were often depicted wearing the palio "Palio (religious clothing)"), a cloak of Greek origin folded around the body, which was occasionally also depicted on women. Tertullian considered the canopy a suitable garment for Christians, unlike the toga, and also for literate people, due to its association with philosophers.[351]​[352]​[353]​ By the middle of the century, the toga was practically replaced by the pallium as a symbolic garment of social union.[354]​.

Sexuality

The idea of unbridled sexual debauchery in the Roman Empire is essentially a later Christian interpretation.[358][359][360] In reality, sex in the Greco-Roman world was governed by sobriety and the art of managing sexual pleasure.[361] Sexuality was one of the themes of the mos maiorum, the set of social norms that guided public, private, and military life, and sexual conduct was moderated by notions of modesty and shame.[362] Roman censors, magistrates who determined each person's social class, had the power to remove citizenship from men of the equestrian or senatorial order who engaged in inappropriate sexual conduct.[363]​[364]​ Moral legislation introduced during the reign of Augustus attempted to regulate women's conduct as a way to promote family values. Adultery, which during the republic had been a private matter, was classified as a crime[365]​ and defined as an illicit sexual act (stuprum) that occurs between a man and a married woman.[366]​[367]​[368]​[369]​.

Roman society was patriarchal "Patriarchy (feminism)"). Masculinity was associated with the ideal of virtue (virtus) and self-discipline, while the female correspondent was modesty (puductia).[370] Roman religion promoted sexuality as a sign of prosperity, with religious or common practices to strengthen erotic life or reproductive health. Prostitution was legal, public and quite common in the cities. Pornographic paintings or mosaics were prominent pieces among art collections, even in the wealthiest and most respectable houses.[371] Homosexuality was not reprehensible and it was considered natural for men to be attracted to adolescents of both sexes, as long as they belonged to a lower social status.[372]​[373]​ However, hypersexuality was reprehensible in both men and women.[374]​.

Roma construyó una sociedad que daba gran importancia a las artes en sus más variadas manifestaciones. Además de jugar un papel decorativo, las artes también tenían un papel educativo y socializador en un contexto donde una gran parte de la población era analfabeta o con poco acceso a la literatura más sofisticada. El arte consagró ideologías, narró hechos históricos, integró festividades cívicas y rituales religiosos y glorificó a personajes eminentes, actuando de hecho como una lengua franca a la que tenía acceso toda la población.[375]​ El arte romano se desarrolló inicialmente a partir de la tradición etrusca[376]​ y posteriormente absorbió las referencias de la cultura griega,[377]​ haciendo de su arte en gran medida una extensión y variación de esta, y convirtiendo a los romanos en el principales preservadores del legado artístico griego para la posteridad.[378]​[379]​.

Si bien los romanos adaptaron diversos modelos extranjeros, especialmente provenientes de Grecia, estos fueron capaces de desarrollar una tradición que al final del período republicano y durante todo el período imperial adquirió características innovadoras y originales, ganando una significativa independencia de la herencia recibida y formando una identidad propia. Aun así, en el Imperio hubo varias fases de oscilación entre tendencias más helenísticas e imitativas y otras más progresistas y creativas. Esto, sumado a las múltiples variaciones regionales, la incorporación de influencias orientales, los importantes cambios surgidos de la cristianización y el fuerte y permanente amor romano por el eclecticismo, hacen del arte de la Roma imperial un complejo mosaico de tendencias, a veces bastante divergente, siendo imposible caracterizarlo como un bloque estético monolítico.[380]​[381]​ A pesar del enorme valor otorgado a las obras de arte, los artistas tenían un estatus social más bajo, incluso si se trataban de individuos reconocidos. Los romanos y griegos veían a los artistas y artesanos como trabajadores manuales, aunque al mismo tiempo se reconocía la pericia necesaria para producir arte de calidad, incluso considerándose una ofrenda divina.[382]​.

Architecture

The semicircular arches "Arch (architecture)"), vaults and domes are characteristics of Roman architecture that distinguish it from Greek architecture. The introduction of these elements, of a dimension unprecedented in history, was possible thanks to the invention of concrete. This material, known to the Romans as opus caementicium, was made from volcanic ashes discovered in the vicinity of Vesuvius, called pozzolans, which were crushed and mixed with calcium oxide.[383] The concrete core of the buildings was usually faced with stucco, brick, stone or marble. In some cases, golden sculptures were added to create a dazzling and ostentatious effect of power and prosperity. The construction quality introduced into Roman architecture significantly increased its durability. Many of the Roman buildings are still intact and in use, most of which are buildings converted into churches during the Christian era. However, in many of the ruins the marble covering has been removed, as is the case of the Basilica of Constantine.[384]​.

Domes were a common presence in spas, villas, palaces and tombs. The audience rooms of many of the imperial palaces were crowned by domes and were also very common in garden pavilions.[385] They generally assumed a hemispherical shape and were totally or partially hidden from the outside, being in many cases surmounted by an oculus and sometimes covered by a conical or polygonal roof.[386] With the collapse of the Western Empire, vaulted construction declined. However, this style continued in force in the East through Byzantine architecture.[387]​.

It was during the governments of Trajan (r. 98-117) and Hadrian (r. 117-138) that the empire reached its maximum territorial and artistic apogee, having begun an immense program for the construction of monuments, assemblies, gardens, aqueducts, spas, palaces, pavilions, sarcophagi and temples.[388]​ The introduction of the arch, the dome and the use of concrete allowed the construction of large vaulted ceilings. in public and complex spaces such as spas or basilicas. Among the most notable examples of domes are the Pantheon of Agrippa, the Baths of Diocletian, and the Baths of Caracalla. The Pantheon, dedicated to all the planetary gods, is the best preserved temple of antiquity in the world and its dome is still intact.[384]​ The last major building programs in Rome took place during the reign of Constantine I (r. 306-337), including the Arch of Constantine near the Colosseum in Rome.[389]​.

Paint

Painting was one of the most popular arts of the Roman Empire, but little is known about it because the vast majority of records have been lost over time. Much of what is known about Roman painting is based on the interior decoration of private residences, particularly the frescoes that have been preserved at Pompeii. This city, discovered in the 19th century, was buried under the eruption of Vesuvius in 79, which allowed it to be preserved relatively intact. From this set of works—which, although rich and varied, is a tiny fraction of what was produced and covers a very limited period—a chronology of styles was established that has been applied to the entire imperial pictorial legacy. According to this proposal, Roman painting evolved from Greek examples of purely geometric wall decoration, progressively incorporating figurative elements into architectural or landscape settings, often using Greek models or citing famous Greek works in creative reinterpretations, presenting in some examples great sophistication and sumptuousness. In addition to decorative friezes and panels with geometric and vegetal motifs, the mural paintings represent scenes from mythology, landscapes and gardens, recreation, shows, work and daily life, and even erotic scenes. Birds, animals and marine life are often depicted with special care regarding artistic details.[390]​[391]​[392]​.

Through literary records and scarce remnants scattered throughout the Empire, it is known that mural painting was only one of the types of painting practiced, with records of works made on fabric, metal, stone, ivory and other supports, using various pigments of plant and mineral origin.[393] Portraits painted on wooden boards and metal plates were highly appreciated, especially in funerary contexts, but also as a glorification of characters. illustrious, presented in processions that reaffirmed the prestige of patrician families and other public festivities. Ordinary citizens could also have their faces immortalized, as the technique was relatively low cost. It survives a good set of encaustic funerary portraits in Egypt, displaying exquisite technique and great realism.[394] The Fayoum portraits are an indicator of why ancient literary sources marveled at the realism of artistic representations.[395] Another popular genre was that of triumphant paintings, executed on large panels depicting battles and maps of military campaigns, presented in the processions of generals. victorious.[396]​ It is also worth highlighting the production of illuminated manuscripts, of which very few copies remain.[397]​.

Much of the portrait sculpture would have been painted, although painting has rarely survived over the centuries. From the century onwards, with the expansion of Christianity, a completely new theme related to this religion emerged, early Christian art, at the same time that a growing simplification and geometrization of forms was observed. However, there are still some refined examples of late-imperial painting that refer to the classical tradition, mainly in Dura Europos, with Hebrew themes, and in Luxor, with Christian themes.[398]​[399]​.

Sculpture

Sculpture was one of the most important artistic expressions of the Romans and was present in all aspects of their life, from the domestic to the public, from the religious to the civil and military, in large and small dimensions, in stone, metal or ceramic, for decorative, commemorative, celebratory or educational purposes. The most important part of imperial sculpture is figurative, but it is also applied to utilitarian objects.[375]​[400]​ It was common to apply decorative paint to the surface of sculptures.[401]​.

The Greek tradition continued to be a central reference throughout the entire history of sculptural art in Rome, but, as with other artistic expressions, several innovations of its own were introduced. This was especially visible in portraiture, which since the Republic had enjoyed special esteem, with examples of intense expressiveness and great realism, and in the decoration of great public monuments, such as the triumphal arches, the Ara Pacis and Trajan's Column, where a narrative style was developed that was configured as typically Roman.[402][403][404]​.

Throughout the Empire, Eastern influences caused a slow but growing move away from the Greek canon towards a formal simplification that laid the foundations for Byzantine, early Christian and medieval sculpture. Even so, there were several phases in which classical archaisms were recovered, such as in the time of Augustus, when elements that reinforced continuity with a prestigious past were exalted, which at the same time served to create political and cultural cohesion. With the rise of Christianity, new themes appeared, but the classical heritage continued to offer important models for the constitution of a renewed iconography.[381]​[377][405]​.

During the Augustan period, portraits used classical proportions and youthful features, later evolving towards a combination of realism and idealism.[406] Portraits from the Republican period demonstrate intense realism, although from the century BC onwards. C. progressively adopted the concept of heroic nudity, often for the portrait of conquering generals.[407] Imperial sculpture can present an adult face, sometimes aged, on a young naked or semi-naked body with perfect musculature. In fact, it was common to place busts on a body created for another purpose.[408]​ Dressed in a tunic or military uniform, the body communicates the sphere of activity, and not the characteristics of the sitter.[409]​ Women of the imperial family were often depicted dressed similarly to goddesses or divine personifications, such as Pax "Pax (mythology)").[395]​.

Marble and limestone sarcophagi are characteristic of the period between the 2nd centuries,[410]​ of which there are at least 10,000 surviving examples.[411]​ Although mythological scenes are those whose study is most in-depth,[412]​ reliefs on sarcophagi are the richest source of Roman iconography,[413]​ and may represent the living occupation of the dead and military scenes, among others. themes.[414]​ The habit of copying and rereading Greek models was essential to preserve the legacy of Greek sculpture, most of which were lost.[405]​ Already during the Modern Age, Roman production would become an important influence for the artistic movements of the Renaissance, Baroque and Neoclassicism.[415]​.

decorative arts

Among the most common decorative art objects, aimed at wealthy consumers, are ceramic pieces, silver and bronze vessels and utensils, and glass artifacts. The production of ceramics of various qualities and the metallurgy and glass industries played an important economic role in trade and employment. Imports stimulated new regional production centers, such as southern Gaul, which became the main producer of terra sigillata, high-quality pottery and one of the main items traded in Europe during the 1st century.[416] The Romans also mastered the technique of glassblowing, which originated in Syria during the century BC. C.[417]​[418]​.

Mosaics are one of the most enduring forms of Roman decorative art and can be found on the surfaces of floors, walls, ceilings, and columns in public or private spaces.[419] Figurative mosaics share many of the themes with painting and, in some cases, depict the same themes in almost identical compositions. Although geometric patterns and mythological scenes are recurring motifs throughout the empire, several local expressions also exist. In North Africa, a particularly rich source of mosaics, the preferred subjects on private estates were scenes of everyday life: hunting, agriculture and local wildlife.[420]​ The master (pictor) ran a mosaic workshop. The most common technique was opus tessellatum, created from uniform pieces (tessera) of materials such as stone and glass. Mosaics were generally produced locally, although they were sometimes produced and sold in prefabricated panels. Opus sectile was a technique in which smooth stone, usually colored marble, was cut into precise shapes that formed geometric or figurative patterns. This more complex technique was particularly valuable and became extremely popular during the 19th century.[422]​.

performing arts

Music and dance have been popular artistic manifestations since the founding, probably developed from the imitation of Greek precursors. The little that is known about him is derived from bibliographical and iconographic sources.[423]​[424]​ The presence of music was common in practically all social events and in funeral ceremonies. At sacrifices it was customary to play an aulós "Aulós (instrument)") (tibia), a wind instrument whose sound was believed to ward off bad influences.[425]​[426]​ Music was believed to reflect the order of the cosmos, being associated with mathematics and knowledge.[427]​ Among the most common musical instruments were wood, brass, percussion instruments and strings, such as the Greek zither.[428]​ The cornu "Cornu (instrument)"), a brass wind instrument that curved along the musician's body, was used in parades and military signals.[429]​ The hydraulic organ called hydraulis was one of the most significant musical and technical feats of Antiquity, after gladiatorial combats, events in amphitheaters and theatrical performances.[430]​.

The exclusively male Greek mask theater continued during the Roman Empire, staging the tragedies and comedies of Latin literature. However, the most popular form of theater was the mime "Mime (Ancient Greece)"), a genre characterized by works that mixed a written script with improvisation and other elements such as action sequences, satire, among others. They were also interspersed with dance numbers, acrobatics, juggling, tightrope walking, stripping, and even dancing bears.[433]​[434]​[435]​ Mime was performed without masks and promoted stylistic realism on stage. The female roles were played by women, not by men in costume.[436]​ This genre was related to another called pantomime (pantomimus), a primitive form of narrative ballet, instrumental music and musical libretto, often on mythological themes that could be tragic or comic.[437]​[438]​.

Although some forms of dance were not accepted in the empire and were seen as foreign or inhuman, dance was incorporated into the religious rituals of archaic Rome.[439] Dances were a feature of mystery religion, particularly the cult of Cybele practiced by eunuch priests[440] and the cult of Isis. On the secular side, the dancers of Syria "Syria (Roman province)") and Cádiz were extremely popular.[441] Like the gladiators, the entertainers were infamous in the eyes of the law and had little higher status in relation to slaves, although they were technically free. However, great stars could enjoy considerable wealth and status, allowing them to associate with the upper classes and even emperors, often sexually.[442] Artists supported each other by forming guilds.[443] Theater and dance were often condemned by Christian groups during the late empire.[423] Those Christians who integrated dance or music into their religious practices were considered pagans by the Fathers of the Roman Empire. Church.[444]​.

Literature

In the Western canon, literature during the period of Augustus and the end of the Republic is seen as the golden age of Latin literature, incorporating the classical ideals of the unity of the whole, proportion between the parts, and careful articulation of the composition.[445] This period includes Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, considered some of the most influential classical Latin poets in history. Virgil wrote the Aeneid, a national epic for Rome in the same way that Homer's epics were for Greece. Horace perfected the use of Greek meter in Latin poetry. Ovid's erotic poetry was very popular, although a victim of Augustus's moral program, which led him to exile. The Metamorphoses of Ovid is a continuous poem of fifteen books, covering themes from Greco-Roman mythology and the imperial cult "Imperial Cult (Ancient Rome)") towards Julius Caesar. Ovid's versions of Greek myths have become one of the main sources of classical mythology. His influence was particularly influential in the medieval literature of the 2nd centuries, which were collectively called the "Age of Ovid".[446]

The period from mid-century to mid-century is conventionally called the "Silver Age" of Latin literature. During Nero's rule, writers reacted against Augustinianism.[447]​ The three main writers of this period were the philosopher and playwright Seneca, his nephew Lucan, who transformed the Second Civil War into the epic Pharsalia; and the novelist Petrónio, author of El Satiricón. They all committed suicide after losing the emperor's favor. Seneca and Lucan were from Hispania, as was the epigram Martial.[448]​ On the other hand, the work of the poet Statius would exert an enormous influence on Renaissance literature.[449]​.

The books were expensive, as each copy had to be handwritten on a papyrus roll by specialized scribes.[450] Commercial book production began during the final period of the Republic. In the century some neighborhoods of Rome were known for their bookstores (tabernae librariae), which also existed in many cities of the western provinces.[451] The quality of the editions varied significantly and some authors complained of copies full of errors, plagiarism or forgeries, since copyright did not exist.[452] The codex was still a novelty in the century, but by the end of the century it had already been replaced by the volume "Volume (book)")[453][454]​ and was the most common medium among books with Christian content.[455]​ However, while the book format emphasized continuity of the text, the codex encouraged partial reading and fragmented interpretations.[456]​ Although the Church Fathers were educated, they considered classical literature to be dangerous and useless, so they often reinterpreted it through metaphors and allegories. Julian, the only emperor to reject Christianity after Constantine I, forbade Christians from teaching the classical curriculum on the grounds that they corrupted the young.[457]

The Roman Empire and its notions of autocracy, law and citizenship left a profound impact on European history. The feeling of sharing a common culture and identity, rather than a single language or literature, was due to the very nature of the Empire.[458]​.

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, several states claimed to be its successors, a concept known as the translatio imperii ("transfer of dominion"). This was the case of the Holy Roman Empire, an entity established after the coronation of Charlemagne, king of the Franks, by Pope Leo III on Christmas in the year 800. Charlemagne was crowned "Roman emperor" (Imperator Romanorum),[459]​ although this event did not immediately found a new state. The translatio imperii passed from the Franks to the German people after the coronation of Otto I in 962, beginning a series of "Roman emperors" who continued to be titled as such until the end of the Empire in 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars.[460]​.

In the East, the Roman legacy continued through the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Greeks continued to call themselves "Romans" (Romanioi) and their state as the "Roman Empire" (Basileia Rhōmaíōn) until the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, although they were never recognized in the West.[461] Mehmed II the Conqueror made Constantinople the new capital of the Ottoman Turkish Empire and proclaimed himself as "Caesar of Rome" (Kayser-i Rum),[462]​ thus assuming the translatio imperii. At the same time, the Principality of Moscow, significantly influenced by the Byzantine Orthodox Church and the Greco-Roman tradition, also declared itself heir to the Roman Empire. Ivan III the Great proclaimed his city as the "Third Rome" (Constantinople being the second), an idea that would later be reinforced with the adoption of the titles of Autocrator, Tsar (for Caesar "Caesar (title)")) and, from Peter the Great, Imperator and Pater Patriae.[463]​[464]​.

Another of Rome's main legacies was the Christian religion. The Pax Romana created a huge region of stability and political union that allowed the expansion of the Catholic Church, which is essentially an absolute monarchy based on the Roman model. The popes assume the title of the Roman high priest, the maximum pontiff (Pontifex Maximus), and proclaim themselves heirs of Caesar.[465]​ The seven centuries of Roman domination in Italy also left a strong cultural legacy that significantly influenced Italian nationalism and the "risorgimento" of 1861,[466]​ also serving as the fundamental basis of Italian fascism during the time of Benedict. Mussolini.[467]​ In the artistic field, Roman art influenced Renaissance architecture and Romanesque architecture in southern Europe, as well as in the Orthodox territories of the East. Many of the classical Roman elements formed the aesthetic bases of the Renaissance and Neoclassicism.[468]​[469]​[470]​.

In the Romanized regions of the Western Empire, the pre-Latin languages ​​progressively became extinct and Latin became the mother tongue of the majority of the inhabitants.[471]​ In this way, Latin developed into several branches that would evolve into modern Romance languages, such as Spanish, Portuguese, French, Italian and Romanian, in addition to having an enormous influence on the English language. Despite its fragmentation, Latin remained the international language par excellence in teaching, literature, diplomacy and intellectual life until the 2nd century, still being present in legal and ecclesiastical works of the Roman Church.[472]​[458]​ This was not the case in the Eastern Empire, where the majority of Greek speakers were concentrated around Greece and the coastal regions. Several Afroasiatic languages, mainly Coptic in Egypt and Aramaic in Syria and Mesopotamia, were never completely replaced by Greek.[47]

Historiography

• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Roman Empire.

• - Edward Gibbon: History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-89), work in English at Project Gutenberg.

• - Guglielmo Ferrero: Greatness and Decline of Rome (1901-7), work in Spanish: Vol. I, II, III, IV.

• - Atlas of the Roman Empire.

• - The Roman Law Library; in English.

• - Text in Spanish on the World Digital Library site.