Next Generation Modular Construction | Construpedia

Next Generation Modular Construction

Introduction

The International Space Station (ISS) is a modular space station located in low Earth orbit. It is a multinational collaborative project between five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA/ASC (Canada).[6][7] The administration, management and development of the station are established by treaties and intergovernmental agreements.[8] The station serves as a permanently inhabited microgravity research laboratory in which studies on astrobiology, astronomy, meteorology, physics and many other fields.[9][10][11] The ISS is also capable of testing the systems and equipment necessary to carry out long-duration space flights such as missions to the Moon and Mars.[12] It is considered one of the greatest achievements of humanity.

The ISS program is an evolution of the Freedom space station, a United States proposal conceived in 1984 for the construction of a permanently manned station in Earth orbit,[13] and the Mir-2 proposal conceived by Russia with similar objectives. The ISS is the ninth manned space station in history after the Soviet Salyut, Almaz and Mir (space station) and the American Skylab. It is the largest artificial object in space and the largest artificial Earth satellite and can be easily observed with the naked eye from the surface.[14][15] It maintains an orbit with an average altitude of 400 kilometers thanks to the maneuvers carried out periodically with the engines of the Zvezdá "Zvezdá (module)") or visiting vehicles.[16] The station makes a complete revolution around the Earth in approximately 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits each day.[17].

The station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), operated by Russia; and the US Orbital Segment") (USOS), shared by several nations. Roscosmos has supported continuity of operations until 2024,[18] having previously proposed the reuse of some segment modules in the construction of a new Russian station called OPSEK.[19] The first component of the ISS was launched in 1998, and the first long-term residents arrived on November 2, 2000.[20] Since that time the station has continuously occupied for 25 years, 1 month and 14 days,[21] the longest continuous presence of humans in low Earth orbit surpassing the previous record of 9 years, 11 months and 23 days achieved by the space station Mir "Mir (space station)"). in 2016. Development and assembly of the station is still continuing, with several Russian modules scheduled to be launched starting in 2020. As of December 2018, the station is expected to operate until 2030.[22].

Next Generation Modular Construction

Introduction

The station is divided into two sections: the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), operated by Russia; and the US Orbital Segment") (USOS), shared by several nations. Roscosmos has supported continuity of operations until 2024,[18] having previously proposed the reuse of some segment modules in the construction of a new Russian station called OPSEK.[19] The first component of the ISS was launched in 1998, and the first long-term residents arrived on November 2, 2000.[20] Since that time the station has continuously occupied for 25 years, 1 month and 14 days,[21] the longest continuous presence of humans in low Earth orbit surpassing the previous record of 9 years, 11 months and 23 days achieved by the space station "Mir (space station)"). in 2016. Development and assembly of the station is still continuing, with several Russian modules scheduled to be launched starting in 2020. As of December 2018, the station is expected to operate until 2030.[22].

Aim

Contenido

La EEI se construyó originalmente con la intención de ser un laboratorio, observatorio y fábrica a la vez que provee transporte, mantenimiento y una base en la órbita terrestre baja para misiones a la Luna, Marte y asteroides. Sin embargo, no todos los usos previstos en el memorándum de entendimiento original entre la NASA y Roscosmos se han cumplido.[27] En la Política espacial de los Estados Unidos de 2010 se le otorgaron los roles adicionales de servir propósitos comerciales, diplomáticos,[28] y educacionales.[29].

Scientific research

The ISS provides a platform to conduct scientific research, with power, data, cooling and crew available to carry out experiments. Small unmanned spacecraft can also serve as platforms for some experiments, especially those that include exposure to space, but space stations offer a long-term environment in which studies can be conducted for decades, combined with easy access to human researchers.[30][31].

The ISS simplifies individual experiments by allowing groups of experiments to share launch and crew time. Research is conducted in a large number of fields including astrobiology, astronomy, physical sciences, materials science, space weather, meteorology, and human research such as space medicine and life sciences.[9][10][11][32][33] Scientists on the ground have access to the data in real time and can suggest modifications to the crew. If the need arises to carry out an experiment continuing a previous one, routine resupply flights allow supplies to be sent with relative ease.[31] The crews carry out expeditions for several months, contributing approximately 160 hours of work per week in a crew of six people. However, much of the crew's time is spent on station maintenance tasks.[9][34].

The environment of space is hostile to life. The presence in space without protection is characterized by an intense radiation field (composed mainly of protons and other charged subatomic particles from the solar wind in addition to cosmic rays), a large vacuum, extreme temperatures and microgravity.[35] Some simple life forms called Extremophiles,[36] as well as small invertebrates called tardigrades[37] can survive in this environment in a state of extreme desiccation.[38].

In August 2020, it was reported that the Terrestrial bacteria Deinococcus radiodurans, highly resistant to environmental hazards, survived three years in space, based on studies carried out on the International Space Station. These discoveries support the notion of panspermia, the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed in various forms, including space dust, meteoroids, asteroids, comets, planetoids or contaminated ships.[39][40].

Medical research improves knowledge about the effects of long-term exposure of the human body to space, including muscle atrophy, osteoporosis and fluid displacement. This data will be used to determine whether long-duration spaceflight and space colonization are feasible. As of 2006, data on bone loss and muscle atrophy suggested that there would be a high risk of fracture and movement problems if astronauts landed on a planet after a long journey through space such as the six months required to reach Mars.[41][42].

Medical studies aboard the ISS are conducted on behalf of the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI). Prominent among these is Advanced Ultrasound Diagnostics in the study of microgravity in astronauts performing ultrasounds with the guidance of remote experts. The study considers the diagnosis and treatment of medical conditions in space. There is generally no doctor aboard the ISS and diagnosing medical conditions is a challenge. Ultrasounds are expected Remotely guided will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained doctor is difficult.[43][44][45].

Earth remote sensing, astronomy, and deep space research from the ISS have increased dramatically during the 2010s following the completion of the US Orbital Segment in 2011. During the more than 20 years of the ISS program, researchers aboard the ISS and on the ground have examined aerosols, ozone, rays, and oxides in the Earth's atmosphere, as well as the Sun, cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter, and matter. dark in the universe.[46].

Probably the most notable experiment on the ISS is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which aims to detect dark matter and answer other fundamental questions about our universe. Currently docked to the station, it would not have been easy to deploy it on another vehicle due to the bandwidth and power needs it presents.[47][48] On April 3, 2013, scientists reported that it was possible that signs of dark matter had been detected in the AMS.[49][50][51][52][53][54] According to the scientists, "The first results from the Spectrometer Magnetic Alpha confirm an unexplained excess of high-energy positrons in cosmic rays directed at Earth."[55][56].

Other examples of astronomical experiments and telescopes based on the ISS include SOLAR, the Calorimetric Electron Telescope (CALET), the Monitor of All-sky X-ray Image (MAXI) and the Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer (NICER).[57][58].

The remote sensing and Earth observation experiments that have flown on the ISS are the Orbiting Carbon Observatory 3 (OCO-3) long-term monitoring of the planet's atmospheric carbon dioxide distributions, ISS-RapidScat for the study of oceanic winds,[59] ECOSTRESS,[60] the Global Ecosystem Dynamics Investigation(GEDI) monitoring of forests worldwide, the Cloud Aerosol Transport System, the (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment) SAGE III[61] and the Lightning Imaging Sensor (LIS).[46][62][63].

Gravity at the height of the ISS is about 90% as strong as it is at the Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of free fall resulting in apparent weightlessness.[64] This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five separate effects:[65].

• - Drag of the residual atmosphere.

• - Vibration from the crew's movements and the station's mechanical systems.

• - Drive of the moment control gyroscopes.

• - Ignition of thrusters for orbital or attitude changes.

• - Gravity gradient effects, also known as tidal effects. Slightly different forces act at different points of the station; if it were not a rigid body, each part would follow a different orbit.

Researchers are studying the effect of microgravity on the evolution, development, growth and internal processes of plants and animals. Regarding these data, NASA wants to investigate the effects on the growth of three-dimensional human tissues and unusual protein crystals that can develop in space.[10].

Investigating fluid physics under microgravity conditions will allow researchers to better model fluid behavior. Because liquids can combine almost completely under microgravity conditions, physicists can investigate immiscible fluids on Earth. Additionally, an examination of reactions that are slowed by low gravity and temperature will give scientists a better understanding of superconductivity.[10].

The study of materials science is an important research activity of the ISS, with the aim of obtaining economic benefits through the improvement of techniques used on the ground.[66] Other areas of interest include the effect of gravity on the low-combustion environment, through the study of combustion efficiency and the control of emissions and pollutants. These findings could improve current knowledge about energy production, leading to economic and environmental benefits. Future plans for researchers aboard the ISS are to examine aerosols, ozone, water vapor and oxides in Earth's atmosphere, as well as cosmic rays, cosmic dust, antimatter and dark matter in the Universe.[10].

Exploration

The ISS offers a location in the relative safety of low-Earth orbit to test spacecraft systems that will be required for long-duration missions to the Moon and Mars. This provides expertise in operations, maintenance, as well as in-orbit repair and replacement activities, essential skills in operating a spacecraft far from Earth, reducing risks and advancing the capabilities of interplanetary spacecraft. “Long-term isolation and confinement can be adequately addressed through ground-based simulations.” Sergey Krasnov, head of human spaceflight programs at the Russian space agency, Roscosmos, suggested in 2011 that a "shorter version" of MARS-500 could be carried out on the ISS.[67]

In 2009, highlighting the value of the collaborative framework itself, Sergey Krasnov wrote, "When compared to separate actions, the joint development of complementary skills and resources by various partners ensures the success and safety of space exploration. The ISS is helping to advance the exploration of near-Earth space and the realization of prospective plans for the development and exploration of the solar system including the Moon and Mars."[68] A manned mission to Mars could be a multinational effort involving space agencies.[68] and countries outside the current ISS association. In 2010, ESA Director General Jean-Jacques Dordain stated that his agency is willing to propose to the other four partners that China, India and South Korea be invited to join the ISS partnership.[69] NASA Administrator Charles Bolden stated in February 2011, "Any mission to Mars will likely be a global effort."[70] US legislation currently makes it impossible for NASA to cooperate with China in space projects.[71].

Education and outreach

The ISS crew offers opportunities for students on Earth to conduct student-developed experiments, educational demonstrations, and scaled-down versions of real experiments as well as communicate directly with students via radio, video, and email links.[6][72] ESA offers a wide range of free materials that can be downloaded for use in classrooms.[73] In one session, students can navigate a 3D model of the interior and exterior of the station by tackling challenges. in real time.[74].

JAXA aims to inspire children to "increase their awareness of the importance of life and their responsibilities in society."[75] Through a series of educational guides, students develop a deeper understanding of the past, present, and near future of human spaceflight, Earth, and life.[76][77] In JAXA's "Seeds in Space" experiments, the effects of mutations on seeds are measured by planting seeds that have flown into space. the ISS for approximately nine months. In the first phase of the use of Kibō between 2008 and mid-2010, researchers from more than a dozen Japanese universities conducted experiments in very diverse fields.[78].

Cultural activities are another objective of the EEI program. Tetsuo Tanaka, the director of JAXA's Space Environment and Utilization Center, has said: "There is something about space that reaches even people who are not interested in science."[79]

Amateur Radio on the ISS (ARISS) is a voluntary program that encourages students around the world to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and mathematics through amateur radio communication opportunities with the ISS crew.[80][81] ARISS is an international working group, consisting of delegations from nine countries including several European countries, Japan, Russia, Canada, and the United States. In areas where radio equipment cannot be used, students connect through ground stations which in turn relay the call to the space station.[82].

First Orbit is a feature-length documentary about Vostok 1, the first manned space flight around Earth. By matching the orbit of the ISS with that followed by Vostok 1 as closely as possible, in terms of time of day and Earth trajectory, filmmaker Christopher Riley") and ESA astronaut Paolo Nespoli were able to record the view that Yuri Gagarin had during his pioneering orbital flight. This footage was mixed with the original audio recordings of Vostok 1 obtained from the Russian State Archive. Nespoli received cinematographer credit for this documentary, since that he recorded most of the images during Expedition 26/27.[83][84] The premiere was broadcast globally on YouTube in 2011 under a free license through the firstorbit.org page.[85].

In May 2013, Commander Chris Hadfield recorded a cover and music video of David Bowie's "Space Oddity" aboard the station, which was posted on YouTube.[86][87] It was the first music video recorded in space.[88].

Construction

Manufacturing

As the International Space Station is a multinational project, the components necessary for its assembly were manufactured in several countries around the world. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the US components Destiny, Unity, the integrated truss structure and solar panels were manufactured at the Marshall Space Flight Center and Michoud Assembly Complex. These modules were taken to the Operations and Review Building and the Space Station Processing Facility (SSPF) for final assembly and preparations for launch.[91].

The Russian modules, including Zarya and *Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)"), were manufactured at the Khrunichev State Space Research and Development Center in Moscow. Zvezda was initially manufactured in 1985 as a component of Mir-2, but was never launched as such and instead became the ISS Service Module.[92].

The European Space Agency's Columbus module was manufactured at the Airbus Defense and Space facility in Bremen, Germany, along with many other contractors located throughout Europe.[93] The other modules manufactured by ESA—Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)"), Tranquility "Tranquility (Node 3)"), the MPLM Leonardo "Leonardo (ISS)"), and the Cupola "Dome (ISS)")—were manufactured at the Thales Alenia Space factory in Turin, Italy. The modules were airlifted to Kennedy Space Center's SSPF for pre-launch processing.[94].

The Japanese Experiment Module Kibō was manufactured between several technological facilities in Japan, the NASDA Tsukuba Space Center (currently JAXA), and at the Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences. The Kibo module was transported by ship and plane to the SSPF.[95].

The Mobile Maintenance System, consisting of the Canadarm2 and Dextre, was manufactured at several facilities in Canada (such as the David Florida Laboratory) and the United States, under a contract with the Canadian Space Agency.[96] The mobile base that connects the Canadarm2 via rails to the station was built by Northrop Grumman.

Assembly

The assembly of the International Space Station, one of the great efforts in space architecture, began its journey in 1998.[104] The Russian modules were launched and docked robotically with the exception of Rassvet "Rassvet (International Space Station)"). All other modules were carried by the Space Shuttle and installed by ISS and shuttle crew members using the Canadarm2 (SSRMS) and extravehicular activities (EVAs). As of June 5, 2011, 159 components had been added during more than 1,000 hours of EVA (see ISS spacewalks). 127 of these were carried out from the station and 32 from the shuttles.[105] During construction, the beta angle "Beta angle (orbital mechanics)") of the station had to be taken into account at all times.[106].

The first ISS module, Zarya, was launched on November 20, 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket.[100] It provided propulsion, attitude control, communications, and electrical power, but lacked long-term life support functions. Two weeks later, NASA's passive module Unity was launched aboard Space Shuttle mission STS-88 and docked to Zarya by astronauts during EVAs.[98][107] This module had two Pressurized Docking Adapters (PMAs), one permanently connecting it to Zarya and* the other allowing the Space Shuttle to dock with the station. At that time, the Russian station Mir "Mir (space station)") was still occupied and the ISS remained empty for two years.

On July 12, 2000, Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") was launched into orbit. Its solar panels and communications antenna were deployed using pre-programmed commands. At that time it became the passive target for an orbital rendezvous with Zarya and Unity maintaining its orbit while the Zarya-Unity vehicle performed maneuvers and docking using Russian automated systems. Zarya's onboard computer transferred control of the station to Zvezda shortly after docking. Zvezda added bedrooms, bathroom, kitchen, CO scrubbers, dehumidifier, oxygen generators, exercise equipment, and voice and video communications with mission control. This allowed the permanent occupation of the station.[108][109]

The first crew, Expedition 1, arrived at the station in November 2000 in Soyuz TM-31. At the end of the first day on the station, astronaut Bill Shepherd requested the use of the radio callsign "Alpha", which he and cosmonaut Krikaliov preferred to the awkward "International Space Station". of a new name to the program administrators for a long time. Referring to a naval tradition in a press conference before the launch declared: "For thousands of years, humans have gone to sea in ships. People have designed and built ships, launched with the feeling that a name will bring good luck to the crew and success on their journey. EEI.[112][114][115].

Expedition 1 arrived between flights STS-92 and STS-97. These two shuttle missions added segments to the integrated airframe structure, which provided Ku-band communications, additional attitude control for the mass US USOS orbital segment, and solar panels to complement the four existing on the station.[116]

Over the next two years the station continued to expand. A Soyuz-U rocket carried the Pirs docking module. The Space Shuttles Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavor carried the Destiny laboratory and the Quest airlock, in addition to the main robot arm, the Canadarm2, and several other segments of the integrated truss structure.

The expansion schedule was interrupted by the stoppage of flights that followed the Columbia disaster in 2003. The shuttles remained grounded until 2005, resuming flights with Discovery on the STS-114 mission.[117].

Assembly continued in 2006 with the arrival of Atlantis on STS-115, which carried a second pair of solar panels. Several frame segments and a third pair of solar panels were carried on missions STS-116, STS-117, and STS-118. As a result of the expansion of the station's power generation capacity, more pressurized modules could be accommodated, adding the Harmony node "Harmony (Node 2)") and the Columbus European laboratory. These were quickly followed by the first two components of the Kibō. In March 2009, STS-119 completed the installation of the integrated truss structure with the installation of the fourth and final pair of solar panels. The last section of Kibō was carried in July 2009 on STS-127, followed by the Russian module Poisk. The third node, Tranquility "Tranquility (Node 3)"), was carried in February 2010 by Endeavor during STS-130, along with Dome "Dome (ISS)"), followed in May 2010 by the penultimate Russian module, Rassvet "Rassvet (International Space Station)"). Rassvet was carried by Atlantis on STS-132 in exchange for the launch of the US-funded Zarya module aboard a Proton rocket "Proton (rocket)") in 1998. Discovery, STS-133.[119] The alpha magnetic spectrometer was carried by Endeavour on STS-134 that same year.[120].

As of June 2011, the station consisted of 15 pressurized modules and the integrated frame structure. Five elements were yet to be launched, including the Nauka "Nauka (ISS module)") along with the European Robotic Arm, the Prichal"), and two modules called NEM-1 and NEM-2.[121] As of March 2021, the Russian research module, Nauka, was scheduled to launch in the spring of 2021,[122][123][124] along with the European Robotic Arm that will have the ability to relocate to different parts of the Russian modules of the station.[125] Finally in July 2021 the Nauka was launched and docked together with the European Robotic Arm.

The gross mass of the station has changed over time. The total launch mass of the modules in orbit is approximately (as of January 12, 2021).[2] The mass of the experiments, spare parts, personal effects, crew, food, clothing, fuel, water, gases, docked ships and other elements add to the total mass of the station.

Structure

La EEI es una estación espacial modular de tercera generación.[126][127] Las estaciones modulares permiten el añadido o eliminación de módulos de la estructura facilitando una mayor flexibilidad.

A continuación se muestra un diagrama con los componentes principales de la estación. El nodo Unity está conectado directamente al laboratorio Destiny, pero se muestran separados por claridad,[128] encontrándose casos similares en otras partes de la estructura. A continuación se muestra una leyenda con los colores del diagrama.

Pressurized modules

Zarya (Russian: , lit. 'Dawn'), also known as the Functional Cargo Block or FGB (Russian: , lit. 'Funktsionalno-gruzovoy blok', or ФГБ), was the first ISS module to be launched.[129] The FGB provided electrical power, storage, propulsion and guidance during the first phase of assembly. After the launch and assembly in orbit of other more specialized modules that replaced its functionalities, Zarya is currently used mainly as a warehouse, both inside and in the external fuel tanks. The Zarya descends from the TKS ship designed for the Russian Salyut program. The name Zarya, meaning "dawn",[129] was given to the FGB because it signified the beginning of a new era for international cooperation in space. Although it was built by a Russian company, the owner of the module is the United States.[130].

Zarya was built between and at the Khrunichev State Space Research and Development Center in Moscow[129] for a service life of a minimum of 15 years and launched on a Russian Proton rocket from Site 81 of the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan to a high orbit. After Zarya reached orbit, the STS-88 mission was launched to dock the Unity module.

The Unity docking module, also known as Node 1, was the first component of the ISS built by the United States. It connects the Russian and American segments of the station and is where the crew eats together.

The module has a cylindrical shape, with six docking ports (bow, stern, port, starboard, zenith, and nadir) facilitating connections with other modules. Unity measures 4.57 meters in diameter, 5.47 meters long, is made of steel and was built for NASA by Boeing at a Marshall Space Flight Center facility in Huntsville, Alabama. Unity is the first of the three connection modules; the other two are Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") and Tranquility "Tranquility (Node 3)").[131].

Unity was carried into orbit as Endeavor's primary payload on mission STS-88, the first space shuttle mission dedicated to station construction. On December 6, 1998, the STS-88 crew docked the aft PMA of Unity with the front port of the Zarya module.[132] This was the first connection between two modules of the station.

Zvezda (Russian: , lit. 'Star'), Salyut DOS-8, also known as the Zvezda Service Module, is a module of the ISS. It was the third module to be launched and provides all life support systems, some of which are supplemented on the USOS"), as well as accommodation for two crew members. It is the structural and functional center of the Russian Orbital Segment. Here the crew meets to manage emergencies on the station.[133][134][135].

The basic structure of Zvezda, known as "DOS-8", was initially built in the mid-1980s to form the core of the Mir-2 space station. This means that the Zvezda has a similar layout to the core (DOS-7) of the Mir "Mir (space station)"). In fact for a time it was labeled Mir-2 at the factory. The background to the design takes us back to the original Salyut stations. The structure was completed in February 1985 and the main equipment was installed in October 1986.

The rocket used in its launch to the ISS carried advertising, the Pizza Hut logo,[136][137][138] for which they supposedly paid more than 1 million dollars.[139] The money helped support the Khrunichev State Space Research and Development Center") and the Russian advertising agencies that orchestrated the event.[137].

On July 26, 2000, Zvezda became the third component of the ISS when it docked with the stern of Zarya. (The Unity module had already been docked to the Zarya.) Later, the Zvezda computers received the baton from the Zarya computers and began controlling the station.[140].

The Destiny module, also known as the US Laboratory, is the United States' primary research facility aboard the International Space Station.[141][142] It was docked at Unity and activated for a five-day period in February 2001.[143] Destiny is NASA's first permanent orbiting research station since Skylab was abandoned in February 1974.

Boeing began construction of the 14.5-ton laboratory in 1995 at the Michoud Assembly Facility and then at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Destiny was transported to the Kennedy Space Center in Florida in 1998, and was delivered to NASA for pre-launch preparations in August 2000. It was launched on February 7, 2001 aboard the Atlantis on mission STS-98.[143].

The Quest Joint Lock, formerly known as the Joint Lock Module, is the station's main lock. Quest was designed to support extravehicular activity carried out with the Extravehicular Mobility Unit (EMU) suits and the Orlan Spacesuit"). The airlock was launched on the STS-104 mission on July 14, 2001. Americans from a docked Space Shuttle. The arrival of the Pirs docking module on September 17, 2001 provided another airlock from which to perform spacewalks with the Orlan suits.[145]

Pirs (Russian: , lit. 'Pier') and Poisk (Russian: , lit. 'Search') are Russian airlock modules, each having two identical hatches. An outward-opening Mir hatch failed after being forced open due to a small pressure difference.[146] All of the station's EVA hatches open inwards, avoiding this risk. Pirs was used to store, service and rehabilitate Russian Orlan suits and provided a contingency entry for crew wearing the slightly bulkier American suits. Docking ports found at the ends of these modules allow for docking of Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, as well as automatic fuel transfer to and from the Russian segment of the station.[147]

Pirs was launched on September 14, 2001, as the ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress (ship), Progress M-SO1"), as the upper stage.[148] Poisk was launched on [149][150] coupled to another modified Progress, called Progress M-MIM2"), in a Soyuz-U from Launch Pad 1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan.

On July 26, 2021, the Pirs was undocked from the station using the Progress MS-16") to be incinerated during reentry, being the first permanent module of the station to be removed from service. This leaves the necessary space for the docking of the Nauka.

Harmony, also known as Node 2, is the "nerve center" of the ISS. It connects laboratory modules in the United States, Europe and Japan, in addition to providing electrical power and data connections. Four of the crew members sleep here.[151].

Harmony was successfully launched aboard the STS-120 mission on October 23, 2007.[152][153] After being temporarily docked to the port side of Unity,[154] it was moved to its permanent location on the bow of the Destiny laboratory on November 14, 2007.[155] Harmony added 75.5 m to the volume of the station, an increase of almost 20%, from 424.75 m to 500.25 m. The installation of this module meant that, from NASA's perspective, the core of the US segment of the station was complete.[156].

Tranquility, also known as Node 3, is an ISS module containing environmental control systems, life support systems, a bathroom, exercise equipment, and an observation dome.

Thales Alenia Space built the module for ESA and the Italian Space Agency. A ceremony on November 20, 2009 transferred ownership of the module to NASA.[157] On February 8, 2010, NASA launched the module on Space Shuttle mission STS-130.[158].

Columbus is a scientific laboratory that is part of the ISS and represents the largest contribution to the station by the European Space Agency (ESA).

The Columbus laboratory flew to the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida on an Airbus Beluga. It was launched aboard Atlantis on mission STS-122. It is designed for a minimum of ten years of operation. The module is controlled from the Columbus Control Center), which is located at the German Space Operations Center (GSOC), part of the German Aerospace Center (DLR) in Oberpfaffenhofen near Munich, Germany.

The European Space Agency invested in the construction of Columbus, including the ground infrastructure necessary to control the module and the experiments carried out inside it.[159].

The Japanese Experiment Module (JEM), known as Kibō, is a Japanese scientific module developed by JAXA. It is the largest module on the station and is docked to Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)"). The first two pieces of the Kibō were launched on the Space Shuttle missions STS-123 and STS-124. The third and final component was launched on STS-127.[160].

The Cupola is a module built by ESA that serves as an observatory. Its name comes from the Italian word cupola, which means "dome". Its seven windows are used for experiments, docking and Earth observations. It was launched aboard the Space Shuttle mission STS-130 on and docked to Tranquility (Node 3) "Tranquility (Node 3)"). With the docking of the Cupola, the construction of the ISS reached 85% completion. The central window has a diameter of .[161].

Rassvet (Russian: , lit. 'Dawn'), also known as the MRM-1 (Mini-Research Module 1) (Russian: , ) and formerly known as the DCM (Docking Cargo Module), is a component of the ISS. The module's design is similar to the Mir Docking Module launched on the STS-74 mission in 1995. Rassvet is primarily used for cargo storage and as a docking port for visiting ships. It flew to the ISS aboard Atlantis on mission STS-132 on ,[162] and was docked to the ISS on May 18.[163] On , Soyuz TMA-19") performed the first docking with the module.[164].

The Leonardo Permanent Multipurpose Module (PMM) is a module of the ISSis. It was launched aboard the Space Shuttle on mission STS-133 and installed on .[165] Leonardo is mainly used for the storage of spare parts, waste and supplies for the ISS that until then were stored in different locations throughout the station. The PMM Leonardo was a Multipurpose Logistics Module (MPLM) before 2011, but was modified to its current configuration. It was previously used as one of three MPLMs that carried cargo to and from the station aboard the Space Shuttle.[166] The module is named after the Italian polymath Leonardo da Vinci.

The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an expandable experimental module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract with NASA, for testing as a temporary module for the ISS from 2016 to at least 2020. It arrived at the ISS on ,[167] and was docked to the station on , being expanded and pressurized on .[168].

The International Docking Adapter (IDA) is a docking system adapter developed to convert the APAS-95 (Androgynous Peripheral Attach System) to the NASA Docking System (NDS)/International Standard Docking System (IDSS). An IDA has been placed on each of the station's two free Pressurized Docking Adapters (PMAs), both connected to the module Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)").

IDA-1 was lost due to a SpaceX CRS-7 launch failure on .[169][170][171].

IDA-2 was launched on SpaceX CRS-9") on .[172] It was docked with PMA-2 during a spacewalk on .[173] The first docking was performed with the arrival of the Crew Dragon Demo-1 on .[174].

IDA-3 was launched on SpaceX CRS-18 in .[175] It was built mostly using spare parts to speed up the process.[176] It was docked and connected to PMA-3 during a spacewalk on .[177].

The Bishop Airlock Module (previously known as the NanoRacks Airlock Module) is a commercially funded airlock module that will be carried to the ISS on SpaceX CRS-21 in .[178][179] The module has been built by NanoRacks", Thales Alenia Space, and Boeing.[180] It will be used to deploy CubeSats, SmallSats, and other external payloads for NASA, CASIS"), and others. commercial and government clients.[181].

Nauka MLM), is a component of the ISS launched on July 21, 2021 at 14:58 UTC. The MLM is funded by Roscosmos. In the original ISS plans, Nauka was to use the Loading and Docking Module (DSM) location, but the DSM was later replaced by the Rassvet "Rassvet (International Space Station)" module and moved to the Zarya nadir port. The Nauka was planned to dock at the nadir port of the Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)"), replacing the Pirs.[182][183].

The launch of Nauka, initially planned for 2007, was repeatedly delayed for different reasons.[184] As of , the launch was scheduled for no earlier than spring 2021,[124] which would be the end of the warranty for some module systems. Finally, on July 21, 2021, it was launched aboard a Proton rocket "Proton (rocket)") from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. On July 29, 2021 at 13:29 UTC the module docked to the nadir port of the Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") becoming part of the station.

Prichal, also known as the Uzlovoy Module or UM (Russian: , lit. 'Nodal Docking Module'),[185] is a spherical-shaped [186] module that will allow the docking of two energy and science modules during the final phase of station assembly, and will provide the Russian segment with additional docking ports to receive Soyuz MS and Progress MS spacecraft. UM will be launched in the third quarter of 2021.[187] It will be integrated with a special version of the Progress cargo ship and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket, docking at the nadir port of the Nauka module. One of the ports is equipped with an active hybrid docking system that allows it to dock with the MLM. The remaining five ports are passive hybrids allowing the docking of Soyuz and Progress vehicles as well as heavier modules and future ships with modified docking systems. The module would have served as the only permanent element of the now canceled OPSEK.[187][188][183].

Non-pressurized elements

The ISS has a large number of external components that do not require pressurization. The largest of these is the Integrated Truss Structure (ITS), on which the station's main solar panels and radiators are mounted.[189] The ITS consists of ten separate segments that form a long structure.[104].

The station was intended to have several smaller external components such as six robotic arms, three External Storage Platforms (ESPs) and four ExPRESS Logistics Carriers (ELCs). Its primary function is to store spare Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs). ORUs are parts that can be replaced when they fail or reach the end of their useful life, including pumps, storage tanks, antennas and battery units. These units are replaced by astronauts during their extravehicular activities or by robotic arms.[192] Several Space Shuttle missions were dedicated to carrying ORUs, including STS-129,[193] STS-133[194] and STS-134.[195] To date, only one other means of transporting ORUs—the Japanese cargo ship—has been used. HTV-2—which carried an FHRC and CTC-2 in its exposed section (EP).[196].

There are also smaller exhibition facilities mounted directly to the laboratory modules; The Kibō Exposed Facility forms the external part of the Kibō array,[197] and a facility at the European Columbus laboratory provides power and data connections to experiments such as the EuTEF (European Exposed Technology Facility)[198][199] and the Space Atomic Clock Array.[200] A remote sensing instrument, SAGE III-ISS"), was brought to the station on board. The largest payload mounted outside the station is the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), a particle physics experiment launched on STS-134 in , and mounted on the ITS. The AMS measures cosmic rays to look for clues to dark matter and antimatter.[203][204].

The External Commercial Cargo Accommodation Platform Bartolomeo"), manufactured by Airbus, was launched aboard the CRS-20 and coupled to the European module Columbus. It will provide 12 additional external spaces, expanding the eight of the ExPRESS Logistics Supports"), ten of the Kibō, and four of the Columbus. The system is designed to be operated robotically and will not require manual intervention from astronauts. It has been named in honor of Christopher Columbus' little brother.[205][206][207].

The Integrated Frame Structure serves as the basis for the station's main remote manipulator, the Mobile Maintenance System (MSS), which is made up of three main components:

• - Canadarm2, the station's largest robotic arm, has a mass of and is used to: dock and manipulate USOS ships and modules; securing crew members and equipment during extravehicular activities; and move the Dextre to perform jobs.[208].

• - Dextre is a robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, equipped with tools, lights and cameras to replace ORUs and perform other tasks that require more precise control.[209].

Planned components

Science and Energy Module 1, SPM-1 (Science Power Module 1, also known as NEM-1) and Science and Energy Module 2, SPM-2 (Science Power Module 2, also known as NEM-2) are two modules whose arrival is not expected until at least 2024.[215] They will be docked with Prichal, which is expected to dock with Nauka when both are launched.[183] If Nauka was cancelled, then Prichal, SPM-1 and SPM-2 would be docked at the zenith port of Zvezda. SPM-1 and SPM-2 would also be essential components of the OPSEK station.[216].

In , NASA awarded Axiom Space a contract to build a commercial module for the ISS with a launch date of 2024. The contract exists under the NextSTEP2 program. NASA negotiated a fixed-price contract with Axiom to build and deliver the module, which will dock with the front port of the Harmony (Node 2) module. Although NASA has only contracted for one module, Axiom intends to build an entire segment consisting of five modules, including a node, an orbital research and manufacturing facility, a crew habitat, and an observatory with large windows. The Axiom segment is expected to greatly increase the station's capabilities and value, enabling larger crews and private flights by other organizations. Axiom plans to convert the segment into an independent station when the ISS is decommissioned, with the intention of it acting as its successor.[217][218][219].

Proposed components

Built by Bigelow Aerospace.

In August 2016, Bigelow negotiated an agreement with NASA to develop a full-size prototype of the Deep Space Habitation based on the B330 under the second phase of the "Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships". The module is called Expandable Bigelow Advanced Station Enhancement (XBASE) and Bigelow hopes to test it by docking it to the International Space Station.[220].

The company NanoRacks"), after ending its contract with NASA, and after winning a new one in Phase 2 of NextSTEP, is developing its concept of Independence-1 (previously known as Ixion), which would convert spent rocket stage tanks into habitable areas, to be tested in space. In spring 2018, Nanoracks announced that Ixion is now known as Independence-1, the first 'outpost' of its "Space program Outpost".[221][220][222].

If built, it will be the first demonstration of the concept in space on a sufficient scale to generate notable force. It will be designed to be the ISS habitation module where the crew would sleep.

Canceled components

Several modules planned for the station have been canceled throughout the program. The reasons include budget limits, modules that end up being unnecessary, and station redesigns after the Columbia disaster. The American Centrifuge Accommodation Module would have housed scientific experiments at various levels of artificial gravity. The American Habitation Module would have served as accommodation for the astronauts. Instead they are scattered around the station.[224] The Interim Control Module") and the ISS Propulsion Module") would have replaced the functions of Zvezda in the event of a launch failure.[225] Two Russian Research Modules were to conduct scientific research.[226] They would have been docked with a Russian Universal Docking Module.[227] The Science and Energy Platform would have provided power to the Segment. Russian Orbital independently of the station's main solar panels.

Onboard systems

Life support

Critical systems are atmospheric control, water supply, food supply facilities, sanitation and hygiene equipment, and fire detection and suppression equipment. The life support systems of the Russian Orbital Segment are contained in the Zvezda service module. Some of these systems are complemented by equivalent equipment in the US Orbital Segment (USOS). The Nauka laboratory has a complete set of life support systems.

The atmosphere aboard the ISS is similar to that on Earth.[228] The usual air pressure on the ISS is ;[229] the same as at sea level on Earth. An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than one composed entirely of oxygen, due to the high risk of fires such as those responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.[230] These atmospheric conditions have been maintained on all Russian and Soviet ships.[231].

The Elektron system on the Zvezda and a similar system on the Destiny generate the oxygen aboard the station.[232] The crew has a backup option consisting of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a chemical oxygen generation system.[233] Carbon dioxide is removed from the air by the Vozdukh system on the station. Zvezda. Other byproducts of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines or ammonia from sweat, are removed using activated carbon filters.[233].

Part of the ROS atmospheric control system is the supply of oxygen. Triple redundancy is provided by the Elektron system, solid generators and stored oxygen. The main source of oxygen is the Elektron unit that produces and expels water from the station through electrolysis. The system uses approximately one liter of water per crew member per day. This water can be brought from Earth or recycled from other systems. Mir was the first ship to use recycled water for oxygen production. The secondary source of oxygen is obtained by combustion of the Vika cartridges") (see ISS ECLSS). Each 'candle' takes 5–20 minutes to decompose to , producing . This unit is operated manually.[234][235].

The US Orbital Segment has redundant sources of oxygen, from a pressurized tank in the Quest airlock module carried in 2001, supplemented ten years later by the Advanced Closed-Loop System (ACLS) built by ESA in the Tranquility module (Node 3), which produces through electrolysis.[236] The hydrogen produced is combined with carbon dioxide from the internal atmosphere to generate water and methane.

Power and thermal control system

Double-sided solar panels provide electrical energy to the ISS. Solar cells receive light directly from the sun on one side and reflected light from the Earth on the other, allowing greater efficiency and a lower operating temperature than the single-sided cells that are common on Earth.[237].

The Russian segment of the station, like most spacecraft, uses 28 V DC obtained from four rotating solar panels mounted on Zarya and Zvezda. The USOS uses the solar panels of the frame, the energy is stabilized and distributed to and then converted to the necessary ones. The higher distribution voltage allows for smaller, lighter conductors at the expense of crew safety. Both segments share energy through converters.

USOS solar panels in their current layout produce a total of between 75 and 90 kilowatts.[238] These panels are kept facing the sun to maximize power generation. Each panel has an area of and is long. In the full configuration, the solar panels are kept pointed at the sun by rotating the alpha gimbal once every orbit; The beta gimbal adjusts small changes in the angle of the Sun with respect to the orbital plane. At night the solar panels are aligned parallel to the ground to reduce the impact of aerodynamic drag suffered at the relatively low altitude of the station.[239].

Originally the station used rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries (nickel-hydrogen) to provide power during the 35 minutes it is eclipsed by Earth during the 90-minute orbit. The batteries are recharged when they receive sunlight during the other half of the orbit. They had a useful life of 6.5 years (more than 37,000 charge and discharge cycles) and were replaced regularly during the planned 20-year life of the station.[240] Starting in 2016, the nickel-hydrogen batteries were replaced with lithium-ion batteries, which are expected to last until the end of the ISS program.[241]

The station's huge solar panels generate a great potential between the station and the ionosphere. This could cause arcing across the station's insulating surfaces and sparking on conductive surfaces due to acceleration of ions by the station's plasma envelope. To mitigate this, plasma switch units (PCUs) create paths for current to pass from the station to the surrounding plasma field.[242].

The station's systems and experiments consume large amounts of electrical energy and almost all of it ends up converted into heat. To maintain the internal temperature at acceptable levels, a Passive Thermal Control System (PTCS) is used, consisting of the external surface materials, insulation and heat pipes. If the PTCS cannot handle the heat load, the External Active Thermal Control System (EATCS) maintains the temperature. The EATCS consists of an internal closed loop filled with non-toxic refrigerant used to cool and dehumidify the environment, which in turn transfers heat to an external loop filled with ammonia. In the heat exchangers, ammonia is pumped to radiators that emit the temperature as infrared radiation, and then back to the station.[243] The EATCS cools all USOS pressurized modules, as well as the main power distribution units located in the S0, S1 and P1 frames. It can deliver up to 70 kW, much more than the 14 kW allowed by the External Early Active Thermal Control System (EEATCS) through the Early Ammonia Regulator (EAS), which was launched on the STS-105 mission and installed on the P6 airframe.[244]

Communications and computers

Radio communications provide telemetry and data links for experiments between the station and mission control centers. Radio communications are also used during orbital rendezvous and for audio and video communications between the crew, flight controllers, and family members. As a result, the ISS is equipped with both internal and external communication systems that serve different purposes.[245].

The Russian Orbital Segment communicates directly with the ground through the radio antenna Lira&action=edit&redlink=1 "Lira (ISS) (not yet drafted)") located on the Zvezda.[6][246] The Lira antenna also has the ability to use the satellite data relay system Luch&action=edit&redlink=1 "Luch (satellite) (not yet redacted)").[6] This system deteriorated during the 1990s and was not used during the first years of the ISS,[6][247][248] but two new Luch satellites —Luch-5A and Luch-5B— were launched in 2011 and 2012 respectively to restore the system's operational capacity.[249] Another Russian communications system is the Voskhod-M"), which allows internal communications between the Zvezda, Zarya, Nauka and Poisk modules, while the USOS maintains a VHF radio link with the ground control centers through antennas mounted on the outside of the Zvezda.

The US Orbital Segment (USOS) makes use of two different radio links mounted on the Z1 frame structure: the S-band (audio) and K-band (audio, video and data) systems. These transmissions are routed through the US Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) located in geostationary orbit, allowing almost uninterrupted communications with the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center (MCC-H) in Houston. They were originally routed through the S-band and K-band systems, with the aim of complementing the TDRSS with the European Data Relay System") and a similar Japanese system in the task of forwarding data.[23][251] Communications between the modules use an internal wireless network.[252].

Astronauts and cosmonauts use UHF radio during EVAs and to communicate with other spacecraft during docking and undocking from the station. Automated spacecraft are equipped with their own communications systems; the ATV uses a laser and the Zvezda's Proximity Communications Equipment to precisely engage.[253][254].

The ISS is equipped with about 100 IBM/Lenovo ThinkPad and HP ZBook 15" laptops. The laptops have operated under Windows 95, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, Windows 10 and Linux operating systems. Each computer is a product purchased at retail that is then modified to operate safely in space including upgrades to connectors, power and cooling to work with the 28V DC system and weightlessness. Heat generated by the laptops does not increase, but remains in their vicinity, requiring additional ventilation. The laptops on board the station connect to the wireless LAN network via Wi-Fi and Ethernet, which is connected to the ground via the K band. Originally the system allowed speeds of 10 Mbit/s download and 3 Mbit/s upload from the station,[256][257] but NASA expanded the system at the end of August 2019 by increasing the speed. up to 600 Mbit/s.[258][259] Laptop hard drives occasionally fail requiring replacements.[260] Other hardware failures occurred in 2001, 2007 and 2017; some requiring EVAs to change external modules.[261][262][263][264].

Operations

Expeditions

Each permanent crew receives an expedition number. Expeditions last up to six months, from launch to undocking, an 'increment' covers the same period of time, but includes cargo ships and all activities. Between Expedition 1 and 6 they consisted of crews of three people. Expeditions 7 through 12 were reduced to the operational minimum of two people following the destruction of the Space Shuttle Columbia. Since Expedition 13 the crew gradually increased to six people around 2010.[269][270] With the arrival of crews aboard US commercial vehicles starting in 2020,[271] the number will increase to seven people, the initial goal during the design of the ISS.[272][273].

Gennady Padalka, member of Expeditions 9, 19/20, 31/32, and 43/44, and Commander of Expedition 11, has spent more time in space than any other person, a total of 878 days, 11 hours, and 29 minutes.[274] Peggy Whitson holds the record in the United States with 665 days, 22 hours, and 22 minutes during the expeditions 5, 16, and 50/51/52.[275].

Private flights

Individuals who travel to space without being professional astronauts or cosmonauts are called spaceflight participants by Roscosmos and NASA, and are generally called "space tourists", a term they generally dislike.[note 1] The seven traveled to the ISS aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft. When the professional crew rotates and is not divisible by three, the free seat is sold by MirCorp through Space Adventures. When the Space Shuttle retired in 2011, and the station crew remained at six people, there was a lull in space tourism. As all ISS program partners needed the Soyuz spacecraft for access to the station, the Soyuz flight rate increased from 2013, allowing five flights (15 seats) while only two expeditions (12 seats) needed to be covered.[281] The remaining seats were sold to members of the public who passed the medical examination. ESA and NASA criticized private flights early in the ISS program, and NASA initially resisted training Dennis Tito, the first person to pay for his trip to the ISS.[note 2].

Anousheh Ansari was the first Iranian in space and the first woman to self-finance the flight to the station. The officers stated that her education and experience made her much more than a tourist, and that her performance in training had been "excellent".[282] Ansari also rejects the idea of being a tourist. During his 10-day stay he carried out Russian and European studies related to medicine and microbiology. The documentary Space Tourists") follows his trip to the station, in which he fulfilled his dream of traveling to space.[283].

In 2008, participant Richard Garriott placed a geocache aboard the ISS during his journey.[284] It is currently the only geocache that exists outside of Earth.[285] At the same time, the Immortality Drive"), an electronic repository of eight digitized human DNA sequences, was placed on the ISS.[286]

manned fleet

With the end of the shuttle program, between 2011 and 2020 only Russia had a manned space program with access to the ISS. Astronauts of other nationalities used Russian Soyuz vehicles to reach the orbital complex.

The US resumed its own trips to the ISS in 2020 with the launch of the Crew Dragon 2 spacecraft on the Demo-2 mission on May 30, 2020 and its docking the following day. This is the crewed version of Dragon 2 developed within NASA's commercial crew development program along with Boeing's CST-100 Starliner which is expected to launch on its first crewed mission in 2021.

Until July 2011, the US Space Shuttle was responsible for transporting the largest components for assembly on the space station and the astronauts (up to seven) dedicated to the assembly and maintenance tasks of the station. With the end of the shuttle program, between 2011 and 2020 only Russia had a manned space program with access to the ISS. Astronauts of other nationalities used Russian Soyuz vehicles to reach the orbital complex.

The Russian Soyuz spacecraft was the ship that carried the first inhabitants of the ISS. It is responsible for maintaining the permanent crew of the space station, transporting up to three astronauts. It serves as an emergency ship in case of evacuation, remaining docked at the station for an average of six months. Over the years, different iterations of the original Soyuz design have been used that have improved aspects such as internal space or automatic docking systems.[287] After the launch of the Soyuz TMA-22 in September 2011, this type of ship was discontinued in favor of the next improved version, Soyuz TMA-M. The TMA-M version was replaced by the modernized Soyuz MS version in 2016.

The US resumed its own trips to the ISS in 2020 with the launch of the Crew Dragon 2 spacecraft on the Demo-2 mission on May 30, 2020 and its docking the following day. This is the crewed version of the Dragon 2 developed within NASA's commercial crew development program alongside Boeing's CST-100 Starliner. It has capacity for 4 astronauts, meeting the specifications requested by NASA, but it can be increased to a maximum of 7 by sacrificing cargo capacity.

Vehicle developed within the commercial crew development program to be used in the Commercial Crew Program along with SpaceX's Dragon 2. Its objective is to ensure United States access to space in case the other ship developed within the program is not available. In this way the crew rotations will alternate. It has capacity for 4 astronauts and can be launched by several different rockets such as the Atlas V or Delta IV. Its first manned mission is expected to take place in 2021.

unmanned fleet

The space agencies of Russia, the United States and Japan, through their unmanned supply ships, are responsible for transporting supplies to the space station. Over the years several vehicles have been used for this task, some have already been retired and new ones have appeared.[288].

Russian Progress spacecraft are used to deliver supplies and fuel to the ISS. They were previously used at the Salyut 6, Salyut 7 and Mir stations. In addition to supplies and equipment, Progress uses its engines to regularly raise the station's orbit. Its design is based on the Soyuz spacecraft with the difference that none of its sections return to the surface, being completely destroyed upon atmospheric reentry. Like the Soyuz, over the years the original designs have been modified, giving way to different versions of the ship with greater cargo transport capacity.

The single-use European Automated Transfer Vehicle was responsible for supplying the International Space Station and evacuating waste from 2008 to 2014. The unmanned cargo vehicle ATV-001 Julio Verne "Julio Verne (ship)")[289] was the first of this type of ship, which has a greater capacity than the Progress used by the Russian Space Agency. Its first launch was carried out aboard an Ariane 5 rocket[290] and its last launch was on July 29, 2014,[291] with the ATV-005 Georges Lemaître&action=edit&redlink=1 "Georges Lemaître (ship) (not yet written)"),[292] after which the ATV program ended. The base of the automated transfer vehicle will be used on NASA's Artemis program missions to service the space station that will orbit the Moon.

It is a contribution from the Japanese Space Agency to the international project. Transport water, supplies and experiments to the International Space Station. Although it is larger than the Progress ships, it needs to be docked manually using the Canadarm2 because it does not have an automated docking system. In its usual configuration, the vehicle is separated into two sections: a pressurized one that connects to Harmony's nadir port, and another non-pressurized one, generally for transporting the space exposure experiments for the Kibo module. The first was launched on ,[293] and the most recent mission is HTV-9.[294].

Private vehicle developed by the SpaceX company under NASA's COTS program. It is powered by the Falcon 9 launch vehicle. The first launch of a SpaceX Dragon capsule to the ISS occurred on May 22, 2012.[295] Currently the initial CRS program has ended with the last launch of the SpaceX CRS-20 Dragon and has moved to the second phase, (CRS-2) with the first launch of the cargo variant of the Dragon 2 on the SpaceX CRS-21 mission in 2020.

Like the SpaceX Dragon, the Cygnus spacecraft is part of the COTS program, so it was developed by the company Orbital ATK. Its first trip was made in September 2013 aboard an Antares (rocket) "Antares (rocket)"), although on subsequent trips it has also been transported on an Atlas V. The Cygnus ship docks with one of the US nodes with the help of the Canadarm robotic arm. In its origins it could transport about a ton and a half of supplies, but on one of its trips (March 2016), the Cygnus CRS OA-6, the ship carried more than 3 tons of cargo to the ISS.[296] After a few days connected to the Station, the Cygnus separates from it carrying garbage and waste and then disintegrates during atmospheric reentry.[297].

Fleet operations

A wide variety of manned and unmanned spacecraft have supported the station's activities. Missions to the ISS include 37 pre-retirement Space Shuttles, 75 Progress resupply ships (including the modified M-MIM2 and M-SO1 for module transport), 59 manned Soyuz spacecraft, 5 ATVs, 9 HTVs, 20 Dragons, 13 Cygnus "Cygnus (spacecraft)") and 4 Dragon 2s.

Currently there are 8 docking ports, 4 in the American segment and four in the Russian:.

• - Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") front (with PMA 2 / IDA 2).

• - Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") zenith (with PMA 3 / IDA 3).

• - Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") nadir.

• - Unity nadir.

• - Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") nadir.

• - Poisk zenith.

• - Rassvet "Rassvet (International Space Station)") nadir.

• - Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") rear.

• - All dates are in UTC and are subject to change.

• - The front ports are at the front of the station in their usual direction and orientation (attitude). The rear part is used by ships that increase the station's orbit. Nadir is the part closest to the earth (below) and zenith is the opposite side.

All Russian ships and self-propelled modules are capable of orbital rendezvous and docking without human intervention using the Kurs&action=edit&redlink=1 "Kurs (docking system) (not yet drafted)" radar system from 200 kilometers away. The European ATV uses star sensors and GPS to determine the interception trajectory. When it reaches the station it uses laser systems to recognize the Zvezda, along with the Kurs system as redundancy. The crew supervises these ships, but does not intervene except to send commands to abort the maneuver in case of emergency. The Progress and ATV resupply ships can remain on station for up to six months,[308][309] allowing great flexibility in the times available for loading and unloading tasks by the crew.

From the earliest space station programs, the Russians pursued an automated docking system that kept the crew in supervisory roles. Although the initial development costs were very high, the system has become very reliable with standardizations that have saved significant costs during its use over time.[310].

The Soyuz spacecraft used for crew rotations also serve as lifeboats in the event of station evacuation; They are replaced every six months and were used after the Columbia disaster to bring the crew that remained on the ISS.[311] Expeditions require, on average, supplies, and as of , the different crews had consumed about .[105] Soyuz crew rotation flights and Progress resupply flights visit the station an average of two and three times a year respectively.[312].

Repairs

Orbital Replacement Units (ORUs) are spare parts ready to be used in the event of a failure or end of life. Pumps, storage tanks, control boxes, antennas and battery units are some examples of ORUs. Some units can be replaced using robotic arms. Most are stored outside the station, on small pallets called ExPRESS Logistics Supports (ELCs) or larger platforms called Storage Platforms. External ones that also house scientific experiments. Both types of pallets provide electricity to the different parts that would be damaged by the cold of space and need heaters. The larger ELCs also have connections to the station's local area network (LAN) in order to store experiments that send telemetry. There was a notable push to send ORUs to the station during the final years of the Shuttle program because the shuttle's replacements, the Cygnus "Cygnus (spacecraft)") and the Dragon, can carry between a tenth and a quarter of the payload.

Unexpected failures and problems have affected the station's construction times, causing periods of reduced capacity and sometimes almost forcing the station to be abandoned for safety reasons. More serious problems include a leak in the USOS in 2004,[319] the expulsion of gases from the oxygen generator Elektron&action=edit&redlink=1 "Elektron (ISS) (not yet redacted)") in 2006,[320] and a failure in the ROS computers in 2007 during STS-117 that left the station without thrusters, the Elektron, the Vozdukh") and other environmental and station control systems. In the latter case the cause was found in a short circuit caused by condensation in some electrical connectors.[321].

During STS-120 in 2007 and following the repositioning of the P6 frame and solar panels, an error was observed during the deployment of the solar panel that had torn the surface.[322] Scott Parazynski"), assisted by Douglas Wheelock") conducted an EVA. Extra precautions were taken during the work because the repairs would be carried out with the panel exposed to sunlight and there was a danger of electric shock. Problems with the solar panel were followed in the same year by problems with the Alpha Rotating Joint (SARJ) of the starboard panels, which rotates them to follow the sun. Excessive vibrations and current spikes in the motor forced this joint to be blocked until the exact cause of the problem was known. Inspections carried out during EVAs on STS-120 and STS-123 showed contamination in the form of metal shavings in the gears and confirmed damage to the surfaces that act as bearings, this forced the joint to be kept locked.

In September 2008, damage to the S1 radiator was detected from Soyuz images. Originally it was not given much importance.[328] Images showed that the surface of a panel had separated from the structure, probably due to a micrometeorite impact. On May 15, 2009, the ammonia circuit of the damaged radiator panel was separated from the rest of the cooling system using computer-controlled valves. In the same way, the damaged circuit was emptied, eliminating the possibility of a leak.[328] It is also known that the cover of one of the Service Module thrusters hit the S1 radiator during an EVA in 2008, but its effects, if any, have not been determined.

Mission control centers

The components of the ISS are operated and monitored by their respective space agencies in different mission control centers around the world, including the RKA Mission Control Center, the ATV Control Center, the JEM Control Center and the HTV Control Center at the Tsukuba Space Center, the Christopher C. Kraft Jr. Mission Control Center, the Payload Operations and Integration Center, the Columbus Control Center, and the Maintenance System Control Center. Mobile").

Life on board

Crew Activities

A typical day for the crew begins with a 06:00 wake-up, followed by post-rest activities and a morning inspection of the station. The crew has breakfast and holds a planning conference with Mission Control before starting work at 08:10. Then it's time for the first scheduled workout of the day, followed by more work until 1:05 p.m. After a one-hour meal break, the afternoon consists of more exercise and work before the crew begins pre-break activities around 7:30 p.m., which includes dinner and a conference. The scheduled sleeping period begins at 9:30 p.m. In general, the crew works ten hours a day on weekdays and five hours on Saturdays, with the rest of the time to relax or catch up on other tasks.[340].

The time zone of the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). During the night hours the windows are covered to give the sensation of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets a day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions the ISS crew used the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time relative to the time of mission launch.[341][342][343].

The station has private space for each expedition crew member, with two 'sleeping stations' on the Zvezda and four more on the Harmony.[344][345] Those on the USOS are private soundproof cabins. Those of the ROS include a small window, but have worse ventilation and sound insulation. A crew member can use their 'sleeping station' to sleep in a bag tied to the wall, listen to music, use a laptop and store personal items in different compartments. Each module also has a reading lamp, a bookshelf and a desk.[346][347][348] Visiting crews do not have their own module and generally place a sleeping bag in any free space on the station. Although it is possible to sleep floating freely, it is usually avoided due to the danger of colliding with some sensitive equipment.[349] It is important that the crew modules are well ventilated, otherwise the astronauts would accumulate carbon dioxide around their heads and wake up unable to breathe.[346] During rest periods and other activities on board the station it is possible to adjust the intensity of the lights, the color temperature or even turn them off.[350][351].

Food and personal hygiene

At USOS, most food is vacuum sealed in plastic bags; cans are unusual because they weigh more and are more expensive to transport. Preserved food is not highly appreciated by the crew because the taste is reduced in space,[346] so efforts are made to make it more palatable, including using more spices than usual. The crew eagerly awaits the arrival of any ship from Earth because they bring fresh fruits and vegetables. Care is also taken to ensure that meals do not generate crumbs and liquid condiments are preferred over solid ones to avoid contaminating the station equipment. Each crew member has individual food packages that they cook themselves in the onboard kitchen. The kitchen has two water heaters, a freezer (added in November 2008), and a water dispenser that offers hot or cold water.[347] Beverages are stored as a dehydrated powder that is mixed with water before consumption.[347][348] Beverages and soups are taken directly from a plastic bag using straws, while solids are eaten with a knife and fork attached to the tray using magnets to prevent them from floating away. Any food that floats away, including crumbs, must be recovered to prevent it from accumulating in air filters and other equipment.[348].

Showers on space stations were introduced in the early 1970s on Skylab and Salyut 3.[352] The crew of Salyut 6, in the early 1980s, complained about the complexity of showering in space, a monthly activity.[353] The ISS does not have a shower; Instead, crew members wash themselves using a stream of water and wet wipes, with the soap coming out of a sort of toothpaste tube. No-rinse shampoo and edible toothpaste are also used to save water.[349][354].

There are two space toilets on the ISS, both of Russian design, located in the Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") and Tranquility "Tranquility (Node 3)").[347] These use a suction system similar to that of the Space Shuttle. Astronauts strap themselves into the seat, which is equipped with springs to ensure a good seal.[346] A lever activates the suction fan and opens the hole: the airstream carries away the debris. Solid waste is stored in individual bags inside an aluminum container. The completed containers are transferred to the Progress ship which disposes of them on re-entry.[347][355] The liquids are sucked through a hose connected to the toilet. The separated urine is collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it is recycled as drinking water.[348].

Crew health and safety

On April 12, 2019, NASA reported the medical results of the one-year mission. One of the twins spent a year in space while the other remained on Earth. Comparing both twins when the mission ended revealed several long-term changes including changes to DNA and cognition.[356][357]

In November 2019, researchers reported that astronauts were experiencing blood flow problems and thrombosis while aboard the International Space Station, based on a study with 11 healthy astronauts. The results may affect long-duration missions, including one to Mars ("Mars (planet)"), according to the researchers.[358][359].

The ISS is partially shielded from space by the Earth's magnetic field. Starting at an average distance of from the Earth's surface, depending on Solar activity, the magnetosphere begins to reflect the solar wind around the Earth and the space station. Solar flares continue to present a danger to the crew, who receive just minutes' notice. In 2005, during the initial "proton storm" of an

Charged subatomic particles, such as protons from cosmic rays and the solar wind, are normally absorbed by Earth's atmosphere. When they interact in sufficient quantities, the effect known as aurora can be observed with the naked eye. Outside of Earth's atmosphere, ISS crews are exposed to approximately one millisievert each day (one year of natural exposure on the surface), resulting in an increased risk of cancer. Radiation can penetrate living tissue and damage the DNA and chromosomes of lymphocytes; Forming an essential part of the immune system, any damage to these cells may contribute to the lower immunity "Immunity (medicine)") experienced by astronauts. Radiation has also been associated with a higher incidence of cataracts. Protective shields and medication can reduce risks to acceptable levels.[41].

Radiation levels on the ISS are five times higher than those experienced by passengers on commercial flights, because Earth offers almost the same protection from radiation in low orbit as it does in the stratosphere. For example, on a 12-hour flight, a passenger would experience 0.1 millisieverts of radiation, or 0.2 per day. Additionally, passengers on commercial flights experience it during a few hours of flight while ISS crews are exposed throughout their stay on the station.[362].

There is considerable evidence that psychosocial stressors are among the most important impediments to maintaining optimal crew morale and performance.[363] Cosmonaut Valeri Ryumin wrote in his diary during a particularly difficult time aboard Salyut 6: "All the necessary conditions for murder are met if you lock two men in a cabin measuring 5.5 meters by 6 and leave them for two months."

NASA's interest in the psychological stress caused by space travel, initially studied with the first manned missions, was revived when astronauts joined cosmonauts on the Russian space station . Common sources of stress for initial missions included maintaining good performance in the face of public scrutiny and isolation from family and friends. The latter remains a common cause on the ISS, such as when NASA astronaut Daniel Tani's mother died in a car accident, and when Michael Fincke was forced to miss the birth of his second child.

Orbit

La EEI se mantiene en una órbita casi circular con una altitud media mínima de y máxima de , en el centro de la termosfera, con una inclinación de 51,6 grados respecto al ecuador de la Tierra. Esta órbita fue seleccionada por ser la inclinación mínima que puede ser alcanzada directamente por las naves rusas Soyuz y Progress lanzadas desde el Cosmódromo de Baikonur en el paralelo 46° N sin sobrevolar China o desechar etapas de cohetes en zonas pobladas.[382][383]

Viaja a una velocidad media de , y completa 15.54 órbitas cada día (93 minutos por órbita).[3][17] La altitud de la estación se dejaba disminuir para permitir a los vuelos de los Transbordadores Espaciales transportar cargas más pesadas a la estación. Tras la retirada del transbordador, la órbita de la estación aumentó en altitud.[384][385] Otros vehículos de suministros más frecuentes no necesitan estos ajustes por tener un rendimiento mucho más alto.[31][386].

Las correcciones en la órbita se pueden realizar utilizando los dos motores principales del módulo de servicio Zvezda "Zvezdá (módulo)"), o los de las naves rusas o europeas acopladas al puerto trasero del Zvezda. El Vehículo de Transferencia Automatizado se construye con la posibilidad de añadir un segundo puerto de acople en la parte de atrás para permitir el acople de otra nave que impulse a la estación. La operación tarda aproximadamente dos órbitas (tres horas) en completarse y alcanzar la nueva altitud.[386] El mantenimiento de la altitud de la EEI gasta unas 7,5 toneladas de propelente químico por año[387] con un costo anual de unos .[388].

El Segmento Orbital Ruso contiene el Sistema de Manejo de Datos, que se encarga de la Dirección, Navegación y Control (ROS GNC) de la estación entera.[389] Inicialmente, Zarya, el primer módulo de la estación, controló la nave hasta poco después del acople del módulo de servicio Zvezda, cuando este recibió el control. Zvezda contiene el mencionado Sistema de Manejo de Datos (DSM-R), construido por la ESA.[390] Mediante dos ordenadores tolerantes a fallos (FTC), Zvezda calcula la posición y trayectoria orbital de la estación utilizando sensores redundantes de horizonte, sensores de horizonte solar así como rastreadores de estrellas y sensores solares. Los FTCs contienen tres unidades de procesamiento idénticas cada uno que trabajan en paralelo y permiten la tolerancia a fallos mediante votos de mayoría.

Orientation

Zvezda uses gyroscopes (reaction wheels) and thrusters to navigate. Gyros do not need propellant; instead they use electricity to 'store' the moment of force in flywheels that rotate in the opposite direction to the motion of the station. The USOS has its own computer-controlled gyroscopes to handle the added mass. When the gyroscopes become 'saturated' the thrusters are used to cancel the stored momentum. In , during Expedition 10, an incorrect command was sent to the station's computer, wasting some propellant until the error was detected and fixed. When the ROS and USOS attitude control computers do not communicate correctly, a situation is reached where both systems ignore each other and 'fight' with the ROS GNC using the thrusters to make corrections.[391][392][393].

The docked ships can also be used to control attitude in situations where error diagnosis is needed or during the installation of the S3/S4 frame on the STS-117 mission.[394].

Threats from space debris

The low altitudes at which the ISS orbits are also home to a variety of space debris,[395] including spent rocket stages, dead satellites, explosion fragments (including anti-satellite weapons test materials), paint chips, remains of solid rocket motors, and coolant ejected by the US-A nuclear satellites. These objects, in addition to natural micrometeorites,[396] represent a significant threat. Objects that are large enough to destroy the station are tracked, but are not as dangerous as smaller ones.[397][398] Those that are too small to be detected by optical and radar instruments, measuring or smaller, number in the trillions. Despite their small size, some of these objects are a danger due to their kinetic energy and direction with respect to the station. Crews also expose themselves to danger when carrying out a spacewalk, with the risk of receiving damage to their suit and ending up exposed to the vacuum.[399].

Ballistic panels, also known as micrometeorite shields, are incorporated into the station elements to protect pressurized sections and critical systems. The type and thickness of the panels depend on the exposure they will have. The structure and shields of the station follow a different design in the ROS and the USOS. In the USOS, Whipple shields are used. The US segment modules consist of an inner layer made of aluminum with a thickness of , a middle layer of Kevlar and Nextel of ,[400] and an outer layer of stainless steel, which causes objects to shatter before reaching the helmet, spreading the energy of the impact. In the ROS, a carbon fiber reinforced polymer honeycomb screen is separated from the hull, another aluminum screen is separated from the previous one, with a vacuum thermal insulation cover, and glass fabric on top.

Space debris is tracked remotely from the ground, and the crew is notified if necessary.[401] If necessary, the Russian Orbital Segment's thrusters can alter the station's orbital altitude to avoid danger. These Debris Avoidance Maneuvers (DAMs) are quite common, occurring if computer models show that debris will approach the station within a safe radius. By the end of 2009, ten DAMs had already been produced.[402][403][404] Typically, an increase in orbital speed of the order of is used to raise the orbit by one or two kilometers. If necessary, the altitude can also be decreased, although this type of maneuver wastes fuel.[403][405] If a threat of collision is detected too late to maneuver in time, the crew closes all the hatches and retreats to their Soyuz capsule so that they can be evacuated in case the station is seriously damaged by the impact. This procedure has been carried out without evacuating the , , and the .[406][407].

Sightings from Earth

The ISS can be seen with the naked eye as a slow dot, white and bright from reflected sunlight, and can be seen in the hours after sunset and before sunrise, when the station is illuminated by the Sun, but the ground and sky are dark.[408] The ISS takes about 10 minutes to move from one point on the horizon to another, and will only be visible for part of that time as it enters or leaves Earth's shadow. Due to the size of its reflective area, the ISS is the brightest artificial object in the sky (excluding other satellite brightnesses), with an approximate apparent magnitude of −4 when directly overhead (similar to Venus). The ISS, like many satellites including the Iridium constellation, can also produce brightnesses up to 16 times that of Venus by reflecting sunlight from reflective surfaces.[409][410] The ISS is also visible during the day, but is much more difficult to see.

There are tools offered by various websites (see Live viewing below) as well as mobile applications that use orbital data and the position of the observer to indicate when the ISS will be visible (weather permitting), from what point it will appear, the altitude it will reach above the horizon and the duration of the trajectory until it disappears either behind the horizon or entering the shadow of the Earth.[411][412][413][414].

NASA launched a service called "Spot the Station", which sends alerts by SMS and email when the station is going to be visible from a predetermined location.[415] The station can be seen from 95% of the inhabited surface of the Earth, excluding the extreme latitudes to the north and south.[382].

Using cameras attached to telescopes to photograph the station is a widespread hobby among astronomers,[416] while using cameras to photograph the Earth and stars is a widespread hobby among crews.[417] The use of a telescope or binoculars allows viewing of the ISS during daylight hours.[418].

Some amateur astronomers also use telescopic lenses to photograph the ISS as it transits the Sun or Moon, sometimes even during an eclipse (with the Sun, Moon, and ISS located in the same area). An example was during the eclipse of August 21, 2017, in which these types of images of the ISS could be captured from Wyoming.[419] Similar images were captured by NASA from a location in Washington.

Parisian engineer and astrophotographer Thierry Legault, known for his photographs of ships transiting the Sun, traveled to Oman in 2011 to capture the Sun, Moon and station aligned.[420] Legault, who received the Marius Jacquemetton award from the Société astronomique de France in 1999, and other amateurs, use websites that predict when and where these phenomena will occur.

International cooperation

Involucrando a cinco programas espaciales y quince países,[421] la Estación Espacial Internacional es el programa de exploración política y legalmente más complejo de la historia.[422] El Acuerdo Intergubernamental de la Estación Espacial de 1998 configura el marco principal de cooperación internacional entre las partes. Una serie de acuerdos posteriores gestionan otros aspectos de la estación, desde problemas de jurisdicción a un código de conducta para los astronautas visitantes.[423].

Participating countries

• - Brazil (previously).

• - Canada.

• - USA.

• - Japan.

• - Norway.

• - United Kingdom.

• - Russia.

• - Swiss.

• - European Union

Germany

Belgium

Denmark

Spain

France

Italy

Netherlands

Sweden.

The United States, through its government space agency, NASA, is the initiator of the project and responsible for its development. The main construction company is the Boeing Space group, and its material participation includes the main structure (the frame that joins the station with the large end panels), four pairs of solar panels, three modules that form connection node 1 (Unity) that includes the docking chambers for the spacecraft and other minor elements. It also manufactures the oxygen tanks that supply both the habitable and service modules of both orbital segments. NASA also provides the Destiny laboratory. Logistics under NASA's responsibility include electrical power, communications and data processing, thermal control, environmental control, and crew health maintenance.[424] The ISS gyroscopes are also under its responsibility and it maintains contracts with several private suppliers for the transportation of goods and crew.

The State Space Corporation "Roscosmos" provides about a third of the mass of the ISS (the Russian orbital segment), with the participation of its main companies: RKK Energiya and Khrunichev). The Russian agency has provided a habitable service module, which was the first element occupied by a crew; a universal docking module that allows the docking of ships from both the United States (space shuttle) and Russia (Soyuz); and several research modules. Russia too It is quite involved in the supply of the station as well as its maintenance in orbit, using, in particular, Progress supply ships. The Russian control module Zarya was the first element to be placed in orbit.

Russia also provides the KURS approach system for the ISS, which was used successfully on the MIR station.[425].

Most ESA Member States work on the ISS, in particular, providing the Columbus laboratory, a module that can receive 10 instrument pallets, and the ATV (Automated Transfer Vehicle), a vehicle that transports supplies to the orbital complex. ESA is also responsible for the European manipulator arm, which will be used from Russian scientific and logistics platforms, as well as service module data management systems. Without forgetting the Ariane 5 launchers, which are used together with the ATVs to supply the ISS with fuel and material.

The Canadian Space Agency undertook the construction and maintenance of a robotic arm called Canadarm, a unique device intended to facilitate the assembly, maintenance and operation of the station. Canada also provides the SVS (Space Vision System), a camera system that has already been tested on the manipulator arm of the American space shuttle intended to assist the astronauts in charge of its use and a vital tool for the maintenance of the station.

JAXA (Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency) provides the JEM (Japanese Experiment Module), known as Kibo, which houses a pressurized habitable section, a platform where 10 instrument paddles can be exposed to the vacuum of space, and a dedicated manipulator arm. The pressurized module can accommodate up to 10 instrument palettes among other elements.

Independently of its participation in ESA, the ASI (Italian Space Agency) provided three multipurpose logistics modules. Designed to be able to be integrated into the "Bodega (nautical)") of the space shuttles, they consist of a large pressurized volume in which different instruments and experiments will be brought to the ISS. The conception of the European Colombus module is inspired by these three elements. The ASI also provides nodes 2 and 3 of the station.

Under the direction of the Brazilian Space Agency, the National Space Research Institute (INPE) provided an instrument panel and its fixing system that houses different experiments on the station. Transported by a shuttle, the panel is intended to be exposed to the vacuum of space for a long period of time. In 2015 the AESP-14" cubesat was launched into orbit from the J-SSOD device of the kibo module.[426].

End of mission

Under the Outer Space Treaty, the United States and Russia are legally responsible for all modules they have launched.[427] Natural decay with random reentry (as with Skylab), raising the station to another altitude (delaying reentry), and a directed and controlled deorbitation at some remote point in the ocean are the options being considered to get rid of the ISS.[428] As of late 2010, the plan The preferred approach is to use a slightly modified Progress craft to control re-entry.[429] This plan is recognized as the simplest, cheapest and offers the best margins.[429]

The Orbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complex (OPSEK) was intended to be built using modules from the Russian Orbital Segment after the dismantlement of the ISS. Modules being considered for removal from the current ISS included the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (Nauka), which was planned for launch in spring 2021 as of May 2020,[124] and other planned Russian modules and components that were to be attached to the Nauka. These newly launched modules would still be within their useful life in 2024.[430].

In late 2011, the Gateway Exploration Platform concept proposed using the leftover USOS and Zvezda 2 modules as a refueling station located at one of the Lagrange Points between the Earth and the Moon. Even so, the USOS was not designed to be disassembled and will end up being scrapped.[431].

In February 2015, Roscosmos announced that it would continue to be part of the ISS program until 2024.[18] Nine months earlier—in response to U.S. sanctions against Russia over its annexation of Crimea—Dmitri Rogozin had stated that Russia would reject a U.S. request to extend use of the station beyond 2020, and would only supply rocket engines to the United States for satellite launches. civilians.[432].

On , Russian sources reported that Roscosmos and NASA had agreed to collaborate on developing a replacement for the current ISS.[433] Igor Komarov), the head of Roscosmos, made the announcement along with NASA Administrator Charles Bolden.[434] In a statement to SpaceNews on March 28, NASA spokesman David Weaver said the agency appreciated Russia's commitment to extending the ISS, but did not confirm any plans to a future space station.[435].

On , Boeing's contract with NASA as prime contractor for the ISS was extended until . Part of the services offered by Boeing under this contract are related to the extension of the main structural elements of the station beyond 2020 until the end of 2028.[436].

Regarding extending the ISS, the general director of RKK Energiya, Vladimir Solntsev, said "The ISS may receive continued resources. Today we discussed the possibility of using the station until 2028". It has also been suggested that the station be converted for commercial operation after being retired by government entities.[437].

In , the "Space Frontier Act of 2018" sought to extend the operation of the ISS until 2030. This bill was unanimously approved by the Senate, but did not pass Congress.[438][439] In September 2018, the "Leading Human Spaceflight Act" was introduced with the same intention of extending operations until 2030, and in this case it was confirmed in December 2018.[22][440][441].

Aim

Contenido

Scientific research

• - Drag of the residual atmosphere.

• - Vibration from the crew's movements and the station's mechanical systems.

• - Drive of the moment control gyroscopes.

• - Ignition of thrusters for orbital or attitude changes.

• - Gravity gradient effects, also known as tidal effects. Slightly different forces act at different points of the station; if it were not a rigid body, each part would follow a different orbit.

Exploration

Education and outreach

Construction

Manufacturing

Assembly

Structure

Pressurized modules

Tranquility, also known as Node 3, is an ISS module containing environmental control systems, life support systems, a bathroom, exercise equipment, and an observation dome.

Columbus is a scientific laboratory that is part of the ISS and represents the largest contribution to the station by the European Space Agency (ESA).

The European Space Agency invested in the construction of Columbus, including the ground infrastructure necessary to control the module and the experiments carried out inside it.[159].

IDA-1 was lost due to a SpaceX CRS-7 launch failure on .[169][170][171].

IDA-2 was launched on SpaceX CRS-9") on .[172] It was docked with PMA-2 during a spacewalk on .[173] The first docking was performed with the arrival of the Crew Dragon Demo-1 on .[174].

IDA-3 was launched on SpaceX CRS-18 in .[175] It was built mostly using spare parts to speed up the process.[176] It was docked and connected to PMA-3 during a spacewalk on .[177].

Non-pressurized elements

The Integrated Frame Structure serves as the basis for the station's main remote manipulator, the Mobile Maintenance System (MSS), which is made up of three main components:

• - Dextre is a robotic manipulator that has two arms and a rotating torso, equipped with tools, lights and cameras to replace ORUs and perform other tasks that require more precise control.[209].

Planned components

Proposed components

Built by Bigelow Aerospace.

If built, it will be the first demonstration of the concept in space on a sufficient scale to generate notable force. It will be designed to be the ISS habitation module where the crew would sleep.

Canceled components

Onboard systems

Life support

Power and thermal control system

Communications and computers

Operations

Expeditions

Private flights

manned fleet

The US resumed its own trips to the ISS in 2020 with the launch of the Crew Dragon 2 spacecraft on the Demo-2 mission on May 30, 2020 and its docking the following day. This is the crewed version of the Dragon 2 developed within NASA's commercial crew development program alongside Boeing's CST-100 Starliner. It has capacity for 4 astronauts, meeting the specifications requested by NASA, but it can be increased to a maximum of 7 by sacrificing cargo capacity.

unmanned fleet

Fleet operations

Currently there are 8 docking ports, 4 in the American segment and four in the Russian:.

• - Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") front (with PMA 2 / IDA 2).

• - Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") zenith (with PMA 3 / IDA 3).

• - Harmony "Harmony (Node 2)") nadir.

• - Unity nadir.

• - Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") nadir.

• - Poisk zenith.

• - Rassvet "Rassvet (International Space Station)") nadir.

• - Zvezda "Zvezdá (module)") rear.

• - All dates are in UTC and are subject to change.

Repairs

Mission control centers

Life on board

Crew Activities

Food and personal hygiene

Crew health and safety

Orbit

Orientation

The docked ships can also be used to control attitude in situations where error diagnosis is needed or during the installation of the S3/S4 frame on the STS-117 mission.[394].

Threats from space debris

Sightings from Earth

International cooperation

Participating countries

• - Brazil (previously).

• - Canada.

• - USA.

• - Japan.

• - Norway.

• - United Kingdom.

• - Russia.

• - Swiss.

• - European Union

Germany

Belgium

Denmark

Spain

France

Italy

Netherlands

Sweden.

Russia also provides the KURS approach system for the ISS, which was used successfully on the MIR station.[425].

Navegación

Next Generation Modular Construction

Introduction

Next Generation Modular Construction

Introduction

Aim

Contenido

Scientific research

Exploration

Education and outreach

Construction

Manufacturing

Assembly

Structure

Pressurized modules

Non-pressurized elements

Planned components

Proposed components

Canceled components

Onboard systems

Life support

Power and thermal control system

Communications and computers

Operations

Expeditions

Private flights

manned fleet

unmanned fleet

Fleet operations

Repairs

Mission control centers

Life on board

Crew Activities

Food and personal hygiene

Crew health and safety

Orbit

Orientation

Threats from space debris

Sightings from Earth

International cooperation

Participating countries

End of mission

Cost

Awards

Curiosities

Websites of member space agencies about the station

Investigation

Live viewing

Multimedia

References

Aim

Contenido

Scientific research

Exploration

Education and outreach

Construction

Manufacturing

Assembly

Structure

Pressurized modules

Non-pressurized elements

Planned components

Proposed components

Canceled components

Onboard systems

Life support

Power and thermal control system

Communications and computers

Operations

Expeditions

Private flights

manned fleet

unmanned fleet

Fleet operations

Repairs

Mission control centers

Life on board

Crew Activities

Food and personal hygiene

Crew health and safety