Electrical engineering applies knowledge from sciences such as physics and mathematics.

Considering that this branch of engineering is more abstract than others, the training of an electrical engineer requires a mathematical base that allows the abstraction and understanding of electromagnetic phenomena.

After this type of analysis it has been possible to understand this branch of physics, through a set of equations and laws that govern electrical and magnetic phenomena. For example, the development of Maxwell's laws allows us to describe electromagnetic phenomena and forms the basis of the theory of electromagnetism. In the study of electric current, the theoretical basis is based on Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws.

In addition, general knowledge of mechanics and materials science is required for the proper use of appropriate materials for each application.

An electrical engineer must have basic knowledge of other related areas, since many problems that arise in engineering are complex and interdisciplinary.

Must understand and master the components of electrical power systems.

Electric power generation

Electricity generation is the process of generating electrical energy from primary energy sources. For public services in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its delivery (transmission, distribution, etc.) to end users or its storage (using, for example, the pumped storage method). Includes the selection, design and construction of facilities.

Electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be "produced" (i.e., by transforming other forms of energy into electricity). Production takes place in power plants. Electricity is most often generated in a power station by electromechanical generators, driven primarily by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission, but also by other means, such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal energy.

Automation, control, communication and instrumentation of power plants

A power plant is an industrial facility for the generation of electrical energy. Power plants are generally connected to a regional or national electrical grid.

A power plant contains thousands of components and equipment, such as motors, pumps or valves, which must work in a well-coordinated manner. This coordination is carried out through instrumentation and control (I&C) systems. These systems allow plant personnel to monitor the status of the power plant more effectively, identify opportunities to improve the performance of equipment and systems, and anticipate, understand and respond to potential problems. Basically, the purpose of I&C systems in power plants is to enable and support safe and reliable power generation by controlling plant processes.

The I&C system architecture, along with plant operations personnel, acts as the "central nervous system" of a power plant.

Through its constituent elements, such as equipment, modules, sensors, transmitters, motors, valves and others, the I&C system detects plant parameters, monitors performance, integrates information and makes automatic adjustments to power plant operations as necessary. It also responds to faults and abnormal events, thus ensuring efficient energy production and safety. Special attention is paid to the design, testing, operation, maintenance, licensing, operation and modernization of I&C systems.

.Automation systems for power plants have become increasingly sophisticated thanks to significant advances in computer hardware and software. In addition to providing a greater degree of plant automation, these advances have also provided the ability to more closely control all processes in a power plant. This, in turn, has meant that plant operations can be optimized against a variety of parameters to provide greater efficiency and greater flexibility.

These advanced systems improve the performance of the entire plant and, consequently, the economics and safety of present and future power plants. Modern digital monitoring and measurement systems can also contribute to physical and cyber security, if they are designed with security as a fundamental requirement.

Automation, control, communication and instrumentation of electrical substations

A substation is part of an electrical generation, transmission and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or vice versa, or perform any of several other important functions. Between the generating station and the consumer, electrical energy can flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.

With the introduction of microprocessor technology, digital protection and control devices became more intelligent. New intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) can collect and record information about many different parameters of a system, process them based on complex logic in a fraction of a second, and make decisions about abnormal situations to send control commands to switches and circuit breakers to clear the fault.

In addition to their superior processing capacity, modern substation devices can also store information in their internal storage for a certain period and transfer this information to third-party applications for further study and analysis. IEDs can now send information to a local or remote user through different types of communication. This gives operators more flexibility in how and when to process information to provide quick recovery time from a substation outage.

With more information available remotely, new monitoring systems were developed to make the task of a systems administrator in the control center easier. A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system can collect information from various IEDs in a power system through different communication methods and then control and monitor them using various display technologies, even automating the monitoring task based on predefined parameters and algorithms.

A human machine interface (HMI) is implemented at each substation to provide operators with local monitoring and control capabilities that are often necessary during substation configuration, commissioning or maintenance.

Electrical energy transmission

Electrical power transmission is the mass movement of electrical energy from a generation site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement are known as transmission network. This is different from local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is generally known as electrical power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of the delivery of electricity, known as the power grid.

Efficient transmission involves reducing currents by increasing the voltage before transmission and decreasing it at a substation at the far end. For AC power transmission, step up and step down is done using transformers.

A wide area synchronous network, also known as an "interconnect" in North America, directly connects many generators that supply AC power at the same frequency relative to many consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection, and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid). In Europe, a large network connects most of continental Europe.

Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized electricity market regulation in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business. Spain is an example in this regard.

Electrical power distribution

The distribution of electrical energy is the final stage in the delivery of electrical energy; carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations are connected to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. The primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer facility. Distribution transformers step the voltage back down to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often, several customers are supplied from one transformer via secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers requiring a much larger amount of power can connect directly to the main distribution level or to the sub-transmitter level.

General layout of electrical networks. Voltages and loads are typical of a European network.

The transition from transmission to distribution occurs in a power substation, which has the following functions:.

• - Circuit breakers and switches allow the substation to be disconnected from the transmission network or the distribution lines to be disconnected.

• - Transformers reduce transmission voltages, 35 kV or more, to primary distribution voltages. These are medium voltage circuits, typically 600-35,000 V.

• - From the transformer, the power goes to the busbar which can split the distribution power into multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which are distributed to customers.

Urban distribution is primarily underground, sometimes in common utility conduits. The rural layout is primarily above ground with utility poles, and the suburban layout is a mix. Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps down the primary distribution power to a low-voltage secondary circuit, typically 120/240V.

Electrical installations.

An electrical installation is the set of electrical circuits that aims to provide electrical energy to buildings, facilities, public places, infrastructure, etc. It includes the necessary equipment to ensure its correct operation and the connection with the corresponding electrical devices.

Its main function is the transformation of electrical energy into other types of energy. They are the antagonistic installations to the generating installations.

For very high currents in electrical appliances and for high currents distributed through a building, bus bars can be used. (The term "bus" is a contraction of the Latin omnibus, meaning "for all.") Each live conductor in such a system is a rigid piece of copper or aluminum, usually in flat bars (but sometimes as tubing or other shapes). Open busbars are never used in publicly accessible areas, although they are used in manufacturing plants and power company distribution yards to gain the benefit of air cooling. A variation is to use heavy cables, especially when it is desirable to transpose or "roll" phases.

Power system protection

Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the protection of electrical power systems from failure through disconnection of faulty parts from the rest of the electrical network. The goal of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating only the components that have failed, leaving most of the network still operational. Therefore, protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to eliminate system failures. Devices used to protect power systems from failure are called protective devices.

Protection systems usually consist of five components:.

• - Current and voltage transformers to reduce high voltages and currents in the electrical power system to levels suitable for relays to handle.

• - Protection relays to detect the fault and initiate a trip or disconnection order.

• - Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on relay and auto recloser commands.

• - Batteries to provide power in case of power disconnection in the system.

• - Communication channels to allow current and voltage analysis at remote terminals of a line and allow remote tripping of the equipment.

For parts of a distribution system, fuses are capable of detecting and disconnecting faults.

Failures can occur in each part, such as insulation failure, downed or broken transmission lines, malfunctioning circuit breakers, short circuits, and open circuits. Protective devices are installed with the objective of protecting assets and ensuring continuous power supply.

The distribution board is a combination of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. The switches are safe to open under normal load current (some switches are not safe to operate under normal or abnormal conditions), while the protective devices are safe to open under fault current. Very important equipment may have completely redundant and independent protection systems, while a minor secondary distribution line may have very simple and low-cost protection.

Coordination

Coordination of protective devices is the process of determining the "best setting" of current interruption when abnormal electrical conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an interruption as much as possible. Historically, coordination of protective devices was done on translucent recording paper. Modern methods typically include detailed computer analysis and reporting.

Protection coordination is also handled by dividing the power system into protective zones. If a failure occurs in a given zone, the necessary actions will be taken to isolate that zone from the entire system. Zone definitions include generators, buses, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, and motors. Additionally, zones have the following characteristics: Overlapping zones, overlapping regions indicate circuit breakers, and all circuit breakers in a given zone with a fault will open to isolate the fault. The overlapping regions are created by two sets of instrument transformers and relays for each circuit breaker. They are designed for redundancy to eliminate unprotected areas; However, the overlap regions are designed to remain as small as possible, so that when a fault occurs in an overlap region and the two zones spanning the fault are isolated, the sector of the power system that is lost from service is still small despite the two zones. be isolated.

El mantenimiento eléctrico y electromecánico cubre todos los aspectos de prueba, monitoreo, reparación y reemplazo de elementos de cualquier sistema eléctrico y mecánicos asociados a estos.

Generalmente realizado por un profesional autorizado con un conocimiento completo del Código Eléctrico Nacional y las regulaciones locales, el mantenimiento eléctrico cubre áreas tan diversas como:.

• Motores.

• Generadores.

• Transformadores.

• Otras máquinas eléctricas.

• Sistemas de iluminación.

• Protección contra sobretensiones.

• Líneas de transmisión.

• Instalaciones eléctricas.

Con una mayor dependencia tanto de la recopilación de datos como de la maquinaria ejecutada por software de computadora, el mantenimiento eléctrico es más vital que nunca. La falla de un solo componente en el sistema eléctrico puede causar un tiempo de inactividad extenso o pérdida de datos.

Electricity market

In economic terms, electricity is a good that can be bought, sold and traded. An electricity market, also energy exchange or PX, is a system that allows purchases, through purchase tenders; sales, through sales offers; and short-term trading, generally in the form of financial swaps or bonds. Bidding and offers use principles of supply and demand to set the price. Long-term transactions are contracts similar to power purchase agreements and are generally considered private bilateral transactions between counterparties.

Wholesale transactions (tenders and offers) for electricity are typically cleared and settled by the market operator or an independent special purpose entity exclusively in charge of that function. Market operators do not clear trades, but often require trading knowledge to maintain generation and load balancing. Commodities within an electricity market generally consist of two types: power and energy. Power is the rate of net electrical transfer measured at a given time and is measured in megawatts (MW). Energy is the electricity that flows through a measured point during a given period and is measured in megawatt hours (MWh).

Energy-related commodity markets trade net generation output over various intervals, typically in 5-, 15-, and 60-minute increments. Energy-related commodity markets required and managed by (and paid for by) market operators to ensure reliability, are considered ancillary services and include names such as spinning reserve, non-spinning reserve, operating reserves, responsive reserve, upregulation, downregulation and installed capacity.

Additionally, for most major operators, there are markets for transmission congestion and electricity derivatives, such as electricity futures and options, that are actively traded. These markets developed as a result of the restructuring of electrical power systems around the world. This process has often developed in parallel with the restructuring of natural gas markets.

Counter.

The basic principle of the offer has not changed much over time. The amount of energy used for domestic consumption, and therefore, the amount charged on the electricity bill, is measured through an electricity meter that is normally placed near the entrance of a home, to provide easy access to it.

Customers are generally charged a monthly service fee, access fee or power term (the fixed one) and additional charges based on the electrical energy (in kWh) consumed by the home or business during the month. Commercial and industrial consumers typically have more complex pricing schemes. These require meters that quantify energy use at time intervals (such as half an hour) to impose charges based on both the amount of energy consumed and the maximum rate of consumption, that is, maximum demand, which is measured in kilovoltamperes (kVA).

Renewable energies

Renewable energy is useful energy that is harvested from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human time scale, including carbon-neutral sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

Renewable energy often provides power in four major areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over broad geographic areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. The rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and the technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant economic and energy security benefits.

At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy that contributes more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are expected to continue growing strongly in the next decade and beyond. At least two countries, Iceland and Norway, already generate all their electricity using renewable energy, and many other countries have set a goal of reaching 100% renewable energy in the future. At least 47 nations around the world already have more than 50 percent of their electricity from renewable resources. Renewable energy resources exist over broad geographic areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. The rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for the promotion of renewable sources such as solar energy and wind energy.

While many renewable energy projects are large scale, renewable technologies are also suitable for rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial for human development. Since most renewable energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with increased electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can be converted to heat, can be converted to mechanical energy with high efficiency, and is clean at the point of consumption. Furthermore, electrification with renewable energy is more efficient and therefore leads to significant reductions in primary energy requirements.

By 2040, renewable energy is expected to equal coal and natural gas electricity generation. Several jurisdictions, including Denmark, Germany, the state of South Australia and some US states, have achieved high integration of variable renewables. For example, in 2015 wind energy covered 42% of electricity demand in Denmark, 23.2% in Portugal and 15.5% in Uruguay. Interconnectors allow countries to balance electricity systems by allowing the import and export of renewable energy. Innovative hybrid systems have emerged between countries and regions.

La eficiencia de un sistema en electrónica e ingeniería eléctrica se define como la producción de potencia útil dividida por la potencia eléctrica total consumida (una expresión fraccionaria), típicamente denotada por la letra griega eta minúscula (η - ήτα).

Si la producción y la entrada de energía se expresan en las mismas unidades, la eficiencia es un número adimensional. Cuando no es habitual o conveniente representar la energía de entrada y salida en las mismas unidades, las cantidades similares a la eficiencia tienen unidades asociadas. Por ejemplo, la tasa de calor de una planta de energía de combustibles fósiles puede expresarse en BTU por kilovatio-hora. La eficacia luminosa de una fuente de luz expresa la cantidad de luz visible para una cierta cantidad de transferencia de energía y tiene las unidades de lúmenes por vatio.

La eficiencia no debe confundirse con la efectividad : un sistema que desperdicia la mayor parte de su potencia de entrada pero produce exactamente lo que debe, es efectivo pero no eficiente. El término "eficiencia" sólo tiene sentido en referencia al efecto deseado. Una bombilla, por ejemplo, puede tener un 2% de eficiencia en la emisión de luz y aun así tener un 98% de eficiencia en la calefacción de una habitación (en la práctica, es casi un 100% de eficiencia en la calefacción de una habitación porque la energía de la luz también se convertirá finalmente en calor. (parte de la pequeña fracción que sale por las ventanas). Un amplificador electrónico que entrega 10 vatios de potencia a su carga (por ejemplo, un altavoz), mientras que consumir 20 vatios de energía de una fuente de energía es 50% eficiente. (10/20 × 100 = 50%).

Eficiencia electromecánica:.

Comparar el trabajo realizado por los sistemas motor-generador con las entradas de energía para calcular la eficiencia.

Con la mayoría de las conversiones de energía, se pierde algo de energía en el proceso, por lo que los ingenieros mejoran la eficiencia energética de los sistemas electromecánicos para reducir el consumo de energía. Hacer que los sistemas que incluyen conversiones de energía sean más eficientes puede ayudar a reducir el consumo de combustibles fósiles y reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero.

El rendimiento, la eficiencia y la confiabilidad significativamente mejorados se ofrecen a través del control electrodinámico inteligente en la transferencia de fuerza y potencia que beneficiara a las aplicaciones en todos los sectores de ingeniería.

Eficacia luminosa.

La eficacia luminosa es una medida de qué tan bien una fuente de luz produce luz visible. Es la relación entre el flujo luminoso y la potencia, medida en lúmenes por vatio en el Sistema Internacional de Unidades (SI). Dependiendo del contexto, la energía puede ser el flujo radiante de la salida de la fuente o puede ser la energía total (energía eléctrica, energía química u otras) consumida por la fuente. lo general, el sentido del término que se pretende debe inferirse del contexto y, a veces, no está claro. El primer sentido a veces se denomina eficacia luminosa de la radiación, y el segundo eficacia luminosa de una fuente o eficacia luminosa global.

No todas las longitudes de onda de la luz son igualmente visibles, o igualmente efectivas para estimular la visión humana, debido a la sensibilidad espectral del ojo humano ; la radiación en las partes infrarroja y ultravioleta del espectro es inútil para la iluminación. La eficacia luminosa de una fuente es el producto de qué tan bien convierte la energía en radiación electromagnética y qué tan bien el ojo humano detecta la radiación emitida.

Eficiencia de iluminación.

Las fuentes de luz artificial generalmente se evalúan en términos de eficacia luminosa de la fuente, también llamada a veces eficacia de enchufe de pared. Esta es la relación entre el flujo luminoso total emitido por un dispositivo y la cantidad total de energía de entrada (eléctrica, etc.) que consume. La eficacia luminosa de la fuente es una medida de la eficiencia del dispositivo con la salida ajustada para tener en cuenta la curva de respuesta espectral (la función de luminosidad). Cuando se expresa en forma adimensional (por ejemplo, como una fracción de la eficacia luminosa máxima posible), este valor puede ser llamado eficacia luminosa de una fuente, eficiencia luminosa global o eficiencia de la iluminación.

Artificial lighting

Artificial lighting is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects, including the use of light sources such as lamps and lighting fixtures.

Street lights are used to illuminate roads and hallways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy efficient alternative to traditional street lights.

Floodlights can be used to illuminate work areas or outdoor playing fields during nighttime hours. The most common type of projectors are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.

Beacon lights are placed at the intersection of two roads to aid in navigation.

Sometimes security lighting can be used along roads in urban areas or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights that are used to deter crime. Security lights can include spotlights and be activated by PIR switches that detect moving heat sources in the dark.

Driveway lights can be used outdoors to illuminate and mark the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for safety, security and decoration purposes.

Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds, fountains, swimming pools, and the like.

Neon signs are most often used to draw attention rather than illuminate.

Lighting control systems reduce energy use and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed. Lighting control systems generally incorporate the use of schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e., daylight harvesting). Some systems also support demand response and will automatically dim or turn off lights to take advantage of utility incentives. Lighting control systems are sometimes incorporated into larger building automation systems.

Vehicles typically include headlights and taillights. Headlights are selective white or yellow lights placed at the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and make the vehicle more visible. Many manufacturers are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlights.

Engineers in this concentration can work in industries such as: consumer products and related technologies, interior/architectural design, retail, entertainment/theater, construction, and in lighting technology design and development companies.

Their work includes developing more cost-effective lighting fixtures, poles and physical applications (healthcare, landscape, roads) to developing novel personal lighting, to designing new light sources such as LEDs. Lighting consultants help construction and architecture firms apply lighting in artistic and aesthetic ways, as well as in ways that are energy efficient, discreet, and even enhance personal safety. They also maintain lighting, lamps, public reflectors and create lighting systems.

Son sistemas eléctricos de potencia diferentes a las redes eléctricas de consumo.

Aircraft electrical power systems

It is an autonomous network of components that generate, transmit, distribute, use and store electrical energy.

All aircraft electrical systems have components with the ability to generate electricity. Depending on the aircraft, generators or alternators are used to produce electricity. These are usually engine driven, but can also be powered by an APU, hydraulic motor, or air turbine. The generator output is normally 115-120V/400HZ AC, 28VDC or 14VDC. Generator power can be used without modification or routed through transformers, rectifiers, or inverters to change the voltage or current type.

The output of the generator will normally be directed to one or more distribution buses. The individual components are powered from the bus with circuit protection in the form of a circuit breaker or fuse built into the wiring.

The output of the generator is also used to charge the aircraft battery(s). Batteries are typically lead-acid or NICAD types, but lithium batteries are becoming more common. They are used both to start aircraft and as an emergency power source in case of failure of the generation or distribution system.

These are typically multi-voltage systems that use a combination of AC and DC buses to power various aircraft components. Primary power generation is normally AC with one or more Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU) providing conversion to DC voltage to power the DC buses. Secondary AC generation from an APU is typically provided for ground use when the engines are not operating and for air use in the event of a component failure. Tertiary generation in the form of a hydraulic motor or RAT can also be incorporated into the system to provide redundancy in the event of multiple failures. Essential AC and DC components are connected to specific buses and special measures are taken to provide power to these buses in almost all failure situations. In the event that all AC power generation is lost, a static inverter is included in the system so that the essential AC bus can be powered by the aircraft batteries.

Electrical power systems for land vehicles

They are autonomous networks of components that generate, transmit, distribute, use and store electrical energy.

Advanced electric propulsion vehicles such as hybrid-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles, and battery electric vehicles require power electronics and electric machines to operate.

Main investor.

Power inverters and converters are used to reverse direct current (DC) from the HV battery pack into alternating current (AC) for the motors that propel the vehicle down the road; They also convert AC to DC to charge the HV battery. With an electric drivetrain, the inverter controls the electric motor in a manner somewhat equivalent to how the Engine Control Unit (ECU) of a gas or diesel internal combustion engine vehicle determines the vehicle's driving behavior; It also captures the kinetic energy released through regenerative braking and feeds it back to the battery. As a result, the vehicle's range is directly related to the efficiency of the main inverter.

DC / DC converters.

The various electronic components in a car or truck require different voltage levels. The most basic requirement for DC/DC conversion is to power traditional 12V loads. When a standard combustion engine vehicle is running, an alternator connected to the engine provides the power for all electrical loads and also recharges the battery. The internal combustion engine in HEVs can be turned off for long periods of time, so an alternator cannot be relied on to provide power to auxiliary loads. A DC/DC converter charges the 12V battery from the HV bus, thus eliminating the 14V alternator.

Battery management.

To power the electric motors, large battery packs are made up of hundreds of cells installed in the vehicle and producing approximately 400 V of power. The battery packs are managed and monitored by a battery management system (BMS) and charged by an integrated AC/DC converter module, with voltages ranging from single-phase 110V to three-phase 380V systems.

The battery management system is a key element in the overall HEV and EV architecture. Not only can it extend the life of the battery, but it can also extend the possible range of the vehicle. The state of health (SoH), state of charge (SoC) and depth of discharge (DoD) of the battery are constantly monitored. As battery cells age, the capacity of individual cells changes and negatively impacts the overall capacity of the battery. Fortunately, cell monitoring circuits allow for cell balancing during charging and discharging. While the vehicle's power system views the battery pack as a single source of high voltage, the battery control system must consider the condition of each battery independently. If one battery in a stack has a slightly lower capacity than the other batteries, then its SoC will gradually drift away from the rest of the batteries over multiple charge and discharge cycles. The more cells a pack has in series, the greater the potential difference in state of charge, impedance and capacity affecting the power delivery of the pack.

An onboard battery protection and management system monitors the health of the battery during charging and discharging to enable the longest possible battery life. Battery monitoring devices integrate all components necessary for voltage and current measurement, signal isolation and safety monitoring. Since most EV and HEV battery packs are now lithium-ion formulations, battery protection and monitoring are a necessity. At the higher operating voltages experienced in electric vehicles, overvoltage can be catastrophic.

Ship electrical power systems

Onboard power is generated using a prime mover and an alternator working together. For this, an alternating current generator is used on board. The generator works on the principle that when a magnetic field varies around a conductor, a current is induced in the conductor.

The generator consists of a fixed set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core. This is known as a stator. A rotating magnet called a rotor spins inside this stator producing a magnetic field. This field passes through the conductor, generating an induced EMF or electromagnetic force when mechanical input causes the rotor to rotate.

Main switch board which is a metal enclosure that takes power from the diesel generator and supplies it to different machinery.

Busbars that act as a carrier and allow the transfer of load from one point to another. Circuit breakers that act like a switch and in unsafe conditions can be tripped to prevent breakdowns and accidents. Fuses as a safety device for machinery.

Transformers to raise or lower the voltage. When supply is to be supplied to the lighting system, a step down transformer is used in the distribution system.

In a power distribution system, the voltage at which the system operates is typically 440 volts.

There are some large installations where the voltage is as high as 6600v.

Power is supplied through circuit breakers to large auxiliary machinery at high voltage. For smaller supplies miniature fuses and circuit breakers are used.

The distribution system is three wires and can be neutral insulated or grounded.

Isolated system is more preferred compared to grounded system because during a ground fault essential machinery such as steering gear may be lost.

Charging stations

A charging station, also called electric charging point and electric vehicle supply equipment, is a machine that supplies electrical power to charging plug-in electric vehicles, including cars, neighborhood electric vehicles, trucks, buses and others.

Some electric vehicles have onboard converters that plug into a standard outlet or a higher voltage outlet. Others use custom charging stations.

Charging stations provide connectors that meet a variety of standards. For common DC fast charging, chargers are equipped with various adapters such as Combined Charging System (CCS), CHAdeMO and AC Fast Charging.

Public charging stations are typically located on the side of the street or in retail shopping centers, government facilities, and parking areas.

Alternating current (AC).

AC charging stations connect the vehicle's onboard charging circuits directly to the AC supply.

• - AC Level 1 – Plugs directly into a standard 120V North American residential outlet; capable of supplying 12-16 A (1.4-1.92 kW) depending on the capacity of a dedicated circuit.

• - AC Level 2 – Uses 240V residential or 208V commercial power to supply 6-80A (1.4-19.2kW). Provides a significant increase in charging speed over Level 1 charging.

Direct current (DC).

Commonly incorrectly called Level 3 Charging, DC fast charging is classified separately. In DC fast charging, power from the grid passes through an AC/DC inverter before reaching the vehicle's battery, bypassing the integrated charging circuits.

• - DC Level 1: supplies a maximum of 80 kW at 50-1000 V.

• - DC Level 2: Supplies a maximum of 400 kW at 50-1000 V.

The first high-power electronic devices were mercury arc valves. In modern systems, the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching devices such as diodes, thyristors and power transistors such as power MOSFET and IGBT. Unlike electronic systems related to the transmission and processing of signals and data, power electronics process substantial amounts of electrical energy. An AC/DC converter (rectifier) ​​is the most typical power electronics device found in many consumer electronic devices, for example, televisions, personal computers, battery chargers, etc. The power range is usually from tens of watts to several hundred watts. In industry, a common application is the variable speed drive (VSD) used to control an induction motor. The power range of VSDs starts from a few hundred watts and ends in tens of megawatts.

Power conversion systems can be classified according to the type of input and output power.

• - AC to DC (rectifier).

• - DC to AC (inverter).

• - DC to DC (DC to DC converter).

• - AC to AC (AC to AC converter).

Electric machine is a general term for machines that use electromagnetic forces, such as electric motors, electric generators, transformers, and others.

Magnetic flux in all electrical machines plays an important role in the conversion or transfer of energy. Rotating magnetizing field or winding. The machines produce the flux while the armature winding supplies electrical energy or mechanical energy. In the case of transformers, the primary wing supplies the energy demand of the secondary.

The basic design of an electrical machine involves the sizing of the magnetic circuit, electrical circuit, insulation system, etc., and is done by applying analytical equations. A designer is usually faced with a series of problems for which there may not be one solution, but many solutions.

A design must ensure that products perform according to the requirements of higher efficiency, lower material weight for the desired output, lower temperature rise, and lower cost. They must also be reliable and durable.

Factors to take into account in the design of electrical machines:.

The basic components of all electromagnetic devices are the field and armature windings supported by dielectric or insulation, cooling system and mechanical parts. Therefore, the factors to consider in the design are:

1.Magnetic circuit or flow path: you need to set the required amount of flow. Core losses should be lower.

2. Electrical circuit or windings: You must ensure that the required emf is induced without

complexity in winding arrangement. Copper losses should be minor.

3.Isolation: It should ensure smooth separation of machine parts operating at different potential and confine the current to the prescribed paths.

4. Cooling or ventilation system: You must ensure that the machine works at the specified temperature.

5. Machine parts: They must be robust.

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Electrical engineering applies knowledge from sciences such as physics and mathematics.

Considering that this branch of engineering is more abstract than others, the training of an electrical engineer requires a mathematical base that allows the abstraction and understanding of electromagnetic phenomena.

After this type of analysis it has been possible to understand this branch of physics, through a set of equations and laws that govern electrical and magnetic phenomena. For example, the development of Maxwell's laws allows us to describe electromagnetic phenomena and forms the basis of the theory of electromagnetism. In the study of electric current, the theoretical basis is based on Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws.

In addition, general knowledge of mechanics and materials science is required for the proper use of appropriate materials for each application.

An electrical engineer must have basic knowledge of other related areas, since many problems that arise in engineering are complex and interdisciplinary.

Must understand and master the components of electrical power systems.

Electric power generation

Electricity generation is the process of generating electrical energy from primary energy sources. For public services in the electric power industry, it is the stage prior to its delivery (transmission, distribution, etc.) to end users or its storage (using, for example, the pumped storage method). Includes the selection, design and construction of facilities.

Electricity is not freely available in nature, so it must be "produced" (i.e., by transforming other forms of energy into electricity). Production takes place in power plants. Electricity is most often generated in a power station by electromechanical generators, driven primarily by heat engines fueled by combustion or nuclear fission, but also by other means, such as the kinetic energy of flowing water and wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal energy.

Automation, control, communication and instrumentation of power plants

A power plant is an industrial facility for the generation of electrical energy. Power plants are generally connected to a regional or national electrical grid.

A power plant contains thousands of components and equipment, such as motors, pumps or valves, which must work in a well-coordinated manner. This coordination is carried out through instrumentation and control (I&C) systems. These systems allow plant personnel to monitor the status of the power plant more effectively, identify opportunities to improve the performance of equipment and systems, and anticipate, understand and respond to potential problems. Basically, the purpose of I&C systems in power plants is to enable and support safe and reliable power generation by controlling plant processes.

The I&C system architecture, along with plant operations personnel, acts as the "central nervous system" of a power plant.

Through its constituent elements, such as equipment, modules, sensors, transmitters, motors, valves and others, the I&C system detects plant parameters, monitors performance, integrates information and makes automatic adjustments to power plant operations as necessary. It also responds to faults and abnormal events, thus ensuring efficient energy production and safety. Special attention is paid to the design, testing, operation, maintenance, licensing, operation and modernization of I&C systems.

.Automation systems for power plants have become increasingly sophisticated thanks to significant advances in computer hardware and software. In addition to providing a greater degree of plant automation, these advances have also provided the ability to more closely control all processes in a power plant. This, in turn, has meant that plant operations can be optimized against a variety of parameters to provide greater efficiency and greater flexibility.

These advanced systems improve the performance of the entire plant and, consequently, the economics and safety of present and future power plants. Modern digital monitoring and measurement systems can also contribute to physical and cyber security, if they are designed with security as a fundamental requirement.

Automation, control, communication and instrumentation of electrical substations

A substation is part of an electrical generation, transmission and distribution system. Substations transform voltage from high to low, or vice versa, or perform any of several other important functions. Between the generating station and the consumer, electrical energy can flow through several substations at different voltage levels. A substation may include transformers to change voltage levels between high transmission voltages and lower distribution voltages, or at the interconnection of two different transmission voltages.

With the introduction of microprocessor technology, digital protection and control devices became more intelligent. New intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) can collect and record information about many different parameters of a system, process them based on complex logic in a fraction of a second, and make decisions about abnormal situations to send control commands to switches and circuit breakers to clear the fault.

In addition to their superior processing capacity, modern substation devices can also store information in their internal storage for a certain period and transfer this information to third-party applications for further study and analysis. IEDs can now send information to a local or remote user through different types of communication. This gives operators more flexibility in how and when to process information to provide quick recovery time from a substation outage.

With more information available remotely, new monitoring systems were developed to make the task of a systems administrator in the control center easier. A supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) system can collect information from various IEDs in a power system through different communication methods and then control and monitor them using various display technologies, even automating the monitoring task based on predefined parameters and algorithms.

A human machine interface (HMI) is implemented at each substation to provide operators with local monitoring and control capabilities that are often necessary during substation configuration, commissioning or maintenance.

Electrical energy transmission

Electrical power transmission is the mass movement of electrical energy from a generation site, such as a power plant, to an electrical substation. The interconnected lines that facilitate this movement are known as transmission network. This is different from local wiring between high voltage substations and customers, which is generally known as electrical power distribution. The combined transmission and distribution network is part of the delivery of electricity, known as the power grid.

Efficient transmission involves reducing currents by increasing the voltage before transmission and decreasing it at a substation at the far end. For AC power transmission, step up and step down is done using transformers.

A wide area synchronous network, also known as an "interconnect" in North America, directly connects many generators that supply AC power at the same frequency relative to many consumers. For example, there are four major interconnections in North America (the Western Interconnection, the Eastern Interconnection, the Quebec Interconnection, and the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT) grid). In Europe, a large network connects most of continental Europe.

Historically, transmission and distribution lines were owned by the same company, but starting in the 1990s, many countries have liberalized electricity market regulation in ways that have led to the separation of the electricity transmission business from the distribution business. Spain is an example in this regard.

Electrical power distribution

The distribution of electrical energy is the final stage in the delivery of electrical energy; carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers. Distribution substations are connected to the transmission system and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of transformers. The primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers located near the customer facility. Distribution transformers step the voltage back down to the utilization voltage used by lighting, industrial equipment and household appliances. Often, several customers are supplied from one transformer via secondary distribution lines. Commercial and residential customers are connected to secondary distribution lines through service drops. Customers requiring a much larger amount of power can connect directly to the main distribution level or to the sub-transmitter level.

General layout of electrical networks. Voltages and loads are typical of a European network.

The transition from transmission to distribution occurs in a power substation, which has the following functions:.

• - Circuit breakers and switches allow the substation to be disconnected from the transmission network or the distribution lines to be disconnected.

• - Transformers reduce transmission voltages, 35 kV or more, to primary distribution voltages. These are medium voltage circuits, typically 600-35,000 V.

• - From the transformer, the power goes to the busbar which can split the distribution power into multiple directions. The bus distributes power to distribution lines, which are distributed to customers.

Urban distribution is primarily underground, sometimes in common utility conduits. The rural layout is primarily above ground with utility poles, and the suburban layout is a mix. Closer to the customer, a distribution transformer steps down the primary distribution power to a low-voltage secondary circuit, typically 120/240V.

Electrical installations.

An electrical installation is the set of electrical circuits that aims to provide electrical energy to buildings, facilities, public places, infrastructure, etc. It includes the necessary equipment to ensure its correct operation and the connection with the corresponding electrical devices.

Its main function is the transformation of electrical energy into other types of energy. They are the antagonistic installations to the generating installations.

For very high currents in electrical appliances and for high currents distributed through a building, bus bars can be used. (The term "bus" is a contraction of the Latin omnibus, meaning "for all.") Each live conductor in such a system is a rigid piece of copper or aluminum, usually in flat bars (but sometimes as tubing or other shapes). Open busbars are never used in publicly accessible areas, although they are used in manufacturing plants and power company distribution yards to gain the benefit of air cooling. A variation is to use heavy cables, especially when it is desirable to transpose or "roll" phases.

Power system protection

Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the protection of electrical power systems from failure through disconnection of faulty parts from the rest of the electrical network. The goal of a protection scheme is to keep the power system stable by isolating only the components that have failed, leaving most of the network still operational. Therefore, protection schemes must apply a very pragmatic and pessimistic approach to eliminate system failures. Devices used to protect power systems from failure are called protective devices.

Protection systems usually consist of five components:.

• - Current and voltage transformers to reduce high voltages and currents in the electrical power system to levels suitable for relays to handle.

• - Protection relays to detect the fault and initiate a trip or disconnection order.

• - Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on relay and auto recloser commands.

• - Batteries to provide power in case of power disconnection in the system.

• - Communication channels to allow current and voltage analysis at remote terminals of a line and allow remote tripping of the equipment.

For parts of a distribution system, fuses are capable of detecting and disconnecting faults.

Failures can occur in each part, such as insulation failure, downed or broken transmission lines, malfunctioning circuit breakers, short circuits, and open circuits. Protective devices are installed with the objective of protecting assets and ensuring continuous power supply.

The distribution board is a combination of electrical disconnect switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment. The switches are safe to open under normal load current (some switches are not safe to operate under normal or abnormal conditions), while the protective devices are safe to open under fault current. Very important equipment may have completely redundant and independent protection systems, while a minor secondary distribution line may have very simple and low-cost protection.

Coordination

Coordination of protective devices is the process of determining the "best setting" of current interruption when abnormal electrical conditions occur. The goal is to minimize an interruption as much as possible. Historically, coordination of protective devices was done on translucent recording paper. Modern methods typically include detailed computer analysis and reporting.

Protection coordination is also handled by dividing the power system into protective zones. If a failure occurs in a given zone, the necessary actions will be taken to isolate that zone from the entire system. Zone definitions include generators, buses, transformers, transmission and distribution lines, and motors. Additionally, zones have the following characteristics: Overlapping zones, overlapping regions indicate circuit breakers, and all circuit breakers in a given zone with a fault will open to isolate the fault. The overlapping regions are created by two sets of instrument transformers and relays for each circuit breaker. They are designed for redundancy to eliminate unprotected areas; However, the overlap regions are designed to remain as small as possible, so that when a fault occurs in an overlap region and the two zones spanning the fault are isolated, the sector of the power system that is lost from service is still small despite the two zones. be isolated.

El mantenimiento eléctrico y electromecánico cubre todos los aspectos de prueba, monitoreo, reparación y reemplazo de elementos de cualquier sistema eléctrico y mecánicos asociados a estos.

Generalmente realizado por un profesional autorizado con un conocimiento completo del Código Eléctrico Nacional y las regulaciones locales, el mantenimiento eléctrico cubre áreas tan diversas como:.

• Motores.

• Generadores.

• Transformadores.

• Otras máquinas eléctricas.

• Sistemas de iluminación.

• Protección contra sobretensiones.

• Líneas de transmisión.

• Instalaciones eléctricas.

Con una mayor dependencia tanto de la recopilación de datos como de la maquinaria ejecutada por software de computadora, el mantenimiento eléctrico es más vital que nunca. La falla de un solo componente en el sistema eléctrico puede causar un tiempo de inactividad extenso o pérdida de datos.

Electricity market

In economic terms, electricity is a good that can be bought, sold and traded. An electricity market, also energy exchange or PX, is a system that allows purchases, through purchase tenders; sales, through sales offers; and short-term trading, generally in the form of financial swaps or bonds. Bidding and offers use principles of supply and demand to set the price. Long-term transactions are contracts similar to power purchase agreements and are generally considered private bilateral transactions between counterparties.

Wholesale transactions (tenders and offers) for electricity are typically cleared and settled by the market operator or an independent special purpose entity exclusively in charge of that function. Market operators do not clear trades, but often require trading knowledge to maintain generation and load balancing. Commodities within an electricity market generally consist of two types: power and energy. Power is the rate of net electrical transfer measured at a given time and is measured in megawatts (MW). Energy is the electricity that flows through a measured point during a given period and is measured in megawatt hours (MWh).

Energy-related commodity markets trade net generation output over various intervals, typically in 5-, 15-, and 60-minute increments. Energy-related commodity markets required and managed by (and paid for by) market operators to ensure reliability, are considered ancillary services and include names such as spinning reserve, non-spinning reserve, operating reserves, responsive reserve, upregulation, downregulation and installed capacity.

Additionally, for most major operators, there are markets for transmission congestion and electricity derivatives, such as electricity futures and options, that are actively traded. These markets developed as a result of the restructuring of electrical power systems around the world. This process has often developed in parallel with the restructuring of natural gas markets.

Counter.

The basic principle of the offer has not changed much over time. The amount of energy used for domestic consumption, and therefore, the amount charged on the electricity bill, is measured through an electricity meter that is normally placed near the entrance of a home, to provide easy access to it.

Customers are generally charged a monthly service fee, access fee or power term (the fixed one) and additional charges based on the electrical energy (in kWh) consumed by the home or business during the month. Commercial and industrial consumers typically have more complex pricing schemes. These require meters that quantify energy use at time intervals (such as half an hour) to impose charges based on both the amount of energy consumed and the maximum rate of consumption, that is, maximum demand, which is measured in kilovoltamperes (kVA).

Renewable energies

Renewable energy is useful energy that is harvested from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human time scale, including carbon-neutral sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

Renewable energy often provides power in four major areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over broad geographic areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. The rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and the technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant economic and energy security benefits.

At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy that contributes more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are expected to continue growing strongly in the next decade and beyond. At least two countries, Iceland and Norway, already generate all their electricity using renewable energy, and many other countries have set a goal of reaching 100% renewable energy in the future. At least 47 nations around the world already have more than 50 percent of their electricity from renewable resources. Renewable energy resources exist over broad geographic areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. The rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation and economic benefits. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for the promotion of renewable sources such as solar energy and wind energy.

While many renewable energy projects are large scale, renewable technologies are also suitable for rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial for human development. Since most renewable energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with increased electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can be converted to heat, can be converted to mechanical energy with high efficiency, and is clean at the point of consumption. Furthermore, electrification with renewable energy is more efficient and therefore leads to significant reductions in primary energy requirements.

By 2040, renewable energy is expected to equal coal and natural gas electricity generation. Several jurisdictions, including Denmark, Germany, the state of South Australia and some US states, have achieved high integration of variable renewables. For example, in 2015 wind energy covered 42% of electricity demand in Denmark, 23.2% in Portugal and 15.5% in Uruguay. Interconnectors allow countries to balance electricity systems by allowing the import and export of renewable energy. Innovative hybrid systems have emerged between countries and regions.

La eficiencia de un sistema en electrónica e ingeniería eléctrica se define como la producción de potencia útil dividida por la potencia eléctrica total consumida (una expresión fraccionaria), típicamente denotada por la letra griega eta minúscula (η - ήτα).

Si la producción y la entrada de energía se expresan en las mismas unidades, la eficiencia es un número adimensional. Cuando no es habitual o conveniente representar la energía de entrada y salida en las mismas unidades, las cantidades similares a la eficiencia tienen unidades asociadas. Por ejemplo, la tasa de calor de una planta de energía de combustibles fósiles puede expresarse en BTU por kilovatio-hora. La eficacia luminosa de una fuente de luz expresa la cantidad de luz visible para una cierta cantidad de transferencia de energía y tiene las unidades de lúmenes por vatio.

La eficiencia no debe confundirse con la efectividad : un sistema que desperdicia la mayor parte de su potencia de entrada pero produce exactamente lo que debe, es efectivo pero no eficiente. El término "eficiencia" sólo tiene sentido en referencia al efecto deseado. Una bombilla, por ejemplo, puede tener un 2% de eficiencia en la emisión de luz y aun así tener un 98% de eficiencia en la calefacción de una habitación (en la práctica, es casi un 100% de eficiencia en la calefacción de una habitación porque la energía de la luz también se convertirá finalmente en calor. (parte de la pequeña fracción que sale por las ventanas). Un amplificador electrónico que entrega 10 vatios de potencia a su carga (por ejemplo, un altavoz), mientras que consumir 20 vatios de energía de una fuente de energía es 50% eficiente. (10/20 × 100 = 50%).

Eficiencia electromecánica:.

Comparar el trabajo realizado por los sistemas motor-generador con las entradas de energía para calcular la eficiencia.

Con la mayoría de las conversiones de energía, se pierde algo de energía en el proceso, por lo que los ingenieros mejoran la eficiencia energética de los sistemas electromecánicos para reducir el consumo de energía. Hacer que los sistemas que incluyen conversiones de energía sean más eficientes puede ayudar a reducir el consumo de combustibles fósiles y reducir las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero.

El rendimiento, la eficiencia y la confiabilidad significativamente mejorados se ofrecen a través del control electrodinámico inteligente en la transferencia de fuerza y potencia que beneficiara a las aplicaciones en todos los sectores de ingeniería.

Eficacia luminosa.

La eficacia luminosa es una medida de qué tan bien una fuente de luz produce luz visible. Es la relación entre el flujo luminoso y la potencia, medida en lúmenes por vatio en el Sistema Internacional de Unidades (SI). Dependiendo del contexto, la energía puede ser el flujo radiante de la salida de la fuente o puede ser la energía total (energía eléctrica, energía química u otras) consumida por la fuente. lo general, el sentido del término que se pretende debe inferirse del contexto y, a veces, no está claro. El primer sentido a veces se denomina eficacia luminosa de la radiación, y el segundo eficacia luminosa de una fuente o eficacia luminosa global.

No todas las longitudes de onda de la luz son igualmente visibles, o igualmente efectivas para estimular la visión humana, debido a la sensibilidad espectral del ojo humano ; la radiación en las partes infrarroja y ultravioleta del espectro es inútil para la iluminación. La eficacia luminosa de una fuente es el producto de qué tan bien convierte la energía en radiación electromagnética y qué tan bien el ojo humano detecta la radiación emitida.

Eficiencia de iluminación.

Las fuentes de luz artificial generalmente se evalúan en términos de eficacia luminosa de la fuente, también llamada a veces eficacia de enchufe de pared. Esta es la relación entre el flujo luminoso total emitido por un dispositivo y la cantidad total de energía de entrada (eléctrica, etc.) que consume. La eficacia luminosa de la fuente es una medida de la eficiencia del dispositivo con la salida ajustada para tener en cuenta la curva de respuesta espectral (la función de luminosidad). Cuando se expresa en forma adimensional (por ejemplo, como una fracción de la eficacia luminosa máxima posible), este valor puede ser llamado eficacia luminosa de una fuente, eficiencia luminosa global o eficiencia de la iluminación.

Artificial lighting

Artificial lighting is the deliberate use of light to achieve practical or aesthetic effects, including the use of light sources such as lamps and lighting fixtures.

Street lights are used to illuminate roads and hallways at night. Some manufacturers are designing LED and photovoltaic luminaires to provide an energy efficient alternative to traditional street lights.

Floodlights can be used to illuminate work areas or outdoor playing fields during nighttime hours. The most common type of projectors are metal halide and high pressure sodium lights.

Beacon lights are placed at the intersection of two roads to aid in navigation.

Sometimes security lighting can be used along roads in urban areas or behind homes or commercial facilities. These are extremely bright lights that are used to deter crime. Security lights can include spotlights and be activated by PIR switches that detect moving heat sources in the dark.

Driveway lights can be used outdoors to illuminate and mark the entrance to a property. These lights are installed for safety, security and decoration purposes.

Underwater accent lighting is also used for koi ponds, fountains, swimming pools, and the like.

Neon signs are most often used to draw attention rather than illuminate.

Lighting control systems reduce energy use and cost by helping to provide light only when and where it is needed. Lighting control systems generally incorporate the use of schedules, occupancy control, and photocell control (i.e., daylight harvesting). Some systems also support demand response and will automatically dim or turn off lights to take advantage of utility incentives. Lighting control systems are sometimes incorporated into larger building automation systems.

Vehicles typically include headlights and taillights. Headlights are selective white or yellow lights placed at the front of the vehicle, designed to illuminate the upcoming road and make the vehicle more visible. Many manufacturers are turning to LED headlights as an energy-efficient alternative to traditional headlights.

Engineers in this concentration can work in industries such as: consumer products and related technologies, interior/architectural design, retail, entertainment/theater, construction, and in lighting technology design and development companies.

Their work includes developing more cost-effective lighting fixtures, poles and physical applications (healthcare, landscape, roads) to developing novel personal lighting, to designing new light sources such as LEDs. Lighting consultants help construction and architecture firms apply lighting in artistic and aesthetic ways, as well as in ways that are energy efficient, discreet, and even enhance personal safety. They also maintain lighting, lamps, public reflectors and create lighting systems.

Son sistemas eléctricos de potencia diferentes a las redes eléctricas de consumo.

Aircraft electrical power systems

It is an autonomous network of components that generate, transmit, distribute, use and store electrical energy.

All aircraft electrical systems have components with the ability to generate electricity. Depending on the aircraft, generators or alternators are used to produce electricity. These are usually engine driven, but can also be powered by an APU, hydraulic motor, or air turbine. The generator output is normally 115-120V/400HZ AC, 28VDC or 14VDC. Generator power can be used without modification or routed through transformers, rectifiers, or inverters to change the voltage or current type.

The output of the generator will normally be directed to one or more distribution buses. The individual components are powered from the bus with circuit protection in the form of a circuit breaker or fuse built into the wiring.

The output of the generator is also used to charge the aircraft battery(s). Batteries are typically lead-acid or NICAD types, but lithium batteries are becoming more common. They are used both to start aircraft and as an emergency power source in case of failure of the generation or distribution system.

These are typically multi-voltage systems that use a combination of AC and DC buses to power various aircraft components. Primary power generation is normally AC with one or more Transformer Rectifier Units (TRU) providing conversion to DC voltage to power the DC buses. Secondary AC generation from an APU is typically provided for ground use when the engines are not operating and for air use in the event of a component failure. Tertiary generation in the form of a hydraulic motor or RAT can also be incorporated into the system to provide redundancy in the event of multiple failures. Essential AC and DC components are connected to specific buses and special measures are taken to provide power to these buses in almost all failure situations. In the event that all AC power generation is lost, a static inverter is included in the system so that the essential AC bus can be powered by the aircraft batteries.

Electrical power systems for land vehicles

They are autonomous networks of components that generate, transmit, distribute, use and store electrical energy.

Advanced electric propulsion vehicles such as hybrid-electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, fuel cell electric vehicles, and battery electric vehicles require power electronics and electric machines to operate.

Main investor.

Power inverters and converters are used to reverse direct current (DC) from the HV battery pack into alternating current (AC) for the motors that propel the vehicle down the road; They also convert AC to DC to charge the HV battery. With an electric drivetrain, the inverter controls the electric motor in a manner somewhat equivalent to how the Engine Control Unit (ECU) of a gas or diesel internal combustion engine vehicle determines the vehicle's driving behavior; It also captures the kinetic energy released through regenerative braking and feeds it back to the battery. As a result, the vehicle's range is directly related to the efficiency of the main inverter.

DC / DC converters.

The various electronic components in a car or truck require different voltage levels. The most basic requirement for DC/DC conversion is to power traditional 12V loads. When a standard combustion engine vehicle is running, an alternator connected to the engine provides the power for all electrical loads and also recharges the battery. The internal combustion engine in HEVs can be turned off for long periods of time, so an alternator cannot be relied on to provide power to auxiliary loads. A DC/DC converter charges the 12V battery from the HV bus, thus eliminating the 14V alternator.

Battery management.

To power the electric motors, large battery packs are made up of hundreds of cells installed in the vehicle and producing approximately 400 V of power. The battery packs are managed and monitored by a battery management system (BMS) and charged by an integrated AC/DC converter module, with voltages ranging from single-phase 110V to three-phase 380V systems.

The battery management system is a key element in the overall HEV and EV architecture. Not only can it extend the life of the battery, but it can also extend the possible range of the vehicle. The state of health (SoH), state of charge (SoC) and depth of discharge (DoD) of the battery are constantly monitored. As battery cells age, the capacity of individual cells changes and negatively impacts the overall capacity of the battery. Fortunately, cell monitoring circuits allow for cell balancing during charging and discharging. While the vehicle's power system views the battery pack as a single source of high voltage, the battery control system must consider the condition of each battery independently. If one battery in a stack has a slightly lower capacity than the other batteries, then its SoC will gradually drift away from the rest of the batteries over multiple charge and discharge cycles. The more cells a pack has in series, the greater the potential difference in state of charge, impedance and capacity affecting the power delivery of the pack.

An onboard battery protection and management system monitors the health of the battery during charging and discharging to enable the longest possible battery life. Battery monitoring devices integrate all components necessary for voltage and current measurement, signal isolation and safety monitoring. Since most EV and HEV battery packs are now lithium-ion formulations, battery protection and monitoring are a necessity. At the higher operating voltages experienced in electric vehicles, overvoltage can be catastrophic.

Ship electrical power systems

Onboard power is generated using a prime mover and an alternator working together. For this, an alternating current generator is used on board. The generator works on the principle that when a magnetic field varies around a conductor, a current is induced in the conductor.

The generator consists of a fixed set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core. This is known as a stator. A rotating magnet called a rotor spins inside this stator producing a magnetic field. This field passes through the conductor, generating an induced EMF or electromagnetic force when mechanical input causes the rotor to rotate.

Main switch board which is a metal enclosure that takes power from the diesel generator and supplies it to different machinery.

Busbars that act as a carrier and allow the transfer of load from one point to another. Circuit breakers that act like a switch and in unsafe conditions can be tripped to prevent breakdowns and accidents. Fuses as a safety device for machinery.

Transformers to raise or lower the voltage. When supply is to be supplied to the lighting system, a step down transformer is used in the distribution system.

In a power distribution system, the voltage at which the system operates is typically 440 volts.

There are some large installations where the voltage is as high as 6600v.

Power is supplied through circuit breakers to large auxiliary machinery at high voltage. For smaller supplies miniature fuses and circuit breakers are used.

The distribution system is three wires and can be neutral insulated or grounded.

Isolated system is more preferred compared to grounded system because during a ground fault essential machinery such as steering gear may be lost.

Charging stations

A charging station, also called electric charging point and electric vehicle supply equipment, is a machine that supplies electrical power to charging plug-in electric vehicles, including cars, neighborhood electric vehicles, trucks, buses and others.

Some electric vehicles have onboard converters that plug into a standard outlet or a higher voltage outlet. Others use custom charging stations.

Charging stations provide connectors that meet a variety of standards. For common DC fast charging, chargers are equipped with various adapters such as Combined Charging System (CCS), CHAdeMO and AC Fast Charging.

Public charging stations are typically located on the side of the street or in retail shopping centers, government facilities, and parking areas.

Alternating current (AC).

AC charging stations connect the vehicle's onboard charging circuits directly to the AC supply.

• - AC Level 1 – Plugs directly into a standard 120V North American residential outlet; capable of supplying 12-16 A (1.4-1.92 kW) depending on the capacity of a dedicated circuit.

• - AC Level 2 – Uses 240V residential or 208V commercial power to supply 6-80A (1.4-19.2kW). Provides a significant increase in charging speed over Level 1 charging.

Direct current (DC).

Commonly incorrectly called Level 3 Charging, DC fast charging is classified separately. In DC fast charging, power from the grid passes through an AC/DC inverter before reaching the vehicle's battery, bypassing the integrated charging circuits.

• - DC Level 1: supplies a maximum of 80 kW at 50-1000 V.

• - DC Level 2: Supplies a maximum of 400 kW at 50-1000 V.

The first high-power electronic devices were mercury arc valves. In modern systems, the conversion is performed with semiconductor switching devices such as diodes, thyristors and power transistors such as power MOSFET and IGBT. Unlike electronic systems related to the transmission and processing of signals and data, power electronics process substantial amounts of electrical energy. An AC/DC converter (rectifier) ​​is the most typical power electronics device found in many consumer electronic devices, for example, televisions, personal computers, battery chargers, etc. The power range is usually from tens of watts to several hundred watts. In industry, a common application is the variable speed drive (VSD) used to control an induction motor. The power range of VSDs starts from a few hundred watts and ends in tens of megawatts.

Power conversion systems can be classified according to the type of input and output power.

• - AC to DC (rectifier).

• - DC to AC (inverter).

• - DC to DC (DC to DC converter).

• - AC to AC (AC to AC converter).

Electric machine is a general term for machines that use electromagnetic forces, such as electric motors, electric generators, transformers, and others.

Magnetic flux in all electrical machines plays an important role in the conversion or transfer of energy. Rotating magnetizing field or winding. The machines produce the flux while the armature winding supplies electrical energy or mechanical energy. In the case of transformers, the primary wing supplies the energy demand of the secondary.

The basic design of an electrical machine involves the sizing of the magnetic circuit, electrical circuit, insulation system, etc., and is done by applying analytical equations. A designer is usually faced with a series of problems for which there may not be one solution, but many solutions.

A design must ensure that products perform according to the requirements of higher efficiency, lower material weight for the desired output, lower temperature rise, and lower cost. They must also be reliable and durable.

Factors to take into account in the design of electrical machines:.

The basic components of all electromagnetic devices are the field and armature windings supported by dielectric or insulation, cooling system and mechanical parts. Therefore, the factors to consider in the design are:

1.Magnetic circuit or flow path: you need to set the required amount of flow. Core losses should be lower.

2. Electrical circuit or windings: You must ensure that the required emf is induced without

complexity in winding arrangement. Copper losses should be minor.

3.Isolation: It should ensure smooth separation of machine parts operating at different potential and confine the current to the prescribed paths.

4. Cooling or ventilation system: You must ensure that the machine works at the specified temperature.

5. Machine parts: They must be robust.

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