Resilient urban forests | Construpedia

Resilient urban forests

Introduction

Nature-based solutions (NBS) are those that use natural characteristics, processes and elements to address socio-environmental challenges. These challenges include issues such as climate change, water supply security, water pollution, food security, human health, biodiversity loss and natural disaster risk reduction.

The European Commission's definition of NBS states that they are “inspired and supported by nature, are cost-effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build resilience. Such solutions bring more—and more diverse—natural elements and processes to cities, landscapes and seascapes, through systemic, resource-efficient and locally adapted interventions.”[1] In 2020 the EC definition was updated to further highlight that “nature-based solutions should enhance biodiversity and support ecosystem services.”[2].

After using NBS, the resulting healthy, resilient and diverse ecosystems (whether natural, managed or created) can benefit both human societies and biodiversity.[3] Research and innovation projects on NBS funded by the EU Framework Program must respond to this definition.[4].

For its part, the Nature-Based Solutions Initiative defines them as “actions that work with and enhance nature to help people adapt to change and disasters.” This definition has questionable points, because "improving nature" corresponds to an anthropocentric vision. Furthermore, adequate NBS not only helps people adapt to disasters, but can even prevent them.

For example, the restoration or protection of mangroves along coastlines uses a nature-based solution to achieve several objectives. Mangroves moderate the impact of waves and wind on coastal settlements or cities[5] and sequester CO.[6] They also provide breeding grounds for marine life that can be the basis for sustaining fisheries that local populations can depend on. Additionally, mangroves can help control coastal erosion resulting from rising sea levels. Similarly, green roofs or walls are nature-based solutions that can be applied in cities to moderate the impact of high temperatures, capture stormwater, reduce pollution and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (thus mitigating global warming, which is caused by high levels of this gas in the atmosphere), while improving biodiversity.

Conservation approaches and environmental management initiatives have been carried out for decades. More recently, progress has been made in better articulating the benefits that nature-based solutions can provide for human well-being. Although the framework of the term continues to evolve,[7] examples of nature-based solutions can already be found around the world.

Resilient urban forests

Introduction

Background

Contenido

Las sociedades se enfrentan a desafíos como el cambio climático, la urbanización, la seguridad alimentaria, el suministro de recursos hídricos o el riesgo de desastres naturales. Un enfoque para responder a estos desafíos es confiar en estrategias tecnológicas. Un enfoque alternativo es gestionar de manera holística los sistemas socioecológicos para sostener, e incluso aumentar, la prestación de servicios del ecosistema a las poblaciones humanas. Con este segundo enfoque, las soluciones basadas en la naturaleza han sido presentadas recientemente por los técnicos, y poco después, por los formuladores de políticas.[11].

Si bien los servicios de los ecosistemas a menudo se valoran en términos de beneficios para el bienestar humano y la economía de los ecosistemas ya existentes, las NBS exploran qué cambios se pueden hacer en esos ecosistemas (plantar o repoblar bosques, construir humedales, propiciar praderas marinas, etc.) paraː.

• - proporcionar una mayor cantidad de servicios (por ejemplo más agua o más fijación de dióxido de carbono),.

• - o la misma cantidad pero a un coste menor (un estudio de la ciudad de Filadelfia halló que satisfacer una serie de necesidades urbanas mediante infraestructura verde costaría solo 1 200 millones de dólares, mientras que hacerlo con infraestructura tradicional elevaría la cifra a 6 000 millones),[13].

• - o una mayor protección frente a desastres (por ejemplo inundaciones).

Las NBS van más allá de los principios tradicionales de conservación y gestión de la biodiversidad al introducir a las personas e integrar específicamente factores sociales como el bienestar humano, la reducción de la pobreza, el desarrollo socioeconómico y los principios de gobernanza.

Respecto a cuestiones hídricas, según el Informe sobre el desarrollo de los recursos hídricos en el mundo 2018 de ONU-Agua, las NBS pueden:.

• - Utilizar procesos naturales para mejorar la disponibilidad de agua (p. ej., retención de humedad del suelo, recarga de acuíferos).

• - Mejorar la calidad del agua (p. ej., humedales naturales y humedales construidos para tratar aguas residuales; franjas de amortiguamiento ribereñas).

• - Reducir los riesgos asociados a desastres relacionados con el agua y el cambio climático (p. ej., restauración de llanuras aluviales, techos verdes).

In 2015, the European network BiodivERsA highlighted that NBS relate to concepts such as ecosystem approaches and ecological engineering.[14][15][16].

NBS are also considered strongly connected to ideas such as natural systems agriculture,[17] natural solutions,[18] ecosystem-based climate change adaptation and other adaptive services,[19] biological engineering or bioengineering, and green infrastructure (also called natural infrastructure or ecological infrastructure).[20][21][22].

For example, organizations such as the United Nations Environment Program and non-governmental organizations such as The Nature Conservancy are increasingly promoting ecosystem-based approaches to climate change adaptation and mitigation. These organizations refer to "policies and measures that take into account the role of ecosystem services in reducing society's vulnerability to climate change, in a multi-sector and multi-scalar approach."[23].

Similarly, the concept of ecological engineering generally refers to "protecting, restoring, or modifying ecological systems to increase the quantity, quality, or sustainability of the services they provide, or to construct new ecological systems that provide services that, if provided through more conventional engineering, would rely on non-renewable resources."[15][16].

Definitions

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines NBS as actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, while providing benefits for human well-being and biodiversity. These social challenges may include climate change, food security, disaster risks, water security, social and economic development or human health.

Other European groups see NBS as a restoration and infrastructure-based approach to providing social, economic and political benefits.[24] Another perspective of NBS is that of solutions that use ecological and environmental services to address contemporary environmental, social and economic challenges.[25].

Guys

En 2014-2015, la red europea BiodivERsA[35] movilizó a numerosos científicos, donantes de investigación y partes interesadas, proponiendo una tipología que caracteriza las NBS a lo largo de dos gradientes:[14].

- Cuánta ingeniería de la biodiversidad y los ecosistemas está involucrada en las NBS, y.

- Cuántos servicios del ecosistema y grupos de actores son el objetivo de una NBS determinada.

Esta tipología destaca que las NBS pueden implicar acciones muy diferentes sobre los ecosistemas (desde la protección hasta la gestión o incluso la creación de nuevos ecosistemas) y se basa en el supuesto de que, cuanto mayores sean los números de servicios y de grupos de interesados en ellos, menor será la capacidad para maximizar el suministro de cada servicio y satisfacer simultáneamente los deseos específicos de cada grupo. Se distinguen así 3 tipos de NBS:.

Type 1 – Minimal intervention in ecosystems

Type 1 NBS consist of minimal or no intervention in ecosystems, with the aim of maintaining or improving the delivery of a range of environmental services both within and outside these conserved ecosystems. Examples include protecting mangroves in coastal areas to limit risks associated with extreme weather conditions and provide benefits and opportunities to local populations; and the establishment of marine protected areas to conserve biodiversity within these areas while transmitting biomass "Biomass (ecology)") to fishing grounds and promoting fishing. This type of NBS is related, for example, to the concept of biosphere reserves that incorporate core protected areas for nature conservation, buffer zones and transition areas where people live and work sustainably.

Type 2 – Some interventions in ecosystems and landscapes

Type 2 NBS correspond to management approaches that develop sustainable and multifunctional ecosystems and landscapes (extensively or intensively managed). These types of solutions improve the delivery of selected ecosystem services, compared to what would be obtained through a more conventional intervention. Examples include innovative planning of agricultural landscapes to increase their multifunctionality; use existing agrobiodiversity to increase biodiversity, connectivity and resilience in landscapes; and approaches to improve tree species and genetic diversity to increase forest resilience to extreme events. This type of NBS is strongly related to concepts such as natural systems agriculture,[17] agroecology[36] (different from organic farming)[37] and evolution-oriented forestry[38].

Type 3 – Extensive ecosystem management

Type 3 NBS consist of managing ecosystems in very broad ways or even creating new ecosystems (e.g., artificial ecosystems with new sets of organisms for green roofs and walls to mitigate city warming and clean polluted air). Type 3 is linked to concepts such as green and blue infrastructure and objectives such as the restoration of highly degraded or contaminated areas or the greening of cities.

Types 1 and 2 would normally fall within the IUCN BSS framework, while type 2, and more so type 3, are often exemplified by the European Union (EU) to convert natural capital into a source of green growth and sustainable development.

Hybrid solutions

There are hybrid solutions between those based on nature and conventional ones. For example, it could be considered advisable to mix protected areas with other managed areas to meet the objectives of multifunctionality and sustainability. Similarly, a constructed wetland can be developed as a type 3 NBS but, when well established, can be conserved and studied as a type 1 solution. In the same situation, it is most likely that there will not be a single suitable NBS, but rather several, with different advantages, disadvantages, costs and performances.

NBS classes

A broad group of strategies to use ecosystems to help manage environmental challenges is currently called NBS. In the past, strategies within this group have been given other names. In the period 1970-1980, a popular approach in the US was best management practices (BMPs, which have nothing to do with the extension of a certain image file that uses the same acronym) to use nature as a model for infrastructure and development, while the UK had a model for flood management called "sustainable drainage systems".[24] Other framework, called "water-sensitive urban design" (WSUD) came out of Australia in the 1990s, while Low Impact Development (United States and Canada) (environmental, LID) came out of the US.[24] Eventually, New Zealand reformulated LID to create "low impact urban design and development" (LIUDD), focused on the use of diverse actors. Then, in the period 2000-2010, the Western Hemisphere largely adopted "green infrastructure" for stormwater management, as well as to improve social, economic and environmental conditions for sustainability.[24].

Objectives and framing

The overall objective of the NBS is clear: the sustainable management and use of nature to address societal challenges. However, different actors view these solutions from different perspectives.[14] For example, the IUCN defines them as “actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore natural or modified ecosystems, which address social challenges effectively and adaptively, while providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits.” This framework puts the need for well-managed and restored ecosystems at the core of the NBS, with the overall objective of “supporting the achievement of society's development objectives and safeguarding human well-being in a way that reflects cultural and social values and improves the resilience of ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services.”

In the context of the ongoing political debate on jobs and growth (main drivers of the current EU policy agenda), the European Commission underlines that NBS can transform environmental and social challenges into opportunities for innovation, turning natural capital into a source of green growth and sustainable development.[33].

This is a somewhat broader framework of the concept, which places economics and social assets at the heart of NBS on the same level as the maintenance of environmental conditions. It shares similarities with the definition proposed by Maes and Jacobs (2015),[39] which describes NBS as "any transition to a use of ecosystem services with a lower contribution of non-renewable natural capital and greater investment in renewable natural processes." According to this definition, the development and evaluation of NBS covers 3 basic requirements:

- Decrease in the use of fossil fuels per unit produced;

- Reduction of systemic trade-off and increase of synergies between ecosystem services; and.

- Increase in labor per unit produced, and in jobs.

Within this definition, therefore, nature is seen as a tool to inspire more systemic solutions to social problems.

Whatever the definition used, the promotion of sustainability and the increasing role of self-sustaining natural processes that depend on biodiversity are inherent characteristics of NBS. It is easy to demonstrate to numerous actors that these solutions are positive, since they generate environmental, economic and social benefits. As a consequence, NBS are gaining acceptance outside the conservation community (e.g. urban planning) and are now on the way to being integrated into policies and programs (climate change policy, laws, infrastructure investment and financing mechanisms),[2][11][40] although they still face many implementation barriers and challenges.[41][42].

The potential of NBS for transformative change towards sustainability has recently been explored.[43] One study found that these solutions can drive profound changes towards sustainability in local socio-ecological systems through a combination of nature values, knowledge, community participation and sustainable management.[44] More studies are needed that assess the contributions of NBS towards transformative change at broader scales, for example in relation to planetary boundaries.

Practical application

Actualmente no existe un estándar aceptado por el cual un organismo público, municipio o empresa privada pueda evaluar sistemáticamente la eficiencia, la eficacia y la sostenibilidad de una determinada solución basada en la naturaleza. Sin embargo, una serie de estudios e informes han propuesto principios y marcos para la aplicación eficaz de estas soluciones.[8][10][51] Un principio fundamental, por ejemplo, es que las NBS buscan adoptar las normas de conservación de la naturaleza, no reemplazarlas.[52][53].

Las NBS también están determinadas por los contextos naturales y culturales específicos de la zona en que se aplican, lo que incluye conocimientos tradicionales, locales y científicos. Los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) se pueden utilizar como una herramienta de análisis para determinar los sitios en que una determinada NBS podría funcionar.[54] Un SIG puede detallar las condiciones del sitio, como la inclinación de las pendiente, los cursos de agua o los usos del suelo.[54] Los mapas resultantes a menudo se usan junto con mapas históricos de inundaciones para determinar la capacidad de almacenamiento de agua de inundación en sitios específicos, utilizando herramientas de modelado 3D.[54] La comparación de mapas de idoneidad con imágenes digitales de Google Earth también se practica a menudo para garantizar que los mapas de idoneidad sean representativos de las condiciones reales. Las NBS se pueden aplicar aisladamente o junto a soluciones convencionales. Se utilizan a escala de paisaje.

Aplicar NBS supone desafíos políticos, económicos y científicos. En primer lugar, puede ser necesaria inversión del sector privado para complementar las fuentes tradicionales de capital, como la financiación pública o la filantropía. Por lo tanto, el desafío es proporcionar evidencias sólidas de que estas soluciones son viables y contribuyen al crecimiento económico y al empleo más que sus alternativas tradicionales.

Múltiples estudios de casos ya han demostrado que las NBS son más viables económicamente que las infraestructuras tecnológicas convencionales.[25][55] Además, requieren medidas como la adaptación de los esquemas de subsidios económicos y la creación de oportunidades para la financiación de la conservación de la naturaleza por nombrar algunas. De hecho, tales medidas serán necesarias para ampliar las intervenciones de NBS y fortalecer su impacto en la mitigación de los desafíos más apremiantes del mundo.[53].

Projects supported by the European Union

Since 2016, the EU has supported a multi-stakeholder dialogue platform (ThinkNature[56]) to promote the co-design, testing and deployment of improved and innovative NBS in an integrated manner.[1] The creation of such science-policy-business-society interfaces could promote the market adoption of NBS.[57] The project is part of the EU's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program and will have a duration of 3 years. There are a total of 17 international partners involved, including the Technical University of Crete (project leader), the University of Helsinki and BiodivERsA.

In 2017, as part of Estonia's presidency of the Council of the European Union, the Estonian Ministry of Environment and Tallinn University organized[58] This a conference to strengthen synergies between several recent NBS-related initiatives and programs launched by the European Commission and EU member countries, focusing on NBS policy and governance, research and innovation.

The NBS in the Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement calls on all Parties to recognize the role of ecosystems in providing services such as carbon sinks.[59] Article 5.2 encourages Parties to adopt conservation and management as tools to increase natural elements that remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (e.g. forests) called "carbon stocks" and Article 7.1 encourages Parties to develop the resilience of socio-economic systems and ecological through economic diversification and sustainable management of natural resources. The agreement refers to nature (ecosystems, natural resources, forests) in 13 different places. An in-depth analysis[60] of all Nationally Determined Contributions[61] (NDCs) submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) revealed that around 130 NDCs, or 65% of signatories, commit to nature-based solutions in their climate commitments, suggesting broad consensus on nature's role in helping meet climate change goals. However, high-level commitments rarely translate into robust, measurable actions on the ground.[62].

NBS at the September 2019 UN Climate Action Summit

At the 2019 UN Climate Action Summit, nature-based solutions were one of the main topics discussed and were considered an effective method to combat climate change. A "Nature-based Solutions Coalition" was created, including dozens of countries, led by China and New Zealand.[12].

NBS effectiveness

Se elaboró un mapa sistemático mundial de resultados de uso de NBS para determinar e ilustrar su eficacia.[63] Después de revisar 386 estudios de casos con programas de ordenador, el estudio encontró que las NBS eran tan eficaces como las estrategias tradicionales de manejo de inundaciones, si no más.[42] El 66 % de los casos evaluados reportaron resultados ecológicos positivos, el 24 % no identificó un cambio en las condiciones ecológicas y menos del 1 % reportó impactos negativos. Además, las NBS siempre tuvieron mejores impactos sociales y de mitigación del cambio climático.[42].

La evidencia recopilada de otros estudios de casos respalda estas afirmaciones en el sentido de que las NBS son eficacesː logran los objetivos deseados. Sin embargo, se advierte de que la infraestructura verde, habitual en las NBS, debe usarse junto con la infraestructura gris (denominación de la infraestructura tradicional,[64] por componerse a menudo de hormigón o cemento).[65] Usar solo infraestructura verde o solo infraestructura gris es menos eficaz que utilizar ambas a la vez, cada una de forma que produzca los mayores efectos.[65].

Efficacy warnings

While NBS are appropriate for flood management, they are largely used in developed countries, resulting in a lack of data for many low- and middle-income nations.[42] Consequently, many ecosystems and climates are excluded from existing studies as well as cost analyzes in these locations. More research is needed in developing countries to determine the effectiveness of NBS in their climatic, social and ecological standards.

It is also essential that gray infrastructure continues to be used alongside green infrastructure.[65] Multiple studies recognize that, although NBS are very effective and in simulations improve flood resistance, they should not act alone, but rather in coordination with gray infrastructure.[65][66] When NBS are used in conjunction with gray infrastructure, the benefits transcend flood management and improve social conditions, increase carbon sequestration, and prepare cities for the flood. resilience planning.[25].

• - Sponge city.

• - Management of natural resources.

• - Sustainable forest management.

• - Ecological sanitation.

• - Nature-based solutions initiative: consolidation of evidence of the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for adaptation to climate change.

• - Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform: Explore how the world's nations include nature in their climate change policy.

• - What are the nature-based solutions to climate change? An animation produced by the Nature-Based Solutions Initiative.

• - Nature-based solutions: Pandora's box or concept of reconciliation? (video of the EKLIPSE & BiodivERSA webinar).

• - Sustainable cities: nature-based solutions in urban design (The Nature Conservancy):.

• - Think Nature: a video guide to using nature-based solutions (IUCN).

• - Nature Now Short film by Greta Thunberg and George Monbiot.

• - Questions and answers: can nature-based solutions help address climate change? Carbon Brief 2021.

References

[1] ↑ a b «Nature-Based Solutions - European Commission». Archivado desde el original el 23 de septiembre de 2019. Consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2019.: https://web.archive.org/web/20190923161801/http://ec.europa.eu/research/environment/index.cfm?pg=nbs
[2] ↑ a b Wild, Tom; Freitas, Tiago; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2020). Nature-based Solutions - State of the Art in EU-funded Projects. Archivado desde el original el 11 de enero de 2021. Consultado el 11 de enero de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20210111152411/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/research_and_innovation/research_by_area/documents/nbs_valorisationprojects_fullreport_web.pdf
[3] ↑ Eggermont, Hilde; Balian, Estelle; Azevedo, José Manuel N.; Beumer, Victor; Brodin, Tomas; Claudet, Joachim; Fady, Bruno; Grube, Martin et al. (2015). «Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe». Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society (en inglés) 24 (4): 243-248. doi:10.14512/gaia.24.4.9. Archivado desde el original el 7 de mayo de 2020. Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2020. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf
[4] ↑ «Horizon 2020 Workprogramme 2018-2020». Archivado desde el original el 10 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 10 de diciembre de 2019.: https://web.archive.org/web/20191210160153/https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/horizon2020/sites/horizon2020/files/climat_h2020_wp_2018-2020_draft.pdf
[5] ↑ Marois, Darryl E.; Mitsch, William J. (2 de enero de 2015). «Coastal protection from tsunamis and cyclones provided by mangrove wetlands – a review». International Journal of Biodiversity Science, Ecosystem Services & Management 11 (1): 71-83. ISSN 2151-3732. doi:10.1080/21513732.2014.997292. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175644/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21513732.2014.997292
[6] ↑ Inoue, Tomomi (2019), «Carbon Sequestration in Mangroves», Blue Carbon in Shallow Coastal Ecosystems (Singapore: Springer Singapore): 73-99, ISBN 978-981-13-1294-6, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-1295-3_3, archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021, consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021 .: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175544/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-981-13-1295-3_3
[7] ↑ «'Nature-based solutions' is the latest green jargon that means more than you might think». Nature (en inglés) 541 (7636): 133-134. 12 de enero de 2017. Bibcode:2017Natur.541R.133.. PMID 28079099. doi:10.1038/541133b.: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.541R.133.
[8] ↑ a b Raymond, Christopher M.; Frantzeskaki, Niki; Kabisch, Nadja; Berry, Pam; Breil, Margaretha; Nita, Mihai Razvan; Geneletti, Davide; Calfapietra, Carlo (2017). «A framework for assessing and implementing the co-benefits of nature-based solutions in urban areas». Environmental Science & Policy 77: 15-24. ISSN 1462-9011. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2017.07.008. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175655/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901117306317?via%3Dihub
[9] ↑ Bush, Judy; Doyon, Andréanne (2019). «Building urban resilience with nature-based solutions: How can urban planning contribute?». Cities 95: 102483. ISSN 0264-2751. doi:10.1016/j.cities.2019.102483. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175546/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264275119313976?via%3Dihub
[10] ↑ a b Frantzeskaki, Niki (2019). «Seven lessons for planning nature-based solutions in cities». Environmental Science & Policy 93: 101-111. ISSN 1462-9011. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2018.12.033.: https://es.wikipedia.org//portal.issn.org/resource/issn/1462-9011
[11] ↑ a b c Faivre, Nicolas; Fritz, Marco; Freitas, Tiago; de Boissezon, Birgit; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2017). «Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges». Environmental Research 159: 509-518. Bibcode:2017ER....159..509F. ISSN 0013-9351. PMID 28886502. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175546/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0013935117316080?via%3Dihub
[12] ↑ a b «Political and financial support for new efforts to scale up use of nature-based solutions to be announced at Climate Action Summit». Climate Action Summit 2019. Archivado desde el original el 6 de octubre de 2019. Consultado el 22 de octubre de 2019.: https://web.archive.org/web/20191006112357/https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/assets/pdf/release_nature_based_solutions.pdf
[13] ↑ Green, Jared (18 de diciembre de 2013). American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), ed. «The New Philadelphia Story Is About Green Infrastructure». Washington, DC.: https://dirt.asla.org/2013/12/18/the-new-philadelphia-story-is-about-green-infrastructure/
[14] ↑ a b c d e Eggermont, Hilde; Balian, Estelle; Azevedo, José Manuel N.; Beumer, Victor; Brodin, Tomas; Claudet, Joachim; Fady, Bruno; Grube, Martin et al. (2015). «Nature-based Solutions: New Influence for Environmental Management and Research in Europe». Gaia - Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society (en inglés) 24 (4): 243-248. doi:10.14512/gaia.24.4.9. Archivado desde el original el 7 de mayo de 2020. Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2020. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://web.archive.org/web/20200507073138/https://hal-univ-perp.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01245631/file/Eggermont%20et%20al.%202015%20%28NBS%29.pdf
[15] ↑ a b Borsje, B.W. et al. 2011. How ecological engineering can serve in coastal protection. Ecological Engineering 37/2: 113–122.
[16] ↑ a b Barot, S., J.C. Lata, G. Lacroix. 2012. Meeting the relational challenge of ecological engineering within ecological sciences. Ecological Engineering 45: 13–23.
[17] ↑ a b Jackson, D.L. 2002. The farm as natural habitat: reconnecting food systems with ecosystems. Washington D.C.: Island.
[18] ↑ Dudley, N. et al. 2010. Natural solutions: protected areas helping people cope with climate change. Gland: World Wide Fund for Nature.
[19] ↑ Lavorel S., M.J. Colloff, S. Mcintyre, M.D. Doherty, H.T. Murphy, D.J. Metcalfe, M. Dunlop, R.J. Williams, R.M. Wise, K.J. Williams. 2015. Ecological mechanisms underpinning climate adaptation services. Global Change Biology 21:12–31.
[20] ↑ Smith, M., S. Barchiesi, S. 2009. "Environment as Infrastructure: Resilience to Climate Change Impacts of Water Through Investments in Nature" Perspectives on Water and Climate Change Adaptation. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland.
[21] ↑ Ozment, S., K. DiFrancesco, T. Gartner. 2015. The role of natural infrastructure in the water, energy and food nexus. Nexus Dialogue Synthesis Papers. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
[22] ↑ Benedict, M.A., E.T. McMahon. 2006. Green Infrastructure: linking landscapes and communities. Washington D.C.: Island.
[23] ↑ Cowan C., C. Epple, H. Korn, R. Schliep, J. Stadler (Eds.). (2010). «Developing ecosystem-based approaches to climate change – Why, what and how». Bonn: Bundesamt für Naturschutz. Archivado desde el original el 26 de marzo de 2016.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160326040150/http://www.bfn.de/fileadmin/MDB/documents/service/Skript264.pdf
[24] ↑ a b c d e Qi, Yunfei; Chan, Faith Ka Shun; Thorne, Colin; O’Donnell, Emily; Quagliolo, Carlotta; Comino, Elena; Pezzoli, Alessandro; Li, Lei et al. (October 2020). «Addressing Challenges of Urban Water Management in Chinese Sponge Cities via Nature-Based Solutions». Water (en inglés) 12 (10): 2788. doi:10.3390/w12102788. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390%2Fw12102788
[25] ↑ a b c d Hankin, Barry; Page, Trevor; McShane, Gareth; Chappell, Nick; Spray, Chris; Black, Andrew; Comins, Luke (1 de agosto de 2021). «How can we plan resilient systems of nature-based mitigation measures in larger catchments for flood risk reduction now and in the future?». Water Security (en inglés) 13: 100091. ISSN 2468-3124. doi:10.1016/j.wasec.2021.100091.: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468312421000080
[26] ↑ a b Cohen-Shacham, E.; Walters, G.; Janzen, C.; Maginnis, S. (2016). «Nature-based solutions to address global societal challenges». IUCN, Gland, Suiza. Archivado desde el original el 1 de abril de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20210401093813/https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/46191
[27] ↑ Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016, p. 2.
[28] ↑ Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016, p. 3.
[29] ↑ Faivre, Nicolas; Fritz, Marco; Freitas, Tiago; Boissezon, Birgit de; Vandewoestijne, Sofie (2017). «Nature-Based Solutions in the EU: Innovating with nature to address social, economic and environmental challenges». Environmental Research 159: 509-518. Bibcode:2017ER....159..509F. PMID 28886502. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.032.: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ER....159..509F
[30] ↑ MacKinnon, K., C. Sobrevila, V. Hickey. 2008. Biodiversity, climate change and adaptation: nature-based solutions from the Word Bank portfolio. Washington D.C.: World Bank.
[31] ↑ Mittermeier, R. et al. 2008. A Climate For Life: Meeting the Global Challenge. Arlington, VA: International League of Conservation Photographers.
[32] ↑ IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 2009. No time to lose – make full use of nature-based solutions in the post-2012 climate change regime. Position paper on the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 15). Gland: IUCN.
[33] ↑ a b European Commission. 2015. Towards an EU Research and Innovation policy agenda for nature-based solutions & re-naturing cities. Final Report of the Horizon2020 Expert Group on Nature-Based Solutions and Re-Naturing Cities. Brussels: European Commission.
[34] ↑ «Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda». Global Climate Action Summit kicks off today in San Francisco with nature-based solutions high on the agenda. 12 de septiembre de 2018. Archivado desde el original el 13 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112911/http://nathalieseddon.blogspot.com/2018/09/global-climate-action-summit-kicks-off.html
[35] ↑ «BiodivERsA: home». www.biodiversa.org. Archivado desde el original el 31 de diciembre de 2019. Consultado el 31 de diciembre de 2019.: https://web.archive.org/web/20191231121051/https://www.biodiversa.org/
[36] ↑ Alteri, M.A. 1989. Agroecology – a new research and development paradigm for world agriculture. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 27: 37–36.
[37] ↑ «¿Qué es la agroecología y en qué se diferencia de la agricultura ecológica?». ok diario. 12 de enero de 2019. Consultado el 11 de julio de 2022.: https://okdiario.com/curiosidades/que-agroecologia-que-diferencia-agricultura-ecologica-3556549
[38] ↑ Lefèvre F. et al. 2014. Considering evolutionary processes in adaptive forestry. Annals of Forest Science 71: 723 – 739.
[39] ↑ Maes, J., S. Jacobs. 2015. Conservation Letters doi 10.1111/conl.12216.: https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/conl.12216
[40] ↑ Dhyani, Shalini; Karki, Madhav; Gupta, Anil Kumar (2020), «Opportunities and Advances to Mainstream Nature-Based Solutions in Disaster Risk Management and Climate Strategy», Nature-based Solutions for Resilient Ecosystems and Societies, Disaster Resilience and Green Growth (Singapore: Springer Singapore): 1-26, ISBN 978-981-15-4711-9, doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4712-6_1, archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021, consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021 .: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175634/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-981-15-4712-6_1
[41] ↑ Wamsler, C.; Wickenberg, B.; Hanson, H.; Alkan Olsson, J.; Stålhammar, S.; Björn, H.; Falck, H.; Gerell, D. et al. (2020). «Environmental and climate policy integration: Targeted strategies for overcoming barriers to nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation». Journal of Cleaner Production 247: 119154. ISSN 0959-6526. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.119154. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://es.wikipedia.org//portal.issn.org/resource/issn/0959-6526
[42] ↑ a b c d Chausson, Alexandre; Turner, Beth; Seddon, Dan; Chabaneix, Nicole; Girardin, Cécile A. J.; Kapos, Valerie; Key, Isabel; Roe, Dilys et al. (9 de septiembre de 2020). «Mapping the effectiveness of nature‐based solutions for climate change adaptation». Global Change Biology 26 (11): 6134-6155. Bibcode:2020GCBio..26.6134C. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 32906226. doi:10.1111/gcb.15310. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175548/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.15310
[43] ↑ Welden, E. A.; Chausson, Alexandre; Melanidis, Marina S. (2021). «Leveraging Nature-based Solutions for transformation: Reconnecting people and nature». People and Nature (en inglés) 3 (5): 966-977. ISSN 2575-8314. doi:10.1002/pan3.10212. Archivado desde el original el 17 de mayo de 2021. Consultado el 17 de mayo de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20210517103814/https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/pan3.10212
[44] ↑ Palomo, Ignacio; Locatelli, Bruno; Otero, Iago; Colloff, Matthew; Crouzat, Emilie; Cuni-Sanchez, Aida; Gómez-Baggethun, Erik; González-García, Alberto et al. (14 de mayo de 2021). «Assessing nature-based solutions for transformative change». One Earth (en inglés) 4 (5): 730-741. Bibcode:2021OEart...4..730P. ISSN 2590-3322. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2021.04.013. Archivado desde el original el 17 de mayo de 2021. Consultado el 17 de mayo de 2021. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://web.archive.org/web/20210517103808/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590332221002323
[45] ↑ a b c United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) database on ecosystem-based approaches to adaptation.
[46] ↑ Ghatak, Aditi Roy (17 de febrero de 2018). «The wetlands will weep today». The Statesman. Archivado desde el original el 8 de marzo de 2018. Consultado el 23 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180308105011/https://www.thestatesman.com/opinion/wetlands-will-weep-today-1502586927.html
[47] ↑ Ghosh, Dhrubajyoti. «The Calcutta Wetlands: turning bad water into good». www.dhrubajyoti.net. Changemakers (issue October 2008). Archivado desde el original el 13 de enero de 2017. Consultado el 8 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20170113145208/http://dhrubajyoti.net/publ/Dr.%20Ghosh_changemaker.pdf
[48] ↑ Ghosh, Dhrubajyoti (2 de octubre de 2014). Ecosystem management – towards merging theory and practice. New delhi: Nimby books. ISBN 9788190657044. Archivado desde el original el 24 de junio de 2019. Consultado el 8 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20190624111735/http://dhrubajyoti.net/Final%20Ecosystem%20Book.pdf
[49] ↑ Aseem, Shrivastava (8 de marzo de 2018). «The ecologically subsidised city: on Kolkata's wetland communities». The Hindu. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 23 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175547/https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/the-ecologically-subsidised-city/article22970933.ece
[50] ↑ «Global 500 environmental forum». www.global500.org. United Nations. Archivado desde el original el 8 de marzo de 2018. Consultado el 8 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180308231603/http://www.global500.org/index.php/year/1990?start=100
[51] ↑ Cohen-Shacham et al., 2016, pp. 5-7.
[52] ↑ Anderson, Carl C.; Renaud, Fabrice G. (19 de febrero de 2021). «A review of public acceptance of nature-based solutions: The 'why', 'when', and 'how' of success for disaster risk reduction measures». Ambio 50 (8): 1552-1573. ISSN 0044-7447. PMC 8249538. PMID 33606249. doi:10.1007/s13280-021-01502-4. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175550/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs13280-021-01502-4
[53] ↑ a b Cohen-Shacham, Emmanuelle; Andrade, Angela; Dalton, James; Dudley, Nigel; Jones, Mike; Kumar, Chetan; Maginnis, Stewart; Maynard, Simone et al. (2019). «Core principles for successfully implementing and upscaling Nature-based Solutions». Environmental Science & Policy 98: 20-29. ISSN 1462-9011. doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2019.04.014. Archivado desde el original el 23 de noviembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://web.archive.org/web/20211123175548/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1462901118306671?via%3Dihub
[54] ↑ a b c Mubeen, Adam; Ruangpan, Laddaporn; Vojinovic, Zoran; Sanchez Torrez, Arlex; Plavšić, Jasna (1 de agosto de 2021). «Planning and Suitability Assessment of Large-scale Nature-based Solutions for Flood-risk Reduction». Water Resources Management (en inglés) 35 (10): 3063-3081. ISSN 1573-1650. doi:10.1007/s11269-021-02848-w.: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-021-02848-w
[55] ↑ Costa, Sandra; Peters, Rik; Martins, Ricardo; Postmes, Luuk; Keizer, Jan Jacob; Roebeling, Peter (March 2021). «Effectiveness of Nature-Based Solutions on Pluvial Flood Hazard Mitigation: The Case Study of the City of Eindhoven (The Netherlands)». Resources (en inglés) 10 (3): 24. doi:10.3390/resources10030024.: https://dx.doi.org/10.3390%2Fresources10030024
[56] ↑ «ThinkNature | Platform for Nature-Based Solutions». ThinkNature (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 5 de septiembre de 2021. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2021.: https://web.archive.org/web/20210905131605/https://www.think-nature.eu/
[57] ↑ Nikolaidis, Nikolaos P.; Kolokotsa, Dionyssia; Banwart, Steven A. (16 de marzo de 2017). «Nature-based solutions: business». Nature (en inglés) 543 (7645): 315. Bibcode:2017Natur.543..315N. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 28300105. doi:10.1038/543315d.: http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Natur.543..315N
[58] ↑ «Nature-Based Solutions, Tallinn, 24–26 October 2017». Archivado desde el original el 21 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 21 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180621015823/https://nbs2017.eu/
[59] ↑ Harris, Duchess (15 de diciembre de 2018). The Paris climate agreement. ISBN 978-1-5321-5964-0. OCLC 1101137974.: http://worldcat.org/oclc/1101137974
[60] ↑ «Nature-Based Solutions Policy Platform». www.nbspolicyplatform.org (en inglés británico). Archivado desde el original el 24 de mayo de 2020. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20200524092518/https://www.nbspolicyplatform.org/
[61] ↑ «Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) | UNFCCC». unfccc.int (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 13 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112909/https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/nationally-determined-contributions/ndc-registry
[62] ↑ Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world?. July 2016. Archivado desde el original el 13 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180913112648/http://pubs.iied.org/17364IIED/?k=Ecosystem-based+Adaptation+EbA&p=3
[63] ↑ Chausson, Alexandre; Turner, Beth; Seddon, Dan; Chabaneix, Nicole; Girardin, Cécile A. J.; Kapos, Valerie; Key, Isabel; Roe, Dilys et al. (2020). «Mapping the effectiveness of nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation». Global Change Biology (en inglés) 26 (11): 6134-6155. Bibcode:2020GCBio..26.6134C. ISSN 1365-2486. PMID 32906226. doi:10.1111/gcb.15310. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/gcb.15310
[64] ↑ Anna Zucchetti, Nuria Hartmann, Teresita Alcántara y Paz Gonzales (2020). «1.1. Infraestructura Verde». INFRAESTRUCTURA VERDE Y SOLUCIONES BASADAS EN LA NATURALEZA para la adaptación al cambio climático. Perú: Alianza Clima y Desarrollo. p. 11. Consultado el 15 de julio de 2022.: https://cdkn.org/sites/default/files/files/REPORTE-CIUDADES-VERDES-FINAL-020920_rv_compressed.pdf
[65] ↑ a b c d Chen, Wenjie; Wang, Weiqi; Huang, Guoru; Wang, Zhaoli; Lai, Chengguang; Yang, Zhiyong (15 de febrero de 2021). «The capacity of grey infrastructure in urban flood management: A comprehensive analysis of grey infrastructure and the green-grey approach». International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction (en inglés) 54: 102045. ISSN 2212-4209. doi:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102045.: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221242092100011X
[66] ↑ Kourtis, Ioannis M.; Bellos, Vasilis; Kopsiaftis, George; Psiloglou, Basil; Tsihrintzis, Vassilios A. (1 de diciembre de 2021). «Methodology for holistic assessment of grey-green flood mitigation measures for climate change adaptation in urban basins». Journal of Hydrology (en inglés) 603: 126885. Bibcode:2021JHyd..60326885K. ISSN 0022-1694. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2021.126885.: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022169421009355