cartography (from the Greek χάρτης, chartēs = map and γραφειν, graphein = writing) is the applied science that is responsible for gathering, carrying out and analyzing measurements and data from regions of the Earth, to graphically represent them with different linear dimensions on a reduced scale "Scale (cartography)").[1] By extension, a set of documents is also called cartography. territorial references referring to a specific area of study.[2] The International Cartographic Association defines cartography as the discipline related to the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps.[3].
Basics
Since the Earth is spherical, or rather geoid, which is a derivation of the term "spherical", it must use a system of projections to go from the sphere to the plane. The problem is even greater, because the shape of the Earth is not perfectly spherical; Its shape becomes flatter at the poles than in the equatorial area. That is why it is considered a geoid.
In addition to representing the contours of things, surfaces and angles, cartography is responsible for representing the information that appears on the map, depending on what is considered relevant and what is not. This usually depends on what you want to represent on the map and its scale "Scale (cartography)").
Currently these cartographic representations can be made with computer programs called GIS, with georeference.
Cartography in the era of Web 2.0 has extended to the Internet, leading to the emergence of user-created content. This term implies that there are maps created in a traditional way, through contributions from professional cartographers, or with information provided by the general public. Currently there are numerous portals that allow you to view and consult maps from all over the world.
History
Contenido
El mapa conocido más antiguo es una cuestión polémica, porque la definición de mapa no es unívoca y porque para la creación de mapas se utilizaron diversos materiales. Existe una pintura mural, que puede representar la antigua ciudad de Çatalhöyük, en Anatolia (conocida previamente como Huyuk o Çatal Hüyük), datada en el VII milenio a. C.[4][5] Otros mapas conocidos del mundo antiguo incluyen a la civilización minoica: la «Casa del almirante» es una pintura mural datada en 1.600 a. C., en la que se observa una comunidad costera en perspectiva oblicua. También hay un mapa grabado de la Sagrada Ciudad de Babilonia "Babilonia (ciudad)") de Nippur, del período Kassita, (Siglo a. C. - Siglo a. C.)[6].
Review of old cartography
Introduction
cartography (from the Greek χάρτης, chartēs = map and γραφειν, graphein = writing) is the applied science that is responsible for gathering, carrying out and analyzing measurements and data from regions of the Earth, to graphically represent them with different linear dimensions on a reduced scale "Scale (cartography)").[1] By extension, a set of documents is also called cartography. territorial references referring to a specific area of study.[2] The International Cartographic Association defines cartography as the discipline related to the conception, production, dissemination and study of maps.[3].
Basics
Since the Earth is spherical, or rather geoid, which is a derivation of the term "spherical", it must use a system of projections to go from the sphere to the plane. The problem is even greater, because the shape of the Earth is not perfectly spherical; Its shape becomes flatter at the poles than in the equatorial area. That is why it is considered a geoid.
In addition to representing the contours of things, surfaces and angles, cartography is responsible for representing the information that appears on the map, depending on what is considered relevant and what is not. This usually depends on what you want to represent on the map and its scale "Scale (cartography)").
Currently these cartographic representations can be made with computer programs called GIS, with georeference.
Cartography in the era of Web 2.0 has extended to the Internet, leading to the emergence of user-created content. This term implies that there are maps created in a traditional way, through contributions from professional cartographers, or with information provided by the general public. Currently there are numerous portals that allow you to view and consult maps from all over the world.
History
Contenido
En la antigua Grecia y el Imperio romano se crearon mapas, como el de Anaximandro en el siglo a. C..[7] o el mapamundi de Claudio Ptolomeo, que es un mapa del mundo conocido (Ecúmene) por la sociedad occidental en el siglo d. C.. En el siglo , los eruditos árabes tradujeron los trabajos de los geógrafos griegos al árabe.[8].
En la antigua China, los códigos geográficos datan del siglo . Los mapas chinos más viejos son del Estado de Qin y se datan en el siglo , durante los Reinos Combatientes. En el libro del Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, publicado en 1092 por el científico chino Su Song, hay una carta astronómica") con una proyección cilíndrica similar a la actual y, al parecer, inventado por separado, a la Proyección de Mercator.[9][10] Aunque este método de cálculo parece haber existido en China incluso antes de esta publicación y, científicamente, el significado más grande de las Cartas astronómicas de Su Song, es que representan los mapas impresos existentes más antiguos conocidos.
Los primeros signos de la cartografía india incluyen pinturas legendarias; mapas de localizaciones descritas en epopeyas hindúes como el Rāmāyana.[11] Las tradiciones cartográficas hindúes también situaron la localización de la Estrella Polar, así como otras constelaciones.[12].
Mapamundi es el término general usado para describir a los mapas europeos del Mundo Medieval. Aproximadamente mil cien mapamundis sobrevivieron a la Edad Media. De estos novecientos son ilustraciones manuscritas y el resto existe como documentos independientes (Woodward, P. 286).
El geógrafo árabe Muhammad al-Idrisi elaboró su mapa, la Tabula Rogeriana, en 1154 incorporando el África conocida, el océano Índico y el Extremo Oriente conocido, compilando la información de los comerciantes y exploradores árabes y la heredada de los geógrafos clásicos para crear el mapa más exacto del mundo en su tiempo y durante los siguientes tres siglos.[13].
En la Era de los descubrimientos, del siglo al , los cartógrafos europeos copiaron mapas antiguos (algunos datados muchos siglos atrás) y dibujaron sus propios mapas basados en las observaciones de los exploradores aunque con nuevas técnicas. La invención de la brújula, el telescopio y el desarrollo de la agrimensura les dieron mayor exactitud. En 1492, Martin Behaim, un cartógrafo alemán, hizo el primer globo terráqueo, el Erdapfel.[14].
Johannes Werner estudió y perfeccionó los sistemas de proyección de los mapas, desarrollando la proyección cordiforme. En 1507, Martin Waldseemüller elaboró un globo del mundo y un gran mapamundi mural distribuido en 12 hojas (Universalis Cosmographia), siendo el primer mapa en aplicar el nombre de «América» a las tierras recién descubiertas por los europeos y el primero en presentar este continente separado del asiático. El cartógrafo portugués, Diego Ribero, fue el autor del primer planisferio conocido con un Ecuador terrestre graduado (1527). El cartógrafo italiano Bautista Agnese elaboró por lo menos 71 atlas manuscritos de las cartas marinas.
Debido a las dificultades inherentes en la cartografía, fabricantes de mapas copiaron con frecuencia el material de trabajos anteriores sin mencionar al cartógrafo original. Por ejemplo, uno de los mapas antiguos más famosos de Norteamérica, vulgarmente conocido como el “Mapa Castor”, publicado en 1715 de Herman Moll, es una reproducción exacta de un trabajo en 1698 de Nicolás De Fer. De Fer había copiado a su vez las imágenes impresas en libros de Louis Hennepin, publicados en 1697, y François Du Creux, en 1664. Por los años 1700, los fabricantes de mapas comenzaron a darle crédito al autor original imprimiendo la frase “Según [el cartógrafo original]”.[15].
Pre-Columbian cartography
In Mexico, cartography has its own characteristics. Although it is part of the context of Western cartographic thought, its origin is found in the forms of expression used by the ancient inhabitants of Mesoamerica to represent geographical knowledge.[16].
A reading of these mentions has allowed scholars to know that, indeed, the Mesoamerican indigenous people made maps with great technical skill and professionalism, and that they were relatively common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.
Most of the indigenous maps that have been preserved date from the 1st century, after the arrival of Europeans, and are influenced by their cartography. In fact, as we have already commented, the references we have to the maps made by the native Mexicans are descriptions made by the Spanish, that is, external considerations, made from the European point of view.[17].
We cannot know with certainty what pre-Columbian maps were like, we cannot even be sure of the way the natives understood the maps.
Based on all these factors (among others), scholars have managed to identify four categories of Mesoamerican maps, depending on their function and representation:
• - Maps that narrate historical events.
• - Maps representing properties, city plans, and possibly itineraries.
• - Cosmographic maps.
• - Celestial maps, showing the stars and constellations.[17].
Technological changes
The flat cards
They are those that are built assuming that the surface of the Earth is flat, so the course and distance are consistent with this. They were widely used in the Mediterranean until the beginning of the century.[18].
Changes in map production run parallel to changes in technology. The biggest leap occurred from the Middle Ages when instruments such as the quadrant "Quadrant (instrument)") and the compass were invented, which allow measuring the angles with respect to the polar star and the Sun. These instruments made it possible to determine latitude to finally capture it on maps.[19].
In so-called flat charts, the observed latitudes and magnetic directions are represented directly on the map, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were flat.
Later evolution
In cartography, technology has continually changed to meet the demands of new generations of map makers and map readers. The first maps were made manually with quills on parchment; therefore, they varied in quality and their distribution was very limited. The introduction of magnetic devices, such as the compass, allowed the creation of maps of different scales that were more accurate and easier to store and manipulate.
Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, the quadrant (instrument) and the vernier, used to enable mass production of maps and the ability to make more accurate reproductions of data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices, allowed more accurate examination of the Earth and increased the ability of map makers and navigators to find its latitude by measuring angles with the North Star at night or at noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as lithographic and photomechanical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine detail, do not warp in shape, and are resistant to moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which in the future shortened the time it took to make and reproduce maps.
Advances in electronic technology in the century led to another revolution in cartography. The availability of advances in computing, hardware, and its peripherals, such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document), and analytical stereo plotters, together with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have contributed to what has been called neogeography, popularizing its knowledge and expanding map making.
The spatial ability to locate variables on existing maps, together with the creation of new applications for map management, have enabled the emergence of new industries exploring these potentials. The use of current techniques such as satellite photography has, in recent times, facilitated the creation of more precise cartographic maps. This has immediate consequences for other sciences and studies that depend on cartography for their development.
In addition, currently we can develop 3D maps using software intended for this, which takes the visualization of these maps one step further.[20].
Currently most commercial quality maps are made using software, which is grouped into three main types:.
• - Computer Aided Design (DAO).
• - Geographic Information System (GIS).
• - Specialized illustration software.
Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools increasingly lead to dynamic maps and interactive maps, which can be manipulated digitally.
Types of maps
General and thematic cartography
According to basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided or separated into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General Cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps display many references and location systems are often produced in series. For example, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) 1:24,000 scale topographic maps are a standard over 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The UK government produces the classic "Ordnance Survey" 1:63,360 (1 inch per mile) maps of the entire United Kingdom along with a range of larger, very small scale maps correlated in great detail.
Thematic Cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented towards specific audiences. A couple of examples might be the dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties, divided into numerical classes. While the volume of geographic data has evolved enormously over the last century, thematic mapping has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.[21] For example, social networks are mapped georeferentially, maps are also made that show distance between people (in number of links or steps that separate them). The timeline can also be considered a map or chart. From its use in navigation, techniques have been perfected that are recovered to guide web navigation. In sociology and communication, the cartographer's job is also cited as a strategy to stay on track in a fluid world.
The orienteering sport map combines general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific user community. The most prominent thematic element is shaded, which indicates degrees of difficulty of the route due to the vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, being classified simply by the difficulty (“struggle”) that it presents.
Geometrization crossed a large part of the visual culture of modern sciences,[22] it affected the images themselves and also the ways of seeing. Man created methods that made phenomena that could not be known except through the sense of touch, taste or smell, now be visualized. This rationalization of the gaze rested on the productions of the classics of modernity, and the maps of modernity were not alien to that gaze, representing isomorphisms and proportionality, inventing a new geometry of geographical representations. This proportionality is what seeks to define the geographical miniature. The French philosopher Gaston Bachelard maintained that miniatures are objects lacking real psychological objectivity, and that miniaturizing the world implied possessing it.[23].
Topographic and topological
The topographic map is above all the topographic description of a place (provincial area, region, a country or the world), including (especially in the Century) the use of isolines to demonstrate the altimetry (hypsometry) or bathymetry of the relief. Land relief in cartography can be demonstrated in a variety of ways. These maps use colors, symbols and different types of lines for different types of landscapes and reliefs such as mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, depressions in the terrain and many more features. In addition, different types of signs that refer to man-made constructions are also usually added, such as: transportation routes, energy production areas or different types of crops.[24].
The topological map is a very general type of map or plane. It often neglects scale and detail in the interest of clarity of related information. The Caracas Metro map is an example. However, the map used preserves little of reality. It varies the scale constantly and precipitously, and the directions of the casual contours. The only important features of the map are the easy location of stations and crossings along tracks and whether a station or crossing is north or south of the Guaire River. They satisfy all the typical desires that a passenger requires information, satisfying the cartographic purpose.[25].
The power of cartography
La cartografía determina el poder de cada Estado. La ubicación, los tamaños y la forma en que cada Estado es representado, le otorga un poder que, aunque no explícito, se puede inducir en cada una de sus representaciones.
Mercator
This is one of the most important cartographic representations of the Earth's surface, and was very important for navigation in the 19th century. It helped, thanks to the axes provided by the meridians and parallels, so that ships could follow their routes more easily.
But we can also observe that at the center of that representation is the European continent. This representation gave this continent greater power, compared to others. Not only because of the actual size of its territories, which look larger than they really are, but also the position in which it is represented (the center).
"For this reason, cartography is presented as a mechanism that bridges distances, an instrument that serves the monarch to confront space and time, and which, therefore, had to be produced in the most reliable way possible."[26].
• - National cartographic agency.
• - Geodesy.
• - Cartographic projection.
• - Ancient world maps.
• - History of cartography.
• - Wiktionary has definitions and other information about cartography.
• - Cartesia. Archived May 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Articles, news and resources from the field of Geomatics and Cartography.
References
[1] ↑ Raisz, 1985, p. 5.
[2] ↑ Real Academia Española. «cartografía». Diccionario de la lengua española (23.ª edición). Consultado el 13 de marzo de 2015.: https://dle.rae.es/cartograf%C3%ADa
[4] ↑ [1] "A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past" by Robert Kunzig. Discover Magazine, May 1999.: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_5_20/ai_54432963
[5] ↑ [2] "A bird’s eye view - of a leopard’s spots. The Çatalhöyük ‘map’ and the development of cartographic representation in prehistory" by Stephanie Meece. Anatolian Studies, 56:1-16, 2006.: http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/195777
[22] ↑ Cencillo Ramírez, Marta (1992). «Convenciones pictóricas: Geometrización del espacio en el arte y la ciencia». Contextos (Centro de Estudios Metodológicos e Interdisciplinares de la Universidad de León): Pág. 349-362. Consultado el 4 de mayo de 2020.: http://www.revistacontextos.es/1992/014.-Marta.Cencillo.Ram%C3%ADrez.pdf
[23] ↑ Ardusso, Melina Luján (2 de enero de 2016). «Hollman, Verónica y Lois, Carla. Geografías. Imágenes e instrucción visual en la geografía escolar. Editorial Paidós, Buenos Aires. 2015». Praxis Educativa 20 (1): 73-75. ISSN 0328-9702. doi:10.19137/praxiseducativa-2016-200107. Consultado el 8 de diciembre de 2019.: https://dx.doi.org/10.19137/praxiseducativa-2016-200107
[25] ↑ Devlin, Keith.The Millennium Problems. Nueva York, New York: Basic Books, 2002. Páginas 162-163.
[26] ↑ Gómez Martín, Jorge Ángel (29 de abril de 2015). «LA CARTOGRAFÍA COMO INSTRUMENTO DE PODER EN LA ÉPOCA DE LOS REYES CATÓLICOS». Universidad de Valladolid. Consultado el 21 de mayo de 2021.: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5328325.pdf
El mapa conocido más antiguo es una cuestión polémica, porque la definición de mapa no es unívoca y porque para la creación de mapas se utilizaron diversos materiales. Existe una pintura mural, que puede representar la antigua ciudad de Çatalhöyük, en Anatolia (conocida previamente como Huyuk o Çatal Hüyük), datada en el VII milenio a. C.[4][5] Otros mapas conocidos del mundo antiguo incluyen a la civilización minoica: la «Casa del almirante» es una pintura mural datada en 1.600 a. C., en la que se observa una comunidad costera en perspectiva oblicua. También hay un mapa grabado de la Sagrada Ciudad de Babilonia "Babilonia (ciudad)") de Nippur, del período Kassita, (Siglo a. C. - Siglo a. C.)[6].
En la antigua Grecia y el Imperio romano se crearon mapas, como el de Anaximandro en el siglo a. C..[7] o el mapamundi de Claudio Ptolomeo, que es un mapa del mundo conocido (Ecúmene) por la sociedad occidental en el siglo d. C.. En el siglo , los eruditos árabes tradujeron los trabajos de los geógrafos griegos al árabe.[8].
En la antigua China, los códigos geográficos datan del siglo . Los mapas chinos más viejos son del Estado de Qin y se datan en el siglo , durante los Reinos Combatientes. En el libro del Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, publicado en 1092 por el científico chino Su Song, hay una carta astronómica") con una proyección cilíndrica similar a la actual y, al parecer, inventado por separado, a la Proyección de Mercator.[9][10] Aunque este método de cálculo parece haber existido en China incluso antes de esta publicación y, científicamente, el significado más grande de las Cartas astronómicas de Su Song, es que representan los mapas impresos existentes más antiguos conocidos.
Los primeros signos de la cartografía india incluyen pinturas legendarias; mapas de localizaciones descritas en epopeyas hindúes como el Rāmāyana.[11] Las tradiciones cartográficas hindúes también situaron la localización de la Estrella Polar, así como otras constelaciones.[12].
Mapamundi es el término general usado para describir a los mapas europeos del Mundo Medieval. Aproximadamente mil cien mapamundis sobrevivieron a la Edad Media. De estos novecientos son ilustraciones manuscritas y el resto existe como documentos independientes (Woodward, P. 286).
El geógrafo árabe Muhammad al-Idrisi elaboró su mapa, la Tabula Rogeriana, en 1154 incorporando el África conocida, el océano Índico y el Extremo Oriente conocido, compilando la información de los comerciantes y exploradores árabes y la heredada de los geógrafos clásicos para crear el mapa más exacto del mundo en su tiempo y durante los siguientes tres siglos.[13].
En la Era de los descubrimientos, del siglo al , los cartógrafos europeos copiaron mapas antiguos (algunos datados muchos siglos atrás) y dibujaron sus propios mapas basados en las observaciones de los exploradores aunque con nuevas técnicas. La invención de la brújula, el telescopio y el desarrollo de la agrimensura les dieron mayor exactitud. En 1492, Martin Behaim, un cartógrafo alemán, hizo el primer globo terráqueo, el Erdapfel.[14].
Johannes Werner estudió y perfeccionó los sistemas de proyección de los mapas, desarrollando la proyección cordiforme. En 1507, Martin Waldseemüller elaboró un globo del mundo y un gran mapamundi mural distribuido en 12 hojas (Universalis Cosmographia), siendo el primer mapa en aplicar el nombre de «América» a las tierras recién descubiertas por los europeos y el primero en presentar este continente separado del asiático. El cartógrafo portugués, Diego Ribero, fue el autor del primer planisferio conocido con un Ecuador terrestre graduado (1527). El cartógrafo italiano Bautista Agnese elaboró por lo menos 71 atlas manuscritos de las cartas marinas.
Debido a las dificultades inherentes en la cartografía, fabricantes de mapas copiaron con frecuencia el material de trabajos anteriores sin mencionar al cartógrafo original. Por ejemplo, uno de los mapas antiguos más famosos de Norteamérica, vulgarmente conocido como el “Mapa Castor”, publicado en 1715 de Herman Moll, es una reproducción exacta de un trabajo en 1698 de Nicolás De Fer. De Fer había copiado a su vez las imágenes impresas en libros de Louis Hennepin, publicados en 1697, y François Du Creux, en 1664. Por los años 1700, los fabricantes de mapas comenzaron a darle crédito al autor original imprimiendo la frase “Según [el cartógrafo original]”.[15].
Pre-Columbian cartography
In Mexico, cartography has its own characteristics. Although it is part of the context of Western cartographic thought, its origin is found in the forms of expression used by the ancient inhabitants of Mesoamerica to represent geographical knowledge.[16].
A reading of these mentions has allowed scholars to know that, indeed, the Mesoamerican indigenous people made maps with great technical skill and professionalism, and that they were relatively common in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica.
Most of the indigenous maps that have been preserved date from the 1st century, after the arrival of Europeans, and are influenced by their cartography. In fact, as we have already commented, the references we have to the maps made by the native Mexicans are descriptions made by the Spanish, that is, external considerations, made from the European point of view.[17].
We cannot know with certainty what pre-Columbian maps were like, we cannot even be sure of the way the natives understood the maps.
Based on all these factors (among others), scholars have managed to identify four categories of Mesoamerican maps, depending on their function and representation:
• - Maps that narrate historical events.
• - Maps representing properties, city plans, and possibly itineraries.
• - Cosmographic maps.
• - Celestial maps, showing the stars and constellations.[17].
Technological changes
The flat cards
They are those that are built assuming that the surface of the Earth is flat, so the course and distance are consistent with this. They were widely used in the Mediterranean until the beginning of the century.[18].
Changes in map production run parallel to changes in technology. The biggest leap occurred from the Middle Ages when instruments such as the quadrant "Quadrant (instrument)") and the compass were invented, which allow measuring the angles with respect to the polar star and the Sun. These instruments made it possible to determine latitude to finally capture it on maps.[19].
In so-called flat charts, the observed latitudes and magnetic directions are represented directly on the map, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were flat.
Later evolution
In cartography, technology has continually changed to meet the demands of new generations of map makers and map readers. The first maps were made manually with quills on parchment; therefore, they varied in quality and their distribution was very limited. The introduction of magnetic devices, such as the compass, allowed the creation of maps of different scales that were more accurate and easier to store and manipulate.
Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, the quadrant (instrument) and the vernier, used to enable mass production of maps and the ability to make more accurate reproductions of data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant, and other devices, allowed more accurate examination of the Earth and increased the ability of map makers and navigators to find its latitude by measuring angles with the North Star at night or at noon.
Advances in photochemical technology, such as lithographic and photomechanical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine detail, do not warp in shape, and are resistant to moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which in the future shortened the time it took to make and reproduce maps.
Advances in electronic technology in the century led to another revolution in cartography. The availability of advances in computing, hardware, and its peripherals, such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document), and analytical stereo plotters, together with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have contributed to what has been called neogeography, popularizing its knowledge and expanding map making.
The spatial ability to locate variables on existing maps, together with the creation of new applications for map management, have enabled the emergence of new industries exploring these potentials. The use of current techniques such as satellite photography has, in recent times, facilitated the creation of more precise cartographic maps. This has immediate consequences for other sciences and studies that depend on cartography for their development.
In addition, currently we can develop 3D maps using software intended for this, which takes the visualization of these maps one step further.[20].
Currently most commercial quality maps are made using software, which is grouped into three main types:.
• - Computer Aided Design (DAO).
• - Geographic Information System (GIS).
• - Specialized illustration software.
Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools increasingly lead to dynamic maps and interactive maps, which can be manipulated digitally.
Types of maps
General and thematic cartography
According to basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided or separated into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General Cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps display many references and location systems are often produced in series. For example, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) 1:24,000 scale topographic maps are a standard over 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The UK government produces the classic "Ordnance Survey" 1:63,360 (1 inch per mile) maps of the entire United Kingdom along with a range of larger, very small scale maps correlated in great detail.
Thematic Cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented towards specific audiences. A couple of examples might be the dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties, divided into numerical classes. While the volume of geographic data has evolved enormously over the last century, thematic mapping has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data.[21] For example, social networks are mapped georeferentially, maps are also made that show distance between people (in number of links or steps that separate them). The timeline can also be considered a map or chart. From its use in navigation, techniques have been perfected that are recovered to guide web navigation. In sociology and communication, the cartographer's job is also cited as a strategy to stay on track in a fluid world.
The orienteering sport map combines general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific user community. The most prominent thematic element is shaded, which indicates degrees of difficulty of the route due to the vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, being classified simply by the difficulty (“struggle”) that it presents.
Geometrization crossed a large part of the visual culture of modern sciences,[22] it affected the images themselves and also the ways of seeing. Man created methods that made phenomena that could not be known except through the sense of touch, taste or smell, now be visualized. This rationalization of the gaze rested on the productions of the classics of modernity, and the maps of modernity were not alien to that gaze, representing isomorphisms and proportionality, inventing a new geometry of geographical representations. This proportionality is what seeks to define the geographical miniature. The French philosopher Gaston Bachelard maintained that miniatures are objects lacking real psychological objectivity, and that miniaturizing the world implied possessing it.[23].
Topographic and topological
The topographic map is above all the topographic description of a place (provincial area, region, a country or the world), including (especially in the Century) the use of isolines to demonstrate the altimetry (hypsometry) or bathymetry of the relief. Land relief in cartography can be demonstrated in a variety of ways. These maps use colors, symbols and different types of lines for different types of landscapes and reliefs such as mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, depressions in the terrain and many more features. In addition, different types of signs that refer to man-made constructions are also usually added, such as: transportation routes, energy production areas or different types of crops.[24].
The topological map is a very general type of map or plane. It often neglects scale and detail in the interest of clarity of related information. The Caracas Metro map is an example. However, the map used preserves little of reality. It varies the scale constantly and precipitously, and the directions of the casual contours. The only important features of the map are the easy location of stations and crossings along tracks and whether a station or crossing is north or south of the Guaire River. They satisfy all the typical desires that a passenger requires information, satisfying the cartographic purpose.[25].
The power of cartography
La cartografía determina el poder de cada Estado. La ubicación, los tamaños y la forma en que cada Estado es representado, le otorga un poder que, aunque no explícito, se puede inducir en cada una de sus representaciones.
Mercator
This is one of the most important cartographic representations of the Earth's surface, and was very important for navigation in the 19th century. It helped, thanks to the axes provided by the meridians and parallels, so that ships could follow their routes more easily.
But we can also observe that at the center of that representation is the European continent. This representation gave this continent greater power, compared to others. Not only because of the actual size of its territories, which look larger than they really are, but also the position in which it is represented (the center).
"For this reason, cartography is presented as a mechanism that bridges distances, an instrument that serves the monarch to confront space and time, and which, therefore, had to be produced in the most reliable way possible."[26].
• - National cartographic agency.
• - Geodesy.
• - Cartographic projection.
• - Ancient world maps.
• - History of cartography.
• - Wiktionary has definitions and other information about cartography.
• - Cartesia. Archived May 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine. Articles, news and resources from the field of Geomatics and Cartography.
References
[1] ↑ Raisz, 1985, p. 5.
[2] ↑ Real Academia Española. «cartografía». Diccionario de la lengua española (23.ª edición). Consultado el 13 de marzo de 2015.: https://dle.rae.es/cartograf%C3%ADa
[4] ↑ [1] "A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past" by Robert Kunzig. Discover Magazine, May 1999.: http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_5_20/ai_54432963
[5] ↑ [2] "A bird’s eye view - of a leopard’s spots. The Çatalhöyük ‘map’ and the development of cartographic representation in prehistory" by Stephanie Meece. Anatolian Studies, 56:1-16, 2006.: http://www.dspace.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/195777
[22] ↑ Cencillo Ramírez, Marta (1992). «Convenciones pictóricas: Geometrización del espacio en el arte y la ciencia». Contextos (Centro de Estudios Metodológicos e Interdisciplinares de la Universidad de León): Pág. 349-362. Consultado el 4 de mayo de 2020.: http://www.revistacontextos.es/1992/014.-Marta.Cencillo.Ram%C3%ADrez.pdf
[23] ↑ Ardusso, Melina Luján (2 de enero de 2016). «Hollman, Verónica y Lois, Carla. Geografías. Imágenes e instrucción visual en la geografía escolar. Editorial Paidós, Buenos Aires. 2015». Praxis Educativa 20 (1): 73-75. ISSN 0328-9702. doi:10.19137/praxiseducativa-2016-200107. Consultado el 8 de diciembre de 2019.: https://dx.doi.org/10.19137/praxiseducativa-2016-200107
[25] ↑ Devlin, Keith.The Millennium Problems. Nueva York, New York: Basic Books, 2002. Páginas 162-163.
[26] ↑ Gómez Martín, Jorge Ángel (29 de abril de 2015). «LA CARTOGRAFÍA COMO INSTRUMENTO DE PODER EN LA ÉPOCA DE LOS REYES CATÓLICOS». Universidad de Valladolid. Consultado el 21 de mayo de 2021.: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5328325.pdf