The Seicento was a period characterized by a variety of trends never before experienced. The conception of the cosmos had been completely revolutionized during the previous century, while the divisions matured within the Church had become the symbol of the disintegration of a unified and absolute world. In the artistic field, the sense of doubt and the consequent alienation of the individual had found expression in mannerism.

Between the end of the Cinquecento and the beginning of the Seicento, changes in human attitude can be observed. Descartes, upon discovering that everything could be doubted, came to the conclusion that doubt represented the only certainty; By separating the act of doubting from any extraneous element, he eliminated the foundations of skepticism. Thus, man once again pursued security, choosing among the alternatives offered by the time; The new world became "pluralistic", offering man a variety of options and alternatives, both religious and philosophical, economic and political.[N-S. 1]​.

While the universe of the Renaissance was closed and static, the fundamental attitude of the Baroque era became that of belonging to an absolute and integrated system, but at the same time open and dynamic. This attitude was favored by the great voyages of exploration, with the discovery of a wider world, colonization and the evolution of scientific research. This led to an increase in the specialization of human activities, with the consequent breakdown of the binomial art and science, a combination that had laid the foundations for the universal man of the Renaissance.[N-S. 2]​.

The destruction of the Old World culminated in the Thirty Years' War, which, at the beginning of the century, paralyzed much of Central Europe. During that period, the Protestant Reformation spread to many regions of Europe, beginning the development of several Reformed churches. The subsequent Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Catholic Church with the Council of Trent, also had considerable repercussions in the artistic field: the didactic importance of images was promoted and a whole series of rules were established in the arts to underline the distinction between the clergy and the faithful.[Fus. 1]​.

This attitude reached all regions of the Catholic world thanks to the work of the Jesuits and, despite its rigid and defensive character, favored the development of Baroque art. In fact, in the 20th century, the Catholic Church began to seek a compromise with political power, ceasing to fight against the intrusions of historical reality[10] and trying to reconcile matters of faith with those inherent to worldly life; Precisely for this reason, the baroque became a style capable of expressing both the dogmas of faith and the frivolities of worldliness.[Fus. 1]​.

Baroque architecture, which was already announced in the middle of the Cinquecento in some of Michelangelo's works, developed in Rome and reached its best achievements between 1630 and 1670; from there it spread to the rest of the Italian peninsula and the Western world, while in the century Rome returned again to classicism following the example of Paris.[Pev. 1]​ It is generally divided into three periods:

• - early baroque (1584-1625), largely dominated by the work of Roman architects, such as Giacomo della Porta (in particular, the Church of the Gesù consecrated in 1584), Carlo Maderno (church of Santa Susanna (1603), façade and colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica (completed in 1612) and Pietro da Cortona (the lavish Interiors of the Barberini Palace (1633-1639). Corresponds to the work of artists such as Annibale Carracci, Caravaggio, Pieter Paul Rubens.

• - high baroque (1625-1675), with the major works of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (the colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica, 1656-1657)), Pietro da Cortona (church of Santi Luca e Martina, 1635-1650) and Francesco Borromini (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1634-1646), who made Rome the main center of attraction artistic throughout Europe. More precisely, under the pontificates of Urban VIII (Barberini, p. 1623-1644), Innocent Baroque included Santa Maria della Salute by Baldassare Longhena.

• - late baroque (1667-1750) saw the style spread to all parts of Europe, and to the colonies of Spain and Portugal in the New World. National styles became more varied and different. It is linked to the decline of the Holy See after the death of Pope Alexander VII, in 1667; [Fus. 3]​ Bernini's expulsion from the Louvre palace expansion project coincided with the beginning of the decline of Rome as a city-guide and the affirmation of Paris in that role.[Fus. 4]​.

The periodization of the Baroque in Italy does not coincide with other periodizations in other European countries. For example, in France, periodization is not related to the work of individual artists, but is due to the cultural policy of Louis XIV, which led to the identification of this style with the name of the sovereign.[Fus. 5] It is also worth remembering that at the end of the century, the revocation of the edict of Nantes caused the migration of numerous French Huguenots to the Netherlands and England: in the first case, this put an end to the autonomy of the local school, developed some decades before with the political and cultural rise of Amsterdam; In the second case, French migration coincided with a change in the baroque sense of English architecture.[Fus. 5]​

The influence of the Baroque was not limited only to the century; In fact, at the beginning of the century Rococo was established, which although it is not a simple continuation of the first, [Fus. 6]​ can be understood as the last phase of the Baroque.[11]​ The sculpted and painted decoration that covers all the spaces on the walls and ceiling will characterize this style.

Rome

The sacred architecture of the Baroque period had its beginnings in the Italian paradigm of the basilica with a nave "Nave (architecture)" and a dome in the transept). Mannerist churches were exemplified by Il Gesù, a break from the Renaissance ideal of a central-plan church, which had been designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 1568—the façade was modified by Giacomo della Porta in 1584—and which was the first and served as a model for the Jesuit churches.[12]​ Its interior was an example of how Roman Classicism") could be combined with large-scale simplicity: tall windows piercing the barrel vault and a ring of windows in the drum of the dome to illuminate the interior with natural light, creating a dramatic contrast of light and dark in a relatively diffuse space.[13]​ One of the first Roman buildings to break with these conventions was the church of Santa Susanna in the Baths of Diocletian "Church of Santa Susanna (Rome)"), designed by Carlo Maderno in 1596 and whose construction was completed in 1603. The dynamic rhythm of the columns and pilasters, the central mass, the projecting elements and the condensed decoration in the center add complexity to the building. There is an incipient game with the rules of classic design, but still maintaining rigor. They had vaulted ceilings.

The same emphasis on plasticity, continuity and scenic effects is evident in the work of Pietro da Cortona, illustrated by the churches of San Lucas and Santa Martina (1635) and Santa Maria della Pace (1656). This last building, which has concave wings designed to simulate a theater stage, presses forward to fill a small plaza arranged in front of it. Other Roman ensembles of the period are also imbued with theatricality, dominating the surrounding urban landscape as a kind of theatrical environment.

Probably the best-known example of this type of solution is the trapezoidal St. Peter's Square, which has been praised as a masterpiece of Baroque scenography. The square is made up of two colonnades, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini on an unprecedented colossal scale to adapt to the space and foster emotions of amazement. Bernini's favorite design was the polychromatic oval church of St. Andrew of the Quirinal (1658), which, with its impressive altarpiece and soaring dome, offers a concentrated sample of the new architecture. His idea of ​​the noble residence in the Baroque city is characterized by the Roman palaces Barberini (1629) and Chigi-Odescalchi (1664).

Bernini's main rival in the papal capital was Francesco Borromini whose designs deviated from the regular compositions of Antiquity and the Renaissance, even more markedly. Considered by later generations as a revolutionary architect, Borromini rejected the anthropomorphic approach of the 19th century, and chose to base his projects on complicated geometric figures (modules). Borromini's architectural space appears to expand and contract when necessary, showing some affinity with Michelangelo's late style. Its iconic masterpiece is the small church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, distinguished by an oval floor plan and complex convex-concave rhythms. A later work, Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, displays the same antipathy for the flat surface and reflects a playful inventiveness, exemplified in the spiral lantern of the dome.

After Bernini's death in 1680, Carlo Fontana established himself as the most influential architect working in Rome. His early style is exemplified in the slightly concave façade of the Church of San Marcello al Corso. Fontana's academic approach, although without the brilliant inventiveness of his predecessors, exerted an enormous influence on Baroque architecture, both through his prolific writings and through the architects he trained and who would spread the Baroque style throughout Europe during the 19th century.

The century saw the capital of the European architectural world move from Rome to Paris. Italian Rococo, which flourished in Rome from the 1720s onwards, was deeply influenced by Borromini's ideas. The most talented architects active in Rome—Francesco de Sanctis "Francesco de Sanctis (architect)") (Spanish Steps "Spanish Steps "Spanish Steps (Rome)"), 1723) and Filippo Raguzzini (Piazza Sant'Ignazio"), 1727)—had little influence outside their native country, as did numerous practitioners of Sicilian Baroque, including Giovanni Battista Vaccarini, Andrea Palma "Andrea Palma (architect)") and Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia.

At the end of the century, Rome became the center of development of architecture linked to the Counter-Reformation and exerted its influence throughout the Catholic world. The premises for the affirmation of the Baroque style can already be found in the works of Giacomo della Porta (1533-1602), who built the façade of the church of the Gesù in the last decades of the Cinquecento.[Fus. 7].

A few years later, in 1603, the façade of the church of Santa Susanna in the Baths of Diocletian "Church of Santa Susanna (Rome)"), designed by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629) and generally considered the "first fully realized example of Baroque architecture" was completed;[N-S. 3]​ even though the spatial distribution still seems mannerist.[Br. 1]​ Maderno reinforced the central axis through the gradual use of pilasters, semi-columns and columns towards the central part of the building, thus accentuating the plasticity&action=edit&redlink=1 "Plasticity (art) (not yet written)") already emerged in della Porta's work. Compared with della Porta and with the facade of the church of the Gesù, the substantial novelty lay in having extended the use of columns to the first order of the entire central area and having replaced it, on the upper level, with a series of pilasters. from 1588-1589.[Wit. 1]​.

In this context, numerous facades were built with the same propaganda purpose,[N-S. 4]​ some with very particular results, as in the case of the church of Saints Vincent and Anastasius, by Martino Longhi, the Younger (1602-1660), where numerous columns are concentrated in the central part of the elevation. Maderno himself was commissioned to extend an arm of St. Peter's Basilica, so that the church would be suitable for receiving a greater number of faithful; Also in this case, the façade (1608-1612), one of the most commented works in the history of architecture,[15] shows a greater plastic intensity towards the center.

A new approach, based on the transformation of forms rather than the application of decorative elements, came with the assertion of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), Francesco Borromini (1599-1667) and Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669).[N-S. 4]​.

Bernini was the dominator of the Roman artistic scene for half a century.[16] The Baldachin of Saint Peter (1624-1633), after the limits and uncertainties that arose in the restoration of the church of Santa Bibiana"), was the true beginning of his career. However, it did not represent a sudden turning point, but rather a gradual self-critical path that lasted for almost a decade of work. Bernini defined the supports of the baldachin with four columns Solomonic pillars that, although they were not an absolute novelty on the Roman architectural scene, clearly differed from the design of the pilasters of the Vatican basilica, making the ciborio "Ciborio (architecture)") the focal point of the entire building. However, the main novelty lay in the coronation, in whose definition Borromini's contribution is documented, with that slight tangle of volutes that can legitimately be considered the manifesto of architecture. baroque.[17]​.

A few decades later, starting in 1658, the same architect created the small church of San Andrés del Quirinal, with a strongly expanded oval floor plan and characterized by the presence of numerous chapels arranged on the perimeter wall; a dome, not very evident on the outside, rests on the entablature that winds above the side chambers.

The theme of the oval, adopted by Bernini also in the missing Chapel of the Magi (1634) and in St. Peter's Square (completed in 1667), should also have been taken up by Carlo Rainaldi (1611-1691) in the church of Santa Maria in Campitelli "Church of Santa Maria in Campitelli (Rome)"), but at the time of construction, the elliptical nave was transformed into a space biaxial, devoid of curves, with a series of chapels that narrowed to the apse area. In particular, the former body of the church was joined to a sanctuary covered by a circular dome, according to a scheme in use in northern Italy which, however, was not followed in Rome.[Wit. 2]​ The serrated course of the nave, highlighted by the presence of columns and pilasters on which the entablature is arranged, is also repeated on the main façade, where they even emerge in a succession of aedicules, attached columns and pilasters.

The search for spaces created within the perimeter wall is evident in the church of the Assunta&action=edit&redlink=1 "Collegiate Church of Santa Maria Assunta (Ariccia) (not yet written)"), in Ariccia, a small town located near Rome.[Fus. 8]​ ​​The project, again by Bernini, was launched in the early 1660s; Compared to Saint Andrew of the Quirinal, the plan is circular and is flanked on the outside by two propylaea arranged at the end of a corridor that circles the back of the building. If the figure in plan shows a classic tablature, referable to the Bramantesco models or the Pantheon of Rome, on the outside the invention of the baroque is manifested in the urban layout of the complex, with the annular corridor that represents an exterior and an interior at the same time, and with the volume of the church that "generates in view its spatial face, which is not one of containment, as in Borromini, but of controlled and measured expansion."[Br. 2]​.

• - Works by Bernini.

• - Church of San Andrés del Quirinal (1658-1678).

• - Scala Regia (1663-1666), in the Vatican Apostolic Palace.

• - St. Peter's Square (completed in 1667), Rome.

However, it was in the church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane by Borromini that the theme of the spaces created on the perimeter of the building reaches its apogee.[Fus. 8]​ ​​This church, so small that it could be inside a pillar of the Vatican basilica, [Pev. 2]​ It began in 1638 on a small lot where, in addition to the place of true worship, the cloister and the adjacent convent were also inserted. The floor plan of San Carlino can be redirected to the oval, with concave and convex walls that alternate to form the side chapels. The dome has an oval base and is excavated by a deep coffered ceiling in which different shapes alternate; The connection between the dome and the body of the building is achieved by means of four pendentives that rest on the entablature. The undulating movement of the walls and the rhythmic alternation with protruding and reentrant forms give rise to a pulsating plastic organism, whose form is underlined by the absence of sumptuous decorations.

On the façade, which was only begun in the last years of Borromini's life, the search for intense dynamism stands out, with sinuous surfaces arranged in two orders: the lower part is characterized by a succession of concave-convex-concave surfaces; The upper one is articulated into three concave parts, of which the central one houses a convex aediculus.

Borromini participated in several construction projects in Rome: he created the Oratorio dei Filippini (whose façade, full of concavities and convexities, is a happy fusion between a palace and a church[Fus. 9]), the church of Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori") (incomplete) and, from 1642, he began what could be considered his masterpiece,[N-S. 5]​ the church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza. Directly connected to San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, the church of La Sapienza was arranged at the end of a pre-existing courtyard designed by della Porta. The plan, essentially generated by the intersection of two opposing equilateral triangles, is crowned in elevation by a dome with a lantern finished in a spiral. The plan of Sant'Ivo, once again formed through the use of concavity and convexity, is one of the most unified in the history of architecture, although, due to its audacity, it did not find similar applications in the works of its contemporaries.[N-S 6]​.

The same architect, commissioned by Pope Innocent X, also took part in the restoration of the great basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano; Borromini maintained the original structure, incorporating the nave columns within large pilasters, while the planned vaulted ceiling was not built. According to critics, although the project has not been fully executed, "San Giovanni in Laterano has one of the most beautiful naves that exist":[N-S. 7]​ The integration of the spaces was accentuated by the wide openings that run through the nave, while the corridors of the side naves are formed by small centralized units, with concave angles that also continue in the vaults.

A few years later, he worked on the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, begun by Girolamo Rainaldi (1570-1655) and continued by his son Carlo in 1652, creating one of the most classifying elevations of his artistic production. The building, in which Carlo Rainaldi again regained control, was one of the most significant works of the period, as it had a considerable influence on the international scene.[Fus. 10]​ The plan is a Greek cross that is combined with the circular enclosure crowned by a large dome; It is a baroque revision of the central plan of San Pedro.[Wit. 3] Borromini's inventiveness lies in the façade, where he removed the main front in order to obtain a concave pattern firmly connected to the convex dome drum; He then extended the elevation to the side palaces, to build two bell towers characterized by a stepped tendency towards the top. Similar inventions are also found in the campanile of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte") (an unfinished work by Borromini), which ends with a kind of circular lantern.

• - Roman works by Borromini.

• - Oratorio dei Filippini (1637-1667).

• - Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1638-1641).

• - Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza (1643-1662).

• - Interior of San Giovanni in Laterano.

• - Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone (1652-1657), begun by Girolamo and Carlo Rainaldi.

Carlo Rainaldi was also dedicated to the twin churches in Piazza del Popolo. The first, dedicated to Santa María in Montesanto, began in 1662, and was later completed by Carlo Fontana (1638-1714) according to Bernini's design; the second, dedicated to Santa Maria dei Miracoli "Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (Rome)"), was carried out in 1675, again with the collaboration of Fontana. The two churches, arranged symmetrically around the trident formed by via del Corso, via di Ripetta and via del Babuino, have the same appearance, but in reality, to better adapt to the distribution of the lots, they differed in the plans: for Santa Maria dei Miracoli a circular plan was adopted, while for the adjacent Santa Maria in Montesanto, erected on a larger plot, an elliptical shape, with transverse dimensions similar to the previous one, was chosen to maintain the Apparent symmetry from the front.[N-S. 8]​.

Another notable work by Rainaldi was the exterior of the apse of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, located in the visual axis coming from the church of Trinità dei Monti; The architect covered the apse with a plastic surface, integrating it perfectly with the side backs and creating a spatial jewel among the happiest of all the baroque works.[Br. 3]​.

If the works of Carlo Rainaldi, although they show original solutions, refer to the themes of the primitive baroque, a greater plastic integration between spaces, masses and surfaces can be felt in Pietro da Cortona.[N-S. 9]​ His church of San Lucas and Santa Martina "Church of San Lucas and Santa Martina (Rome)") (1635), articulated on a Greek cross plan, recalls the Renaissance patterns of Santa Maria della Consolazione") of Todi, although with significant differences: in fact, one arm of the nave is elongated, which makes the church return to the type of longitudinal plans, while the façade, although being convex, does not reflect the curvature of the internal apses. Then there is the rejection of the use of color: the interior of the church is completely white, while the vaults of the apses are richly decorated. Furthermore, the isolated columns inserted within the walls are a typically Florentine theme (from the Baptistery of San Giovanni") to the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana), which is repeated in other works by Cortona, such as in the drum of the dome of San Carlo al Corso").[Wit. 4]​.

Pietro da Cortona's style emerges with greater vigor in the layout of the church of Santa Maria della Pace, where, between 1656 and 1657, he dedicated himself to the construction of a new façade. The intervention was not limited to the façade of the religious building, but also extended to the side buildings, with the construction of a small scenic plaza dominated in the center by the colonnade of the semicircular church; Furthermore, the solution of the exedra on the façade deeply influenced Bernini in the conception of the aforementioned Sant'Andrea al Quirinale[Fus. 11]​ and, in the choice of the Doric order with Ionic entablature, he anticipated the solution adopted by Bernini for the columns of St. Peter's Square.[Wit. 5]​.

Among the longitudinal churches derived from Il Gesù's scheme, we must first remember that of Santa Maria ai Monti") (1580), by Giacomo della Porta; the church has a modest size and an undeveloped transept, with a dome at the intersection with the main nave.[N-S. 10]​.

The Basilica of Sant'Andrea della Valle is much more imposing, also begun by della Porta in 1591 and completed by Carlo Maderno; the façade, the most baroque of the Roman façades, [Br. 4] was added by Carlo Rainaldi after the middle of the century. The plan, although it adopts the model of the church of the Gesù, has shallower and noticeably higher side chapels; The nave is articulated by the lateral pilasters that mark, together with the dome, the strong vertical rhythm of the building.[N-S. 11].

• - Other Roman baroque churches.

• - Basilica of Sant'Andrea della Valle (1608-1625), work of Carlo Maderno, whose façade was completed (1655-1665) by Carlo Rainaldi.

• - Church of San Lucas and Santa Martina "Church of San Lucas and Santa Martina (Rome)") (1635), Rome, work of Pietro da Cortona.

• - The twin churches of Carlo Rainaldi's Piazza del Popolo: on the left, Santa Maria in Montesanto, and on the right, church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli "Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (Rome)").

• - Facade of Santa Maria in Via Lata (1658-1660), by Pietro de Cortona, 1658-1660.

• - San Marcello al Corso (1681-1687), by Carlo Fontana.

The main architects of the Roman Baroque also left important marks on civil architecture. In 1625 Carlo Maderno began work on the aforementioned Palazzo Barberini with the collaboration of Borromini, to whom the helical staircase is attributed; Upon Maderno's death four years later, the work was carried out by Bernini. It is true, however, that the plan had been decided before January 1629. It was previously highlighted that the layout of the building, deprived of the classical interior courtyard, differs from the tradition of the Italian palace; Being on the outskirts of the city, Maderno changed the original conception of the city palace into a kind of suburban villa. Even the façade, the most classic part of the work, presents innovative elements in the extended arches of the last order.[N-S. 12].

From 1650, Bernini also executed the palazzo Montecitorio, later completed by Carlo Fontana. The façade, in which the footprint of the initial project was substantially maintained, has a convex pattern and shows, on the sides of the ground floor, some rustic stone masses. Also by Bernini is the Chigi-Odescalchi palace (1665-1667), built around a courtyard designed by Maderno. Despite the alterations suffered during the 19th century, the façade added by Bernini can be considered a true model for the façades of Baroque palaces: [N-S. 13] presented a projection in the central part (disappeared during the extensions of the century), defined by giant lesenas and crowned by a balustrade at the top.

Another important construction followed by Bernini was the construction of the Scala Regia in the Vatican. Made after 1660, the staircase, which was to serve to connect the "Vatican Palaces" and the façade of St. Peter's, was built on a very small and irregular plot, located between the basilica and the papal residence. Bernini used these features to his advantage. In a kind of obstacle course, he conceived a staircase of decreasing width, covered by a barrel vault. However, the converging walls between which he inserted the staircase would have given the impression of a larger depth; however, in this sense, the staircase has nothing illusionistic. The correctness of the perspective was obtained through the appropriate arrangement of a series of colonnades on the sides of the corridor; the columns appear to advance on the steps, suggesting a direction of movement contrary to the vertical of the staircase.[Br. 5]

Even Borromini left some significant contributions in this area. His is the trompe-l'œil effect in the perspective gallery of the Palazzo Spada (1652-1653), which suggests a depth different from the real one. Furthermore, in the mid-Seicento he prepared his studies for the palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, built by Girolamo Rainaldi, but his most interesting achievements are found in ecclesiastical palaces, such as the College of Propaganda Fide (within which the chapel of Re Magi is located), where he built a façade formed by compressions and dilations, with great dramatic effect.[N-S. 14]​.

• - Roman baroque palaces.

• - The Palazzo Barberini, started by Carlo Maderno (1625-1629) and finished by Bernini.

• - Palazzo Pamphilj (1644-1650), by Girolamo Rainaldi.

• - Palazzo Montecitorio, work of Bernini (1650) completed by Carlo Fontana.

• - Palazzo Spada (1652-1653).

• - Chigi-Odescalchi Palace (1665-1667), by Bernini.

Finally, in the treatment of the Roman Baroque") it is important to remember the main urban transformations of the city, referring to the plan desired by Pope Sixtus V, who also compiled some interventions already implemented by his predecessors. In particular, the trident of Piazza del Popolo (even before the transformations later promoted by Giuseppe Valadier) is one of the most relevant elements and was the prototype of one of the basic motifs of the Baroque city;[N-S. 15]​ true gateway to the city, it became a nodal point of the road system starting in 1589, with the erection of an obelisk and the construction in the century of the aforementioned twin Rainaldi churches.

Another important space was the Piazza Navona, built on the ruins of the ancient will stadium of Emperor Domitian and which, in the 19th century, assumed the characteristics of a typically Baroque square, so much so that it was identified as the true and proper center of 16th century Rome. Here the foundations of the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone were laid, a prominent element of an almost unitary wall curtain, whose dome stands out from the slightly concave march of the façade; The center of the square is highlighted by the fountain of the Four Rivers (the Nile, the Ganges, the Danube and the River Plate), in which it is possible to read an allusion to the power of the Church in the world that was known at that time.[N-S. 16].

This series of baroque squares finds its apex in the famous Piazza San Pietro, completed by Bernini under Alexander VII between 1657 and 1667. The final solution took into account the liturgical and symbolic problems and the pre-existing architectural emergencies: the space was articulated by means of an oval square connected to the façade of the Vatican basilica with two oblique arms, arranged on the margins of a shaped area. trapezoidal. The connection between the oval and the trapezoid, narrower than the width of Maderno's façade, modified the perspective towards the basilica, making the great mass of the façade appear smaller. The oval plaza, delimited by imposing columns arranged in several rows, should have been closed with a third arm, but it was never executed; Despite this, Bernini created a well-defined space, but at the same time open to the outside and integrated with the rest of the city thanks to the permeability offered by the large colonnades.[N-S. 17].

Bernini also proposed on an axis with the via di Borgo Nuovo (it disappeared with the construction of via della Conciliazione) the bronze door that led to Scala Regia, within the Vatican citadel; Thus he created a surprising route that accompanied the viewer from the narrow and articulated streets of the "Spina di Borgo") to the grandeur of St. Peter's Square, but cutting it asymmetrically, on the north side, to offer evocative and always new glimpses towards the façade of the basilica and towards Michelangelo's dome.[18]​.

• - Views of the baroque squares of Rome.

• - Veduta dei piazza Navona (1699), oil painting by Gaspar van Wittel.

• - Piazza di Popolo (1750), by Hendrik Frans van Lint (1684-1763).

• - Peterskirche in Rom (ca. 1700/1710), by Gaspar van Wittel (1653-1736).

Contenido

En la parte meridional de Italia, destacan dos focos del barroco que permitieron establecer variantes locales en Nápoles y Sicilia, aunque también hay ciudades en las que se erigieron buenos ejemplos, como Lecce, Matera

o Barletta.

Baroque in Sicily

• - Other baroque examples in southern Italy.

• - Basilica of the Holy Cross "Basilica of the Holy Cross (Lecce)"), Lecce.

• - Palace of the Celestines (prefecture) (1549-1695), in Lecce.

• - Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Matera.

• - Church of San Gaetano, Barletta.

• - Basilica of San Martino (Martina Franca) (1747-1785), late Baroque with Rococo features.

Turin

In northern Italy, especially Turin, the monarchs of the House of Savoy were particularly receptive to the new style. They employed a brilliant triad of architects—Guarino Guarini, Filippo Juvarra, and Bernardo Vittone—to illustrate the grandiose political ambitions and newly acquired royal status of their dynasty.

Towards the end of the century, Turin was still enclosed within the ancient Roman structure of the castrum; A few years later, during the reign of Carlo Emanuele I, the city became an important baroque center, a meeting point of Roman and French tendencies, [Fus. 12]​ in a unique synthesis between counter-reformist and secular aspects.[N-S. 18].

Ascanio Vitozzi (1539-1615) was in charge of the systematization of the piazza Castello "Piazza Castello (Torino)"), around which the new districts of the city developed; The works were carried out by Carlo di Castellamonte") (1560-1641), who from 1621 continued the development towards the south of the city according to a system of axes orthogonal to each other. The same architect was responsible for the formation of the vast piazza San Carlo (at that time piazza Reale), a space derived from the French place royale and centered around an equestrian statue; however, on the sides of the main line They arranged two twin churches, in a solution similar to that implemented in the Piazza del Popolo in Rome. This dual value, the result of the union between sacred elements and secular elements, is also found in the Palazzo Ducale (later Royal), which was placed in direct communication with the Duomo.[N-S 19]​.

The expansion plan of Turin was continued by Amedeo di Castellamonte") (1610-1683), son of Carlo, who planned the development of the city towards the east. In 1673, according to the architect's project, the construction of a road began to link Piazza Castello to the Po Gate; palaces with a uniform design were built along the new road, while towards the river the road was completed with an exedra (portico in an open place, often with seats for conversation), a symbolic reference to the opening of the city to the surrounding territory.[N-S 19]​.

Amedeo di Castellamonte himself worked in several Savoy residences; He lent his work to the Ducale Palace and around the 1670s Carlo Emanuele II commissioned him to design the Reggia and the borough of Venaria Reale, near Turin.

In the same years, Guarino Guarini (1624-1683) finished the chapel of the Shroud, which Castellamonte had begun precisely at the back of the Turin cathedral. The chapel had to have three entrances (two from the cathedral and one from the adjacent Palazzo Ducale) and this determined the plan of the building. The enclosure, with a circular plan, was divided into nine parts, and three arches were located in correspondence with the entrances, on which the dome drum was arranged; The dome itself is defined by an extraordinary set of ribs, emphasized by the light diffused through the numerous windows that curiously emerge on the outside of the structure.[Wit. 6]​.

Guarini was a peripatetic monk who combined many traditions (including that of Gothic architecture) to create irregular buildings notable for their oval columns and unconventional facades. Drawing on the findings of contemporary geometry and stereotomy, Guarini elaborated the concept of "oblique architecture" that approximated Borromini's style in both theoretical and structural boldness. Guarini's palazzo Carignano (1679) may have been the most striking application of the Baroque style to the design of a particular palatial residence in the 19th century.

The fluid forms, weightless details, and wide perspectives of Juvarra architecture anticipated the art of the Rococo. Although his practice extended far beyond Turin, Juvarra's most striking designs were created for Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. The visual impact of his basilica of Superga (1717) derives from its high ceiling and its masterful location on a hill above Turin. The rustic atmosphere encouraged a freer articulation of architectural form in the royal hunting lodge of the Palazzina di Stupinigi (1729), perhaps one of the most original works of the late Baroque.[Fus. 13] Juvarra finished his short but intense career in Madrid, where he worked in the royal palaces of La Granja and Aranjuez.

Among the many who were deeply influenced by the brilliance and diversity of Juvarra and Guarini, none was more important than Bernardo Vittone. This Piedmontese architect is remembered for an outcrop of extravagant Rococo churches, quadrufoliate in plan and delicate in detail. Their sophisticated designs often feature multiple vaults, structures within structures, and domes within domes.

• - Basilica of Superga, next to Turin, by Filippo Juvarra.

• - Dome of the church of San Lorenzo (Turin) "Church of San Lorenzo (Turin)"), by Guarino Guarini.

• - Dome of the chapel of the Shroud (1668-1694)), by Guarini.

• - Interior of the dome of the Shroud chapel.

Milan

Baroque was the dominant artistic style between the Seicento and the first half of the Settecento in the city. In fact, thanks to the work of the Borromeo cardinals and their importance in the periods of foreign rule - first Spanish and then Austrian - Milan experienced a lively artistic season[29]​ in which it assumed the role of driving force of the Lombard baroque.[30]​ The Milanese baroque can be divided into three parts: the first Seicento, the second Seicento and the Settecento.

The first Seicento began in 1595 with the appointment of Federico Borromeo (1564-1631) as bishop of Milan,[Co. 1]​ in continuity with the work of his cousin Carlo (1538-1584). From the architectural point of view, religious commissions dominated the scene, since the Spanish rulers paid more attention to works of military use than to civil ones;[Te. 1]​ many of the existing churches were completely rebuilt and decorated in the baroque style, and many others were built ex novo:[31]​ if the baroque style was introduced in Milan by Lorenzo Binago") (1554-1629) —author of the church of San Alessandro in Zebedia (1601-1658)—, there were two other main architects who shared the scene at the time, namely Fabio Mangone") (1587-1629), with more classical lines and for this reason often chosen for the commissions of Federico Borromeo, [Te. 2]​ and Francesco Maria Richini (1584-1658) known simply as il Richini, with lines more inspired by the early Roman baroque.[Co. 2]​ Mangone died early, Richini undoubtedly represented the best architect of 16th century Milan, [Te. 3]​[32]​ and to find such a prestigious figure in Milanese architecture we will have to wait until the arrival of Giuseppe Piermarini (1734-1808), who was the author of the Teatro de la Scala in Milan and the Royal Villa of Monza. Between 1607 and 1630 Richini built the church of San Giuseppe&action=edit&redlink=1 "San Giuseppe (Milan) (not yet written)") (1607-1630), which, like the church of the Gesù in Rome, was intended to practice excess over the Mannerist academic fashion hitherto in use.[32] Richini introduced a combined plan, consisting of two central areas, derived from Sant' Alessandro"), also in Milan. The plastic effect is also noticeable on the façade, decorated by a series of superimposed niches. Later, in 1627 he dedicated himself to the façade of the Collegio Elvetico "Palace of the Senate (Milan)") (now headquarters of the Archivio di Stato), where he aimed at an integration between the interior and the exterior through a concave prospectus. This interesting solution, possibly the first curved façade of the Baroque period, predates certain themes expressed later by Borromini, and confirms Richini as one of the greatest architects of the early baroque.[N-S 20]​.

The second phase of the Baroque began after the great Manzonian plague "Italian Plague (1629-1631)" of 1630, which reduced the city's population by half. Architecture, with the death of Fabio Magone, elevated Richini, who remained almost unmatched in his Milanese production,[31]​ flanked by minor interpreters such as Gerolamo Quadrio") and Carlo Buzzi&action=edit&redlink=1 "Carlo Buzzi (architect) (not yet written)").[Th. 2]​ Thanks to this last fact, the creations of this period completely broke with Mannerist influences, to approach a markedly baroque experience, with influences from the Emilian, Genoese and Roman schools. The religious works no longer had the same strength although they still represented the largest commissions of the time; however, more priority was given to the interior decoration of the existing churches than to the construction of new buildings. constructive over the years, to regain liveliness in the century,[Bi. 2]​ so the church is a mix of Baroque art and Lombard Renaissance. The façade of the church, which dates back to 1692 and was designed by Giuseppe Rusnati"),[Bi. 3]​ is marked by four pilasters:[34]​ on the extreme sides there are two typically baroque niches, while the other three spaces marked by the pilasters are decorated with high reliefs.[Bi. 3]​ The other important construction was the church of Santa Maria alla Porta"), completely rebuilt on the old church of the century: the project was initially drawn up by Richini from 1652, and then, after his death in 1658, it passed into the hands of the architect Francesco Borromini, who finished the project, being responsible in particular for the main portal.[Bi. 4]​ The façade, rather slender, is divided into two orders, Ionic and Corinthian respectively, united by volutes and ending in a tympanum on which the statues of the and two are placed; on the façade there are niches on the sides, while the central part is more decorated, with the main architraved portal[35]​ topped by a relief by Carlo Simonetta") from the of 1670; the upper order is decorated with a late baroque window [Bi. 5]​.

Venice

The Venetian baroque, according to local practice,[N-S. 21]​ saw Baldassarre Longhena (1598-1682) as its main exponent.[38]​ After the plague of 1630, construction of the church of Santa Maria della Salute began, using a central plan. In the octagonal body of the basilica, Longhena added a sanctuary bordered on both sides by two apses, similar to that adopted by Andrea Palladio in the basilica of the Most Holy Redeemer; This solution strengthened the longitudinal axis of the temple, which in fact became the central body in the nave itself. The baroque style of the temple is evident in the conformation of the external masses, arranged along the Grand Canal: the octagonal body covered by a large dome is flanked by the crown of the sanctuary and the two bell towers. The profusion of plastic details at Loghena reached its peak on the façade of the church dell'Ospedaletto (completed in the 1670s), richly and fancifully decorated with Atlanteans, giant heads and lion masks.

Longhena also worked in the field of civic architecture: his Ca' Pesaro (1652-1710) has an apparently conventional plan, but the play of light and shadow found in the richly ornamented façade gives it a typically baroque character.

Other Venetian architects of the time were Andrea Tirali[39]​ (Tolentini church, Manfrin Venier palace), Giuseppe Sardi") (1624-1699)[40]​ (Santa Maria del Giglio"))[41]​ or Domenico Rossi")[42]​ (San Stae, Ca' Corner della Regina).[43]​.

• - Venetian baroque buildings.

• - Saint Stae (1709).

• - Ca' Corner della Regina, by Domenico Rossi").

• - Palazzo Savorgnan, by Giuseppe Sardi").

• - Ca' Rezzonico (1667-1682), by Baldassare Longhena.

• - Ca' Pesaro (1652-1710), from Longhena.

Genoa

• - Italian baroque.

The Seicento was a period characterized by a variety of trends never before experienced. The conception of the cosmos had been completely revolutionized during the previous century, while the divisions matured within the Church had become the symbol of the disintegration of a unified and absolute world. In the artistic field, the sense of doubt and the consequent alienation of the individual had found expression in mannerism.

Between the end of the Cinquecento and the beginning of the Seicento, changes in human attitude can be observed. Descartes, upon discovering that everything could be doubted, came to the conclusion that doubt represented the only certainty; By separating the act of doubting from any extraneous element, he eliminated the foundations of skepticism. Thus, man once again pursued security, choosing among the alternatives offered by the time; The new world became "pluralistic", offering man a variety of options and alternatives, both religious and philosophical, economic and political.[N-S. 1]​.

While the universe of the Renaissance was closed and static, the fundamental attitude of the Baroque era became that of belonging to an absolute and integrated system, but at the same time open and dynamic. This attitude was favored by the great voyages of exploration, with the discovery of a wider world, colonization and the evolution of scientific research. This led to an increase in the specialization of human activities, with the consequent breakdown of the binomial art and science, a combination that had laid the foundations for the universal man of the Renaissance.[N-S. 2]​.

The destruction of the Old World culminated in the Thirty Years' War, which, at the beginning of the century, paralyzed much of Central Europe. During that period, the Protestant Reformation spread to many regions of Europe, beginning the development of several Reformed churches. The subsequent Counter-Reformation, initiated by the Catholic Church with the Council of Trent, also had considerable repercussions in the artistic field: the didactic importance of images was promoted and a whole series of rules were established in the arts to underline the distinction between the clergy and the faithful.[Fus. 1]​.

This attitude reached all regions of the Catholic world thanks to the work of the Jesuits and, despite its rigid and defensive character, favored the development of Baroque art. In fact, in the 20th century, the Catholic Church began to seek a compromise with political power, ceasing to fight against the intrusions of historical reality[10] and trying to reconcile matters of faith with those inherent to worldly life; Precisely for this reason, the baroque became a style capable of expressing both the dogmas of faith and the frivolities of worldliness.[Fus. 1]​.

Baroque architecture, which was already announced in the middle of the Cinquecento in some of Michelangelo's works, developed in Rome and reached its best achievements between 1630 and 1670; from there it spread to the rest of the Italian peninsula and the Western world, while in the century Rome returned again to classicism following the example of Paris.[Pev. 1]​ It is generally divided into three periods:

• - early baroque (1584-1625), largely dominated by the work of Roman architects, such as Giacomo della Porta (in particular, the Church of the Gesù consecrated in 1584), Carlo Maderno (church of Santa Susanna (1603), façade and colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica (completed in 1612) and Pietro da Cortona (the lavish Interiors of the Barberini Palace (1633-1639). Corresponds to the work of artists such as Annibale Carracci, Caravaggio, Pieter Paul Rubens.

• - high baroque (1625-1675), with the major works of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (the colonnade of St. Peter's Basilica, 1656-1657)), Pietro da Cortona (church of Santi Luca e Martina, 1635-1650) and Francesco Borromini (San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1634-1646), who made Rome the main center of attraction artistic throughout Europe. More precisely, under the pontificates of Urban VIII (Barberini, p. 1623-1644), Innocent Baroque included Santa Maria della Salute by Baldassare Longhena.

• - late baroque (1667-1750) saw the style spread to all parts of Europe, and to the colonies of Spain and Portugal in the New World. National styles became more varied and different. It is linked to the decline of the Holy See after the death of Pope Alexander VII, in 1667; [Fus. 3]​ Bernini's expulsion from the Louvre palace expansion project coincided with the beginning of the decline of Rome as a city-guide and the affirmation of Paris in that role.[Fus. 4]​.

The periodization of the Baroque in Italy does not coincide with other periodizations in other European countries. For example, in France, periodization is not related to the work of individual artists, but is due to the cultural policy of Louis XIV, which led to the identification of this style with the name of the sovereign.[Fus. 5] It is also worth remembering that at the end of the century, the revocation of the edict of Nantes caused the migration of numerous French Huguenots to the Netherlands and England: in the first case, this put an end to the autonomy of the local school, developed some decades before with the political and cultural rise of Amsterdam; In the second case, French migration coincided with a change in the baroque sense of English architecture.[Fus. 5]​

The influence of the Baroque was not limited only to the century; In fact, at the beginning of the century Rococo was established, which although it is not a simple continuation of the first, [Fus. 6]​ can be understood as the last phase of the Baroque.[11]​ The sculpted and painted decoration that covers all the spaces on the walls and ceiling will characterize this style.

Rome

The sacred architecture of the Baroque period had its beginnings in the Italian paradigm of the basilica with a nave "Nave (architecture)" and a dome in the transept). Mannerist churches were exemplified by Il Gesù, a break from the Renaissance ideal of a central-plan church, which had been designed by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola in 1568—the façade was modified by Giacomo della Porta in 1584—and which was the first and served as a model for the Jesuit churches.[12]​ Its interior was an example of how Roman Classicism") could be combined with large-scale simplicity: tall windows piercing the barrel vault and a ring of windows in the drum of the dome to illuminate the interior with natural light, creating a dramatic contrast of light and dark in a relatively diffuse space.[13]​ One of the first Roman buildings to break with these conventions was the church of Santa Susanna in the Baths of Diocletian "Church of Santa Susanna (Rome)"), designed by Carlo Maderno in 1596 and whose construction was completed in 1603. The dynamic rhythm of the columns and pilasters, the central mass, the projecting elements and the condensed decoration in the center add complexity to the building. There is an incipient game with the rules of classic design, but still maintaining rigor. They had vaulted ceilings.

The same emphasis on plasticity, continuity and scenic effects is evident in the work of Pietro da Cortona, illustrated by the churches of San Lucas and Santa Martina (1635) and Santa Maria della Pace (1656). This last building, which has concave wings designed to simulate a theater stage, presses forward to fill a small plaza arranged in front of it. Other Roman ensembles of the period are also imbued with theatricality, dominating the surrounding urban landscape as a kind of theatrical environment.

Probably the best-known example of this type of solution is the trapezoidal St. Peter's Square, which has been praised as a masterpiece of Baroque scenography. The square is made up of two colonnades, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini on an unprecedented colossal scale to adapt to the space and foster emotions of amazement. Bernini's favorite design was the polychromatic oval church of St. Andrew of the Quirinal (1658), which, with its impressive altarpiece and soaring dome, offers a concentrated sample of the new architecture. His idea of ​​the noble residence in the Baroque city is characterized by the Roman palaces Barberini (1629) and Chigi-Odescalchi (1664).

Bernini's main rival in the papal capital was Francesco Borromini whose designs deviated from the regular compositions of Antiquity and the Renaissance, even more markedly. Considered by later generations as a revolutionary architect, Borromini rejected the anthropomorphic approach of the 19th century, and chose to base his projects on complicated geometric figures (modules). Borromini's architectural space appears to expand and contract when necessary, showing some affinity with Michelangelo's late style. Its iconic masterpiece is the small church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, distinguished by an oval floor plan and complex convex-concave rhythms. A later work, Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, displays the same antipathy for the flat surface and reflects a playful inventiveness, exemplified in the spiral lantern of the dome.

After Bernini's death in 1680, Carlo Fontana established himself as the most influential architect working in Rome. His early style is exemplified in the slightly concave façade of the Church of San Marcello al Corso. Fontana's academic approach, although without the brilliant inventiveness of his predecessors, exerted an enormous influence on Baroque architecture, both through his prolific writings and through the architects he trained and who would spread the Baroque style throughout Europe during the 19th century.

The century saw the capital of the European architectural world move from Rome to Paris. Italian Rococo, which flourished in Rome from the 1720s onwards, was deeply influenced by Borromini's ideas. The most talented architects active in Rome—Francesco de Sanctis "Francesco de Sanctis (architect)") (Spanish Steps "Spanish Steps "Spanish Steps (Rome)"), 1723) and Filippo Raguzzini (Piazza Sant'Ignazio"), 1727)—had little influence outside their native country, as did numerous practitioners of Sicilian Baroque, including Giovanni Battista Vaccarini, Andrea Palma "Andrea Palma (architect)") and Giuseppe Venanzio Marvuglia.

At the end of the century, Rome became the center of development of architecture linked to the Counter-Reformation and exerted its influence throughout the Catholic world. The premises for the affirmation of the Baroque style can already be found in the works of Giacomo della Porta (1533-1602), who built the façade of the church of the Gesù in the last decades of the Cinquecento.[Fus. 7].

A few years later, in 1603, the façade of the church of Santa Susanna in the Baths of Diocletian "Church of Santa Susanna (Rome)"), designed by Carlo Maderno (1556-1629) and generally considered the "first fully realized example of Baroque architecture" was completed;[N-S. 3]​ even though the spatial distribution still seems mannerist.[Br. 1]​ Maderno reinforced the central axis through the gradual use of pilasters, semi-columns and columns towards the central part of the building, thus accentuating the plasticity&action=edit&redlink=1 "Plasticity (art) (not yet written)") already emerged in della Porta's work. Compared with della Porta and with the facade of the church of the Gesù, the substantial novelty lay in having extended the use of columns to the first order of the entire central area and having replaced it, on the upper level, with a series of pilasters. from 1588-1589.[Wit. 1]​.

In this context, numerous facades were built with the same propaganda purpose,[N-S. 4]​ some with very particular results, as in the case of the church of Saints Vincent and Anastasius, by Martino Longhi, the Younger (1602-1660), where numerous columns are concentrated in the central part of the elevation. Maderno himself was commissioned to extend an arm of St. Peter's Basilica, so that the church would be suitable for receiving a greater number of faithful; Also in this case, the façade (1608-1612), one of the most commented works in the history of architecture,[15] shows a greater plastic intensity towards the center.

A new approach, based on the transformation of forms rather than the application of decorative elements, came with the assertion of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680), Francesco Borromini (1599-1667) and Pietro da Cortona (1596-1669).[N-S. 4]​.

Bernini was the dominator of the Roman artistic scene for half a century.[16] The Baldachin of Saint Peter (1624-1633), after the limits and uncertainties that arose in the restoration of the church of Santa Bibiana"), was the true beginning of his career. However, it did not represent a sudden turning point, but rather a gradual self-critical path that lasted for almost a decade of work. Bernini defined the supports of the baldachin with four columns Solomonic pillars that, although they were not an absolute novelty on the Roman architectural scene, clearly differed from the design of the pilasters of the Vatican basilica, making the ciborio "Ciborio (architecture)") the focal point of the entire building. However, the main novelty lay in the coronation, in whose definition Borromini's contribution is documented, with that slight tangle of volutes that can legitimately be considered the manifesto of architecture. baroque.[17]​.

A few decades later, starting in 1658, the same architect created the small church of San Andrés del Quirinal, with a strongly expanded oval floor plan and characterized by the presence of numerous chapels arranged on the perimeter wall; a dome, not very evident on the outside, rests on the entablature that winds above the side chambers.

The theme of the oval, adopted by Bernini also in the missing Chapel of the Magi (1634) and in St. Peter's Square (completed in 1667), should also have been taken up by Carlo Rainaldi (1611-1691) in the church of Santa Maria in Campitelli "Church of Santa Maria in Campitelli (Rome)"), but at the time of construction, the elliptical nave was transformed into a space biaxial, devoid of curves, with a series of chapels that narrowed to the apse area. In particular, the former body of the church was joined to a sanctuary covered by a circular dome, according to a scheme in use in northern Italy which, however, was not followed in Rome.[Wit. 2]​ The serrated course of the nave, highlighted by the presence of columns and pilasters on which the entablature is arranged, is also repeated on the main façade, where they even emerge in a succession of aedicules, attached columns and pilasters.

The search for spaces created within the perimeter wall is evident in the church of the Assunta&action=edit&redlink=1 "Collegiate Church of Santa Maria Assunta (Ariccia) (not yet written)"), in Ariccia, a small town located near Rome.[Fus. 8]​ ​​The project, again by Bernini, was launched in the early 1660s; Compared to Saint Andrew of the Quirinal, the plan is circular and is flanked on the outside by two propylaea arranged at the end of a corridor that circles the back of the building. If the figure in plan shows a classic tablature, referable to the Bramantesco models or the Pantheon of Rome, on the outside the invention of the baroque is manifested in the urban layout of the complex, with the annular corridor that represents an exterior and an interior at the same time, and with the volume of the church that "generates in view its spatial face, which is not one of containment, as in Borromini, but of controlled and measured expansion."[Br. 2]​.

• - Works by Bernini.

• - Church of San Andrés del Quirinal (1658-1678).

• - Scala Regia (1663-1666), in the Vatican Apostolic Palace.

• - St. Peter's Square (completed in 1667), Rome.

However, it was in the church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane by Borromini that the theme of the spaces created on the perimeter of the building reaches its apogee.[Fus. 8]​ ​​This church, so small that it could be inside a pillar of the Vatican basilica, [Pev. 2]​ It began in 1638 on a small lot where, in addition to the place of true worship, the cloister and the adjacent convent were also inserted. The floor plan of San Carlino can be redirected to the oval, with concave and convex walls that alternate to form the side chapels. The dome has an oval base and is excavated by a deep coffered ceiling in which different shapes alternate; The connection between the dome and the body of the building is achieved by means of four pendentives that rest on the entablature. The undulating movement of the walls and the rhythmic alternation with protruding and reentrant forms give rise to a pulsating plastic organism, whose form is underlined by the absence of sumptuous decorations.

On the façade, which was only begun in the last years of Borromini's life, the search for intense dynamism stands out, with sinuous surfaces arranged in two orders: the lower part is characterized by a succession of concave-convex-concave surfaces; The upper one is articulated into three concave parts, of which the central one houses a convex aediculus.

Borromini participated in several construction projects in Rome: he created the Oratorio dei Filippini (whose façade, full of concavities and convexities, is a happy fusion between a palace and a church[Fus. 9]), the church of Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori") (incomplete) and, from 1642, he began what could be considered his masterpiece,[N-S. 5]​ the church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza. Directly connected to San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, the church of La Sapienza was arranged at the end of a pre-existing courtyard designed by della Porta. The plan, essentially generated by the intersection of two opposing equilateral triangles, is crowned in elevation by a dome with a lantern finished in a spiral. The plan of Sant'Ivo, once again formed through the use of concavity and convexity, is one of the most unified in the history of architecture, although, due to its audacity, it did not find similar applications in the works of its contemporaries.[N-S 6]​.

The same architect, commissioned by Pope Innocent X, also took part in the restoration of the great basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano; Borromini maintained the original structure, incorporating the nave columns within large pilasters, while the planned vaulted ceiling was not built. According to critics, although the project has not been fully executed, "San Giovanni in Laterano has one of the most beautiful naves that exist":[N-S. 7]​ The integration of the spaces was accentuated by the wide openings that run through the nave, while the corridors of the side naves are formed by small centralized units, with concave angles that also continue in the vaults.

A few years later, he worked on the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone, begun by Girolamo Rainaldi (1570-1655) and continued by his son Carlo in 1652, creating one of the most classifying elevations of his artistic production. The building, in which Carlo Rainaldi again regained control, was one of the most significant works of the period, as it had a considerable influence on the international scene.[Fus. 10]​ The plan is a Greek cross that is combined with the circular enclosure crowned by a large dome; It is a baroque revision of the central plan of San Pedro.[Wit. 3] Borromini's inventiveness lies in the façade, where he removed the main front in order to obtain a concave pattern firmly connected to the convex dome drum; He then extended the elevation to the side palaces, to build two bell towers characterized by a stepped tendency towards the top. Similar inventions are also found in the campanile of Sant'Andrea delle Fratte") (an unfinished work by Borromini), which ends with a kind of circular lantern.

• - Roman works by Borromini.

• - Oratorio dei Filippini (1637-1667).

• - Church of San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane (1638-1641).

• - Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza (1643-1662).

• - Interior of San Giovanni in Laterano.

• - Church of Sant'Agnese in Agone (1652-1657), begun by Girolamo and Carlo Rainaldi.

Carlo Rainaldi was also dedicated to the twin churches in Piazza del Popolo. The first, dedicated to Santa María in Montesanto, began in 1662, and was later completed by Carlo Fontana (1638-1714) according to Bernini's design; the second, dedicated to Santa Maria dei Miracoli "Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (Rome)"), was carried out in 1675, again with the collaboration of Fontana. The two churches, arranged symmetrically around the trident formed by via del Corso, via di Ripetta and via del Babuino, have the same appearance, but in reality, to better adapt to the distribution of the lots, they differed in the plans: for Santa Maria dei Miracoli a circular plan was adopted, while for the adjacent Santa Maria in Montesanto, erected on a larger plot, an elliptical shape, with transverse dimensions similar to the previous one, was chosen to maintain the Apparent symmetry from the front.[N-S. 8]​.

Another notable work by Rainaldi was the exterior of the apse of the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore, located in the visual axis coming from the church of Trinità dei Monti; The architect covered the apse with a plastic surface, integrating it perfectly with the side backs and creating a spatial jewel among the happiest of all the baroque works.[Br. 3]​.

If the works of Carlo Rainaldi, although they show original solutions, refer to the themes of the primitive baroque, a greater plastic integration between spaces, masses and surfaces can be felt in Pietro da Cortona.[N-S. 9]​ His church of San Lucas and Santa Martina "Church of San Lucas and Santa Martina (Rome)") (1635), articulated on a Greek cross plan, recalls the Renaissance patterns of Santa Maria della Consolazione") of Todi, although with significant differences: in fact, one arm of the nave is elongated, which makes the church return to the type of longitudinal plans, while the façade, although being convex, does not reflect the curvature of the internal apses. Then there is the rejection of the use of color: the interior of the church is completely white, while the vaults of the apses are richly decorated. Furthermore, the isolated columns inserted within the walls are a typically Florentine theme (from the Baptistery of San Giovanni") to the Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana), which is repeated in other works by Cortona, such as in the drum of the dome of San Carlo al Corso").[Wit. 4]​.

Pietro da Cortona's style emerges with greater vigor in the layout of the church of Santa Maria della Pace, where, between 1656 and 1657, he dedicated himself to the construction of a new façade. The intervention was not limited to the façade of the religious building, but also extended to the side buildings, with the construction of a small scenic plaza dominated in the center by the colonnade of the semicircular church; Furthermore, the solution of the exedra on the façade deeply influenced Bernini in the conception of the aforementioned Sant'Andrea al Quirinale[Fus. 11]​ and, in the choice of the Doric order with Ionic entablature, he anticipated the solution adopted by Bernini for the columns of St. Peter's Square.[Wit. 5]​.

Among the longitudinal churches derived from Il Gesù's scheme, we must first remember that of Santa Maria ai Monti") (1580), by Giacomo della Porta; the church has a modest size and an undeveloped transept, with a dome at the intersection with the main nave.[N-S. 10]​.

The Basilica of Sant'Andrea della Valle is much more imposing, also begun by della Porta in 1591 and completed by Carlo Maderno; the façade, the most baroque of the Roman façades, [Br. 4] was added by Carlo Rainaldi after the middle of the century. The plan, although it adopts the model of the church of the Gesù, has shallower and noticeably higher side chapels; The nave is articulated by the lateral pilasters that mark, together with the dome, the strong vertical rhythm of the building.[N-S. 11].

• - Other Roman baroque churches.

• - Basilica of Sant'Andrea della Valle (1608-1625), work of Carlo Maderno, whose façade was completed (1655-1665) by Carlo Rainaldi.

• - Church of San Lucas and Santa Martina "Church of San Lucas and Santa Martina (Rome)") (1635), Rome, work of Pietro da Cortona.

• - The twin churches of Carlo Rainaldi's Piazza del Popolo: on the left, Santa Maria in Montesanto, and on the right, church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli "Church of Santa Maria dei Miracoli (Rome)").

• - Facade of Santa Maria in Via Lata (1658-1660), by Pietro de Cortona, 1658-1660.

• - San Marcello al Corso (1681-1687), by Carlo Fontana.

The main architects of the Roman Baroque also left important marks on civil architecture. In 1625 Carlo Maderno began work on the aforementioned Palazzo Barberini with the collaboration of Borromini, to whom the helical staircase is attributed; Upon Maderno's death four years later, the work was carried out by Bernini. It is true, however, that the plan had been decided before January 1629. It was previously highlighted that the layout of the building, deprived of the classical interior courtyard, differs from the tradition of the Italian palace; Being on the outskirts of the city, Maderno changed the original conception of the city palace into a kind of suburban villa. Even the façade, the most classic part of the work, presents innovative elements in the extended arches of the last order.[N-S. 12].

From 1650, Bernini also executed the palazzo Montecitorio, later completed by Carlo Fontana. The façade, in which the footprint of the initial project was substantially maintained, has a convex pattern and shows, on the sides of the ground floor, some rustic stone masses. Also by Bernini is the Chigi-Odescalchi palace (1665-1667), built around a courtyard designed by Maderno. Despite the alterations suffered during the 19th century, the façade added by Bernini can be considered a true model for the façades of Baroque palaces: [N-S. 13] presented a projection in the central part (disappeared during the extensions of the century), defined by giant lesenas and crowned by a balustrade at the top.

Another important construction followed by Bernini was the construction of the Scala Regia in the Vatican. Made after 1660, the staircase, which was to serve to connect the "Vatican Palaces" and the façade of St. Peter's, was built on a very small and irregular plot, located between the basilica and the papal residence. Bernini used these features to his advantage. In a kind of obstacle course, he conceived a staircase of decreasing width, covered by a barrel vault. However, the converging walls between which he inserted the staircase would have given the impression of a larger depth; however, in this sense, the staircase has nothing illusionistic. The correctness of the perspective was obtained through the appropriate arrangement of a series of colonnades on the sides of the corridor; the columns appear to advance on the steps, suggesting a direction of movement contrary to the vertical of the staircase.[Br. 5]

Even Borromini left some significant contributions in this area. His is the trompe-l'œil effect in the perspective gallery of the Palazzo Spada (1652-1653), which suggests a depth different from the real one. Furthermore, in the mid-Seicento he prepared his studies for the palazzo Pamphilj in Piazza Navona, built by Girolamo Rainaldi, but his most interesting achievements are found in ecclesiastical palaces, such as the College of Propaganda Fide (within which the chapel of Re Magi is located), where he built a façade formed by compressions and dilations, with great dramatic effect.[N-S. 14]​.

• - Roman baroque palaces.

• - The Palazzo Barberini, started by Carlo Maderno (1625-1629) and finished by Bernini.

• - Palazzo Pamphilj (1644-1650), by Girolamo Rainaldi.

• - Palazzo Montecitorio, work of Bernini (1650) completed by Carlo Fontana.

• - Palazzo Spada (1652-1653).

• - Chigi-Odescalchi Palace (1665-1667), by Bernini.

Finally, in the treatment of the Roman Baroque") it is important to remember the main urban transformations of the city, referring to the plan desired by Pope Sixtus V, who also compiled some interventions already implemented by his predecessors. In particular, the trident of Piazza del Popolo (even before the transformations later promoted by Giuseppe Valadier) is one of the most relevant elements and was the prototype of one of the basic motifs of the Baroque city;[N-S. 15]​ true gateway to the city, it became a nodal point of the road system starting in 1589, with the erection of an obelisk and the construction in the century of the aforementioned twin Rainaldi churches.

Another important space was the Piazza Navona, built on the ruins of the ancient will stadium of Emperor Domitian and which, in the 19th century, assumed the characteristics of a typically Baroque square, so much so that it was identified as the true and proper center of 16th century Rome. Here the foundations of the church of Sant'Agnese in Agone were laid, a prominent element of an almost unitary wall curtain, whose dome stands out from the slightly concave march of the façade; The center of the square is highlighted by the fountain of the Four Rivers (the Nile, the Ganges, the Danube and the River Plate), in which it is possible to read an allusion to the power of the Church in the world that was known at that time.[N-S. 16].

This series of baroque squares finds its apex in the famous Piazza San Pietro, completed by Bernini under Alexander VII between 1657 and 1667. The final solution took into account the liturgical and symbolic problems and the pre-existing architectural emergencies: the space was articulated by means of an oval square connected to the façade of the Vatican basilica with two oblique arms, arranged on the margins of a shaped area. trapezoidal. The connection between the oval and the trapezoid, narrower than the width of Maderno's façade, modified the perspective towards the basilica, making the great mass of the façade appear smaller. The oval plaza, delimited by imposing columns arranged in several rows, should have been closed with a third arm, but it was never executed; Despite this, Bernini created a well-defined space, but at the same time open to the outside and integrated with the rest of the city thanks to the permeability offered by the large colonnades.[N-S. 17].

Bernini also proposed on an axis with the via di Borgo Nuovo (it disappeared with the construction of via della Conciliazione) the bronze door that led to Scala Regia, within the Vatican citadel; Thus he created a surprising route that accompanied the viewer from the narrow and articulated streets of the "Spina di Borgo") to the grandeur of St. Peter's Square, but cutting it asymmetrically, on the north side, to offer evocative and always new glimpses towards the façade of the basilica and towards Michelangelo's dome.[18]​.

• - Views of the baroque squares of Rome.

• - Veduta dei piazza Navona (1699), oil painting by Gaspar van Wittel.

• - Piazza di Popolo (1750), by Hendrik Frans van Lint (1684-1763).

• - Peterskirche in Rom (ca. 1700/1710), by Gaspar van Wittel (1653-1736).

Contenido

En la parte meridional de Italia, destacan dos focos del barroco que permitieron establecer variantes locales en Nápoles y Sicilia, aunque también hay ciudades en las que se erigieron buenos ejemplos, como Lecce, Matera

o Barletta.

Baroque in Sicily

• - Other baroque examples in southern Italy.

• - Basilica of the Holy Cross "Basilica of the Holy Cross (Lecce)"), Lecce.

• - Palace of the Celestines (prefecture) (1549-1695), in Lecce.

• - Church of Saint Francis of Assisi, Matera.

• - Church of San Gaetano, Barletta.

• - Basilica of San Martino (Martina Franca) (1747-1785), late Baroque with Rococo features.

Turin

In northern Italy, especially Turin, the monarchs of the House of Savoy were particularly receptive to the new style. They employed a brilliant triad of architects—Guarino Guarini, Filippo Juvarra, and Bernardo Vittone—to illustrate the grandiose political ambitions and newly acquired royal status of their dynasty.

Towards the end of the century, Turin was still enclosed within the ancient Roman structure of the castrum; A few years later, during the reign of Carlo Emanuele I, the city became an important baroque center, a meeting point of Roman and French tendencies, [Fus. 12]​ in a unique synthesis between counter-reformist and secular aspects.[N-S. 18].

Ascanio Vitozzi (1539-1615) was in charge of the systematization of the piazza Castello "Piazza Castello (Torino)"), around which the new districts of the city developed; The works were carried out by Carlo di Castellamonte") (1560-1641), who from 1621 continued the development towards the south of the city according to a system of axes orthogonal to each other. The same architect was responsible for the formation of the vast piazza San Carlo (at that time piazza Reale), a space derived from the French place royale and centered around an equestrian statue; however, on the sides of the main line They arranged two twin churches, in a solution similar to that implemented in the Piazza del Popolo in Rome. This dual value, the result of the union between sacred elements and secular elements, is also found in the Palazzo Ducale (later Royal), which was placed in direct communication with the Duomo.[N-S 19]​.

The expansion plan of Turin was continued by Amedeo di Castellamonte") (1610-1683), son of Carlo, who planned the development of the city towards the east. In 1673, according to the architect's project, the construction of a road began to link Piazza Castello to the Po Gate; palaces with a uniform design were built along the new road, while towards the river the road was completed with an exedra (portico in an open place, often with seats for conversation), a symbolic reference to the opening of the city to the surrounding territory.[N-S 19]​.

Amedeo di Castellamonte himself worked in several Savoy residences; He lent his work to the Ducale Palace and around the 1670s Carlo Emanuele II commissioned him to design the Reggia and the borough of Venaria Reale, near Turin.

In the same years, Guarino Guarini (1624-1683) finished the chapel of the Shroud, which Castellamonte had begun precisely at the back of the Turin cathedral. The chapel had to have three entrances (two from the cathedral and one from the adjacent Palazzo Ducale) and this determined the plan of the building. The enclosure, with a circular plan, was divided into nine parts, and three arches were located in correspondence with the entrances, on which the dome drum was arranged; The dome itself is defined by an extraordinary set of ribs, emphasized by the light diffused through the numerous windows that curiously emerge on the outside of the structure.[Wit. 6]​.

Guarini was a peripatetic monk who combined many traditions (including that of Gothic architecture) to create irregular buildings notable for their oval columns and unconventional facades. Drawing on the findings of contemporary geometry and stereotomy, Guarini elaborated the concept of "oblique architecture" that approximated Borromini's style in both theoretical and structural boldness. Guarini's palazzo Carignano (1679) may have been the most striking application of the Baroque style to the design of a particular palatial residence in the 19th century.

The fluid forms, weightless details, and wide perspectives of Juvarra architecture anticipated the art of the Rococo. Although his practice extended far beyond Turin, Juvarra's most striking designs were created for Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia. The visual impact of his basilica of Superga (1717) derives from its high ceiling and its masterful location on a hill above Turin. The rustic atmosphere encouraged a freer articulation of architectural form in the royal hunting lodge of the Palazzina di Stupinigi (1729), perhaps one of the most original works of the late Baroque.[Fus. 13] Juvarra finished his short but intense career in Madrid, where he worked in the royal palaces of La Granja and Aranjuez.

Among the many who were deeply influenced by the brilliance and diversity of Juvarra and Guarini, none was more important than Bernardo Vittone. This Piedmontese architect is remembered for an outcrop of extravagant Rococo churches, quadrufoliate in plan and delicate in detail. Their sophisticated designs often feature multiple vaults, structures within structures, and domes within domes.

• - Basilica of Superga, next to Turin, by Filippo Juvarra.

• - Dome of the church of San Lorenzo (Turin) "Church of San Lorenzo (Turin)"), by Guarino Guarini.

• - Dome of the chapel of the Shroud (1668-1694)), by Guarini.

• - Interior of the dome of the Shroud chapel.

Milan

Baroque was the dominant artistic style between the Seicento and the first half of the Settecento in the city. In fact, thanks to the work of the Borromeo cardinals and their importance in the periods of foreign rule - first Spanish and then Austrian - Milan experienced a lively artistic season[29]​ in which it assumed the role of driving force of the Lombard baroque.[30]​ The Milanese baroque can be divided into three parts: the first Seicento, the second Seicento and the Settecento.

The first Seicento began in 1595 with the appointment of Federico Borromeo (1564-1631) as bishop of Milan,[Co. 1]​ in continuity with the work of his cousin Carlo (1538-1584). From the architectural point of view, religious commissions dominated the scene, since the Spanish rulers paid more attention to works of military use than to civil ones;[Te. 1]​ many of the existing churches were completely rebuilt and decorated in the baroque style, and many others were built ex novo:[31]​ if the baroque style was introduced in Milan by Lorenzo Binago") (1554-1629) —author of the church of San Alessandro in Zebedia (1601-1658)—, there were two other main architects who shared the scene at the time, namely Fabio Mangone") (1587-1629), with more classical lines and for this reason often chosen for the commissions of Federico Borromeo, [Te. 2]​ and Francesco Maria Richini (1584-1658) known simply as il Richini, with lines more inspired by the early Roman baroque.[Co. 2]​ Mangone died early, Richini undoubtedly represented the best architect of 16th century Milan, [Te. 3]​[32]​ and to find such a prestigious figure in Milanese architecture we will have to wait until the arrival of Giuseppe Piermarini (1734-1808), who was the author of the Teatro de la Scala in Milan and the Royal Villa of Monza. Between 1607 and 1630 Richini built the church of San Giuseppe&action=edit&redlink=1 "San Giuseppe (Milan) (not yet written)") (1607-1630), which, like the church of the Gesù in Rome, was intended to practice excess over the Mannerist academic fashion hitherto in use.[32] Richini introduced a combined plan, consisting of two central areas, derived from Sant' Alessandro"), also in Milan. The plastic effect is also noticeable on the façade, decorated by a series of superimposed niches. Later, in 1627 he dedicated himself to the façade of the Collegio Elvetico "Palace of the Senate (Milan)") (now headquarters of the Archivio di Stato), where he aimed at an integration between the interior and the exterior through a concave prospectus. This interesting solution, possibly the first curved façade of the Baroque period, predates certain themes expressed later by Borromini, and confirms Richini as one of the greatest architects of the early baroque.[N-S 20]​.

The second phase of the Baroque began after the great Manzonian plague "Italian Plague (1629-1631)" of 1630, which reduced the city's population by half. Architecture, with the death of Fabio Magone, elevated Richini, who remained almost unmatched in his Milanese production,[31]​ flanked by minor interpreters such as Gerolamo Quadrio") and Carlo Buzzi&action=edit&redlink=1 "Carlo Buzzi (architect) (not yet written)").[Th. 2]​ Thanks to this last fact, the creations of this period completely broke with Mannerist influences, to approach a markedly baroque experience, with influences from the Emilian, Genoese and Roman schools. The religious works no longer had the same strength although they still represented the largest commissions of the time; however, more priority was given to the interior decoration of the existing churches than to the construction of new buildings. constructive over the years, to regain liveliness in the century,[Bi. 2]​ so the church is a mix of Baroque art and Lombard Renaissance. The façade of the church, which dates back to 1692 and was designed by Giuseppe Rusnati"),[Bi. 3]​ is marked by four pilasters:[34]​ on the extreme sides there are two typically baroque niches, while the other three spaces marked by the pilasters are decorated with high reliefs.[Bi. 3]​ The other important construction was the church of Santa Maria alla Porta"), completely rebuilt on the old church of the century: the project was initially drawn up by Richini from 1652, and then, after his death in 1658, it passed into the hands of the architect Francesco Borromini, who finished the project, being responsible in particular for the main portal.[Bi. 4]​ The façade, rather slender, is divided into two orders, Ionic and Corinthian respectively, united by volutes and ending in a tympanum on which the statues of the and two are placed; on the façade there are niches on the sides, while the central part is more decorated, with the main architraved portal[35]​ topped by a relief by Carlo Simonetta") from the of 1670; the upper order is decorated with a late baroque window [Bi. 5]​.

Venice

The Venetian baroque, according to local practice,[N-S. 21]​ saw Baldassarre Longhena (1598-1682) as its main exponent.[38]​ After the plague of 1630, construction of the church of Santa Maria della Salute began, using a central plan. In the octagonal body of the basilica, Longhena added a sanctuary bordered on both sides by two apses, similar to that adopted by Andrea Palladio in the basilica of the Most Holy Redeemer; This solution strengthened the longitudinal axis of the temple, which in fact became the central body in the nave itself. The baroque style of the temple is evident in the conformation of the external masses, arranged along the Grand Canal: the octagonal body covered by a large dome is flanked by the crown of the sanctuary and the two bell towers. The profusion of plastic details at Loghena reached its peak on the façade of the church dell'Ospedaletto (completed in the 1670s), richly and fancifully decorated with Atlanteans, giant heads and lion masks.

Longhena also worked in the field of civic architecture: his Ca' Pesaro (1652-1710) has an apparently conventional plan, but the play of light and shadow found in the richly ornamented façade gives it a typically baroque character.

Other Venetian architects of the time were Andrea Tirali[39]​ (Tolentini church, Manfrin Venier palace), Giuseppe Sardi") (1624-1699)[40]​ (Santa Maria del Giglio"))[41]​ or Domenico Rossi")[42]​ (San Stae, Ca' Corner della Regina).[43]​.

• - Venetian baroque buildings.

• - Saint Stae (1709).

• - Ca' Corner della Regina, by Domenico Rossi").

• - Palazzo Savorgnan, by Giuseppe Sardi").

• - Ca' Rezzonico (1667-1682), by Baldassare Longhena.

• - Ca' Pesaro (1652-1710), from Longhena.

Genoa

• - Italian baroque.