The main exponent is religious literature: Mozarabic missals, antiphonaries and prayer books created in the scriptorium of the monasteries. Examples of quality and originality of the miniatures and illuminated manuscripts are the Commentaries on the Apocalypse of Beato de Liébana, the Beato of Fernando I and Doña Sancha or the Beato of Tábara, as well as antiphonaries such as the Mozarabic Antiphonary of the Cathedral of León.

Toledo and Córdoba were the most important Mozarabic centers. Abbot Esperaindeo was from Córdoba, who made an Apologetics against Muhammad. And the Apologetic against perfidious of Samsón de Córdoba (864) is very important for the study of the history of philosophy.

Of special interest are the Mozarabic jarchas, short lyrical compositions that closed the moaxajas, which emerged between the and centuries and were written in the Mozarabic or Andalusian Arabic language. These texts represent one of the first testimonies of poetry in a Romance language, reflecting the influence of popular lyric traditions and cultural coexistence in al-Andalus.[6]​[7]​.

Contenido

El arte mozárabe se identifica con la tercera etapa del periodo prerrománico hispano, tras las fases que corresponden al arte visigodo y al arte asturiano.[8]​[9]​.

La arquitectura mozárabe es un compendio de elementos de difícil clasificación, de forma que en ocasiones predominan los de origen paleocristiano, visigodo o asturiano, mientras que otras veces resalta la impronta musulmana. Las principales características que definen la arquitectura mozárabe son las siguientes:.

Mozarabic in al-Andalus

Within the territory conquered by al-Andalus, there are hardly any remains of temples built by Mozarabs. The most notable example is the Bobastro rock churches, located in Ardales, province of Málaga. This unique enclave, excavated in the rock, was part of a defensive and religious complex during the rebellion led by Omar ibn Hafsún, a leader converted to Christianity who challenged the emirate of Córdoba in the 20th century. Bobastro, in addition to its liturgical function, symbolized resistance against Islamic power, leaving an architectural and historical legacy that reflects the tension and cultural influences of the time.[10]​.

Therefore, only two examples of Mozarabic architecture are preserved in Muslim territory:

Leonese Mozarabic

The Leonese Mozarabic is the group characterized by being the best preserved and sophisticated of this period, reflecting cultural and stylistic contributions of the Caliphate of Córdoba. These influences are manifested in the perfectly executed horseshoe arches with alfiz, the elaborate spatial articulations, the preference for the column as a support element or the Andalusian style interior wall paintings.[11]​The most important examples are:.

Repopulation churches that are difficult to classify or transitional

These churches and hermitages present hybrid characteristics, combining Mozarabic contributions in temples of Visigothic origin and, in many cases, with later extensions during the Romanesque period. A notable example is the hermitage of San Baudelio de Berlanga in Soria, the most enigmatic of this group, notable for its unique structure with a central column supporting a palm-shaped vault and its mural paintings.

Churches of Serrablo

The churches of Serrablo, located in Alto Aragón and dating from the 19th century, bring together a group of churches with homogeneous characteristics and difficult to classify, as they combine pre-Romanesque, Mozarabic, Lombard elements and characteristics that anticipate the Romanesque, which is why it is also called Proto-Romanesque or First Romanesque "First Romanesque (Catalonia)") Aragonese. These constructions usually present single-nave floor plans and an incipient use of half-barrel vaults. There would be three architectural elements that reveal Mozarabism with Muslim influence: the bell towers, the lowered horseshoe arch and the alfiz.[12]​[13]​[14]​.

Mozarabic painting stands out for its contribution to the illustration of religious illuminated manuscripts, the blessed ones being one of its most significant achievements. The characteristics of Mozarabic painting include bright and striking colors, particularly intense yellow, figures with a sometimes barbaric and childish style, calligraphic elements, fantastic animals, ornamental letters made with human figures, architectural motifs of horseshoe arches and whimsical interlaces. This style evolved from an initial Byzantine-Merovingian influence towards an Islamic-Carolingian character, incorporating elements of the Carolingian school and Islamic arabesques.[15]​.

Notable examples of Mozarabic painting include the Beato de San Miguel de Escalada, that of Tábara, that of Valcavado and that of Gerona. Likewise, the León Bible of 920 and the León Mozarabic Bible of 960 are notable, with the latter considered one of the best-documented Mozarabic Bibles.

The sculpture of Mozarabic art is characterized by its flat nature, generally sculpted in a bevel, following the techniques used in previous periods. The predominant themes are usually of a vegetal and geometric nature, with few examples of figurative representations. This artistic manifestation is found mainly in capitals, highlighting works of great quality such as those present in San Miguel de Escalada or Santiago de Peñalba "Iglesia de Santiago (Peñalba de Santiago)").

A distinctive element of this period is the decoration of the stone or wooden modillions that support the eaves of the roof in various constructions. These modillions exhibit decorative motifs, generally composed of geometric drawings inscribed in lobes, thus contributing to the stylistic uniqueness of Mozarabic sculpture.[5]​.

However, surviving sculpture from this period is scarce, notable being a rare bas-relief in San Cebrián de Mazote "Iglesia de San Cipriano (San Cebrián de Mazote)"). Additionally, sculptural elements have been found from San Millán de la Cogolla, such as ivories that include the arms of a cross and a portable altar, evidencing the influence of Caliphate art from Cordoba.

Mozarabic goldsmithing in al-Andalus integrated decorative elements and techniques typical of Islamic art, such as the use of inscriptions in Arabic and geometric and plant motifs. An outstanding example is a turkey-shaped ewer, dated 972, which is preserved in the Louvre Museum. This piece contains a bilingual inscription in Arabic and Latin, where the artisan Abd al-Malik al-Nasrani is mentioned, identified as a Christian who worked in the Islamic cultural context of Medina Alzahira during the caliphate of Al-Hakam II.

Among the relevant pieces from this period is also the bell of Abbot Samsón), considered the oldest cult bell documented in the Iberian Peninsula.[16]​ Due to the inscription engraved on it, it is known that it was donated in the year 930 by Abbot Samsón to the Monastery of San Sebastián del Monte, located in the Sierra de Córdoba.[17]​.

In Christian territories, the influence of the aesthetics and techniques of Andalusian goldsmithing is manifested in various liturgical and ornamental pieces. Among the most relevant examples are the Peñalba Cross, which presents Mozarabic spelling, the chalice of Santo Domingo de Silos, and other works such as a processional cross and an ivory altar from San Millán de Suso. Likewise, the Arqueta de las Ágatas" of San Isidoro de León "Basilica de San Isidoro (León)") stands out, as an example of the influence of Islamic art on Christian production.[18]​.

After the publication in 1897 of Francisco Javier Simonet's work on the Mozarabs of Spain and Manuel Gómez-Moreno's monograph in 1919 on Mozarabic churches, the Mozarabic character was attributed to the churches built in Christian territories from the end of the century to the beginning of the , using the term Mozarabic to designate the architecture and art related to it. Although the name was widely accepted, modern historiography has questioned the term "Mozarabic", proposing alternatives such as "repopulation art" or Leonese art, generating academic controversies around the most appropriate designation for this period. Despite these debates, the term "Mozarabic art" continues to be the most used in academia and cultural dissemination.[2]​.

The main exponent is religious literature: Mozarabic missals, antiphonaries and prayer books created in the scriptorium of the monasteries. Examples of quality and originality of the miniatures and illuminated manuscripts are the Commentaries on the Apocalypse of Beato de Liébana, the Beato of Fernando I and Doña Sancha or the Beato of Tábara, as well as antiphonaries such as the Mozarabic Antiphonary of the Cathedral of León.

Toledo and Córdoba were the most important Mozarabic centers. Abbot Esperaindeo was from Córdoba, who made an Apologetics against Muhammad. And the Apologetic against perfidious of Samsón de Córdoba (864) is very important for the study of the history of philosophy.

Of special interest are the Mozarabic jarchas, short lyrical compositions that closed the moaxajas, which emerged between the and centuries and were written in the Mozarabic or Andalusian Arabic language. These texts represent one of the first testimonies of poetry in a Romance language, reflecting the influence of popular lyric traditions and cultural coexistence in al-Andalus.[6]​[7]​.

Contenido

El arte mozárabe se identifica con la tercera etapa del periodo prerrománico hispano, tras las fases que corresponden al arte visigodo y al arte asturiano.[8]​[9]​.

La arquitectura mozárabe es un compendio de elementos de difícil clasificación, de forma que en ocasiones predominan los de origen paleocristiano, visigodo o asturiano, mientras que otras veces resalta la impronta musulmana. Las principales características que definen la arquitectura mozárabe son las siguientes:.

Mozarabic in al-Andalus

Within the territory conquered by al-Andalus, there are hardly any remains of temples built by Mozarabs. The most notable example is the Bobastro rock churches, located in Ardales, province of Málaga. This unique enclave, excavated in the rock, was part of a defensive and religious complex during the rebellion led by Omar ibn Hafsún, a leader converted to Christianity who challenged the emirate of Córdoba in the 20th century. Bobastro, in addition to its liturgical function, symbolized resistance against Islamic power, leaving an architectural and historical legacy that reflects the tension and cultural influences of the time.[10]​.

Therefore, only two examples of Mozarabic architecture are preserved in Muslim territory:

Leonese Mozarabic

The Leonese Mozarabic is the group characterized by being the best preserved and sophisticated of this period, reflecting cultural and stylistic contributions of the Caliphate of Córdoba. These influences are manifested in the perfectly executed horseshoe arches with alfiz, the elaborate spatial articulations, the preference for the column as a support element or the Andalusian style interior wall paintings.[11]​The most important examples are:.

Repopulation churches that are difficult to classify or transitional

These churches and hermitages present hybrid characteristics, combining Mozarabic contributions in temples of Visigothic origin and, in many cases, with later extensions during the Romanesque period. A notable example is the hermitage of San Baudelio de Berlanga in Soria, the most enigmatic of this group, notable for its unique structure with a central column supporting a palm-shaped vault and its mural paintings.

Churches of Serrablo

The churches of Serrablo, located in Alto Aragón and dating from the 19th century, bring together a group of churches with homogeneous characteristics and difficult to classify, as they combine pre-Romanesque, Mozarabic, Lombard elements and characteristics that anticipate the Romanesque, which is why it is also called Proto-Romanesque or First Romanesque "First Romanesque (Catalonia)") Aragonese. These constructions usually present single-nave floor plans and an incipient use of half-barrel vaults. There would be three architectural elements that reveal Mozarabism with Muslim influence: the bell towers, the lowered horseshoe arch and the alfiz.[12]​[13]​[14]​.

Mozarabic painting stands out for its contribution to the illustration of religious illuminated manuscripts, the blessed ones being one of its most significant achievements. The characteristics of Mozarabic painting include bright and striking colors, particularly intense yellow, figures with a sometimes barbaric and childish style, calligraphic elements, fantastic animals, ornamental letters made with human figures, architectural motifs of horseshoe arches and whimsical interlaces. This style evolved from an initial Byzantine-Merovingian influence towards an Islamic-Carolingian character, incorporating elements of the Carolingian school and Islamic arabesques.[15]​.

Notable examples of Mozarabic painting include the Beato de San Miguel de Escalada, that of Tábara, that of Valcavado and that of Gerona. Likewise, the León Bible of 920 and the León Mozarabic Bible of 960 are notable, with the latter considered one of the best-documented Mozarabic Bibles.

The sculpture of Mozarabic art is characterized by its flat nature, generally sculpted in a bevel, following the techniques used in previous periods. The predominant themes are usually of a vegetal and geometric nature, with few examples of figurative representations. This artistic manifestation is found mainly in capitals, highlighting works of great quality such as those present in San Miguel de Escalada or Santiago de Peñalba "Iglesia de Santiago (Peñalba de Santiago)").

A distinctive element of this period is the decoration of the stone or wooden modillions that support the eaves of the roof in various constructions. These modillions exhibit decorative motifs, generally composed of geometric drawings inscribed in lobes, thus contributing to the stylistic uniqueness of Mozarabic sculpture.[5]​.

However, surviving sculpture from this period is scarce, notable being a rare bas-relief in San Cebrián de Mazote "Iglesia de San Cipriano (San Cebrián de Mazote)"). Additionally, sculptural elements have been found from San Millán de la Cogolla, such as ivories that include the arms of a cross and a portable altar, evidencing the influence of Caliphate art from Cordoba.

Mozarabic goldsmithing in al-Andalus integrated decorative elements and techniques typical of Islamic art, such as the use of inscriptions in Arabic and geometric and plant motifs. An outstanding example is a turkey-shaped ewer, dated 972, which is preserved in the Louvre Museum. This piece contains a bilingual inscription in Arabic and Latin, where the artisan Abd al-Malik al-Nasrani is mentioned, identified as a Christian who worked in the Islamic cultural context of Medina Alzahira during the caliphate of Al-Hakam II.

Among the relevant pieces from this period is also the bell of Abbot Samsón), considered the oldest cult bell documented in the Iberian Peninsula.[16]​ Due to the inscription engraved on it, it is known that it was donated in the year 930 by Abbot Samsón to the Monastery of San Sebastián del Monte, located in the Sierra de Córdoba.[17]​.

In Christian territories, the influence of the aesthetics and techniques of Andalusian goldsmithing is manifested in various liturgical and ornamental pieces. Among the most relevant examples are the Peñalba Cross, which presents Mozarabic spelling, the chalice of Santo Domingo de Silos, and other works such as a processional cross and an ivory altar from San Millán de Suso. Likewise, the Arqueta de las Ágatas" of San Isidoro de León "Basilica de San Isidoro (León)") stands out, as an example of the influence of Islamic art on Christian production.[18]​.

After the publication in 1897 of Francisco Javier Simonet's work on the Mozarabs of Spain and Manuel Gómez-Moreno's monograph in 1919 on Mozarabic churches, the Mozarabic character was attributed to the churches built in Christian territories from the end of the century to the beginning of the , using the term Mozarabic to designate the architecture and art related to it. Although the name was widely accepted, modern historiography has questioned the term "Mozarabic", proposing alternatives such as "repopulation art" or Leonese art, generating academic controversies around the most appropriate designation for this period. Despite these debates, the term "Mozarabic art" continues to be the most used in academia and cultural dissemination.[2]​.