Mexico

The Federal Labor Law, in its article 132, section XVI, establishes the obligation of the employer to install and operate the factories, workshops, offices, premises and other places where the work must be carried out, in accordance with the provisions established in the regulations and official Mexican standards on safety, health and work environment, in order to prevent accidents and occupational diseases, as well as to adopt the preventive and corrective measures determined by the labor authority.

In Mexico there are also Standards or NOMs which are technical regulations in a regulatory nature by the government of Mexico, these are mainly to regulate products, processes and services to protect safety, although these were already mentioned at the top of this section, we must highlight NOM 035, which establishes the psychosocial risk factors at work, their identification, analysis and prevention [14]​.

According to its field of application, it applies throughout the national territory, however this standard applies according to the number of workers who work in the workplace[15]​.

Broadly speaking, NOM 035 seeks to psychologically protect the worker from severe traumatic events or events (for example, witnessing the death of a colleague, witnessing or being a victim of harassment or threats that threaten the worker's full life in the workplace) in which they affect their safety, occupational risk and mainly the worker's stay in the company after suffering this type of events [15]​.

In asset security, the very nature of this position is based on the protection of the company's human resources and assets, therefore prevention, action and containment plans are an important factor.

The human factor is essential in any scenario, however all personnel must be trained in various prevention programs and action protocols, in order to carry out an entire property security management program.

Uruguay

Law No. 16,074 declares the mandatory nature of insurance against work accidents and occupational diseases. This law regulates the activities carried out in Uruguay with respect to accidents at work and occupational diseases, the compensation and permanent income derived from them, and the obligations of the employer sector.[16]​.

European Union

Within the European Union, there are the following organizations related to Safety and Health at Work.

The modification of the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community by the so-called Single Act"), in accordance with Article 118 A), since its entry into force, the Member States have been promoting the improvement of the working environment to achieve the objective of harmonization in the progress of the safety and health conditions of workers. This objective has been reinforced in the Treaty of the European Union through the procedure contemplated therein for the adoption, through Directives "Directive (Right of the European Union)"), of minimum provisions that will have to be applied progressively.

Spain

Since 1976, Spain has entered a new stage in its history with the establishment of the monarchy, after having experienced various forms of government. This change brings with it a resurgence of ideological confrontation between political parties, and, of course, the different positions on the prevention of occupational risks become part of the debate. The concept of Health has various interpretations, in addition to that established in the Preamble of the Constitution of the WHO. 1945. The discussion about the loss of health focuses on the technical CAUSES and the personal FACTORS, until it is finally recognized that the technical causes are the most relevant for the advancement and implementation in the field of prevention.[18]​.

The lack of a clear criterion led to the transformation of the previous PLANHISET into the Social Service of Hygiene and Safety at Work in August 1976. Two years later, in 1978, this service was integrated into the newly created Ministry of Health and Social Security. This body must comply with the provisions of article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, which indicates the obligation of public powers to promote Safety and Hygiene at Work, aligning with the right to health protection, which is mentioned in article 43 of the same Constitution.[18]​.

With the arrival of the Socialist Party to power at the end of 1982, the supervisory and preventive advisory functions carried out by the territorial and provincial bodies of the I.N.S.H.T. through the Provincial Technical Cabinets were almost completely reduced. Even visits at the initiative of the national programming, which had had very positive results in previous years, were eliminated because the Labor Inspection once again assumed all powers. Instead, the development of research programs on methods and techniques of occupational safety and industrial hygiene was promoted, as well as the evaluation of accident statistics, studies on workplaces, raw materials and products that are toxic, dangerous or difficult to handle, in addition to training and updating plans for Safety and Hygiene Technicians. In relation to the National Congresses, we mention the The importance of improving the training of employers and workers to achieve better occupational safety and environmental conditions at work was also discussed. The XI Congress, held in Madrid in 1987, was the last of a general nature convened during the century, which reflects the confusion generated by the dispersion in the control of Occupational Safety and Hygiene in charge of the autonomous communities.[18]​.

In 1985, the functions of the Provincial Commissions of the General Council of Safety and Hygiene at Work were established. However, with the passage of time, these commissions became ineffective, and the voices of the union centers and business organizations that were represented became mere troupes, lacking ideas that would promote effective actions to address workplace accidents.[18]​.

From that moment on, a peculiar stage begins for the only technical body of the Administration that has in-depth knowledge on the prevention of occupational risks, in a context where the European Economic Community seeks to establish itself in the face of the significant economic threat represented, mainly, by the United States and Japan. Europe's response was not long in coming. Territorial unity was promoted as the only tool capable of promoting the social, economic and political approaches necessary to compete with other powers outside Europe. However, any change had to guarantee the maintenance and improvement of working conditions. Following the perspective of Hugues de Jouvenel, it is essential to return to ethical values ​​when facing new technologies, which will transform the ways of working, replacing the concept of "work" with that of "function." Ides Nicaise, from the Catholic University of Louvain, advocates for greater investment by companies in education and training, and demands that States establish an adequate protection system. This is the current situation. To be clear in our presentation, we are going to break down into small sections some of the key aspects of this period, which we consider illuminating with respect to the legislation approved at the end of the century, designed to address the problem of Occupational Health at the beginning of the century.[18]​.

Occupational risk is defined as any aspect of work that has the potential to cause harm (Damage (Law)). The prevention of occupational risks is the discipline that seeks to promote the safety and health of workers through the identification, evaluation and control of the dangers and risks associated with a production process, in addition to promoting the development of activities and measures necessary to prevent the risks derived from the occupation "Work (sociology)")[19]​.

Although it is an area that, at least in Spain, has a history of more than 100 years, this name has been relatively recent, following Law 31/1995, of November 8, on the Prevention of Occupational Risks"),[20]​ which develops article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution, which entrusts public powers, as one of the guiding principles of social and economic policy, to ensure health and safety. occupational.

Contenido

En España, por ejemplo, la Ley 31/1995, de 8 de noviembre de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales"), en la exposición de motivos, expone entre otros argumentos los siguientes:.

Machinery, equipment, products and work tools

Not only the employer who has a worker is bound by the occupational risk prevention regulations, but obligations are also usually established that affect manufacturers, importers and suppliers of machinery, equipment, products and work tools. Furthermore, the workers themselves are obliged to collaborate with companies in the development and application of occupational risk prevention.[21]​.

To evaluate the magnitude of the risks, there is a method that bases the estimation of the risks for each hazard on the determination of the potential severity of the damage (consequences) and the probability of the event occurring. In this way, in the area of ​​severity of damage, these are classified as slightly harmful (such as superficial damage and discomfort and irritation), harmful (such as burns, concussions, minor fractures, dermatitis, asthma, etc.) and extremely harmful (such as amputations, major fractures, poisoning, cancer or acute illnesses that severely shorten life).

Regarding the probability that the damage will occur, three categories are used: low, when the damage will rarely occur; the average, if it will occur sometimes, and the high, when it will always or almost always occur.

The following diagram summarizes the evaluation of occupational risks in companies:[22][23]​.

Next, preventive priorities are established and an order of action on the risks is defined, depending on their severity and the number of workers affected. The order of priority of preventive measures is as follows:[22][23]​.

Risk and safety phrases are sentences standardized by the European Union to indicate the basic handling of dangerous substances and reduce the risk that their handling entails. They are divided into two groups; R-phrases (Risk) and S-phrases (Safety) depending on the descriptive nature of the phrase.

These phrases differ from those applied in other countries. For this reason, in 2002, the United Nations created a globally harmonized system for the classification and labeling of chemicals ("GHS").

A efectos de determinación de las capacidades y aptitudes necesarias para la evaluación de los riesgos y el desarrollo de la actividad preventiva, las funciones a realizar se clasifican en los siguientes grupos:[24]​.

Industrial hygiene

Industrial hygiene[25]​ makes up a set of knowledge and techniques dedicated to recognizing, evaluating and controlling those environmental, psychological or stress factors that come from work and can cause illness or deteriorate health.

Industrial hygiene is made up of a set of rules and procedures aimed at protecting the physical and mental integrity of the worker, preserving him from the health risks inherent to the tasks of the position and the physical environment where they are performed.

It is related to the diagnosis and prevention of occupational diseases through the study and control of two variables: man and his work environment.

It has an eminently preventive nature, since it is aimed at the health and comfort of the employee, preventing them from getting sick or being temporarily or permanently absent from work.

Ergonomics at work

The ergonomic design of the workplace attempts to obtain an adequate fit between the skills or abilities of the worker and the requirements or demands of the job. The final objective is to optimize the productivity of the worker and the production system, while guaranteeing the satisfaction, safety and health of the workers.

The ergonomic design of the workplace must take into account the anthropometric characteristics of the population, the adaptation of the space, working postures, free space, interference of body parts, visual field, worker strength and biomechanical stress), among other aspects. The organizational aspects of the task are also taken into account.

To correctly design the conditions that a job must meet, it is necessary to take into account, among others, the following factors:

The proper design of the workplace should serve to:.

In order to reduce and reduce the incidence and severity of occupational accidents, companies must have the following devices in their workplaces:

Safety at work

The tasks carried out by a worker can be carried out in a specific place, which can be inside a building or outside in the open air, and can also be carried out moving from one place to another. Workplaces, in addition to being located in industrial facilities, can also be in hospitals, educational centers, hotels, offices, commercial premises, etc. In all places where there is a worker, whatever his function, he must be protected by the occupational risk prevention laws that apply to him.

Likewise, workers will have to handle work equipment consisting of any machine, device, instrument or installation used in the work.

The employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the work equipment made available to workers is appropriate for the work to be performed and suitably adapted to it, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers when using said work equipment.

When, in order to avoid or control a specific risk for the safety or health of workers, the use of work equipment must be carried out under certain conditions or forms, which require particular knowledge on the part of those workers, the employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the use of said equipment is reserved for the workers designated for it. The employer must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on the risks arising from the use of work equipment, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.[28]​.

"Overexertion" is physical work carried out above the normal effort that a person can develop in a given task.

Pathologies derived from overexertion are the first cause of illness in professionals. Overexertion accounts for almost 30 percent of minor occupational accidents and rises to 85% in the diseases suffered by professionals.[29]​.

To avoid "musculoskeletal disorders" resulting from overexertion, it is necessary to analyze the occupational risks of working conditions, the evaluation of these occupational risks, training, health monitoring and prevention of fatigue.

Working conditions are seriously altered when physical efforts greater than normal activity limits are required. In addition to physical effort, mental, visual, auditory, and emotional effort should also be considered as disturbing elements.

To evaluate physical effort, the nature of the effort must be taken into account, and the postures adopted in the workplace, sitting or standing, and the frequency of uncomfortable positions.[30]​.

The majority of occupational accidents caused by overexertion are muscle injuries, "they can be caused by blows, or by internal causes caused by alterations of the muscle. These injuries can be divided into strains," cramps, contractures, and the most serious, tears.[31]​.

To avoid injuries due to overexertion, it is necessary to take appropriate preventive measures and use the necessary personal protective equipment.[32]​.

All people who manipulate any machine, device, instrument or installation at work are obliged to comply with the safety regulations that concern the machines they manipulate. Before ordering the manipulation of a dangerous machine or tool to a worker, they must be thoroughly instructed in the handling of the machine in advance.[33]​.

The most frequent risks that arise from handling machine tools are basically:

For this reason, employers will have to adopt the necessary measures so that the machines and work equipment that are made available to workers are appropriate for the work to be performed, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers. When it is not possible to fully guarantee the safety and health of workers during the use of work equipment in this way, the employer will take appropriate measures to reduce such risks to a minimum.

The minimum provisions applicable to the handling of machines and tools include, among other issues, the following:

Working conditions can be seriously disturbed if the dimensions of the work premises do not allow workers to have the adequate surface and volume to carry out their work without risks to their safety and health and in acceptable ergonomic conditions.

Separations must be provided between the material elements existing in the workplace. When, for reasons inherent to the workplace, the available free space does not allow the worker to have the freedom of movement necessary to carry out his or her activity, sufficient additional space must be available in the vicinity of the workplace.

Only authorized workers may access areas where the safety of workers may be affected by risks of falls, falling objects and contact or exposure to aggressive elements. Likewise, there must be, to the extent possible, a system that prevents unauthorized workers from accessing these areas.

Areas of the workplace where there is a risk of falling, falling objects or contact or exposure to aggressive elements must be clearly marked.[35]​.

The need to regulate the use and signaling of doors and gates in the workplace is to prevent occupational accidents from occurring when workers pass goods or transit within industrial warehouses. Doors must be designed and manufactured according to their function and around other aspects such as:.

In order to avoid occupational accidents due to falls or slipping"), the floors of the work premises must be fixed, stable and non-slippery, without irregularities or dangerous slopes.

Openings or slopes that pose a risk of people falling will be protected by railings or other equivalent safety protection systems, which may have moving parts when it is necessary to have access to the opening. They must be protected, in particular:

"Load handling devices" inside industrial establishments are made up of cranes "Crane (machine)", overhead cranes, hoists, forklifts, forklifts and the loads themselves that are handled.[38]​.

The risks associated with cargo handling are the following:

The prevention devices that must be used with transport elements are the following:.

The risk caused by electrical energy is called electrical risk. This type of risk includes the following:

An electrical contact is the action of closing an electrical circuit by joining two elements. Direct electrical contact is the contact of people or animals with active conductors of an electrical installation. An indirect electrical contact is a contact of people or animals accidentally energized or a contact with any active part through a conductive medium.

The electrical current can cause immediate effects such as burns, cramps or fibrillation, and late effects such as mental disorders. It can also cause indirect effects such as falls, bumps or cuts.

The main factors that influence electrical risk are:[41]​.

Accidents caused by electricity can be minor, serious and even fatal. In the event of the death of the injured party, it is called electrocution.

In the occupational world, employers must adopt the necessary measures so that no risks arise from the use or presence of electrical energy in the workplace for the safety and health of workers or, if this is not possible, so that such risks are reduced to a minimum.

Based on this, the electrical installations in the workplace will be used and maintained in the appropriate manner and the operation of the protection systems will be periodically controlled, according to the instructions of their manufacturers and installers, if they exist, and the operator's own experience.

With this safety objective, employers must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on electrical risk, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.

Work on electrical installations in locations with risk of fire or explosion will be carried out following a procedure that reduces these risks to a minimum; To this end, the presence of flammable substances in the work area will be limited and controlled, as far as possible, and the appearance of ignition sources will be avoided, in particular, if an explosive atmosphere exists, or could form. In this case, carrying out work or operations (changing lamps, fuses, etc.) under voltage is prohibited, unless they are carried out in facilities and with equipment designed to operate under these conditions, which comply with the specific applicable regulations.[42]​.

Vibrations are the oscillations of particles around a point in any balanced physical medium and can be produced as a result of the operation of a machine or piece of equipment.[43]​.

For the purposes of working conditions, there are two types of harmful vibrations:

Preventive measures to reduce the harmful effects of mechanical vibrations.

Coming into contact with the emission of gases, vapors, liquids or dust is a fairly widespread process in fixed and portable machines and devices that workers manipulate.

In general, the emission of the substance involves its subsequent dispersion or diffusion in the air and, finally, its inhalation by the worker. The emission can come from different operations or sources. The nature of the substance determines its danger. Its effects on the body can be very diverse, being able to distinguish, among others:.

To evaluate the risks, it will be necessary to have information on the dangerous properties of the substances and any other information necessary to carry out said evaluation that, where appropriate, must be provided by the supplier, or that can be obtained from it or from any other easily accessible source of information. The magnitude of the exposure of the affected worker must be determined.[46]​.

An explosive atmosphere is understood as the mixture with air, under atmospheric conditions, of flammable substances in the form of gases, vapors, mists or dusts, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture.

To prevent explosions in the workplace, employers must provide protection against them, of a technical or organizational nature depending on the type of activity, to prevent the formation of explosive atmospheres or, when the nature of the activity does not allow it, to avoid the ignition of explosive atmospheres and mitigate the harmful effects of an explosion in a way that guarantees the health and safety of workers.

The danger of working handling toxic substances derives mainly from the lack of knowledge that workers may have about the health risks of many chemical substances. The most harmful chemical substances that workers handle are of very varied composition and have very diverse effects on health.

In 2006, the European Parliament approved a regulation establishing a system for the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemical substances (REACH). This regulation requires manufacturers of dangerous chemicals to demonstrate that the substances they are marketing are safe for public health and the environment. The REACH approved by the European Parliament partially entered into force on 1 June 2007. The registration obligation is applicable from 1 June 2008, but in the case of some substances, which must be subject to prior registration, a transitional regime will be put in place, which in some cases will last until 1 June 2018. However, some groups of substances (listed in the Regulation) are exempt from the obligation to register. registration.[49]​.

The general objectives of the REACH regulation are, among others, the following:

Reliable workplace toxicity measurements require good quality instruments, a standardized configuration of instrument distribution in the workplace, and an accurate description of the workplace, including aspects such as ventilation and tasks performed during measurements. Each EU Member State has its own procedure for carrying out these measurements. Currently, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) is developing a standard to assess exposure in the workplace.[50]​.

Basic regulations.

Environmental conditions can be harmful to both physical and mental health depending on a series of disturbances, some of which are highly aggressive, such as those derived from the presence in the work environment of chemical, physical or biological agents that can come into contact with people who work and negatively affect their health; These conditions are known as hygienic risk").

There are working conditions whose presence can cause negative feelings that must also be considered and, to the extent possible, corrected. In this section it is worth mentioning, for example, the general appearance of the work center, the distance from the worker's home to the work center, the environment where the work center is located, personal problems unrelated to work that the worker may have, the geographical location of the company and even the social valuation of the company. If these conditions are unfavorable for workers, workers may feel discomfort that prompts them to at least try to change companies.[52]​.

The general appearance of a work center is defined by the structural safety offered by its buildings, that is, absence of risks of landslides or collapse due to being excessively old or overloaded; not be affected by sick building syndrome; absence of environmental risks both with the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere and contamination of water or land due to waste or emissions in drains; control of the physical risks that workers may suffer in their workplaces where they are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE); adequate signage of access to the work center; luminosity and care of the environment and have quick and safe evacuation plans marked and organized.[53]​.

Climatic working conditions are the temperature and humidity in which work is carried out. Physical work") generates heat in the body. To regulate it, the human body has a system that allows it to maintain a constant body temperature around 37 °C. Thermal regulation and the feeling of thermal comfort depend on the heat produced by the body and exchanges with the environment. All of this is a function of:

Poor thermohygrometric conditions can cause negative effects on health that will vary depending on the characteristics of each person and their ability to acclimatize, thus we can find colds, frostbite, dehydration, heat stroke and increased fatigue, which can affect the appearance of accidents.

When carrying out tasks outside, other climatic factors such as sun exposure must also be taken into account, which can cause skin cancer.

Working conditions can be negative if carried out in the presence of biological contaminants. These contaminants are those biological agents that, when introduced into the human body, cause infectious or parasitic diseases.

The concept of biological agent includes, but is not limited to, bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, rickettsiae, chlamydia, human endoparasites, recombination products, human or animal cell cultures and the potentially infectious biological agents that these cells may contain, prions and other infectious agents.[54]​.

Ergonomics and applied psychosociology

The highly demanding and competitive environment, as well as the precarious conditions in which many workers operate, are causing an increasing appearance of psychological disorders. Specifically, the elements that can cause these disorders are the following:

Occupational precariousness is called "the situation experienced by workers who, for one reason or another, suffer from working conditions below the limit considered normal. Occupational precariousness has a special impact when the economic income received from work does not cover the basic needs of a person, since the economy is the factor that is available to cover people's needs.[70]​.

Occupational insecurity can cause an increase in psychological suffering and a worsening of the health and quality of life of people who depend on work or the lack of it. The uncertainty about the future presented by precarious work alters the social behavior of the individual, because it increases the difficulties in forming and strengthening individual and collective identities around work. Occupational accident statistics indicate that the incidence of work accidents is higher among the population with precarious work than those with stable employment, due to lack of knowledge and application of safety standards for precarious workers and the fact that they carry out the most harmful and dangerous activities.

Occupational precariousness") is a group that includes inactivity, unemployment, temporary employment, forced part-time employment, and the underground economy that affect women more than men, young people more than older people, and have a greater impact on some regions than others. Likewise, we must highlight the serious situation of some groups such as the long-term unemployed over 40 years of age, ethnic or immigrant minorities, and people with disabilities.[71]

A definition of stress that is widely accepted is that of McGrath (1970): "Stress is a substantial (perceived) imbalance between the demand and the ability to respond (of the individual) under conditions in which failure to meet this demand has important (perceived) consequences."[72]​.

Stress is defined as the body's response to external conditions that disturb the person's emotional balance. In the occupational field, occupational stress is called a set of harmful physical and emotional reactions that occur when the demands of the job exceed the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker.[73]​.

Prolonged exposure to stress at work affects the nervous system, decreasing biological resistance and disturbing the body's natural physiological balance (homeostasis). For all these reasons, stress can cause various somatic and psychological problems.

Some of the negative consequences caused by stress in the occupational field are the following:

Según el Real Decreto 39/1997, de 17 de enero, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de los Servicios de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales,[78]​ se entenderá por servicio de prevención propio el conjunto de medios humanos y materiales de la empresa necesarios para la realización de las actividades de prevención, y por servicio de prevención ajeno el prestado por una entidad especializada que concierte con la empresa la realización de actividades de prevención, el asesoramiento y apoyo que precise en función de los tipos de riesgos o ambas actuaciones conjuntamente. Los servicios de prevención tendrán carácter interdisciplinario, entendiendo como tal la conjunción coordinada de dos o más disciplinas técnicas o científicas en materia de prevención de riesgos laborales (Medicina del Trabajo, Seguridad en el trabajo, Higiene Industrial, y Ergonomía y Psicosociología).[79]​.

Sanitary equipment

In accordance with Royal Decree 843/2011, of June 17, which establishes the basic criteria for the organization of resources to develop the health activity of prevention services,[80]​ the basic health equipment of the health service in the fixed facilities of the prevention service will be as follows:.

Mexico

The Federal Labor Law, in its article 132, section XVI, establishes the obligation of the employer to install and operate the factories, workshops, offices, premises and other places where the work must be carried out, in accordance with the provisions established in the regulations and official Mexican standards on safety, health and work environment, in order to prevent accidents and occupational diseases, as well as to adopt the preventive and corrective measures determined by the labor authority.

In Mexico there are also Standards or NOMs which are technical regulations in a regulatory nature by the government of Mexico, these are mainly to regulate products, processes and services to protect safety, although these were already mentioned at the top of this section, we must highlight NOM 035, which establishes the psychosocial risk factors at work, their identification, analysis and prevention [14]​.

According to its field of application, it applies throughout the national territory, however this standard applies according to the number of workers who work in the workplace[15]​.

Broadly speaking, NOM 035 seeks to psychologically protect the worker from severe traumatic events or events (for example, witnessing the death of a colleague, witnessing or being a victim of harassment or threats that threaten the worker's full life in the workplace) in which they affect their safety, occupational risk and mainly the worker's stay in the company after suffering this type of events [15]​.

In asset security, the very nature of this position is based on the protection of the company's human resources and assets, therefore prevention, action and containment plans are an important factor.

The human factor is essential in any scenario, however all personnel must be trained in various prevention programs and action protocols, in order to carry out an entire property security management program.

Uruguay

Law No. 16,074 declares the mandatory nature of insurance against work accidents and occupational diseases. This law regulates the activities carried out in Uruguay with respect to accidents at work and occupational diseases, the compensation and permanent income derived from them, and the obligations of the employer sector.[16]​.

European Union

Within the European Union, there are the following organizations related to Safety and Health at Work.

The modification of the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community by the so-called Single Act"), in accordance with Article 118 A), since its entry into force, the Member States have been promoting the improvement of the working environment to achieve the objective of harmonization in the progress of the safety and health conditions of workers. This objective has been reinforced in the Treaty of the European Union through the procedure contemplated therein for the adoption, through Directives "Directive (Right of the European Union)"), of minimum provisions that will have to be applied progressively.

Spain

Since 1976, Spain has entered a new stage in its history with the establishment of the monarchy, after having experienced various forms of government. This change brings with it a resurgence of ideological confrontation between political parties, and, of course, the different positions on the prevention of occupational risks become part of the debate. The concept of Health has various interpretations, in addition to that established in the Preamble of the Constitution of the WHO. 1945. The discussion about the loss of health focuses on the technical CAUSES and the personal FACTORS, until it is finally recognized that the technical causes are the most relevant for the advancement and implementation in the field of prevention.[18]​.

The lack of a clear criterion led to the transformation of the previous PLANHISET into the Social Service of Hygiene and Safety at Work in August 1976. Two years later, in 1978, this service was integrated into the newly created Ministry of Health and Social Security. This body must comply with the provisions of article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978, which indicates the obligation of public powers to promote Safety and Hygiene at Work, aligning with the right to health protection, which is mentioned in article 43 of the same Constitution.[18]​.

With the arrival of the Socialist Party to power at the end of 1982, the supervisory and preventive advisory functions carried out by the territorial and provincial bodies of the I.N.S.H.T. through the Provincial Technical Cabinets were almost completely reduced. Even visits at the initiative of the national programming, which had had very positive results in previous years, were eliminated because the Labor Inspection once again assumed all powers. Instead, the development of research programs on methods and techniques of occupational safety and industrial hygiene was promoted, as well as the evaluation of accident statistics, studies on workplaces, raw materials and products that are toxic, dangerous or difficult to handle, in addition to training and updating plans for Safety and Hygiene Technicians. In relation to the National Congresses, we mention the The importance of improving the training of employers and workers to achieve better occupational safety and environmental conditions at work was also discussed. The XI Congress, held in Madrid in 1987, was the last of a general nature convened during the century, which reflects the confusion generated by the dispersion in the control of Occupational Safety and Hygiene in charge of the autonomous communities.[18]​.

In 1985, the functions of the Provincial Commissions of the General Council of Safety and Hygiene at Work were established. However, with the passage of time, these commissions became ineffective, and the voices of the union centers and business organizations that were represented became mere troupes, lacking ideas that would promote effective actions to address workplace accidents.[18]​.

From that moment on, a peculiar stage begins for the only technical body of the Administration that has in-depth knowledge on the prevention of occupational risks, in a context where the European Economic Community seeks to establish itself in the face of the significant economic threat represented, mainly, by the United States and Japan. Europe's response was not long in coming. Territorial unity was promoted as the only tool capable of promoting the social, economic and political approaches necessary to compete with other powers outside Europe. However, any change had to guarantee the maintenance and improvement of working conditions. Following the perspective of Hugues de Jouvenel, it is essential to return to ethical values ​​when facing new technologies, which will transform the ways of working, replacing the concept of "work" with that of "function." Ides Nicaise, from the Catholic University of Louvain, advocates for greater investment by companies in education and training, and demands that States establish an adequate protection system. This is the current situation. To be clear in our presentation, we are going to break down into small sections some of the key aspects of this period, which we consider illuminating with respect to the legislation approved at the end of the century, designed to address the problem of Occupational Health at the beginning of the century.[18]​.

Occupational risk is defined as any aspect of work that has the potential to cause harm (Damage (Law)). The prevention of occupational risks is the discipline that seeks to promote the safety and health of workers through the identification, evaluation and control of the dangers and risks associated with a production process, in addition to promoting the development of activities and measures necessary to prevent the risks derived from the occupation "Work (sociology)")[19]​.

Although it is an area that, at least in Spain, has a history of more than 100 years, this name has been relatively recent, following Law 31/1995, of November 8, on the Prevention of Occupational Risks"),[20]​ which develops article 40.2 of the Spanish Constitution, which entrusts public powers, as one of the guiding principles of social and economic policy, to ensure health and safety. occupational.

Contenido

En España, por ejemplo, la Ley 31/1995, de 8 de noviembre de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales"), en la exposición de motivos, expone entre otros argumentos los siguientes:.

Machinery, equipment, products and work tools

Not only the employer who has a worker is bound by the occupational risk prevention regulations, but obligations are also usually established that affect manufacturers, importers and suppliers of machinery, equipment, products and work tools. Furthermore, the workers themselves are obliged to collaborate with companies in the development and application of occupational risk prevention.[21]​.

To evaluate the magnitude of the risks, there is a method that bases the estimation of the risks for each hazard on the determination of the potential severity of the damage (consequences) and the probability of the event occurring. In this way, in the area of ​​severity of damage, these are classified as slightly harmful (such as superficial damage and discomfort and irritation), harmful (such as burns, concussions, minor fractures, dermatitis, asthma, etc.) and extremely harmful (such as amputations, major fractures, poisoning, cancer or acute illnesses that severely shorten life).

Regarding the probability that the damage will occur, three categories are used: low, when the damage will rarely occur; the average, if it will occur sometimes, and the high, when it will always or almost always occur.

The following diagram summarizes the evaluation of occupational risks in companies:[22][23]​.

Next, preventive priorities are established and an order of action on the risks is defined, depending on their severity and the number of workers affected. The order of priority of preventive measures is as follows:[22][23]​.

Risk and safety phrases are sentences standardized by the European Union to indicate the basic handling of dangerous substances and reduce the risk that their handling entails. They are divided into two groups; R-phrases (Risk) and S-phrases (Safety) depending on the descriptive nature of the phrase.

These phrases differ from those applied in other countries. For this reason, in 2002, the United Nations created a globally harmonized system for the classification and labeling of chemicals ("GHS").

A efectos de determinación de las capacidades y aptitudes necesarias para la evaluación de los riesgos y el desarrollo de la actividad preventiva, las funciones a realizar se clasifican en los siguientes grupos:[24]​.

Industrial hygiene

Industrial hygiene[25]​ makes up a set of knowledge and techniques dedicated to recognizing, evaluating and controlling those environmental, psychological or stress factors that come from work and can cause illness or deteriorate health.

Industrial hygiene is made up of a set of rules and procedures aimed at protecting the physical and mental integrity of the worker, preserving him from the health risks inherent to the tasks of the position and the physical environment where they are performed.

It is related to the diagnosis and prevention of occupational diseases through the study and control of two variables: man and his work environment.

It has an eminently preventive nature, since it is aimed at the health and comfort of the employee, preventing them from getting sick or being temporarily or permanently absent from work.

Ergonomics at work

The ergonomic design of the workplace attempts to obtain an adequate fit between the skills or abilities of the worker and the requirements or demands of the job. The final objective is to optimize the productivity of the worker and the production system, while guaranteeing the satisfaction, safety and health of the workers.

The ergonomic design of the workplace must take into account the anthropometric characteristics of the population, the adaptation of the space, working postures, free space, interference of body parts, visual field, worker strength and biomechanical stress), among other aspects. The organizational aspects of the task are also taken into account.

To correctly design the conditions that a job must meet, it is necessary to take into account, among others, the following factors:

The proper design of the workplace should serve to:.

In order to reduce and reduce the incidence and severity of occupational accidents, companies must have the following devices in their workplaces:

Safety at work

The tasks carried out by a worker can be carried out in a specific place, which can be inside a building or outside in the open air, and can also be carried out moving from one place to another. Workplaces, in addition to being located in industrial facilities, can also be in hospitals, educational centers, hotels, offices, commercial premises, etc. In all places where there is a worker, whatever his function, he must be protected by the occupational risk prevention laws that apply to him.

Likewise, workers will have to handle work equipment consisting of any machine, device, instrument or installation used in the work.

The employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the work equipment made available to workers is appropriate for the work to be performed and suitably adapted to it, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers when using said work equipment.

When, in order to avoid or control a specific risk for the safety or health of workers, the use of work equipment must be carried out under certain conditions or forms, which require particular knowledge on the part of those workers, the employer must adopt the necessary measures so that the use of said equipment is reserved for the workers designated for it. The employer must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on the risks arising from the use of work equipment, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.[28]​.

"Overexertion" is physical work carried out above the normal effort that a person can develop in a given task.

Pathologies derived from overexertion are the first cause of illness in professionals. Overexertion accounts for almost 30 percent of minor occupational accidents and rises to 85% in the diseases suffered by professionals.[29]​.

To avoid "musculoskeletal disorders" resulting from overexertion, it is necessary to analyze the occupational risks of working conditions, the evaluation of these occupational risks, training, health monitoring and prevention of fatigue.

Working conditions are seriously altered when physical efforts greater than normal activity limits are required. In addition to physical effort, mental, visual, auditory, and emotional effort should also be considered as disturbing elements.

To evaluate physical effort, the nature of the effort must be taken into account, and the postures adopted in the workplace, sitting or standing, and the frequency of uncomfortable positions.[30]​.

The majority of occupational accidents caused by overexertion are muscle injuries, "they can be caused by blows, or by internal causes caused by alterations of the muscle. These injuries can be divided into strains," cramps, contractures, and the most serious, tears.[31]​.

To avoid injuries due to overexertion, it is necessary to take appropriate preventive measures and use the necessary personal protective equipment.[32]​.

All people who manipulate any machine, device, instrument or installation at work are obliged to comply with the safety regulations that concern the machines they manipulate. Before ordering the manipulation of a dangerous machine or tool to a worker, they must be thoroughly instructed in the handling of the machine in advance.[33]​.

The most frequent risks that arise from handling machine tools are basically:

For this reason, employers will have to adopt the necessary measures so that the machines and work equipment that are made available to workers are appropriate for the work to be performed, so as to guarantee the safety and health of workers. When it is not possible to fully guarantee the safety and health of workers during the use of work equipment in this way, the employer will take appropriate measures to reduce such risks to a minimum.

The minimum provisions applicable to the handling of machines and tools include, among other issues, the following:

Working conditions can be seriously disturbed if the dimensions of the work premises do not allow workers to have the adequate surface and volume to carry out their work without risks to their safety and health and in acceptable ergonomic conditions.

Separations must be provided between the material elements existing in the workplace. When, for reasons inherent to the workplace, the available free space does not allow the worker to have the freedom of movement necessary to carry out his or her activity, sufficient additional space must be available in the vicinity of the workplace.

Only authorized workers may access areas where the safety of workers may be affected by risks of falls, falling objects and contact or exposure to aggressive elements. Likewise, there must be, to the extent possible, a system that prevents unauthorized workers from accessing these areas.

Areas of the workplace where there is a risk of falling, falling objects or contact or exposure to aggressive elements must be clearly marked.[35]​.

The need to regulate the use and signaling of doors and gates in the workplace is to prevent occupational accidents from occurring when workers pass goods or transit within industrial warehouses. Doors must be designed and manufactured according to their function and around other aspects such as:.

In order to avoid occupational accidents due to falls or slipping"), the floors of the work premises must be fixed, stable and non-slippery, without irregularities or dangerous slopes.

Openings or slopes that pose a risk of people falling will be protected by railings or other equivalent safety protection systems, which may have moving parts when it is necessary to have access to the opening. They must be protected, in particular:

"Load handling devices" inside industrial establishments are made up of cranes "Crane (machine)", overhead cranes, hoists, forklifts, forklifts and the loads themselves that are handled.[38]​.

The risks associated with cargo handling are the following:

The prevention devices that must be used with transport elements are the following:.

The risk caused by electrical energy is called electrical risk. This type of risk includes the following:

An electrical contact is the action of closing an electrical circuit by joining two elements. Direct electrical contact is the contact of people or animals with active conductors of an electrical installation. An indirect electrical contact is a contact of people or animals accidentally energized or a contact with any active part through a conductive medium.

The electrical current can cause immediate effects such as burns, cramps or fibrillation, and late effects such as mental disorders. It can also cause indirect effects such as falls, bumps or cuts.

The main factors that influence electrical risk are:[41]​.

Accidents caused by electricity can be minor, serious and even fatal. In the event of the death of the injured party, it is called electrocution.

In the occupational world, employers must adopt the necessary measures so that no risks arise from the use or presence of electrical energy in the workplace for the safety and health of workers or, if this is not possible, so that such risks are reduced to a minimum.

Based on this, the electrical installations in the workplace will be used and maintained in the appropriate manner and the operation of the protection systems will be periodically controlled, according to the instructions of their manufacturers and installers, if they exist, and the operator's own experience.

With this safety objective, employers must ensure that workers and workers' representatives receive adequate training and information on electrical risk, as well as on the prevention and protection measures to be adopted.

Work on electrical installations in locations with risk of fire or explosion will be carried out following a procedure that reduces these risks to a minimum; To this end, the presence of flammable substances in the work area will be limited and controlled, as far as possible, and the appearance of ignition sources will be avoided, in particular, if an explosive atmosphere exists, or could form. In this case, carrying out work or operations (changing lamps, fuses, etc.) under voltage is prohibited, unless they are carried out in facilities and with equipment designed to operate under these conditions, which comply with the specific applicable regulations.[42]​.

Vibrations are the oscillations of particles around a point in any balanced physical medium and can be produced as a result of the operation of a machine or piece of equipment.[43]​.

For the purposes of working conditions, there are two types of harmful vibrations:

Preventive measures to reduce the harmful effects of mechanical vibrations.

Coming into contact with the emission of gases, vapors, liquids or dust is a fairly widespread process in fixed and portable machines and devices that workers manipulate.

In general, the emission of the substance involves its subsequent dispersion or diffusion in the air and, finally, its inhalation by the worker. The emission can come from different operations or sources. The nature of the substance determines its danger. Its effects on the body can be very diverse, being able to distinguish, among others:.

To evaluate the risks, it will be necessary to have information on the dangerous properties of the substances and any other information necessary to carry out said evaluation that, where appropriate, must be provided by the supplier, or that can be obtained from it or from any other easily accessible source of information. The magnitude of the exposure of the affected worker must be determined.[46]​.

An explosive atmosphere is understood as the mixture with air, under atmospheric conditions, of flammable substances in the form of gases, vapors, mists or dusts, in which, after ignition, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture.

To prevent explosions in the workplace, employers must provide protection against them, of a technical or organizational nature depending on the type of activity, to prevent the formation of explosive atmospheres or, when the nature of the activity does not allow it, to avoid the ignition of explosive atmospheres and mitigate the harmful effects of an explosion in a way that guarantees the health and safety of workers.

The danger of working handling toxic substances derives mainly from the lack of knowledge that workers may have about the health risks of many chemical substances. The most harmful chemical substances that workers handle are of very varied composition and have very diverse effects on health.

In 2006, the European Parliament approved a regulation establishing a system for the registration, evaluation, authorization and restriction of chemical substances (REACH). This regulation requires manufacturers of dangerous chemicals to demonstrate that the substances they are marketing are safe for public health and the environment. The REACH approved by the European Parliament partially entered into force on 1 June 2007. The registration obligation is applicable from 1 June 2008, but in the case of some substances, which must be subject to prior registration, a transitional regime will be put in place, which in some cases will last until 1 June 2018. However, some groups of substances (listed in the Regulation) are exempt from the obligation to register. registration.[49]​.

The general objectives of the REACH regulation are, among others, the following:

Reliable workplace toxicity measurements require good quality instruments, a standardized configuration of instrument distribution in the workplace, and an accurate description of the workplace, including aspects such as ventilation and tasks performed during measurements. Each EU Member State has its own procedure for carrying out these measurements. Currently, the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) is developing a standard to assess exposure in the workplace.[50]​.

Basic regulations.

Environmental conditions can be harmful to both physical and mental health depending on a series of disturbances, some of which are highly aggressive, such as those derived from the presence in the work environment of chemical, physical or biological agents that can come into contact with people who work and negatively affect their health; These conditions are known as hygienic risk").

There are working conditions whose presence can cause negative feelings that must also be considered and, to the extent possible, corrected. In this section it is worth mentioning, for example, the general appearance of the work center, the distance from the worker's home to the work center, the environment where the work center is located, personal problems unrelated to work that the worker may have, the geographical location of the company and even the social valuation of the company. If these conditions are unfavorable for workers, workers may feel discomfort that prompts them to at least try to change companies.[52]​.

The general appearance of a work center is defined by the structural safety offered by its buildings, that is, absence of risks of landslides or collapse due to being excessively old or overloaded; not be affected by sick building syndrome; absence of environmental risks both with the emission of pollutants into the atmosphere and contamination of water or land due to waste or emissions in drains; control of the physical risks that workers may suffer in their workplaces where they are equipped with personal protective equipment (PPE); adequate signage of access to the work center; luminosity and care of the environment and have quick and safe evacuation plans marked and organized.[53]​.

Climatic working conditions are the temperature and humidity in which work is carried out. Physical work") generates heat in the body. To regulate it, the human body has a system that allows it to maintain a constant body temperature around 37 °C. Thermal regulation and the feeling of thermal comfort depend on the heat produced by the body and exchanges with the environment. All of this is a function of:

Poor thermohygrometric conditions can cause negative effects on health that will vary depending on the characteristics of each person and their ability to acclimatize, thus we can find colds, frostbite, dehydration, heat stroke and increased fatigue, which can affect the appearance of accidents.

When carrying out tasks outside, other climatic factors such as sun exposure must also be taken into account, which can cause skin cancer.

Working conditions can be negative if carried out in the presence of biological contaminants. These contaminants are those biological agents that, when introduced into the human body, cause infectious or parasitic diseases.

The concept of biological agent includes, but is not limited to, bacteria, fungi, viruses, protozoa, rickettsiae, chlamydia, human endoparasites, recombination products, human or animal cell cultures and the potentially infectious biological agents that these cells may contain, prions and other infectious agents.[54]​.

Ergonomics and applied psychosociology

The highly demanding and competitive environment, as well as the precarious conditions in which many workers operate, are causing an increasing appearance of psychological disorders. Specifically, the elements that can cause these disorders are the following:

Occupational precariousness is called "the situation experienced by workers who, for one reason or another, suffer from working conditions below the limit considered normal. Occupational precariousness has a special impact when the economic income received from work does not cover the basic needs of a person, since the economy is the factor that is available to cover people's needs.[70]​.

Occupational insecurity can cause an increase in psychological suffering and a worsening of the health and quality of life of people who depend on work or the lack of it. The uncertainty about the future presented by precarious work alters the social behavior of the individual, because it increases the difficulties in forming and strengthening individual and collective identities around work. Occupational accident statistics indicate that the incidence of work accidents is higher among the population with precarious work than those with stable employment, due to lack of knowledge and application of safety standards for precarious workers and the fact that they carry out the most harmful and dangerous activities.

Occupational precariousness") is a group that includes inactivity, unemployment, temporary employment, forced part-time employment, and the underground economy that affect women more than men, young people more than older people, and have a greater impact on some regions than others. Likewise, we must highlight the serious situation of some groups such as the long-term unemployed over 40 years of age, ethnic or immigrant minorities, and people with disabilities.[71]

A definition of stress that is widely accepted is that of McGrath (1970): "Stress is a substantial (perceived) imbalance between the demand and the ability to respond (of the individual) under conditions in which failure to meet this demand has important (perceived) consequences."[72]​.

Stress is defined as the body's response to external conditions that disturb the person's emotional balance. In the occupational field, occupational stress is called a set of harmful physical and emotional reactions that occur when the demands of the job exceed the capabilities, resources or needs of the worker.[73]​.

Prolonged exposure to stress at work affects the nervous system, decreasing biological resistance and disturbing the body's natural physiological balance (homeostasis). For all these reasons, stress can cause various somatic and psychological problems.

Some of the negative consequences caused by stress in the occupational field are the following:

Según el Real Decreto 39/1997, de 17 de enero, por el que se aprueba el Reglamento de los Servicios de Prevención de Riesgos Laborales,[78]​ se entenderá por servicio de prevención propio el conjunto de medios humanos y materiales de la empresa necesarios para la realización de las actividades de prevención, y por servicio de prevención ajeno el prestado por una entidad especializada que concierte con la empresa la realización de actividades de prevención, el asesoramiento y apoyo que precise en función de los tipos de riesgos o ambas actuaciones conjuntamente. Los servicios de prevención tendrán carácter interdisciplinario, entendiendo como tal la conjunción coordinada de dos o más disciplinas técnicas o científicas en materia de prevención de riesgos laborales (Medicina del Trabajo, Seguridad en el trabajo, Higiene Industrial, y Ergonomía y Psicosociología).[79]​.

Sanitary equipment

In accordance with Royal Decree 843/2011, of June 17, which establishes the basic criteria for the organization of resources to develop the health activity of prevention services,[80]​ the basic health equipment of the health service in the fixed facilities of the prevention service will be as follows:.