Review of historical medinas | Construpedia

Review of historical medinas

Introduction

Almería is a Spanish city and municipality, capital of the homonymous province, in the autonomous community of Andalusia. It is the nerve center of the Metropolitan Region of Almería, in the southeastern corner of the Iberian Peninsula and of the tourist region of Almería-Cabo de Gata-Níjar.[4] It is surrounded to the west by the Gádor mountain range, to the north by the Alhamilla mountain range and to the east by the valley and delta of the Andarax river and, beyond, a plain that culminates in the Cabo de Gata mountain range. To the south, its port and coastline open onto a wide bay over the Mediterranean Sea.[5].

It is the headquarters of judicial district No. 1 of the province and of the diocese that bears its name.[6][7] In 2005 it hosted the XV Mediterranean Games.[8].

It was founded in the year 955 by Abd al-Rahman III in a location previously dominated by other cities such as the Iberian Urci or the Roman Portus Magnus "Portus Magnus (Almería)") and played a fundamental role during the Caliphate of Córdoba, becoming the most important port in the Umayyad al-Andalus. It reached its maximum splendor during the taifa, in the 19th century, becoming a commercial and cultural emporium under the reign of Almotacín and later as part of the Kingdom of Granada.

After its incorporation into the Crown of Castile in 1489, the population was decimated by earthquakes, plagues and pirate raids. The recovery was not evident until the end of the century, with the resurgence of mining and the export of the Ohanes grape, and again from the 1960s, thanks to the explosion of intensive agriculture, tourism, construction and the marble industry.[9].

Among its historical-artistic heritage, it is worth highlighting the Muslim Alcazaba (1st century), the cathedral-fortress of La Encarnación (20th century), the mineral loading dock or Cable Inglés (end of the century), and the Museum of Almería, reopened in 2006.[10]

With a population of 203,741 inhabitants in January 2024, according to the municipal register,[11] it is a municipality of growing relevance in the economic, cultural and sports fields, and an important communications hub thanks to its port and remodeled international airport. It is one of the thirty most populated towns in Spain, the 19th most populated provincial capital.

Urban plans are currently being developed that will change the appearance of the city. On the one hand, the necessary infrastructure is being built for the rail connection with High Speed trains (AVE), with unique works such as the rehabilitation of the old train station and its subsequent integration with the new intermodal station, and on the other hand, plans for the integration of the port in the city are being developed, the drafting of which falls to the Bahía Almeriport Foundation.

Review of historical medinas

Introduction

It is the headquarters of judicial district No. 1 of the province and of the diocese that bears its name.[6][7] In 2005 it hosted the XV Mediterranean Games.[8].

Place names

Contenido

Si bien en su día el Movimiento Indaliano quiso traducir el topónimo árabe andalusí المرية (al-Mariyya) como «espejo del mar»[13] (interpretación dada ya en el siglo por Pascual Madoz, quien en su Diccionario geográfico propone la etimología Meria al-Bahri),[14] lo más probable es que la denominación árabe provenga de al-Miraya, y este de مَرَايَا (marāyā) «espejo», pues مرأى (mara'ā) significa «ver». Su nombre, cuando se fundó en 955 d. C. era al-Mariyyāt Baŷŷāna, referencia a una atalaya costera construida para defender a la antigua ciudad de Baŷŷāna "Pechina (Almería)") (actual Pechina, a orillas del bajo Andarax).[15] Que la atalaya se llamara al-Mariyyāt no significa que dicho término significara «torre vigía», pues la forma al-Mariyyāt es mucho más cercana al árabe al-Marāyyāt, «espejo», que a una forma como al-Mara'āt, «ver», «visión», «vigía». En cualquier caso, aunque ambas formas derivan de la misma raíz ر ء ي (r-ʾ-y) del verbo رَأَى (raʾā) «ver», no existe en el árabe clásico ninguna forma como al-Mariyyā o al-Mariyyāt con el significado de torre vigía o atalaya.

En los años 2010 se propuso una nueva posibilidad, el profesor Federico Corriente afirmó que la traducción del vocablo andalusí Almariyya sería «novia desvelada», aunque esta teoría no ha ganado popularidad.[16].

Exonyms

Although in most foreign languages, the spelling and pronunciation of Almería remain the same, overcoming the differences in languages with an alphabet different from the local one, in French the city has historically been called Almérie.[17].

homonymous cities

• - Almería "Almería (Biliran)"), a municipality in the province of Bilirán, Philippines.

• - Almeria "Almeria (Alabama)"), an unincorporated community in the state of Alabama, United States.

• - Almeria "Almeria (Nebraska)"), an unincorporated community in the state of Nebraska, United States.

Symbols

Flag

The origin of its flag dates back to 1147, the year in which the army of King Alfonso VII, allied, among others, with the then independent state of Genoa, conquered the city for the sake of the crusade declared by Pope Eugene III and adopted the Genoese banner, a cross of Saint George (Greek cross in gules on a silver field) as its symbol.[18]

By decree of the Ministry of Government and Justice of the Junta de Andalucía in 1997, it was described as follows:[19].

Shield

Its coat of arms was registered in the Andalusian Registry of Local Entities by resolution of the Ministry of Government and Justice of the Government of Andalusia on January 25, 2005. In it, however, a description is formulated that does not correspond to the rules of the coat of arms and a dubious correspondence is attributed to some of the armories represented:[20].

Francisco Piferrer attributes the following coat of arms in 1860: "The arms of the province and the city of Almería are quartered by a plain cross of gules and borders of castles, lions and alternating grenades."[21].

Other symbols

Its official anthem, adopted by the Almería City Council in 1946, consists of the poem Almería, written by José María Álvarez de Sotomayor and musically adapted by the composer José Padilla.[18] The popular Fandanguillo de Almería, by the composer Gaspar Vivas, which can be heard on the carillon of the town hall, can also be considered the unofficial anthem of the capital.

Another of its recognized symbols is the indalo, a Neolithic cave painting found in the Los Letreros cave, in the current Sierra de María-Los Vélez natural park. He was considered a protective idol in towns like Mojácar until the tourist boom made him a symbol of the entire province and by extension of its capital. It appears, for example, on the coat of arms of the Unión Deportiva Almería.[22] It is also worth mentioning the Sol de Portocarrero, a high relief that represents an anthropomorphic sun surrounded by garlands and which appears sculpted on the front of the funerary chapel of Bishop Diego Fernández de Villalán, in the cathedral of Almería. It is visible, for example, in the shield of the University of Almería.[18].

Geography

El término municipal abarca una extensión de 296,21 km².[23] Está situado en el sur de la provincia homónima, la cual ocupa el extremo oriental de Andalucía, que a su vez se corresponde con la esquina sureste de la península ibérica. Queda representado en las hojas MTN50 (escala 1:50 000) n.º 1044, 1045, 1058 y 1059 del Mapa Topográfico Nacional.[24].

Es la única ciudad transcontinental de España, al estar geográficamente situada en Europa y África, debido a que la Isla de Alborán pertenece al continente africano.[25].

Geology

Within its territorial domain, two different geological units are distinguished: on the one hand, the Gádor, Alhamilla and Cabo de Gata mountain ranges, which correspond to the Alpujárride complex framed in the so-called internal zones of the Betic mountain ranges; on the other, the low areas of the term, which are part of the Neogene basins of Almería-Bajo Andarax to the west and Níjar-Carboneras to the east.

The Alpujárride complex is made up of a series of allochthonous units "Allochthonous (geology)") whose upper facies corresponds to the Gádor unit, composed of Paleozoic schists and quartzites. In the vicinity of the city, the limestone outcrops that reach heights of up to 500 m in certain areas stand out. sedimentary.[27].

The depressions have a base composed of Miocene sediments of marine origin, among which the conglomerates "Conglomerate (geology)") stand out and on which turbidity formations of Miocene origin appear, also composed of conglomerates of marl and sandstone, and Pliocene conglomerates, calcarenites and calcisiltites.[28] The most superficial strata are Quaternary alluvial deposits of little power.[29].

The area is a contact point of the Iberian and Alboran microplates and its tectonic movements are still active. The Carboneras fault was formed during the Neogene due to the pressure exerted by the Alborán fault, which in turn was displaced by the African plate. This fault crosses the Sierra de Carboneras and enters the Gulf of Almería in a northeast-southwest direction, about 50 km on land and 100 km under the sea. It is a tear plate, whose movements are recorded horizontally, although vertical movements can also occur.[30] The seismic movements in the area, very common, are mainly due to the aforementioned Carboneras fault and those of Alhama de Murcia and Palomares, which are further away from the city. This set of faults is called the "Trans-Alboran shear system", it began its activity during the Miocene and extends northeastward to Alicante, where it joins the Norbetic fault.[31].

Orography

The city of Almería occupies the alluvial coastal plain that makes up the delta of the Andarax River, between the Mediterranean Sea, the foothills of the Gádor mountain range and the right bank of that river. The rest of the municipal area extends over the low plain of the river and the plains to the east of it, which extend to the foothills of the Cabo de Gata mountain range to the east and the Sierra Alhamilla mountains to the north and northeast. The complex is therefore included in the southeastern foothills of the Penibetic mountain range.

The urban center rises 16 m above sea level, although there are higher points in the city, such as the Alcazaba hill (86 m) or the Torrecárdenas hill (140 m). Likewise, in the rest of the term, points of higher altitude can be found in the foothills of the Sierra de Gádor (above 600 m altitude) or in Sierra Alhamilla, up to a maximum of 1,387 m altitude on the Colativí peak, on the border with Turrillas.[1][5].

Hydrography

The entire municipality falls within the Andalusian Mediterranean basin.[32] As in the rest of the province, and due to the Mediterranean and subdesert climate, hydrographic features are reduced to the characteristic boulevards "Rambla (Geomorphology)"). In them, the flow usually disappears underground for a good part of the course to, on occasion, reappear at the mouths creating wetlands, as is the case of the Andarax River or the Morales Rambla.[33] In addition, the waters from the strong avenues of the Andarax are used through a system of inlets for agricultural use in its plain.

The city of Almería is limited to the east by the Andarax River and is crossed by four main channels, the Belén Rambla and three tributaries or sub-tributaries of it: the Obispo Orberá Rambla, the Alfareros Rambla and the Amatisteros Rambla. The first was channeled in 1897 after the floods of 1891, and throughout the century all of them have been buried, giving their names to several urban roads in the capital.[34] Around 1992, a series of dams were built to control the flow of these boulevards in case of torrential rains.

Other channels in the municipal area are those that, descending from Sierra Alhamilla, flow into the Gulf of Almería, such as the Rambla de la Sepultura, the Puente de la Quebrada or the Boquera de la Jaca, in addition to the already mentioned Rambla Morales.

Coast

The coastline of the municipal area, framed entirely within the Gulf of Almería, extends just over 35 kilometers, of which just under six correspond to the city itself. It is mostly made up of low, sandy beaches, a product of the alluvial activity of the Andarax River and the "Rambla (Geomorphology)" boulevards that descend from Sierra Alhamilla.[35] There are, however, high cliffs in the area closest to the Sierra de Gádor.

In total there are 16 beaches of various sizes and occupancy rates depending on their characteristics and environment. Those with the highest occupancy are those located in the city (San Miguel, Zapillo and Ciudad Luminosa). The three located to the west have hardly any occupancy and are of low quality due to their environment, access, size and services. Towards the east there are others (Bobar or La Cañada, Costacabana, Perdigal, Retamar, Torregarcía, Amoladeras, del Charco, Cabo de Gata), some located in the Cabo de Gata-Níjar natural park, which have special environmental protection.[36].

It should be noted that the island of Alborán, located in the sea of the same name, halfway between the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa, administratively belongs to the municipality of Almería.

Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification, the climate of the city of Almería is hot arid (BWh).[37] However, due to the large extension of the municipal area of Almería, there are also four other types of climate. Firstly, there is the warm arid climate (BWh) in the coastal area and the steppe plain. In addition, there is a cold semi-arid climate (BSk) in the mid-altitude areas of the municipality and a Mediterranean climate (Csa) in the higher altitude areas, except for the highest areas of the Sierra Alhamilla belonging to the municipality, which have a Mediterranean oceanic climate (Csb).[37][38] With an annual precipitation of 197.5 mm, Almería is positioned as the driest city in Europe. continental[39][40] and one of the driest in the Mediterranean Basin. Precipitation is very scarce (25 days on average per year), and there is little monthly thermal amplitude; Temperatures range between 17°C and 9°C in January and 31°C and 23°C in August. The temperature rarely rises above 40 °C due to the hot air masses coming from the Sahara, although it is quite uncommon to exceed this temperature. The maximum temperature recorded occurred on July 6, 2019 during a warm blowout "Blowout (meteorology)"), an event that lasted just half an hour.[41][42] Winters are very mild and summers are hot. Almería is the only city in continental Europe that has never recorded frost, since the minimum recorded is +0.1 °C.[43].

With an average of 2,994 hours of sunshine and 108 completely clear days per year, it is one of the sunniest cities in Europe.[44] The average annual temperature is 19.2 °C. The temperature of its waters in the winter months (about 17 °C) is the same as that of the air (17 °C).[45] The average humidity is 65%, with an average of 26 days of rain per year, with December being the rainiest month. This results in an average rainfall of 197.5 mm, one of the lowest in Spain (the lowest in the Iberian Peninsula) and the lowest in Europe. Torrential rains have occasionally occurred, with catastrophic floods being documented in 1879 and 1891.[46].

At a climatic level, its low-lying and coastal areas enjoy a non-Mediterranean, desert or Mediterranean-Iranian climate, characterized by the absence of frost and rainfall so scarce that it could technically be referred to as an arid desert. Between 400 and 800, the thermo-Mediterranean or warm or dry Mediterranean runs, where rainfall remains scarce but sufficient to maintain trees. Next, between 800 and 1200, the mesomediterranean or middle or typical Mediterranean reigns, in which the vegetation corresponds to Mediterranean forest of holm oaks, hackberries and broom.[47].

The State Meteorological Agency (AEMET) also recorded at the Almería meteorological station, located in Ciudad Jardín "Ciudad Jardín (Almería)")[51] the following extreme values, which differ slightly from those recorded at the meteorological station at the city's airport.[52].

Flora

Throughout its municipal extension there are different types of subdesert ecosystems, distinguishing mountainous areas, steppe plains, boulevards, salt marshes and lagoons.

Because it is a relatively important urban center and its municipal area is extensive and varied, it is worth distinguishing between the flora of the city, that of urban and peri-urban parks and that of rural areas.

In urban parks, non-native species stand out, with trees of the genera Albizia and Jacaranda or moraceae of the genus Ficus (such as the great Ficus macrophylla on Paseo de Almería), mostly from America. There are also palm trees such as Phoenix dactylifera, from Africa and generally resistant to pollution (for example, those that populate the Nicolás Salmerón park). The peninsular elm coexists with these species. Sometimes specimens of native flora appear, such as the Cartagena cypress (Tetraclinis articulata), which can be seen in Torrecárdenas, or the dragoncillo (Antirrhinum hispanicum), a rock plant characteristic of the Gádor mountain range and which in the city grows on the walls of old buildings, such as the cathedral.[53].

Outside the urban area, among the scarce tree-like flora, various species of pines (Pinus spp.), holm oaks (Quercus ilex) and carob trees (Ceratonia siliqua) can be mentioned, as well as hackberries (Celtis australis) and moraceae such as the fig tree (Ficus carica) or the mulberry tree (Morus alba).[53].

Among the rustic non-arboreal flora, there are, on the one hand, exotic species such as the agave or pita (Agave Americana), the Moorish tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) (from northwestern Argentina) and the common cane (Arundo donax, Asian). On the other hand, local species include the broom (Retama sphaerocarpa L.) and various Almerian, peninsular or Ibero-North African endemisms, predominating shrubs and herbaceous plants such as the Almeria white jarilla (Helianthemum almeriense), the jujube (Ziziphus lotus) or endangered species, such as the wolf chumberillo (Caralluma europaea), which can be found from Castell del Rey to the Cabo de Gata mountain range. The group of psammophilous plants that grows from Torregarcía beach to Cabo de Gata is of great importance, such as those of the genus Ononis, the sea lily (Pancratium maritimum) or the sea daisy (Asteriscus maritimus). A large set of this exotic and local flora is found in the Boticario park, in the Venta Gaspar neighborhood.[53].

Under its sea, seagrass grows such as posidonia (), in colonies of relative importance, and seba ().[53].

Fauna

Most of the species inhabit the nearby Cabo de Gata-Níjar natural park, highlighting among them the little ringed plover (Charadrius dubius), the bastard nightingale (Cettia cetti), the common warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus), the whooping sparrow (Petronia petronia), the viper snake (Natrix maura), the leprous pond turtle. (Mauremys caspica), the natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) and the common frog (Rana ridibunda). There are also different species of steppe birds such as the little bustard (Tetrax tetrax), the ortega (Pterocles alchata), the curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus), the common blackbird (Calandrella brachydactyla) and the salt marsh lark (C. rufescens), in addition to one of the two endemic birds of the park: the ricotí lark. Dupont (Chersophilus duponti),[54] the Moorish tortoise (Testudo graeca) or the black vulture (Aegypius monachus).[55] Within the city, in the La Hoya ravine and behind the Alcazaba, is located the [[

“La Hoya” Experimental Farm

rescue arch of Saharan Fauna]], where species from Western Sahara, in danger of extinction, are raised and studied. Among other species are: the lady's gazelle (Gazella dama mhorr), the Cuvier's gazelle (G. cuvieri), the Dorcas gazelle (G. dorcas neglecta), the ruí (Ammotragus lervia).

Other species of note in Almería are the chapa snail (Iberus gualtieranus gualtieranus) classified as a vulnerable species, the limpet (Patella ferruginea) classified as in danger of extinction or the nacra (Pinna nobilis) endemic to the Mediterranean and also in danger of extinction.

Pollution

The low industrial concentration contributes to the municipal area having a low level of environmental pollution. The Department of the Environment of the Regional Government of Andalusia carried out a study in 2006 according to which pollution levels do not exceed the limits established by the European Union.[56] However, according to the same Department, in 2009 the permitted level of PM10 was exceeded due mainly to the emissions produced by the vehicle fleet.[57] In addition, especially in the summer, there is a high concentration of particles in the air due to the scarcity of precipitations, strong winds, arid terrain and dust storms from Africa.[56] Another pollutant that affects it due to high temperatures is tropospheric ozone,[56] which in high concentrations can be harmful to health.[58] Its concentration is usually very high during spring and summer, although the values recorded during the study carried out in 2006 do not reach alert levels.[56] On the other hand, soil contamination due to arsenic is quite alarming, as concentrations higher than 21 mg/kg have been found, which, although the majority comes from natural origin, is an important carcinogenic agent. It is difficult to find such high concentrations in other Spanish provinces.[59].

Noise pollution, for its part, originates mainly from road traffic. The presence of large traffic routes, mainly the Mediterranean Highway (A-7), the N-340 or the N-344 causes noise levels higher than 55 dB to a high percentage of the Almeria population.[60].

Light pollution is a reality that the city council begins to fight against by installing streetlights that project light towards the ground, whose operation is regulated by the incidence of sunlight.[61] This is a worrying issue, since the Calar Alto observatory has found that the increasingly lower visibility makes research difficult for this reason.[62].

Natural risks

The municipality of Almería has a territorial local emergency plan that complies with Law 5/2010 on local autonomy.[63].

History

Prehistory and Antiquity

It is estimated that the first human settlement in the area must have been located on the Alcazaba hill. The archaeologist Juan Cuadrado&action=edit&redlink=1 "Juan Cuadrado (archaeologist) (not yet written)") spoke at the time about Neolithic remains, with the oldest and most documented finds dating back to the Middle Paleolithic. There are also later Phoenician remains.[64].

From its Roman period, on the other hand, there are numerous ceramic remains found in various excavations, giving the possibility that a permanent population existed in the area today occupied by the city before its founding in 955 and which show a certain fishing and commercial importance. There would thus have existed a small maritime population dependent on the Iberian settlement of Urci or Urke, already referenced by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History[65] and later by Pomponio Mela or Claudius Ptolemy. Almería was occupied by Rome during Scipio Africanus' campaign against the Carthaginians at the end of the century BC. C., receiving the name of Portus Magnus "Portus Magnus (Almería)"). The settlement was located in Hispania Ulterior, becoming one of the most important ports in southern Hispania, famous among merchants from Latium. During this period, trade with the rest of the Mediterranean was strengthened, especially that of garum, with remains of salt and salting facilities, as well as fishing tools and amphorae, being found on the seafront of the capital and on Torregarcía beach.[66][67][68].

Over the centuries, the occupation of the Alcazaba hill by vandals and Visigoths intensified. The Byzantines, who during the century took Urci and other enclaves in the southeast of the peninsula, apparently continued with this trend. They maintained power over the latter until their expulsion in the 600s, although other sources affirm that the definitive conquest of this settlement was after the year 621, with Suintila already reigning. During their brief presence, the Byzantines dug a well in the current perimeter of the Muslim fortress.[69].

Middle Ages

The first news about the Muslim presence in this place dates back to the century or beginning of the century, when Abd al-Rahman I entrusted the surveillance of the coast to the Yemeni clan of the Abencerrajes to prevent the landing of the Normans. In collaboration with the native population, a population center was founded with the name of Baŷŷāna, the current Pechina "Pechina (Almería)"), capital of its cora "Cora (territorial division)"), which grew in size and became an authentic maritime republic. Almería would be born during the first half of the century as its maritime neighborhood, receiving the name al-Mariyyāt Bajŷjāna ("the watchtower of Pechina"). It was in effect an anchorage defended by a watchtower and inhabited by merchants and fishermen, which would coincide with the Roman Portus Magnus in its advantageous position in the center of the bay and under the current Alcazaba hill.[66].

After defeating Mozarabic rebels and repelling a Fatimid attack against Bayyana, Abd al-Rahman III decided to move the capital of the Cora, and thus al-Mariyyāt Bajŷŷāna received the title of city in , the year in which they also began to build the wall "Califal Wall (Almería)") and the citadel, which would become, with its 4.3 hectares, the second largest Muslim fortress in al-Andalus.[70].

During this time it was consecrated as a city with a caliphal plan with three distinct neighborhoods: a walled central core, the Almedina, where the main mosque or aljama (built in 965), the alcaicería, the shipyards and the souk were concentrated, and two peripheral neighborhoods, the Musalla and the Aljibe. At this time, Almería became the most important and cosmopolitan port in al-Andalus, base of the Umayyad fleet and gateway to the East and North Africa. Silk was the most exported product and they were famous for the excellent quality and great variety of the fabrics made on their more than 10,000 looms, so after Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain"), it became the most influential and prosperous of the caliphate. Also being integrated into the political and economic dynamics of Muslim piracy was decisive in its accelerated evolution.[71].

With its disintegration after the death of Hixem II, Jairan became the first king of the taifa of Almería, highlighting among his achievements the expansion and reinforcement of the citadel. The greatest splendor was achieved with his successor Almotacín, a poet king who knew how to maintain the economic emporium while enlightening his court with writers and scientists.[66].

Despite everything, it could not resist the invasion of the Almoravids, after which, however, it continued to be an emporium coveted by Christians. The conquest "Conquest of Almería (1147)") by the Aragonese, Catalan, Genoese, Pisan and Castilian troops, commanded by Alfonso VII, took place in 1147, remaining under Christian control until the Almohads reconquered it a decade later. This brief occupation meant the definitive truncation of its military and commercial splendor.[72].

After the disappearance of the Almohad Empire in the 19th century, the Nasrid period began, characterized by continuous internal struggles. The precarious situation was aggravated by the drought that began in 1227, which seriously destabilized agriculture and commerce. Under the mandate of Abbu-l-Abbas"), governor of the Kingdom of Granada, an attempt was made to rebuild it, without much success.

In 1309, according to the chronicles, James II of Aragon besieged it "Sitio de Almería (1309)") for more than nine months, until reaching an agreement with the king of Granada.[73].

Finally, after the campaigns of 1488 and 1489, the territory of Almería passed to Castilian sovereignty and on December 23 of the same year its capitulation to the Catholic Monarchs took place,[66] although today December 26 is remembered as the day the Castilian flag flew for the first time.

Modern Age

After the Christian takeover, the need to improve its defensive infrastructure became evident, as it was badly damaged by the earthquake that hit it in 1487 and by the internal disputes of the last period of the Kingdom of Granada. Likewise, it was necessary to adapt it to the new defensive techniques imposed by the development of artillery, so they made improvements to the second enclosure and built a third in the Alcazaba.[74].

During the century it was characterized by the abandonment of its inhabitants, a fact that caused a setback that ended up spreading to the rest of the province.[67] In 1522, a new earthquake occurred that caused great damage: the Jewish quarter and the areas located between the Alcazaba, the main mosque, the port and the La Chanca rambla, were destroyed.[9] At the same time, as its maritime infrastructures had been destroyed, it was destroyed. separated from the American trade routes and suffered serious economic consequences while watching the riches from New Spain and the activity they brought with them pass by.[67] Later, during that same century, the Moorish uprising occurred in the Alpujarra and it was successfully defended from the attack of the rebellious Moors in 1567 by García de Villarroel.[9].

After the earthquake, it grew towards the east and the construction of the new cathedral began on the outskirts of the old city, giving rise to the birth of the future Almería and sealing the conventual character of the new Christian city. (the port, however, was not rebuilt until three centuries later). Around the walled enclosure it was consolidated until reaching what is today the Purchena gate and the current promenade. The current Plaza de la Constitución "Plaza de la Constitución (Almería)") was built as a recreational place (then known as Plaza del Juego de Cañas), where the town hall was located in 1656, a time when various temples and convents were built, such as those of San Francisco, Santo Domingo and La Trinidad. None of them remain standing today, although others, such as the Puras or the Claras "Convento de las Claras (Almería)") have survived.[75] The city suffered a new earthquake") on New Year's Eve in 1658.

At the beginning of the century, socioeconomic conditions began to improve and the danger of the Barbary pirates disappeared, at which time agriculture was reborn and maritime trade was reactivated. Fishing techniques were perfected and mining exploitation emerged, which brought so much splendor during the century. Consequently, a process of intramural and extramural densification began, new neighborhoods emerging around its old access roads, which ended up being converted into streets. Among them, Las Cruces stands out, which flanked the current Granada street (coinciding with the current Alfareros neighborhood and bullring), the Nuevo neighborhood, close to the Belén rambla, or Las Almadrabillas, at the mouth of the homonymous rambla, inhabited mainly by fishing families.[76].

Contemporary Age

The slow recovery that began in the previous two centuries was confirmed in the century, producing at the end of the century a second silver age that had its origin in the opening of trade, together with the growth of mining and agriculture that began in the first decades of the century.

During the War of Independence, he played an important role. The French troops occupied it commanded by General Godinot, who assaulted it on March 15, 1810. The guerrillas Mena, Villalobos and Aróstegui offered resistance. In 1812 the French withdrew after being defeated in the Battle of the Arapiles.[67] In 1814 Ferdinand VII returned to power and with him came absolutism and the repeal of the Cortes of Cádiz of 1812. In this context, the Coloraos massacre took place, which occurred in 1824, when a group of liberal soldiers from Gibraltar, nicknamed that Due to the tone of their jackets, they disembarked with the intention of proclaiming freedom and restoring the existing Constitution, an attempt that resulted in failure and 22 of them were shot. Years later, a monument was erected in the Plaza de la Constitución "Plaza de la Constitución (Almería)") in honor of these fallen.[77] From 1824 to 1826, Narciso Heredia, the Count of Ofalia, a Spanish diplomat and politician who ceased his position as Minister of State, was exiled in Almería, whose father was the 1st Count of Heredia-Spínola, the general administrator of Royal Revenues of the province.

During the reign of Isabel II, the liberal regime was established in Spain. In 1833 the city became the capital of the newly created province of Almería, separating itself from the Kingdom of Granada "Kingdom of Granada (Crown of Castile)").[9] This fact, together with the economic recovery, gave rise to an important urban transformation that began with the Confiscation of Mendizábal (1836) in which many convents disappeared that, together with their orchards, occupied a large space within the walled enclosure and continued in 1855 with the demolition of the walls that made urban expansion to the east possible. During this expansion, new streets emerged such as Paseo de Almería or Puerta de Purchena.[78] The queen and her husband visited the city of Almería on October 20, 1862, along with other Andalusian and Murcian cities. On July 30, 1873, the city was bombed by the frigates Almansa "Almansa (1864)") and Vitoria "Vitoria (1867)"), coming from the canton of Cartagena.

Since the cholera epidemic of 1885, measures began to be taken to guarantee a supply of quality drinking water to the city. A project by Enrique López Rull and Trinidad Cuartara, which would carry water from the Alhadra area through a newly excavated tunnel to the Santa Isabel reservoirs), still in service and which, given the inability of the administration of the time to cover the costs, granted the service at public auction to the brother of the first of the architects, Guillermo.[79].

Population

Population centers

In addition to the city of Almería, within the municipal area there are seventeen other population entities according to the nomenclature published by the National Institute of Statistics "National Institute of Statistics (Spain)"): El Alquián, El Bobar, Cabo de Gata, La Cañada de San Urbano, Castell del Rey, Costacabana, Cuevas de los Medinas, Cuevas de los Úbedas, La Garrofa, Loma Cabrera, El Mamí, Mazarrulleque, Rambla de Morales, Retamar "Retamar (Almería)"), Pujaire, Ruescas and Venta Gaspar.[90].

To them we should add the island of Alborán, assigned to the 3rd district of the city of Almería, corresponding to the Pescadería neighborhood, by virtue of a Royal Order issued by Alfonso

Demography

Almería has a population of (INE "National Institute of Statistics (Spain)") 2025).

Almería is the most populated municipality in the province of the same name. It is worth highlighting its role as the nerve center of the metropolitan area of Almería and as one of the poles of the conurbation that would include said area and those of El Ejido "El Ejido (Almería)") and Roquetas de Mar, to which the municipalities of Vícar, La Mojonera "La Mojonera (Almería)") and Enix "Enix (Almería)") could be added.[97].

The population pyramid is typical of the modern demographic regime, with an evolution towards the aging of the population and the decrease in annual birth rates.[98].

Town planning

During the Muslim era it was divided into three neighborhoods: Almedina, Rabad-al-Hawd or Aljibe and Musalla. This was its configuration until an earthquake in 1522 largely destroyed it. Consequently, the Christian settlers who had already begun the symbolic appropriation of the Islamic space, rebuilt it in accordance with the new strategies of power.[99] The Almedina neighborhood disappeared almost completely and only a few houses were left lined up next to the main street, among them the town hall building and the church of San Juan "Iglesia de San Juan Evangelista (Almería)"). In the past it was concentrated around two main roads, Calle Real and Calle de las Tiendas.[100].

Its most important expansion began at the beginning of the century with the construction of the Nuevo neighborhood, between the Rambla de Alfareros and the Camino de Granada, and the repopulation of Almedina. Later, with the demolition of the walls and the layout of the promenade, modern Almería was born and the construction of the expansions began, which was materialized at the beginning of the century in the General Plan of Expansions.[10] This contemplated a preliminary project for expansion to the east and three large roads that would cross the historic center, projects that were endorsed two years later by the new municipal ordinances. In the 1940s, the Prieto Moreno Plan ordered the future expansion, zoned the land for pertinent actions and proposed interventions in the historic center.[101].

The rest of the dictatorship brought with it a period of urban recession due to the economic slowdown. The General Plan of 1973, in addition to legalizing the previous situation, timidly tried to restrict the density of buildings and land occupation. In 1987, the new General Urban Planning Plan was approved, which tried to be more respectful of the historic center. In this sense, emblematic rehabilitations were proposed, among which the promenade and the Belén boulevard stand out. Currently, the revision of the General Urban Planning Plan has been definitively approved, which includes regulations for the protection of the historical complex.[100].

Administration and politics

Provincial institutions

Almería is the capital of the province of the same name and therefore it is there where all the administrative entities at the provincial level are located, both dependent on the regional and state governments. The Government of Spain has the Government subdelegation in Almería, dependent on the Government delegate in the autonomous community, with headquarters in Seville. The subdelegation coordinates the operation of the state institutions in the province.[102] On the part of the Junta de Andalucía there is a provincial delegation from each of the Government ministries, coordinated by a Government delegate dependent on the Ministry of the Interior.[103] It is also worth mentioning the Provincial Council, dedicated mainly to supporting the governability of the municipalities of the province.[104] In the area ecclesiastical is the diocese of Almería, suffragan of the archdiocese of Granada. The diocese runs a diocesan seminary.[7] In addition, and as a consequence of its capital status, many social organizations, public organizations and private companies have their provincial headquarters located here.

Municipal government

The headquarters of the Almería City Council is located in the Plaza de la Constitución, and the corporation is made up of twenty-seven councilors.

The municipal plenary session constitutes the body of maximum political representation of citizens in the municipal government. Among other powers, it executes the approval of municipal ordinances, municipal budgets, urban planning plans and the control and supervision of government bodies. The plenary session is convened and chaired by the mayor and is made up of the twenty-seven councilors of the city council. Ordinary sessions are held twice a month in the plenary hall of the town hall.[107].

Municipal executive management is organized into thirteen government areas or council departments, headed by a councilor from the government team. Each government area has several delegations depending on the powers assigned to it, which vary from one municipal government to another.[108] The current municipal government has the following government areas: Mayor's Office, Social Care, Culture and Education, Sports, Employment and Tourism, Finance, Maintenance and Environment, Public Works and Agriculture, Citizen Participation, Citizen Protection and Traffic, Human Resources, Urban Services and Urban Planning.[109].

Territorial organization

The city council divides its municipal area into four districts that are in turn made up of neighborhoods:[110][111].

Note: There is a part of the Los Molinos neighborhood that belongs to the North district and another to the south.

Services

Education

Early childhood education "Childhood Education (Spain)"), Primary and Compulsory Secondary Education "Compulsory Secondary Education (Spain)"), as well as Baccalaureate and Vocational Training, are taught in a wide network of public, private and subsidized centers that guarantee the schooling of all children and young people in these training stages.[112].

Almería has a university center, the University of Almería (UAL). Founded in 1993, in the 2009-2010 academic year it had about 12,300 students and just under 1,000 teachers.[113] It is located about 4.5 km from the capital on the A-3202 highway, in La Cañada de San Urbano, on the shores of the Mediterranean. There is communication through bus lines 11, 12 and 18 (Surbus) and there are plans to implement a tram line. It has six faculties (Law, Psychology, Humanities, Educational Sciences, Economic and Business Sciences and Experimental Sciences), two university schools (the Higher Polytechnic School and the University School of Health Sciences), and an attached center (the School of Labor Relations).[114].

Health

The health system of Almería is made up of public benefits managed by the Andalusian Health Service (SAS), and those of private medicine, through private consultations or private mutual benefits such as Sanitas, Asisa"), Adeslas") or Caser. The Andalusian Health Law 2/1998 divides health care into primary and specialized.[115] For primary health care, there are a total of 12 health centers and 11 clinics scattered throughout the city and urban centers.[116].

The city of Almería provides three public hospitals: Torrecárdenas, inaugurated in 1983 as a specialty hospital and general hospital for the region and which in 2008 had 821 beds and served a population of 336,000 inhabitants[117] and the high-resolution hospital of El Toyo, which has 44 beds. Until 1985, its only public hospitals were the Provincial Hospital, whose origin dates back to the 19th century, and the Residencia Sanitaria Virgen del Mar, popularly known as Bola Azul, inaugurated in 1950 and converted into a specialty center in 2009.

In the private sector, it is worth mentioning the HLA Mediterráneo Hospital, which has 86 beds, offering assistance to the entire province of Almería, and the Vithas Virgen del Mar Hospital, which has 80 beds, both of which are contracted to care for Social Security patients.

From the Health Bureau of the city council, the Health Brigade develops the following competencies:[118].

• - Disinfestation, deratization and disinfection.

• - Control and monitoring of animals in collaboration with the College of Veterinarians, through the Municipal Zoosanitary Center.

• - Inspection of unhealthy buildings, homes or lots.

• - Sanitary control of beaches and provision of infrastructure that guarantees the hygiene and health of the sands and their surroundings.

• - Cemetery management.

• - Sanitary control of the environment: pollution, noise, water supply and sanitation, urban solid waste.

• - Sanitary control of the distribution and supply of food, beverages and other consumer products, as well as their transportation.

• - Development of health promotion, health education and protection programs for social groups with specific risks.

• - Application of the ordinance that regulates the occupation of public spaces (published in the Official Gazette of the province of Almería no. 239, of December 16, 2006).

Justice

Almería is the seat of the Provincial Court and head of judicial district No. 1 of the province, whose demarcation includes the capital plus 48 other towns in the metropolitan area of Almería and the regions of Filabres-Tabernas and the Alpujarra Almeriense. The judicial infrastructure is as follows:

It has a Palace of Justice, located on Reina Regente Avenue, which houses the Provincial Court and the Provincial Prosecutor's Office, and on the other hand the City of Justice, inaugurated in 2011 and located on Ronda 120 highway, which houses the capital's courts.

Citizen security

As in the rest of the EU, in Almería the Emergency System 112 "112 (telephone)") operates, which through this free telephone number addresses any emergency situation in health matters, disasters, firefighting, rescue, public safety and civil protection. 112 Andalucía teleoperators answer emergency calls in Spanish, English, French, German and Arabic.[119].

The citizen security strategy in mass events, such as the Almería Fair, is planned by the Operational Coordination Center of the Almería City Council (CECOP), in which the National Police "National Police Corps (Spain)"), local police, Civil Protection and firefighters participate. In addition, the Civil Guard, the Red Cross and the health emergency service, 061, collaborate in maintaining citizen security.[120].

Almería City Council has a Social Services Area that provides help and advice to the groups and people most in need and promotes equality between citizens and their comprehensive development. It is also responsible for alleviating the social deficit of the most disadvantaged groups, improving their social integration and quality of life, and providing help in social emergency situations.[121] This area has several social centers in the city.[122].

Transportation and communications

Almería is a city with a wide range of transport connections[123], highlighting its port, which connects above all with other ports in Africa, and its airport.

On the site of the current port there has existed since ancient times an anchorage used by Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians and Romans, who baptized it Portus Magnus. During the Muslim occupation, it became the most important port city in Al-Andalus, and its dockyards were the most active. The port was founded in 1847 and in subsequent years it was expanded with new docks to transform it into a container port usable by large international shipping companies.[124].

In its commercial activity, it maintains regular lines that transported 1,102,532 passengers in 2008. Its destinations are: Melilla (with Acciona-Trasmediterránea), Nador (in Morocco, with Acciona-Trasmediterránea, Ferrimaroc, Comanav and Comarit), Orán "Orán (Algeria)") (in Algeria, with Acciona-Trasmediterránea) and Ghazaouet (in Algeria, with Acciona-Trasmediterránea).[125].

It is also a stopover for tourist cruises in the Mediterranean (37,901 passengers in 2009)[126] and also has loading docks (1,454,858 t in 2008),[127] an important fishing port, and a marina with 277 berths[128] for pleasure boats. There are no more recent official statistics.

Created in 1968 to meet the demands of the tourism and film industry, Almería airport[129] (IATA code: LEI; ICAO code: LEAM) is an important economic engine of the capital and the province. Located 8 km east of the capital, it is connected to it through the AL-12 highway, and to the rest of the province through the A-7-E-15.

It is managed by AENA and is the fifth largest in Andalusia, with a movement of 788,897 passengers and 16,112 aircraft operations during 2010, to which must be added 896 tons of cargo transported.[130] It maintains national and international links, mainly with Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, Palma de Mallorca, Melilla, London, Birmingham, Manchester, Düsseldorf, Brussels and other cities in the region. European Union.[131] The following airlines operate from Almería airport, among others: Ándalus Líneas Aéreas, Air Nostrum-Iberia, Bmibaby, EasyJet, Transavia, Ryanair, Jetairfly, Luxair, Thomas Cook and Jet2.com.[132].

Since 2007, the expansion of arrival and departure terminals, parking lots and loading docks has been underway.[133].

The old railway station, completed in 1893 and an example of iron and glass architecture from the Gustave Eiffel school, was replaced in 2005 by the current Almería Intermodal Station. Managed by Adif and equipped with terminals for intercity buses and railways, it offers connections with all the municipalities of the province and with the rest of Spain.[134] It was the first intermodal station of its type in the country.

The train connects the city directly with Granada and Seville-Santa Justa (R598 Media Distancia trains) and, on a long route, with Madrid-Chamartín (Talgo "Talgo (Renfe)")). Barcelona-Sants (Arco "Arco (Renfe)")) and other cities in Spain are accessible by transfer.[135].

Supply and public services

The electricity consumed in the municipality of Almería comes mainly from the Tajo de la Encantada hydroelectric plant "El Chorro (Spain)"), in the province of Málaga, about 270 km from the city. The electricity arrives through a simple 220 kV circuit, with a reduction substation in the neighboring municipality of Benahadux.[157] Part of the electrical energy is produced in the Enix wind farm "Enix (Almería)"), in the municipality of the same name, about 16 km from the capital.[158].

The supply of petroleum fuels to the city of Almería and the south of its province is carried out from the storage facilities of the Hydrocarbon Logistics Company (CLH) located in the port of Motril. The transportation of fuel to the municipality's gas stations is carried out using tanker trucks, since CLH has arranged logistics services with most of them.[159] The fuel supply for the Almería airport is supplied by CLH-Aviación, operating from the tanks it has in the facilities themselves.[160].

On March 5, 2011, the 210 km gas pipeline was put into operation during a test period. built by the Medgaz company that will allow natural gas to be imported from the city of Beni Saf, in Algeria. The receiving terminal is located on El Perdigal beach, next to the airport and connects with the gas pipeline connecting with Albacete.[161][162].

The city's drinking water supply is provided by the company Aqualia"),[163] a subsidiary of the FCC Group. It has been in charge of maintaining the old Costacabana WWTP since 1981, becoming controlled by the Municipal Water Service in 1993. Drinking water comes from different aquifers in Campo de Dalías through the so-called Aguadulce Canal") and, recently, from the Almería Desalination Plant.[164] This water is stored first in the so-called Membrana deposit"), in Aguadulce "Aguadulce (Almería)"), and later in a total of 19 deposits located in elevated areas throughout the municipality, highlighting the Santa Isabel deposits"), which date back to 1888 and are periodically visitable, and the gardens of La Pipa"), open to the public.[165] There are also four purification stations that reuse gray water for the irrigation of gardens, golf courses and crops, the stations of Retamar, Cabo de Gata, El Bobar and El Toyo.[166] Subsequently, this is stored in nineteen warehouses located in different parts of the municipality, although the largest of them all is located in the northern area of neighboring Aguadulce "Aguadulce (Almería)").

Urbaser is the company contracted to manage environmental services in the city.[167] There is a recycling plant within the municipal area, in the district of Cuevas de los Medinas, and an area destined for a landfill "Landfill (garbage)") of about 30 hectares,[168] which also has a recovery and composting plant with a processing capacity of almost 155,000 tons of waste per year.[169].

In the city there are waste containers; glass recycling; plastic and bricks; papers and cardboard; used oil and since November 2021, organic waste containers to be used for composting.[170].

Economy

In 2008, there were a total of 14,690 companies in the municipality, of which 12,978 had a staff of less than 5 workers, 1,249 had between 6 and 19, and 458 had more than 20. activities.[179].

In the period between 1996 and 2007, the unemployment rate registered in Almería was always less than 5%, so it can be considered full employment.[180] However, as a result of the global economic crisis unleashed in 2008, the number of unemployed has continued to increase: according to the Andalusian Employment Service, unemployment registered in December 2009 amounted to 20,392 people (10 938 men and 9454 women).[181].

According to the database of the Statistics Institute of Andalusia, the disposable income per inhabitant residing in Almería ranged in 2003 between €10,200 and €11,300.[182].

As of December 31, 2024, Almería City Council had an outstanding public debt of €70,041,967.8.[183].

In the agricultural sector, the province of Almería has become one of the most important areas of agricultural exploitation in all of Europe,[184] with thousands of hectares of crops under plastic on the Poniente coast, Campo de Dalías and Campo de Níjar. In the municipal area of the capital, the greenhouses extend mainly along the Vega de Allá, to the east of the Andarax River, and the plains of La Cañada and El Alquián. In addition, the most important multinationals in the sector have located their seed laboratories and auxiliary agricultural industries in the capital. The most widespread irrigated crop in the municipality is tomato, with the olive tree for table olives standing out among the woody crops.

Almería has 493 companies in the industrial sector, of which 143 are metallurgical industries and 316 are other manufacturing industries. The majority are located in the various industrial estates of the capital, among which those of Los Callejones, El Puche, La Celulosa, San Carlos or San Rafael stand out.[186].

Its main commercial area is the urban center, especially Paseo de Almería, Puerta de Purchena and Rambla del Obispo Orberá, plus the traditional Calle de las Tiendas, which maintains the appearance of an Arab souk. In addition, it has two shopping centers located around Avenida del Mediterráneo.[187] There are plans for the construction of two other shopping centers: one in the vicinity of the Torrecárdenas hospital[188] and another in the upper area of Rambla de Belén.[189].

Among the financial entities born there, Cajamar stands out, today converted into the first Spanish rural savings bank[190] and the main national credit and savings entity of a cooperative nature. Its beginnings are found in the former Caja Rural Provincial de Almería, later known as Caja Rural de Almería, which changed its name after its merger with Caja Rural de Málaga in 2000, maintaining its registered office and national headquarters in Almería. In 2007, Caja Rural del Duero was also integrated into it.[191] It also maintains a significant presence of Unicaja branches in the city, the first Andalusian financial entity established in 1991 by the merger of 5 savings banks, among which was the old Cajalmería.[192][193].

Its warm climate and the availability of 4,945[194] hotel beds make it a sought-after tourist destination throughout the year. The visitor is attracted mainly by its beaches, by the cultural and historical-artistic heritage, the natural landscapes near the city and the various sports activities that are held in the province.[195] Most of the hotel offering corresponds to 4-star hotels, of which there are 13. To these must be added three 3-star hotels, eight 2-star hotels and one 1-star hotel, in addition to various hostels, campsites and guesthouses.[196].

Not many companies that stand out for their investment in R&D&I are located in Almería, but the Almería Science-Technology Park aims to correct the situation. Its construction was completed in 2018 and it is estimated that it will move capital of 1 billion euros and create 12,500 jobs.[197].

Monuments and places of interest

Civil and military architecture

The construction of the old Arab fortress, seat of the government of the Almeria taifa, began in 955 by order of Abderramán III and was completed in the century under the mandate of Hayrán.[198] It is made up of three enclosures: the first was a military camp and refuge for the population in case of siege; The second housed the Almotacín palace, residence of rulers, guards and servants. It was equipped with a mosque, baths, cisterns, and shops, but due to the earthquakes that devastated it during the Modern Age, there are hardly any remains standing, although there is an important archaeological site.[199] The third consists of a Christian castle built by order of the Catholic Monarchs in the westernmost and highest part, adapting it to modern artillery after its conquest in 1489.[200].

Next to the Alcazaba rises the Jairan wall, which descends towards the north through the La Hoya ravine, to later ascend to the San Cristóbal hill "Cerro de San Cristóbal (Almería)"), where there are remains of the first Christian fortification built during the siege of 1147, in addition to the monument to the Sacred Heart carved in marble from Macael in 1930.[201] This complex includes isolated canvases of the caliphal wall "Califal Wall (Almería)"), built during the 19th century, which closed the Almedina neighborhood.[202] Next to one of them, the Puerta de Almería interpretation center has been opened, where the wall can be seen next to a Roman salting factory.[203].

From its Muslim period, it is also worth highlighting the Arab cisterns of Jairan "Arab cisterns of Jairan (Almería)"), built by order of that king during the taifa of the century for the water supply. They are divided into three vaulted brick naves and have been the headquarters of the Peña Flamenca El Taranto for decades.[204][205].

The oldest civil building in Almería is the old Hospital of Santa María Magdalena from the middle of the century, current headquarters of the Museum of Contemporary Spanish Realism, which has an attractive patio, a chapel and a main entrance of transition between the baroque and neoclassical style of the century. convent of Santo Domingo, built in the century and greatly renovated during the .[10].

It is worth mentioning the sample of Christian military buildings built between the and centuries, the main one being the Cuartel de la Misericordia "Cuartel de la Misericordia (Almería)"), from the . Located above the ablution patio of the primitive mosque, it has a patio dotted with arches, as well as orange trees and a baroque façade. "Casas Fuertes (Almería)") of El Alquián, Torregarcía and the tower of San Miguel de Cabo de Gata "Torreón de San Miguel (Almería)"), built in 1756 by order of Fernando VI and future fishing museum.[207].

Finally, among the palatial buildings that the small nobility of Almería built during the Modern Age, the Casa de los Puche "Casa de los Puche (Almería)") or the Palace of the Viscounts of the Castle of Almansa, from the 10th century, are notable.

Between the end of the century and the beginning of the century, various infrastructures, public and private buildings of an eclectic and historicist nature were built, coinciding with the urban expansion motivated by the demolition of the Arab walls in 1855 and the economic boom of mining and the export of grapes. Among them, the bullring "Plaza de toros (Almería)") (1888), the Mercantile Circle "Círculo Mercantil e Industrial (Almería)") (1898), the town hall building or the Cervantes theaters "Teatro Cervantes (Almería)") and Apolo "Teatro Apolo (Almería)") stand out.[10]

Iron architecture is represented in the railway station, in 1893,[208] the Central Market "Mercado Central (Almería)"), in 1893,[209] or the Cable Inglés, in 1904, iconic mineral loading dock of the Eiffel school.[210] Examples of industrial architecture such as the El Ingenio gate, the French Cable, the Perdigones tower are also characteristic of this period. the remains of the Heredia foundry, in La Chanca.[10].

Finally, the palaces built in the heat of the aforementioned nineteenth-century boom are worth highlighting, such as the Palace of the Marquises of Cabra "Palace of the Marquises of Cabra (Almería)") (1840), the Palace of the Marquises of Torrealta "Palace of the Marquises of Torrealta (Almería)") (1847), or that of the Provincial Council (1884). Later, bourgeois homes were built such as the Casino Cultural "Casino Cultural (Almería)") (1888), the Butterfly House "Casa de las Mariposas (Almería)") (1907) or El Preventorio, a neo-Mudejar style chalet built in 1927.[10][211].

Guillermo Langle, a great representative of this current in the city, is responsible for rationalist works such as the old bus station, the Union House, the Social Assistance building, the Red Cross Relief House or the Ciudad Jardín neighborhood "Ciudad Jardín (Almería)").[10].

During the years that the Spanish civil war lasted, a series of bunkers were built along the coast of the municipality, as well as throughout the province.[212] Likewise, once the war ended, the Franco government built other fortified buildings in defense of a possible allied invasion during the Second World War.[213].

religious architecture

After the primitive temple was damaged by an earthquake in 1522, Bishop Fray Diego Fernández de Villalán ordered its construction four years later, but it was not completed until the 19th century. It has a late Gothic style hall plan with three flat-roofed naves and defensive elements that make it one of the few fortress-cathedrals in Europe. Three chapels, at the head and ambulatory, make up a rectangular floor plan. In the transept and above the transept is the Renaissance lantern, the work of Juan de Orea, also the author of the sacristy and the parade ground, converted into a neoclassical cloister by Ventura Rodríguez during the 19th century. The temple has a century-old keep in the northwest corner and two Renaissance doorways: the main one and the Perdones one, built between 1550 and 1573 by Juan de Orea. Also noteworthy are the Renaissance sacristy, the choir, the main altar and the chapels of San Indalecio and Cristo de la Escucha, which houses the tomb of the founder.[214].

Perhaps the most interesting is that of San Juan Evangelista "Church of San Juan Evangelista (Almería)"), built at the beginning of the century by order of Fray Juan de Portocarrero on the old main mosque, as it preserves the remains of the qibla and mihrab of this, with Almohad decoration of the century. , was founded by the Dominicans in the 15th century as a convent and has special significance, as it houses the image of the Virgin of the Sea, patron saint of Almería, a polychrome Gothic carving. The current baroque decoration is the work of Jesús de Perceval, also the creator of the image's dressing room.[215].

One of the oldest in the city is the church of Santiago "Iglesia de Santiago (Almería)"), ordered by the Catholic Monarchs at the beginning of the century and designed by Juan de Orea, which has a Renaissance façade and a relief of Santiago Matamoros, a Mudejar wooden vault and a chapel to Saint Lucía.[216].

The convent city takes its first steps with the convent of las Puras and that of las Claras "Convento de las Claras (Almería)"). The first was founded in 1515 by Gutierre de Cárdenas; The Mudejar façade and tower stand out. The church, with a single nave, preserves the main altar and baroque decoration from the 18th century.

Finally, it is worth highlighting other churches such as that of San Sebastián or that of San Pedro "Iglesia de San Pedro (Almería)"), a neoclassical church from the end of the 19th century, which was built on the site of the old convent of San Francisco.[219].

Places of interest

• - Nicolás Salmerón Park, is located between the port and the city and divided into two areas: the Old Park, the work of José Mª de Acosta and populated with centuries-old trees, which extends from the La Chanca rambla to the Fuente de los Peces, the work of Jesús de Perceval; and the New Park from the Fuente de los Peces to the Avenida de la Reina Regente, designed by Guillermo Langle and adorned with ponds and fountains.[220].

• - Parque de las Almadrabillas, located at the mouth of the Rambla de Belén. It surrounds the English Cable and the Monument to the Almerienses Victims of the Holocaust, formed by 170 cement columns, one per victim.[221].

• - Andarax Park.

• - Family Park.

• - Purchena Gate, the old Pechina gate, whose name was altered after the Christian conquest. Its urban planning is typical of the bourgeois architecture of the century, represented in buildings such as the Butterfly House.[222].

• - The Almería promenade, with a wide variety of cafes and restaurants, is the center of its commercial and banking activity as well as that of the province. It arose after the demolition of the wall in 1855, with several examples of bourgeois architecture, such as the Mercantile Circle (1888).[222] There is also the statue of the famous Beatle John Lennon, raised in memory of his stay in the place.[223].

• - Rambla de Belén, along which the homonymous riverbed ran; In 1996 it was vaulted, becoming an important commercial and leisure area that crosses the city from north to south. Various sculptures are erected there, which were added to the statue of Charity, a monument erected at the end of the century in tribute to the victims of the floods of 1891.[224].

• - The Plaza de la Constitución "Plaza de la Constitución (Almería)"), also known as Plaza Vieja, was a Muslim souk, consolidating its character as a plaza in the 19th century. There is the headquarters of the city council, designed at the end of that century by the Almeria architect Trinidad Cuartara.[225] The Monument to the Martyrs of Liberty, nicknamed the Pingurucho, also stands in the square, which commemorates the uprising of the Coloraos against the absolutism of Fernando VII. The original began to be built in 1868 and was located in the Puerta de Purchena. Demolished by Franco in 1943, it was rebuilt in 1988.[77].

• - In the historic center, declared an asset of cultural interest "Bien de Interés Cultural (Spain)"),[226] there are streets such as Almedina, Real, Las Tiendas and Reina, and Plaza Bendicho, one of the favorite places for the aristocracy of the centuries and . In it are the Casa de los Puche "Casa de los Puche (Almería)") and the House of Music, from the centuries and, current Provincial Tourist Board.[211].

Culture

Architecture

The first expansions of the city consist of a large number of examples of door and window architecture, developed since the end of the century by the local architect Guillermo Langle and which was developed exclusively in this city to solve the problem of the lack of buildable land.

Museums

Almería has a varied and quality museum proposal, where collections of artistic, ethnological and cultural interest are exhibited:

• - The Museum of Contemporary Spanish Realism (MUREC) was inaugurated in 2024 in the old hospital of Santa María Magdalena and shows a collection of realist art from the last century in which authors such as Joaquín Sorolla, Ignacio Zuloaga, Julio Romero de Torres and Antonio López stand out.[227].

• - The Almería Museum building, inaugurated in 2006, is the work of Ángela García de Paredes and Ignacio García Pedrosa. It houses archaeological funds found in the province from Prehistory to the Muslim era, most of them corresponding to excavations carried out by the Spanish-Belgian archaeologist Luis Siret. Those of the cultures of Los Millares and El Argar, two of the most important in pre-Roman Spain, are especially relevant. Also notable is the collection of maqabriyyas, Muslim funerary tombstones of which Almería was one of the most prominent production centers.[228].

• - The Andalusian Center of Photography, created in 1992, is located in the building of the Liceo "Liceo Artístico y Literario (Almería)"). It offers exhibitions, workshops, editing of photographic catalogues, research, dissemination and recovery of Andalusian graphic heritage, own production and collaboration with institutions and groups related to photography.[229].

• - The Almería Art Museum, divided between space 2, located in El Preventorio, a neo-Mudejar chalet signed by Guillermo Langle in 1927, and which houses temporary exhibitions of contemporary art; and the Doña Pakyta Art Museum, opened and integrated into the institution in 2015, located in the Montoya house "Casa Montoya (Almería)").[230].

• - The Cinema House "Casa del Cine (Almería)") is an interpretation center dedicated to the golden age of cinema in Almería and John Lennon's stay in the city and is located in the Cortijo Romero, a former bourgeois mansion from 1866.[231].

• - The Guitar Museum, located next to the cathedral, in the Ronda del Beato Diego Ventaja. It is a museum dedicated to the guitar, and to the creator of its current configuration, Antonio Torres Jurado, a native of Almería. It has rooms dedicated to the luthier's craft, the history and evolution of the guitar, the city of Almería, and interactive rooms with information about types of guitars and guitarists. In addition, it has an exhibition hall, a multipurpose room, an assembly hall and various common spaces.[232].

• - The Civil War Shelters were built in 1938 by the Almería architect Guillermo Langle to house the population in case of bombings, but they have recently been converted into a museum. In them you can see documents and objects from those years as well as an operating room used during the attacks.

• - The Almería heritage interpretation center was inaugurated in 2014 and develops the history of Almería chronologically with characters, monuments and historical events that the city has experienced since its foundation. It is located in the Plaza de la Constitución "Plaza de la Constitución (Almería)").

• - The interpretation center of the Puerta de Almería is an archaeological space where you can see some salting ponds from Roman times and the preserved section of the old caliphal wall "Muralla califal (Almería)") that surrounded the city. The center has several rooms dedicated to various historical periods.[233].

• - The felucca Almariya is a replica of a Spanish-Muslim ship from between the and centuries, docked at the Club de Mar. In its cellar, objects from the time are exhibited that show the relationships that one of the most important ports in Al-Andalus had with the Mediterranean area.[234].

scenic spaces

Among the scenic spaces that the city is equipped with, the following could be highlighted:

• - The Cervantes Theater "Teatro Cervantes (Almería)") occupies an eclectic building "Eclecticism (art)") with academic and neo-baroque elements, whose construction began in 1898. It has a large auditorium convertible into a ballroom and three floors of boxes supported by semicircular arches and a balustrade. The modernist decoration, the imposing roof and the collection of old posters of festivals, events and shows represented throughout the century are interesting. The building was declared an asset of cultural interest "Bien de Interés Cultural (Spain)") in 2002.[235].

• - The Apolo Theater "Teatro Apolo (Almería)") is the only theater that has survived of the many that existed in the city during the century. Its construction dates back to 1881. Between 1986 and 1993 it was remodeled by the architect Ángel Jaramillo), preserving only the original façade. It is of a historicist character inspired by classicism and is owned by the Almería City Council.[236].

• - The Maestro Padilla Auditorium is located between the neighborhoods of El Zapillo and Nueva Almería. It was built in 1992 with a design by the architect José Seguí. It is a covered theater in which the stage is fixed and frontal. It holds conferences, exhibitions and performances of opera, theater, dance and concerts.

• - Rambla Amphitheater, is an open-air amphitheater located at the junction of Federico García Lorca Avenue and Amatisteros Rambla where concerts by music bands or children's theaters are held.

Libraries and archives

• - The Francisco Villaespesa Library, whose origin dates back to 1850 (although the current building dates back to 1983), is an indispensable element in the cultural, educational and leisure life of Almería.[238].

• - The Nicolás Salmerón Library, belonging to the UAL, was inaugurated in 1993 and remains open 24 hours a day.[239].

• - José María Artero Library: Opened in October 2019 in the old local Police barracks, built by Guillermo Langle, it houses more than 15,000 books, more than 2,000 audiovisual elements, in addition to having study rooms open 24 hours on exam dates.[240].

• - Neighborhood libraries: The city has a series of municipal libraries located in the neighborhoods of Los Angeles "Los Ángeles (Almería)"), La Chanca, El Alquián and Cabo de Gata "Cabo de Gata (locality)").[241].

• - Sea Library: It is a cultural space located in the Hotel Avenida in collaboration with the IEA, which has a bibliographic collection of more than 50 books on the culture, history, sea and tourism of Almería.[242].

• - The Provincial Historical Archive, installed in the Palace of the Viscounts of Almansa Castle, from the 19th century, was founded in 1932 and preserves a large number of documents of historical relevance for the city and the province.[243].

• - The Municipal Historical Archive, located in the Palace of the Marquises of Cabra, from the 19th century. It was in the town hall of the Almería City Council until 2005, when it was moved.

• - The Institute of Almeria Studies, a research organization dependent on the Provincial Council, is housed in a century-old house and has an archive and library.[244].

Cultural entities

• - Idealia Cultural Center: open since 2007, multicultural center with exhibition hall, volunteer workshops, conference room, library and classrooms, for training activities, ecology, music, theater, philosophy and social action.[245].

• - Cultural Productions Office: born in 2012, it is an association that has built a collaborative and community space for culture, audiovisual dissemination, science, technology and education. It carries out numerous activities such as talks, concerts, film screenings, debates, workshops and other series of events of cultural and social interest. All this from a perspective of free access to this knowledge.[246] In 2021, it signs a collaboration agreement with the Almería City Council to carry out cultural activities at the Casa del Cine, with the aim of converting the museum into a center for audiovisual production and content of all kinds with the collaboration of Almería society.[247][248].

• - Association of Friends of the Alcazaba of Almería: born in 2004, it is an association for the defense of the historical heritage of Almería, as well as its dissemination and enjoyment.[249] Throughout its history it has collaborated in different dissemination projects,[250] such as the coordination and co-edition of books, such as the one related to the Convento de las Puras, in collaboration with the IEA.[251] On the other hand, organizes concerts, conferences, guided tours, trips and excursions. He has also carried out actions to defend the historical heritage, such as the "Black Flags" activity, in which he vindicates the poor state of some monuments and architectural elements.[252] Likewise, he has participated in all types of actions, concentrations and demonstrations demanding the conservation and protection of Almeria's historical heritage.[253].

Cultural events

Throughout the year, various organizations, such as the Department of Culture of the Government of Andalusia, the city council, the University and private companies, organize or sponsor cultural events of all kinds. The following list indicates those that are better referenced and enjoy greater tradition and continuity:

• - The Almería Flamenco Festival, held since 1966, is the oldest in Andalusia and one of the most traditional in Spain. During the Almería Fair, it brings together singers, guitar players and dancers of the greatest prestige in clubs and performing arts spaces in the capital, with a special emphasis on the songs of Almería "Taranto (music)") and Levante.[254].

• - The Book and Reading Fair (LILEC), started by José María Artero in 1975 and held in May, is a departure from the traditional ones held in other Spanish cities.[255] It aims to be more of a festival in which conferences, gatherings and literary workshops, graffiti, comics and humor take place.[256].

• - The Golden Age Theater Days have been held annually since 1984. In the beginning there were only two festivals of this genre, this one and the one in Almagro "Almagro (Spain)"), although in 2010 there have been up to 15 shows.[257] During the month of March, the most representative companies perform in the most important stage spaces of the capital and the province, having performed works by authors such as Cervantes, Lorca, Calderón de la Barca, Tirso de Molina, Lope de Vega, Molière or Shakespeare.[258].

• - The International Jazz Festival has been held every year since 1985 around the months of October and November at the Teatro Apolo "Teatro Apolo (Almería)") and various venues in the capital. Prestigious musicians such as Chick Corea, Arturo Sandoval and Pedro Iturralde have participated in it.[259].

• - The Almería International Film Festival (FICAL) was born in 1996 as a tribute to its cinematographic history and that of the province in order to recover the past splendor. It is celebrated during the last quarter of the year in various spaces in the capital and is accompanied by various activities, such as film series and conferences.[260].

• - The Alamar Meeting of Mediterranean Cultures, held since 1999, consists of activities, most of them free, of theater, poetry, narrative and music, as well as conferences on the peoples of the Mediterranean. It is celebrated for fifteen days in the months of June and July.[261].

• - The Julián Arcas International Classical Guitar Competition has been held since 2000 during the month of May in honor of one of the most prestigious Spanish guitarists of the century Julián Arcas. He wants to discover the promises of classical guitar through three international competitions: the Antonio de Torres, the José Tomás and the Julián Arcas, whose first prize consists of the recording of an album and a concert in the following competition. In parallel with the competition, concerts and conferences are held throughout the province.[262].

Popular festivals

Its main festival, celebrated in honor of the Virgin of the Sea, its patron saint, takes place during the last week of the month of August. Among the recreational and sports activities that it brings, the petanque championship, the classic Crossing of the Port to Swim, the popular pottery fair, the three fireworks castles or the traditional fireworks stand out. Equestrian activities are also carried out or the famous bullfights due to the display of Manila shawls that decorate the plaza and due to the unique tradition of the snack, between the third and fourth bull.[266].

The fair itself is held in two environments: the Midday Fair, characterized by its beach bars, installed in the historic center, and the night fair, installed in the fairgrounds, with its booths, all with free entry, mechanical attractions and traveling stalls. The old fairgrounds were located on Avenida del Mediterráneo, but since 2010 the fair has been held in the new fairgrounds located behind the Mediterranean Games stadium.[267] At the same time, cultural events such as the Flamenco Festival or the Folklore Festival of the Iberian and Mediterranean Peoples are held, during which groups from different countries come together to present their dances and customs.[268].

• - The Pilgrimage of the Virgin of the Sea takes place on the first Sunday in January and consists of a procession from the Sanctuary of the Virgin of the Sea "Santuario de la Virgen del Mar (Almería)") to the hermitage on Torregarcía beach, where according to tradition the image appeared.[269].

• - Holy Week resurfaced in the 1970s, becoming one of the most important religious festivals in Andalusia.[270] In 2015, 23 brotherhoods and brotherhoods took part in processions, some with great tradition, such as the Estudiantes, the Prendimiento, the Nazareno and the Soledad. The great wealth of carvings, embroidery and goldsmithing has led to it being declared a Festival of National Tourist Interest "Annex: Festivals of National Tourist Interest (Spain)").[271][272].

• - Carnival is a traditional event within the Almeria festive calendar that begins to adopt its current configuration at the end of the century. At the beginning of the year, references appeared in the press to the "murgas and comparsas" contest, a precursor to the one currently held in the Maestro Padilla Auditorium. The Carnival concludes on Piñata Sunday with the famous Burial of the Sardine, which takes place on the Almadrabillas beach.[273].

• - Las Cruces de Mayo is a celebration carried out by the Holy Week brotherhoods and brotherhoods, and different neighborhood organizations and associations. Every year a prize is awarded for the best cross. Very popular is the visit to the different congregations and their decorated crosses, where typical Almeria tapas are usually served.[274].

• - Corpus Christi is another festivity in which on the Sunday of the week in which Corpus Christi is celebrated, rosemary cloaks are made in the streets and the brotherhoods raise altars in the churches, and in the afternoon the procession of the Blessed Sacrament takes place from the Holy Church Cathedral, with a beautiful silver monstrance.

Gastronomy

Given its ancestral isolation from the rest of the peninsular territory, Almería was forced to be self-sufficient for a long time, which made possible the development of a simple but diverse cuisine, based on local products.

The sea is one of the main resources of the Almeria table. We can point out fish and seafood such as monkfish, mackerel, mullet, octopus, squid, cuttlefish, red shrimp from Almería or the famous galanes. Unlike other parts of Andalusia, Almería cuisine stands out for the preparation of grilled fish.

However, stews and dishes with ingredients from the garden abound. Among the best known (which, as is typical, are offered along with the drink in tapas bars "Tapa (food)"), we find the paprika broth or colorao broth, the moruna soup, the patatas bravas, in ajopollo or with aioli (potatoes to the poor), the ajoblanco, the cuttlefish in sauce, the tabernero (a kind of spicy ratatouille), the gachas cakes, the semolina crumbs, the fresh beans, the escabeches, the gurullos, the fritá of Suflí, the tarbinas) or the wheat pot, all of them typical of the province and easy to taste in the capital. Likewise, the "Tapa (gastronomy)" tapas called: chérigans are very popular in bars and cafes, which consist of toasted bread cut on the bias, spread with aioli and seasoned with all kinds of ingredients. In In Almería, the traditional way of consuming in bars is tapas, where all beverages are accompanied free of charge by their respective tapas that are chosen by each consumer without limits on the number of varieties, a peculiarity that differentiates it from the neighboring provinces where, as a general rule, they are not offered together or, if they are offered, they are not at the consumer's choice or have a limit on the number of varieties to order in each round.

Of the pastries that can be enjoyed in Almería, the highlights include papaviejos, the fingers of Jesus, fried milk, alpujarreña millefeuille), chicharrones cakes, date sponge cakes[277] and soplillos.

Sport

Almería was the organizing city of the XV Mediterranean Games in 2005,[8] for which it was equipped with multiple and modern sports facilities, the most important being the Mediterranean Games Stadium.[278] It has a capacity for 22,000 spectators and is the headquarters of the Almería Sports Union.[279] It accommodates, in addition to this sport, all forms of athletics. The Palace of the Mediterranean Games was also created for the games, a multi-sports complex located next to the stadium where volleyball and artistic and rhythmic gymnastics competitions are held.

Some of its most traditional facilities are the Juan Rojas municipal stadium, former headquarters of several Almería football teams (such as AD Almería, Polideportivo Almería and Almería CF), and the Emilio Campra Athletics Stadium or Youth Stadium, where athletics, football, rugby and archery competitions are held. Among the rest of the sports facilities, managed either by the city council,[280] or by the Provincial Council,[281] we find the following:.

• - Rafael Florido Sports Complex: inaugurated in 1981, volleyball is mainly practiced there and is the headquarters of the Almería Volleyball Club.[282] It also has an indoor pool, tatami mats and a squash room. The attached sports courts are mainly used by indoor soccer federations, tennis schools and private teams, both for local competitions and for training.

• - Las Almadrabillas Sports Complex: it has an indoor Olympic pool and another outdoor pool, built for the Mediterranean Games, where swimming and water polo competitions are held. The attached multi-sports courts have facilities for handball, five-a-side football, basketball, volleyball, tennis and squash, as well as a gym, boxing room and sauna.

• - Moisés Ruiz Pavilion: belonging to the Provincial Council, its facilities host volleyball and gymnastics practices.

It is also worth mentioning other sports facilities such as the Alborán Golf golf course), in El Toyo#El_Toyo "Retamar (Almería)"), the Club de Mar, the Equestrian Club and Sports Center of Almería") or the Nautical Activities Center, dependent on the Government of Andalusia.

During the 1970s, the city of Almería was one of the starting points for numerous editions of the Monte Carlo Rally.

Among the sporting events held in Almería, it is worth highlighting the aforementioned XV Mediterranean Games in 2005.[8] On the other hand, Almería is a regular city in the latest editions of the Vuelta Ciclista a España, with the stages of the Sierra de los Filabres and Sierra Nevada "Sierra Nevada (Spain)") becoming some of the most feared of the race. Also of recognized importance are the Almería Classic, in cycling, and the well-established Swimming Crossing of the Port of Almería. The city also becomes the base for the Costa de Almería Rally annually since 1964. Along with its popular San Silvestre race in the month of December, which combines sports and costumes.

Media

The local media is represented mainly by the Novotécnica business group, owner of the newspaper La Voz de Almería, the radio stations associated with Cadena Ser and Canal Almería TV, formerly Localia. In the press and radio, these media are audience and reader leaders.

In the city you can buy the most widely distributed national, regional and international newspapers, some of which include a local or regional information section. To find the birth of the Almeria printed press it is necessary to go back to the century. Probably, the oldest newspaper in the history of the capital, and the one with the longest life, was La Crónica Meridional,[286] founded in 1860 by Francisco Rueda López and existing until 1937.[287] Currently, La Voz de Almería (already mentioned) and Diario de Almería (from the Joly Group) are published, in addition to the regional newspaper Ideal (from the Vocento group), which covers the current affairs of the provinces of Granada, Almería and Jaén.[288].

On the Almería radio you can tune in to the main state and regional radio networks, which broadcast spaces dedicated to local news in their disconnections, in different time slots: Radio Nacional de España, Cadena Ser Almería"), Onda Cero Almería"), COPE Almería"), Punto Radio Almería") and Canal Sur Radio.[289].

Beyond the television channels available throughout Spain, in 2010 the stations Interalmería TV (municipal ownership), Canal Almería TV, Canal Sí and Canal 28 TV will operate at the local level, through DTT, the latter two being the ones that have been broadcasting in the city for the longest time.[290].

• - CAPEL MOLINA, José Jaime: Pluviometric map of peninsular Spain and the Balearic Islands (in the international period 1961-1990). Available in the Institutional Repository of the University of Alicante.

• - ESPINOSA SPÍNOLA, Mª Gloria: Artistic guide to Almería and its province. Almería: Institute of Almeria Studies, 2006.

• - GARCÍA HERNÁNDEZ, Matías Miguel: The flood of 1891: the hydraulic correction of a city. Nimbus, #7-8, 2001.

• - GARCÍA REDONDO, José María: Christian urbanism: Religiosity, space and power in the construction of Christian Almería. Institute of Almerian Studies, 2010. Available in Popular Religiosity: V Conference, pp.85-98.

• - GÓMEZ CRUZ, Manuel: The population of Almería in the century. Bulletin of the Institute of Almeria Studies: Letters. No. 6. Almería: Institute of Almeria Studies, 1986. ISSN 0211-7541.

• - MÁDOZ, Pascual: Geographical-statistical-historical dictionary of Spain and its overseas possessions. Madrid, 1849.

• - RÚIZ GARCÍA, Alfonso et al.: The City of Almería. Collection «Guides of Almería: territory, culture and art». Almería: Institute of Almeria Studies, 2008. ISBN 978-84-8108-430-6.

• - PIFERRER, Francisco: Nobility of the kingdoms and lordships of Spain. Madrid, 1860.

• - QUIROGA-CHEYROUZE Y MUÑOZ, Rafael: Almería Bombed. The Spanish Civil War 1936-1939. Granada: IDEAL Newspaper, 1986.

• - SAGREDO ARNÁIZ, Rufino: Flora of Almería: vascular plants of the province. Vol. XXIII. Almería: Institute of Almería Studies and Provincial Council of Almería, 1987. DL GR-599-1987. ISBN 84-404-0397-6.

• - SOLER, Milagros: The Civil War in Almería». Available at culturandalucía.com (ed.).

• - TAPIA GARRIDO, José Ángel: Almería man to man. Almería: Monte de Piedad and Caja de Ahorros de Almería, 1979. DL AL-253-1979. ISBN 84-500-3468-X.

• - TAPIA GARRIDO, José Ángel: General History of Almería and its province. Almería: Cajal, 1981, DL M-27873-1981. ISBN 84-85219-43-0 (complete work).

• - TAPIA GARRIDO, José Ángel: Almería stone by stone. Almería: CECA Unicaja, 1992, DL AL-203-1992. ISBN 84-606-0834-4 (complete work).

• - VARIOUS AUTHORS: All of Almería and its Province. Golden Shield, 1987.