Certain authors (such as Guy Rocher))[1] consider that the term globalization is more appropriate in Spanish, a Gallicism derived from the French word mondialisation, instead of globalization, an Anglicism from the English globalization, since in Spanish "global" is not equivalent to "worldwide", as it does in English. However, the Dictionary of the Spanish Language records the entry "globalization", understood as the "tendency of markets and companies to expand, reaching a global dimension that surpasses national borders" (DRAE 2006, 23rd edition),[2]​ while the entry "globalization" is not in the Dictionary.

The Spanish economist and writer José Luis Sampedro, in his book The market and globalization (2002), defines globalization as.

These powers are so strong that they reach agreements outside of any direct political control of human beings that affect the employment, health and daily life of large sectors of humanity such as CETA, TTIP and TISA, agreements that have not been published, known or sanctioned by those who suffer their consequences,[4]​ something legally very debatable.[5]​ Against this (the lack of improvement of the democratic control procedures of the government of national states who, for example, are incapable of agreeing or agree to avoid global tax fraud, or in another way explained, they only agree not to agree) and the sale of the political system to capitalism in general, the so-called globalization of discontent has emerged,[6] embodied in movements such as 15-M, Arab Spring (2010-2012) "Arab Spring (2010-2012)") and Arab Spring (2018-present) "Arab Spring (2018-present)"), Occupy movement"), Occupy Wall Street, Fridays For Future or the Indignados and independent reporting organizations such as Wikileaks, or in more disorganized and violent protests such as the riots in France in 2005. Globalization affects everyone and therefore requires a global law that controls it, which revitalizes the natural right inherent to the human species and should definitively discredit in this sphere the too prestigious positive law that national states use to avoid agreeing on measures beneficial to all. In this sense, says Hans Küng in the context of the preparation of a Universal Declaration of the Duties of Man:.

According to the economist Omar Alejandro Martínez, globalization is defined as the current stage that world capitalism is experiencing, being characterized by the disappearance of economic borders that prevented the free circulation of goods, products and capital, including both trade laws and politics itself, producing effects on the environment, culture, political systems, development and economic prosperity, as well as the physical well-being of the human beings that make up societies around the world.

Contenido

Aldo Ferrer señala que el actual proceso de globalización es parte de un proceso mayor iniciado en 1492 con la conquista y colonización de América por España.[8]​ Marshall McLuhan sostenía en 1961 que los medios de comunicación electrónicos estaban creando una aldea global.[9]​ Rüdiger Safranski destaca que a partir de la explosión de la bomba atómica en Hiroshima en 1945 nació una comunidad global unida en el terror a un holocausto mundial. También se ha asociado el inicio de la globalización a la invención del chip (12 de septiembre de 1958), la llegada del hombre a la Luna, que coincide con la primera transmisión mundial vía satélite (20 de julio de 1969), o la creación de Internet (1 de septiembre de 1969). Pero en general se ubica el comienzo de la globalización con el fin de la Guerra Fría, cuando desaparece la Unión Soviética y el bloque comunista que encabezaba, cuyo experimento fallido de colectivismo representaba el ocaso de los proyectos de sociedades cerradas y economías protegidas. Si bien la autodisolución de la Unión Soviética se produjo el 25 de diciembre de 1991, se ha generalizado simbolizarla con la caída del Muro de Berlín el 9 de noviembre de 1989.

El proceso de globalización también hace entrar en crisis al proteccionismo y el estado de bienestar había ganado popularidad en período de entreguerras, cuando en las naciones capitalistas se difunde la noción de que el Estado tiene una doble función fundamental en el buen funcionamiento de la economía: uno en asegurar la prosperidad de la población y el otro en evitar los ciclos de crecimiento y recesión. Se crean así las bases para la aparición del keynesianismo y el Trato Nuevo. En las siguientes décadas posteriores a la Segunda Guerra Mundial se vio la emergencia a la preeminencia de las «corporaciones» o empresas multinacionales, que desplazan la importancia de las empresas del capitalismo clásico que tanto Adam Smith como Karl Marx conocieron cuando formularon sus teorías.[10]​ Se vio en Alemania un precedente del éxito de la liberalización que tomarían otros países: el resurgimiento de su nación en el denominado Milagro alemán.

Sin embargo, una nueva crisis que se inició a mediados de la década del sesenta (ver estanflación), agudizada por la crisis del petróleo de 1973 provocó una reorganización radical de la economía, fundada en la intensa promoción de la innovación tecnológica (TIC), la reforma de las políticas de desarrollo (ver Consenso de Washington) y tentativas de desmantelar del estado de bienestar, que llegó a ser visto como —en las palabras de Margaret Thatcher— un «estado niñera», sofocador de las libertades y restringidor de la capacidad de escoger de los individuos. Ya desde las décadas de 1970 y 1980 varios analistas y políticos encontraron necesario o conveniente efectuar una fuerte crítica, sea desde un punto de vista pragmático o desde un punto de vista liberal a formas sociopolítico y económicas anteriores, que ellos consideraban estatizantes y en consecuencia restrictoras tanto de las libertades individuales como del desarrollo económico y social, proponiendo nuevas formas a fin de crear un terreno favorable para la revitalización de las economías.

En la dictadura militar "Dictadura militar (Chile)") de Pinochet en Chile (en lo que se llamó «experimento»,[11]​ ver Milagro de Chile), seguido por el de Thatcher (1979-1990) en Gran Bretaña) y el de Reagan (1981-1989) en EE. UU., etc. Implementaron parcialmente las políticas económicas de economistas como Friedrich Hayek y Milton Friedman respectivamente,[12]​ lo que de hecho redundó en la generación de nuevas interrelaciones entre los factores económicos y mercados de todo el mundo (consumidores, trabajo, recursos naturales, inversiones financieras, etc.); sin embargo ambos gobiernos fueron en otras áreas fuertemente intervencionistas. A partir de entonces otros gobiernos aplicarían medidas combinando algún nivel de liberalismo económico junto con la tecnocracia "Tecnocracia (burocracia)") estatal, muchas veces para poder contentar con algún grado de intervencionismo a sectores sociales y grupos de presión que rechazan el desmantelamiento del estado de bienestar. Todo este fenómeno en políticas públicas sería conocido, especialmente por sus críticos provenientes del socialismo posguerra Fría, bajo el polisémico término de «neoliberalismo».

El 9 de noviembre de 1989, se produjo la caída del Muro de Berlín, abriendo camino a la implosión de la Unión Soviética en 1991 y la desaparición del bloque comunista. A partir de ese momento comenzó una nueva etapa histórica: la globalización. Ante los hechos en julio-septiembre de 1989 el economista político estadounidense Francis Fukuyama publicó un artículo titulado El fin de la historia y el último hombre, llegó a decir que «lo que podríamos estar viendo no es solo el fin de la Guerra Fría, o de un particular período de post-guerra, sino el fin de la historia como tal: esto es, el punto final de la evolución histórica de la humanidad y la universalización de la democracia liberal occidental como la forma final de gobierno humano». Posteriormente se retractaría de tal afirmación.[13]​.

Durante este periodo destaca el rol de los organismos internacionales como OMC, OCDE, FMI y BM que en las últimas décadas han sido retratados como impulsores de la globalización, sin embargo, la globalización siendo un proceso civil y de mercado más bien tiende a ser vista como un orden espontáneo independiente de los organismos políticos, siendo discutido si las acciones de los organismos supraestatales dificultan en vez de facilitar la globalización.[14]​ Una organización privada que anualmente se reúne para dar su respaldo al proceso globalizador es el Foro Económico Mundial.

Recent milestones

Below are some points of the growing interdependence between the countries of the world. It is not a list that reflects everything that globalization is, but these events can be identified in the context of it.

Political globalization refers to the growth of the world political system, both in size and complexity. This system includes national governments, their governmental and intergovernmental organizations, as well as elements of global civil society independent of government, such as international non-governmental organizations and social movement organizations. One of the key aspects of political globalization is the declining importance of the nation-state and the rise of other actors on the political scene. William R. Thompson has defined it as "the expansion of a global political system, and its institutions, in which interregional transactions are managed (including, but certainly not limited to, trade)."[18] Political globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, the other two being economic globalization and cultural globalization.[19]

Global governance is an approach to political science and public administration theory that originated from studies on European integration. Multilevel governance gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emerging global political economy. It illuminates the intimate entanglement between national and international levels of authority.

Some people are citizens of multiple nation-states. Dual citizenship, also called dual nationality or multiple nationality, is a person's citizenship status, in which a person is simultaneously considered a citizen of more than one state under the laws of those states.

Increasingly, nongovernmental organizations influence public policy across national borders, including humanitarian aid and development efforts.[20] Philanthropic organizations with global missions are also moving to the forefront of humanitarian efforts. The Hudson Institute estimates that total private philanthropic flows to developing countries amounted to $59 billion in 2010.[21]​.

In response to globalization, some countries have adopted isolationist policies. For example, the North Korean government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do so. Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions the government does not want them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.[22] Globalization represents some challenges and controversies in terms of its political impact, since it generates a loss of national sovereignty in exchange for international integration. Given this, States are reluctant to admit the decomposition of the Nation-State, especially due to the actions of corporations or multinational or transnational forces, which become more powerful than the States where they operate. This occurs as an effect of the overflowing of borders due to the intensification of exchanges and the decrease in the power of the State to dictate its policies based on its scope of action, since international cooperation is required. Given this, States are forced to integrate globally in order to avoid destabilization. The effect of Globalization has three variables: the benefited groups and sectors, the vulnerability of the national economy and crises generated from abroad, and the adaptability of political institutions to change.

Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values ​​around the world in such a way that social relations are extended and intensified.[23] This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been disseminated by the Internet, popular cultural media, and international travel. This has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization that have a longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the world. The circulation of cultures allows individuals to participate in extended social relations that cross national and regional boundaries. The creation and expansion of such social relations is not observed merely on a material level. Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It provides a growing interconnection between different populations and cultures.[24]​.

Intercultural communication is a field of study that examines how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in ways similar and different to each other, and how they strive to communicate across cultures. Intercultural communication is a related field of study.

Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural elements, such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages, etc. Cultural globalization has increased intercultural contacts, but may be accompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once isolated communities. For example, sushi is available in both Germany and Japan, but Euro-Disney surpasses the city of Paris, which could reduce the demand for "authentic" French pastries.[25] The contribution of globalization to the alienation of individuals from their traditions may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus argue. Globalization has expanded recreational opportunities through the spread of pop culture, especially through the Internet and satellite television. Cultural diffusion can create a homogenizing force, through the connection of markets, cultures, policies and the desire for modernization through the sphere of influence of imperial countries.[26]​.

Religions were among the first cultural elements to globalize, spreading by force, migration, evangelists, imperialists, and merchants. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and, more recently, Mormonism are among the religions that have taken root in and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.[27]​.

Globalization has strongly influenced sport.[28]​ For example, the modern Olympic Games have athletes from more than 200 nations participating in a variety of competitions. The FIFA World Cup is the most watched and followed sporting event in the world, surpassing even the Olympic Games; a ninth of the planet's total population watched the 2006 FIFA World Cup final.[29]​.

The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices, including traditional music, can be lost or become a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists may attempt to collect, record, or transcribe repertoire before melodies are assimilated or modified, while local musicians may strive for authenticity and preserve local musical traditions. Globalization may lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.[30]​.

Music plays an important role in economic and cultural development during globalization. Music genres like jazz and reggae started locally and then became international phenomena. Globalization supported the world music phenomenon by allowing music from developing countries to reach a wider audience.[31] Although the term "world music" was originally intended for specific ethnic music, globalization is now expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid subgenres such as "world fusion", "global fusion", "ethnic fusion", and worldbeat.[32]

Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As the culture of a dominant country is introduced into a host country through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to the Westernization or Americanization of culture, where the dominant cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and cause harm to local cultures.[33]​.

Globalization is a diverse phenomenon that is related to a multilateral political world and the increase of cultural goods and markets between countries. The Indian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of cultural globalization.[34]​.

Los académicos también discuten ocasionalmente otras dimensiones menos comunes de la globalización, como la globalización ambiental (las prácticas y regulaciones coordinadas internacionalmente, a menudo en forma de tratados internacionales, con respecto a la protección ambiental)[35]​ o la globalización militar (crecimiento en extensión y alcance global de relaciones de seguridad).[36]​.

Movement of people

An essential aspect of globalization is the movement of people, and the boundaries of state borders on that movement have changed throughout history.[37]​ The movement of tourists and businesspeople opened up over the last century. As transportation technology improved, travel time and costs decreased dramatically between the 20th century and the beginning of the 20th century. For example, traveling across the Atlantic Ocean used to take up to 5 weeks in the 19th century, but at the time of the century it only took eight days. [110] Today, modern aviation has made long-distance transportation fast and affordable.

Developments in transportation technology and infrastructure, low-cost airlines and more accessible airports, have made many types of tourism more affordable. At any given time, half a million people are in the air.[38]​ International tourist arrivals surpassed the one billion tourist milestone worldwide for the first time in 2012.[39]​.

Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not native or where they do not possess the citizenship to establish or reside there, especially as permanent residents or naturalized citizens, or to accept employment temporarily as a foreign worker. According to the International Labor Organization, in 2014 there were an estimated 232 million international migrants in the world (defined as people outside their country of origin for twelve months or more) and approximately half of them were estimated to be economically active (i.e. employed or seeking employment).[40]​.

Information movement

The Internet has been instrumental in connecting people across geographic borders. Globalization can be spread through global journalism, which provides massive information and relies on the Internet to interact. It is possible to assume that global threats such as climate change precipitate the establishment of global journalism.[43]​.

It is important to note that among the supporters of economic and social development, there are currents with conflicting visions and radically different in their perception of the benefits of globalization; This is the case of libertarian liberalism and neoconservatism in politics, or the Austrian school and monetarism/neoclassical school in economic doctrine.

Proponents of globalization harshly criticize some current policies in developed countries. In particular, agricultural subsidies and protectionist "Tariff (Public Service)" tariffs in those countries. For example, almost half of the European Union's budget is spent on agricultural subsidies, mostly to large corporations and industrialized farms, which constitute a powerful lobby group.[59]​ Japan, for its part, gave its agricultural sector $47 billion in 2005.[60]​ almost four times the amount it gave in Official Development Assistance.[61]​ The US gives $3.9 billion each year to its agricultural sector. cotton, which includes twenty-five thousand farmers, three times the entire USAID budget for the half-billion people of Africa.[62] These policies deplete taxpayer resources and increase prices for consumers in developed countries, decrease competition and efficiency, prevent exports from more efficient farmers and other sectors in developing countries, and undermine industries in which developed countries have comparative advantages. Thus, trade barriers hinder economic growth not only in developing nations, which has a negative effect on general living standards.[63]​.

Reviews

Criticism of the globalization process makes up what is called the anti-globalization or alter-globalization movement and its media heads are generally located in a nationalist, extreme-left context, one of the new progressive social movements, orthodox social democracy (that which rejects the Third Way) or third-world populism (which may include anti-Western or anti-American components), likewise several conservative religious movements and the extreme right have positioned themselves against globalization. The majority common point that these critics have is that they equate globalization with imperialism and neocolonialism (see Dependency Theory), they all oppose what they have called market fundamentalism and accuse globalization of promoting a consumerist and post-materialist lifestyle.

As a more generalized solution, all these ideological creeds point to the need for a strong and regulatory State for society and propose the resurgence of developmentalism, dirigisme and protectionism in the economic policies of nations, while calling for re-educating society around values ​​that counteract individualistic values ​​and customs.

Certain authors (such as Guy Rocher))[1] consider that the term globalization is more appropriate in Spanish, a Gallicism derived from the French word mondialisation, instead of globalization, an Anglicism from the English globalization, since in Spanish "global" is not equivalent to "worldwide", as it does in English. However, the Dictionary of the Spanish Language records the entry "globalization", understood as the "tendency of markets and companies to expand, reaching a global dimension that surpasses national borders" (DRAE 2006, 23rd edition),[2]​ while the entry "globalization" is not in the Dictionary.

The Spanish economist and writer José Luis Sampedro, in his book The market and globalization (2002), defines globalization as.

These powers are so strong that they reach agreements outside of any direct political control of human beings that affect the employment, health and daily life of large sectors of humanity such as CETA, TTIP and TISA, agreements that have not been published, known or sanctioned by those who suffer their consequences,[4]​ something legally very debatable.[5]​ Against this (the lack of improvement of the democratic control procedures of the government of national states who, for example, are incapable of agreeing or agree to avoid global tax fraud, or in another way explained, they only agree not to agree) and the sale of the political system to capitalism in general, the so-called globalization of discontent has emerged,[6] embodied in movements such as 15-M, Arab Spring (2010-2012) "Arab Spring (2010-2012)") and Arab Spring (2018-present) "Arab Spring (2018-present)"), Occupy movement"), Occupy Wall Street, Fridays For Future or the Indignados and independent reporting organizations such as Wikileaks, or in more disorganized and violent protests such as the riots in France in 2005. Globalization affects everyone and therefore requires a global law that controls it, which revitalizes the natural right inherent to the human species and should definitively discredit in this sphere the too prestigious positive law that national states use to avoid agreeing on measures beneficial to all. In this sense, says Hans Küng in the context of the preparation of a Universal Declaration of the Duties of Man:.

According to the economist Omar Alejandro Martínez, globalization is defined as the current stage that world capitalism is experiencing, being characterized by the disappearance of economic borders that prevented the free circulation of goods, products and capital, including both trade laws and politics itself, producing effects on the environment, culture, political systems, development and economic prosperity, as well as the physical well-being of the human beings that make up societies around the world.

Contenido

Aldo Ferrer señala que el actual proceso de globalización es parte de un proceso mayor iniciado en 1492 con la conquista y colonización de América por España.[8]​ Marshall McLuhan sostenía en 1961 que los medios de comunicación electrónicos estaban creando una aldea global.[9]​ Rüdiger Safranski destaca que a partir de la explosión de la bomba atómica en Hiroshima en 1945 nació una comunidad global unida en el terror a un holocausto mundial. También se ha asociado el inicio de la globalización a la invención del chip (12 de septiembre de 1958), la llegada del hombre a la Luna, que coincide con la primera transmisión mundial vía satélite (20 de julio de 1969), o la creación de Internet (1 de septiembre de 1969). Pero en general se ubica el comienzo de la globalización con el fin de la Guerra Fría, cuando desaparece la Unión Soviética y el bloque comunista que encabezaba, cuyo experimento fallido de colectivismo representaba el ocaso de los proyectos de sociedades cerradas y economías protegidas. Si bien la autodisolución de la Unión Soviética se produjo el 25 de diciembre de 1991, se ha generalizado simbolizarla con la caída del Muro de Berlín el 9 de noviembre de 1989.

El proceso de globalización también hace entrar en crisis al proteccionismo y el estado de bienestar había ganado popularidad en período de entreguerras, cuando en las naciones capitalistas se difunde la noción de que el Estado tiene una doble función fundamental en el buen funcionamiento de la economía: uno en asegurar la prosperidad de la población y el otro en evitar los ciclos de crecimiento y recesión. Se crean así las bases para la aparición del keynesianismo y el Trato Nuevo. En las siguientes décadas posteriores a la Segunda Guerra Mundial se vio la emergencia a la preeminencia de las «corporaciones» o empresas multinacionales, que desplazan la importancia de las empresas del capitalismo clásico que tanto Adam Smith como Karl Marx conocieron cuando formularon sus teorías.[10]​ Se vio en Alemania un precedente del éxito de la liberalización que tomarían otros países: el resurgimiento de su nación en el denominado Milagro alemán.

Sin embargo, una nueva crisis que se inició a mediados de la década del sesenta (ver estanflación), agudizada por la crisis del petróleo de 1973 provocó una reorganización radical de la economía, fundada en la intensa promoción de la innovación tecnológica (TIC), la reforma de las políticas de desarrollo (ver Consenso de Washington) y tentativas de desmantelar del estado de bienestar, que llegó a ser visto como —en las palabras de Margaret Thatcher— un «estado niñera», sofocador de las libertades y restringidor de la capacidad de escoger de los individuos. Ya desde las décadas de 1970 y 1980 varios analistas y políticos encontraron necesario o conveniente efectuar una fuerte crítica, sea desde un punto de vista pragmático o desde un punto de vista liberal a formas sociopolítico y económicas anteriores, que ellos consideraban estatizantes y en consecuencia restrictoras tanto de las libertades individuales como del desarrollo económico y social, proponiendo nuevas formas a fin de crear un terreno favorable para la revitalización de las economías.

En la dictadura militar "Dictadura militar (Chile)") de Pinochet en Chile (en lo que se llamó «experimento»,[11]​ ver Milagro de Chile), seguido por el de Thatcher (1979-1990) en Gran Bretaña) y el de Reagan (1981-1989) en EE. UU., etc. Implementaron parcialmente las políticas económicas de economistas como Friedrich Hayek y Milton Friedman respectivamente,[12]​ lo que de hecho redundó en la generación de nuevas interrelaciones entre los factores económicos y mercados de todo el mundo (consumidores, trabajo, recursos naturales, inversiones financieras, etc.); sin embargo ambos gobiernos fueron en otras áreas fuertemente intervencionistas. A partir de entonces otros gobiernos aplicarían medidas combinando algún nivel de liberalismo económico junto con la tecnocracia "Tecnocracia (burocracia)") estatal, muchas veces para poder contentar con algún grado de intervencionismo a sectores sociales y grupos de presión que rechazan el desmantelamiento del estado de bienestar. Todo este fenómeno en políticas públicas sería conocido, especialmente por sus críticos provenientes del socialismo posguerra Fría, bajo el polisémico término de «neoliberalismo».

El 9 de noviembre de 1989, se produjo la caída del Muro de Berlín, abriendo camino a la implosión de la Unión Soviética en 1991 y la desaparición del bloque comunista. A partir de ese momento comenzó una nueva etapa histórica: la globalización. Ante los hechos en julio-septiembre de 1989 el economista político estadounidense Francis Fukuyama publicó un artículo titulado El fin de la historia y el último hombre, llegó a decir que «lo que podríamos estar viendo no es solo el fin de la Guerra Fría, o de un particular período de post-guerra, sino el fin de la historia como tal: esto es, el punto final de la evolución histórica de la humanidad y la universalización de la democracia liberal occidental como la forma final de gobierno humano». Posteriormente se retractaría de tal afirmación.[13]​.

Durante este periodo destaca el rol de los organismos internacionales como OMC, OCDE, FMI y BM que en las últimas décadas han sido retratados como impulsores de la globalización, sin embargo, la globalización siendo un proceso civil y de mercado más bien tiende a ser vista como un orden espontáneo independiente de los organismos políticos, siendo discutido si las acciones de los organismos supraestatales dificultan en vez de facilitar la globalización.[14]​ Una organización privada que anualmente se reúne para dar su respaldo al proceso globalizador es el Foro Económico Mundial.

Recent milestones

Below are some points of the growing interdependence between the countries of the world. It is not a list that reflects everything that globalization is, but these events can be identified in the context of it.

Political globalization refers to the growth of the world political system, both in size and complexity. This system includes national governments, their governmental and intergovernmental organizations, as well as elements of global civil society independent of government, such as international non-governmental organizations and social movement organizations. One of the key aspects of political globalization is the declining importance of the nation-state and the rise of other actors on the political scene. William R. Thompson has defined it as "the expansion of a global political system, and its institutions, in which interregional transactions are managed (including, but certainly not limited to, trade)."[18] Political globalization is one of the three main dimensions of globalization commonly found in academic literature, the other two being economic globalization and cultural globalization.[19]

Global governance is an approach to political science and public administration theory that originated from studies on European integration. Multilevel governance gives expression to the idea that there are many interacting authority structures at work in the emerging global political economy. It illuminates the intimate entanglement between national and international levels of authority.

Some people are citizens of multiple nation-states. Dual citizenship, also called dual nationality or multiple nationality, is a person's citizenship status, in which a person is simultaneously considered a citizen of more than one state under the laws of those states.

Increasingly, nongovernmental organizations influence public policy across national borders, including humanitarian aid and development efforts.[20] Philanthropic organizations with global missions are also moving to the forefront of humanitarian efforts. The Hudson Institute estimates that total private philanthropic flows to developing countries amounted to $59 billion in 2010.[21]​.

In response to globalization, some countries have adopted isolationist policies. For example, the North Korean government makes it very difficult for foreigners to enter the country and strictly monitors their activities when they do so. Aid workers are subject to considerable scrutiny and excluded from places and regions the government does not want them to enter. Citizens cannot freely leave the country.[22] Globalization represents some challenges and controversies in terms of its political impact, since it generates a loss of national sovereignty in exchange for international integration. Given this, States are reluctant to admit the decomposition of the Nation-State, especially due to the actions of corporations or multinational or transnational forces, which become more powerful than the States where they operate. This occurs as an effect of the overflowing of borders due to the intensification of exchanges and the decrease in the power of the State to dictate its policies based on its scope of action, since international cooperation is required. Given this, States are forced to integrate globally in order to avoid destabilization. The effect of Globalization has three variables: the benefited groups and sectors, the vulnerability of the national economy and crises generated from abroad, and the adaptability of political institutions to change.

Cultural globalization refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values ​​around the world in such a way that social relations are extended and intensified.[23] This process is marked by the common consumption of cultures that have been disseminated by the Internet, popular cultural media, and international travel. This has added to processes of commodity exchange and colonization that have a longer history of carrying cultural meaning around the world. The circulation of cultures allows individuals to participate in extended social relations that cross national and regional boundaries. The creation and expansion of such social relations is not observed merely on a material level. Cultural globalization involves the formation of shared norms and knowledge with which people associate their individual and collective cultural identities. It provides a growing interconnection between different populations and cultures.[24]​.

Intercultural communication is a field of study that examines how people from different cultural backgrounds communicate, in ways similar and different to each other, and how they strive to communicate across cultures. Intercultural communication is a related field of study.

Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural elements, such as ideas, styles, religions, technologies, languages, etc. Cultural globalization has increased intercultural contacts, but may be accompanied by a decrease in the uniqueness of once isolated communities. For example, sushi is available in both Germany and Japan, but Euro-Disney surpasses the city of Paris, which could reduce the demand for "authentic" French pastries.[25] The contribution of globalization to the alienation of individuals from their traditions may be modest compared to the impact of modernity itself, as existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus argue. Globalization has expanded recreational opportunities through the spread of pop culture, especially through the Internet and satellite television. Cultural diffusion can create a homogenizing force, through the connection of markets, cultures, policies and the desire for modernization through the sphere of influence of imperial countries.[26]​.

Religions were among the first cultural elements to globalize, spreading by force, migration, evangelists, imperialists, and merchants. Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and, more recently, Mormonism are among the religions that have taken root in and influenced endemic cultures in places far from their origins.[27]​.

Globalization has strongly influenced sport.[28]​ For example, the modern Olympic Games have athletes from more than 200 nations participating in a variety of competitions. The FIFA World Cup is the most watched and followed sporting event in the world, surpassing even the Olympic Games; a ninth of the planet's total population watched the 2006 FIFA World Cup final.[29]​.

The term globalization implies transformation. Cultural practices, including traditional music, can be lost or become a fusion of traditions. Globalization can trigger a state of emergency for the preservation of musical heritage. Archivists may attempt to collect, record, or transcribe repertoire before melodies are assimilated or modified, while local musicians may strive for authenticity and preserve local musical traditions. Globalization may lead performers to discard traditional instruments. Fusion genres can become interesting fields of analysis.[30]​.

Music plays an important role in economic and cultural development during globalization. Music genres like jazz and reggae started locally and then became international phenomena. Globalization supported the world music phenomenon by allowing music from developing countries to reach a wider audience.[31] Although the term "world music" was originally intended for specific ethnic music, globalization is now expanding its scope such that the term often includes hybrid subgenres such as "world fusion", "global fusion", "ethnic fusion", and worldbeat.[32]

Some critics of globalization argue that it harms the diversity of cultures. As the culture of a dominant country is introduced into a host country through globalization, it can become a threat to the diversity of local culture. Some argue that globalization may ultimately lead to the Westernization or Americanization of culture, where the dominant cultural concepts of economically and politically powerful Western countries spread and cause harm to local cultures.[33]​.

Globalization is a diverse phenomenon that is related to a multilateral political world and the increase of cultural goods and markets between countries. The Indian experience particularly reveals the plurality of the impact of cultural globalization.[34]​.

Los académicos también discuten ocasionalmente otras dimensiones menos comunes de la globalización, como la globalización ambiental (las prácticas y regulaciones coordinadas internacionalmente, a menudo en forma de tratados internacionales, con respecto a la protección ambiental)[35]​ o la globalización militar (crecimiento en extensión y alcance global de relaciones de seguridad).[36]​.

Movement of people

An essential aspect of globalization is the movement of people, and the boundaries of state borders on that movement have changed throughout history.[37]​ The movement of tourists and businesspeople opened up over the last century. As transportation technology improved, travel time and costs decreased dramatically between the 20th century and the beginning of the 20th century. For example, traveling across the Atlantic Ocean used to take up to 5 weeks in the 19th century, but at the time of the century it only took eight days. [110] Today, modern aviation has made long-distance transportation fast and affordable.

Developments in transportation technology and infrastructure, low-cost airlines and more accessible airports, have made many types of tourism more affordable. At any given time, half a million people are in the air.[38]​ International tourist arrivals surpassed the one billion tourist milestone worldwide for the first time in 2012.[39]​.

Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not native or where they do not possess the citizenship to establish or reside there, especially as permanent residents or naturalized citizens, or to accept employment temporarily as a foreign worker. According to the International Labor Organization, in 2014 there were an estimated 232 million international migrants in the world (defined as people outside their country of origin for twelve months or more) and approximately half of them were estimated to be economically active (i.e. employed or seeking employment).[40]​.

Information movement

The Internet has been instrumental in connecting people across geographic borders. Globalization can be spread through global journalism, which provides massive information and relies on the Internet to interact. It is possible to assume that global threats such as climate change precipitate the establishment of global journalism.[43]​.

It is important to note that among the supporters of economic and social development, there are currents with conflicting visions and radically different in their perception of the benefits of globalization; This is the case of libertarian liberalism and neoconservatism in politics, or the Austrian school and monetarism/neoclassical school in economic doctrine.

Proponents of globalization harshly criticize some current policies in developed countries. In particular, agricultural subsidies and protectionist "Tariff (Public Service)" tariffs in those countries. For example, almost half of the European Union's budget is spent on agricultural subsidies, mostly to large corporations and industrialized farms, which constitute a powerful lobby group.[59]​ Japan, for its part, gave its agricultural sector $47 billion in 2005.[60]​ almost four times the amount it gave in Official Development Assistance.[61]​ The US gives $3.9 billion each year to its agricultural sector. cotton, which includes twenty-five thousand farmers, three times the entire USAID budget for the half-billion people of Africa.[62] These policies deplete taxpayer resources and increase prices for consumers in developed countries, decrease competition and efficiency, prevent exports from more efficient farmers and other sectors in developing countries, and undermine industries in which developed countries have comparative advantages. Thus, trade barriers hinder economic growth not only in developing nations, which has a negative effect on general living standards.[63]​.

Reviews

Criticism of the globalization process makes up what is called the anti-globalization or alter-globalization movement and its media heads are generally located in a nationalist, extreme-left context, one of the new progressive social movements, orthodox social democracy (that which rejects the Third Way) or third-world populism (which may include anti-Western or anti-American components), likewise several conservative religious movements and the extreme right have positioned themselves against globalization. The majority common point that these critics have is that they equate globalization with imperialism and neocolonialism (see Dependency Theory), they all oppose what they have called market fundamentalism and accuse globalization of promoting a consumerist and post-materialist lifestyle.

As a more generalized solution, all these ideological creeds point to the need for a strong and regulatory State for society and propose the resurgence of developmentalism, dirigisme and protectionism in the economic policies of nations, while calling for re-educating society around values ​​that counteract individualistic values ​​and customs.