Congestion charges to access city centers
The use of congestion road pricing to enter an urban area aims to reduce car trips to congested city centers.[13] The economic criterion to justify such a charge is based on the externalities or social costs produced by car trips during congested hours, such as air pollution, noise, traffic accidents, deterioration of the urban environment, and mainly, the delays and additional operating costs imposed on other road users, and above all, on public transport vehicles, which are environmentally and socially more efficient.
In 1975, the first successful implementation of a congestion pricing scheme in urban centers took place in Singapore,[14] in conjunction with a series of economic measures to restrict demand, rigorous laws that still today limit the acquisition of new vehicles, and the significant improvement of public transportation.[2][15][16] In its beginnings, access control to the restricted area was carried out manually by the police. Thanks to technological advances in electronic detection, automatic recognition of video images and electronic toll collection, it was possible to introduce congestion pricing in other cities. The technological element is essential because the number of entrances to a city is very large, and it was necessary to have an option that would allow these rates to be collected without the vehicles having to stop or slow down, thus avoiding the delays associated with traditional collection through toll booths.
In this way, in 1998 Singapore improved and automated its charging scheme;[17] Rome introduced charging and control effectively in 1998 and improved it technologically from 2001;[18][19] London implemented its congestion pricing system in 2003 and expanded it in 2007; Stockholm carried out a trial period in 2006 and after a referendum, implemented it permanently from 2007;[20] and Milan, which in January 2008 introduced a congestion charging system called Ecopass, which was scheduled as a trial for one year and established payment exemption for environmentally friendly vehicles (Euro IV).[21][22][23][24] The Ecopass program was extended until December 31, 2009, and a public consultation will be held to decide if the measure is maintained permanently.[25].
Although complete studies have not yet been carried out to evaluate the medium and long-term results of the use of congestion pricing, initial reports from the cities where it has been implemented show reductions in the volume of traffic entering the restricted area of between 10% to 30%,[26] as well as important reductions in environmental pollution.[27] It is also notable that in all the cities where the scheme was implemented, a lot of public controversy arose, both before and after the implementation, which makes the political viability of this strategy a very sensitive issue.
Singapore and Stockholm charge the congestion charge each time a vehicle crosses the cordoned off area, while in London a daily fee is charged for any vehicle traveling on public roads within the restricted zone, regardless of how many times it crossed the cordon. established in accordance with the traffic conditions at the collection points, and are reviewed quarterly. The Land Transport Authority of Singapore (English: "Land Transport Authority", acronym LTA) considers that thanks to this charging policy, the system "has been effective in maintaining an optimal speed range that varies between 45 to 65 km/h on express roads, and between 20 and 30 km/h for arterial roads".[30].
For the purpose of further improving the pricing mechanism of Singapore's congestion pricing system, and for the purposes of allowing the charging of variable prices") in real time,[31]
The LTA of Singapore, together with the firm IBM, carried out a pilot project between December 2006 and April 2007, with a traffic estimation and prediction system (called in English "Traffic estimation and prediction system", acronym TrEPS), which takes advantage of historical traffic data and information on traffic flow conditions obtained in real time, in order to predict congestion levels up to an hour in advance and in short time intervals. Through accurate prediction of existing and emerging traffic conditions, this technology is expected to enable not only the charging of variable congestion charges, but also serve to comprehensively improve traffic management, including providing advance information to warn users about the traffic conditions they will encounter ahead, as well as informing the current congestion charges. This pricing mechanism is expected to produce better results in modifying user behavior in order to decrease traffic flow compared to current schemes.[32][33].
In February 2008, the public authority Transport for London (English: "Transport for London") announced that from October 2008 the London congestion charge would have a new pricing structure, based on potential CO emissions depending on the type of vehicle. compared to the ₤8 they pay today.[36] However, the current Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, announced in July 2008 that the scheme based on CO emissions proposed during the Livingstone administration will no longer be implemented.[37] Among other reasons, the mayor explained that the environmental fee would encourage the free entry of thousands of smaller vehicles, resulting in greater congestion and air pollution.[37][38] plans to implement a charging extension to the suburbs, and Johnson also announced that the western extension implemented in 2007 will be reviewed, based on a public consultation scheduled for September 2008.[39].
Around Europe several small cities, such as the city of Durham,[40] in England; Znojmo,[41] in the Czech Republic; Riga,[42][43] the capital of Latvia; and Valletta,[44][45] the capital of Malta, have introduced the charging of congestion charges with the aim of reducing serious traffic and parking problems, particularly during the peak tourist season, in an effort to preserve their historic sites and buildings, some of which have been declared World Heritage Sites; as well as to improve the quality of the urban environment, reduce pollution and improve its tourist attraction, by inducing greater access on foot and by bicycle to these ancient centers.
The city of San Francisco "San Francisco (California)"), California, in 2006 began studies to evaluate the feasibility of implementing congestion pricing to solve the traffic congestion problems suffered by its urban center.[69][70][71] The funds raised with this congestion charge will be used for the improvement of public transportation and for programs to facilitate the movement of pedestrians and bicycles in the city. city.[70][72][73] If the proposal were approved and implemented, it would be the first congestion pricing system implemented in the United States,[74][75] due to the stagnation that New York's congestion pricing proposal suffered in 2008. In December 2008, the different scenarios considered in the San Francisco mobility and access study were presented for citizen consultation through public meetings, and the final results of the study are expected by the end of 2009.[74].
Both in academic literature[76][77] and in practice, the implementation of congestion pricing in urban areas has been the subject of controversy and public debate. The main complaint is the inequality caused by this policy, since despite its social benefits, the measure favors drivers with higher incomes who have the economic capacity to pay the congestion fee, while users with lower purchasing power are those who are forced to change their trips to public transport. Another controversial issue is the destination that should be given to the funds collected from urban tolls, whether they should be invested in road infrastructure, or should be allocated to improve public transportation or if they should be distributed among users who changed their travel patterns due to congestion pricing.
Other concerns have been raised regarding the effects of congestion pricing policies with respect to the impact on commerce within the restricted area and on land uses.[78] This concern is due to the fact that the benefits of these schemes are evaluated only from an urban transportation point of view. However, congestion pricing schemes have also been used with the explicit objective of improving urban quality and to preserve the historical heritage of the old centers of the small towns of Valletta, in Malta[79] and Znojmo, in the Czech Republic.[80].
Congestion pricing in urban corridors
The application of congestion pricing has also been used on urban highways, and unlike the cordoned off areas of a city, its impact is limited and punctual, since pricing is limited to a corridor or set of road corridors. This causes users who are not willing to pay to divert to other, less fast alternative routes, but in general, it has been observed that the number of trips is not reduced, as occurs in the case of cordoned off areas.
Between 2004 and 2005, in Santiago de Chile, the first electronic toll collection systems in the world were implemented that cross the city's commercial center with 100% automation and as part of a system of concessioned urban highways (the Autopista Central, and the Autopista Costanera Norte "Autopista Costanera Norte (Santiago de Chile)"), with technology that allows automatic control of all entries to the highway and charging by distance. tour. In less than two years since it was inaugurated, some sections in the central part of the city have already begun to become congested during peak hours, which is why in 2007 the charging of congestion charges was put into practice, in order to guarantee greater fluidity during peak hours. The current rate during peak hours is almost double the rate in periods without congestion, and almost triple in congested conditions.[81][82].
Norway's three main cities (see Urban Tolling in Norway) implemented electronic tolling systems on the motorway network that accesses those cities. They are Bergen (1986), Oslo (1990), and Trondheim (1991). The Norwegian case is not considered a true congestion pricing scheme, since the main objective of toll collection is explicitly to raise resources for a road fund dedicated to new urban infrastructure. However, particularly in the case of Oslo, as the corridor runs through the city centre, it is inevitable that the toll will act as a disincentive to travel to the centre, and the charge caused a small decrease in the volume of traffic moving through the network of corridors accessing Oslo.
In 2007, the city of Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates, implemented a similar toll system on urban highways called Salik&action=edit&redlink=1 "Salik (Road Toll) (not yet drafted)"),[83] and although one of its objectives is to apply congestion pricing, as it is not a closed system, it has caused a lot of congestion in alternative urban corridors that are not subject to urban toll collection.
Congestion pricing on isolated roads
Another recent application of congestion pricing policies has been in the context of achieving optimized use of high-occupancy lanes on urban highways. In this case, against the payment of a special toll rate, users of low-occupancy vehicles are allowed to use the high-occupancy lanes (called HOVs). This scheme is known as "HOT" (High-Occupancy Toll) lanes and has been used primarily in the United States and Canada. There has been much controversy over this new concept, and critics have called them "Lexus" lanes, because their access could be limited to wealthier users.[84][85][86].
Congestion charges charged in the form of variable toll rates depending on the time of day have also been implemented on bridges and tunnels that provide access to the central commercial areas of several cities. In most cases, conventional toll collection already existed.
In March 2001, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey implemented a discount to the regular toll rates applicable for the off-peak period and only for those vehicles using electronic payment through the "EZ Pass" system. This discount was applied to several tunnels and bridges connecting New York City and New Jersey, including the George Washington Bridge, the Lincoln Tunnel, and the Holland Tunnel.[87][88] Since March 2008, vehicles that produce low emissions and have a fuel economy of at least 45 miles per gallon (19 km per liter), such as the Toyota Prius, are eligible to receive the "Green Pass" issued by the Port Authority, with which they are entitled to a 50% discount on the normal rate when crossing tunnels or bridges outside of peak hours.[89].
In January 2009, variable toll rates depending on the time of day were introduced on the Sydney Harbor Bridge, two weeks after implementing electronic toll collection that allowed 100% free flow. The highest fares are charged during the morning and afternoon peak periods; a 25% lower rate applies in the periods immediately before and after peak hours; and a lower rate than the previously existing one is charged at night, at the end of the week and on holidays. This is the first congestion pricing system used in Australia.[90][91][92].