Mexico,[note 3] officially United Mexican States,[14] is a sovereign country located in the southern part of North America; Its capital and most populated city is Mexico City.[15] According to the current constitution, its form of government consists of a representative republic "Representation (political)"), democratic, secular and federal, composed of 32 federative entities (31 states and the capital).[16][17][18].
The Mexican territory has an area of ,[4] making it the thirteenth largest country in the world and the third largest in Latin America. It borders the United States to the north along a 3,152 km border, while to the south it has a 956 km border with Guatemala and 193 km with Belize. The country's coasts are bordered to the west by the Pacific Ocean and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, totaling 11,122 km of coastline.[4].
Mexico occupies tenth place on the list of the most populous countries in the world, with a population estimated at more than 132 million people in 2024.[4] Most of them have Spanish as their mother tongue, which the state recognizes as the national language along with 68 indigenous languages of the country,[11] although around 284 linguistic varieties are spoken in it.[19][20] These figures make Mexico the country with the largest number of Spanish speakers,[21] as well as in the seventh country with the greatest linguistic diversity in the world.[22].
Human presence in Mexico dates back to 30,000 years before the present.[23] As a result of thousands of years of cultural development, Mesoamerican, Arid-American and Oasis-American cultures emerged in Mexican territory. The current central territory of Mexico was the main and largest stage of the Mexica people and, in the south, of the Mayan people, two of the most important civilizations of pre-Columbian America. For 300 years, the entire current territory was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with its capital in Mexico City, being one of the most important entities of the Spanish Empire in America. After Spanish domination, New Spain began the fight for its political independence in 1810, which culminated in 1821. Subsequently, for nearly a century the country was involved in a series of internal wars and foreign invasions that had repercussions in all areas of Mexican life. For a good part of the century (mainly the second third) a period of great economic growth took place within the framework of a policy dominated by a single political party.
In macroeconomic terms, by gross domestic product (GDP) it is the twelfth world economy and the thirteenth by purchasing power parity "Annex: Countries by GDP (PPP)") (PPP) in 2024; On a regional scale, it is the second economy in Latin America and the fourth on the continent.[24][25] According to the 2024 UN human development report, it has a high human development index of 0.789, and ranks 77th in the world.[26].
Monumental heritage audit
Introduction
Mexico,[note 3] officially United Mexican States,[14] is a sovereign country located in the southern part of North America; Its capital and most populated city is Mexico City.[15] According to the current constitution, its form of government consists of a representative republic "Representation (political)"), democratic, secular and federal, composed of 32 federative entities (31 states and the capital).[16][17][18].
The Mexican territory has an area of ,[4] making it the thirteenth largest country in the world and the third largest in Latin America. It borders the United States to the north along a 3,152 km border, while to the south it has a 956 km border with Guatemala and 193 km with Belize. The country's coasts are bordered to the west by the Pacific Ocean and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, totaling 11,122 km of coastline.[4].
Mexico occupies tenth place on the list of the most populous countries in the world, with a population estimated at more than 132 million people in 2024.[4] Most of them have Spanish as their mother tongue, which the state recognizes as the national language along with 68 indigenous languages of the country,[11] although around 284 linguistic varieties are spoken in it.[19][20] These figures make Mexico the country with the largest number of Spanish speakers,[21] as well as in the seventh country with the greatest linguistic diversity in the world.[22].
Human presence in Mexico dates back to 30,000 years before the present.[23] As a result of thousands of years of cultural development, Mesoamerican, Arid-American and Oasis-American cultures emerged in Mexican territory. The current central territory of Mexico was the main and largest stage of the Mexica people and, in the south, of the Mayan people, two of the most important civilizations of pre-Columbian America. For 300 years, the entire current territory was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with its capital in Mexico City, being one of the most important entities of the Spanish Empire in America. After Spanish domination, New Spain began the fight for its political independence in 1810, which culminated in 1821. Subsequently, for nearly a century the country was involved in a series of internal wars and foreign invasions that had repercussions in all areas of Mexican life. For a good part of the century (mainly the second third) a period of great economic growth took place within the framework of a policy dominated by a single political party.
Mexico is also one of the countries with the greatest diversity of climates in the world, considered one of the seventeen megadiverse countries on the planet, it is home to 10-12% of the world's biodiversity[27] and is home to more than 12,000 endemic species.[28].
According to the World Tourism Organization, Mexico is the main tourist destination in Latin America and the sixth most visited in the world in 2024.[29] This is largely due to the thirty-six cultural or natural sites, as well as intangible elements, which are considered by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, and in this sense it is the first on the continent.[30].
Place names
Mexico is a place name of Nahuatl origin whose meaning is disputed. It derives from the Nahuatl word Mexihko[31] (AFI: ), which designated the capital of the Mexicas. According to Bernardino de Sahagún (1st century) - who is the oldest documentary source -, the word would mean 'the place of Mexih', from Mexitl, where metl 'maguey', cihtli 'hare' and -co locative:[32] Mexih or Mexitl, who was a legendary Nahua priest, led his followers in the search for an eagle on a cactus for the founding of his city after abandoning the also legendary Aztlán.
However, currently the most widespread version of the meaning of the word is: "the navel of the moon" or "in the place of the lake of the Moon",[33] from Metzxicco:[34] metztli (moon), xictli (navel, center) and -co (locative), according to Cecilio Robelo and Alfonso Caso. On the other hand, Sahagún writes the origin of the word in the following way:
Francisco Xavier Clavijero suggested that the toponym should be interpreted as "[in the] place of Mexihtli", that is, of Huitzilopochtli, since Mexihtli was one of its alternative names. In the same text, Clavijero adds as a note that he believed for some time that the word meant "in the center of the maguey", but that through knowledge of the history of the Mexica he came to the conclusion that the toponym refers to the tutelary god of the Mexica.[note 4].
There is a fourth version, disclosed by the writer Arturo Ortega Morán, in the sense that the Nahuatl Juan Luna Cárdenas has pointed out that the word Mexico comes from the Nahuatl word Metzico, and the meaning of the latter is: "The place of the Metzikah, the followers of Metzitli, those who entrusted themselves to the moon."[37].
The first term or proper name with which the country was referred to appeared on November 6, 1813 when the Congress of Anáhuac issued the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America. This name made clear reference to the name used by the Constitution of Cádiz, to delimit the territory of the Spanish Empire that corresponded to the Viceroyalty of New Spain and its dependent areas (Captaincy General of Guatemala, Cuba, Florida, Puerto Rico and the Spanish part of the island of Santo Domingo - today the Dominican Republic), assuming, with this, that this was the geographical space on which the new nation would be established.[38][39][40] Subsequently the Decree Constitutional Law for the Freedom of Mexican America of October 22, 1814 changed this name, adapting it with the term "Mexico*"* (used as an adjective), and using it as a demonym in some articles.
The documents that preceded the consummation of independence (Plan of Iguala and Treaties of Córdoba), used the two aforementioned terms (Northern America and Mexican America), but used a new one, which they credited as the name of the new nation: "Mexican Empire*"*.[41][42] The Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire, signed on September 28, 1821 upon consummation of independence, established definitively the name as Mexican Empire.[43]This name would be briefly taken up by the second empire (1864-1867).[44].
Since its formation as a federal State, the official name of the country is United Mexican States, although the Constitution of 1824 used the expressions "Mexican Nation" and "United Mexican States" interchangeably.[45]The fundamental documents of the centralist republics (Seven Laws in 1835 and Organic Bases of 1843) established República Mexicana as the official name.[46][47] The Constitution of 1857 continued to use the name "Mexican Republic",[48] but the text also used the expression "United Mexican States", making the two official accordingly.[49] However, the widespread use of the synthesis "Mexico", common to all previous denominations, allowed this to prevail as a common name. The current Constitution, promulgated in 1917, establishes that the official name of the country is "United Mexican States." In its Nahuatl version,[50] the official name is Mexika Sentik Wexteyowalko,[51] and in its Yucatec Mayan version, U Múuchꞌ Péetluꞌumiloꞌob México. In fact, by virtue of the legal equality of Spanish with the country's 68 indigenous languages, all of them have their own translation of the official name.[52].
The demonym "Mexican" has been used in the Spanish language since contact between Iberians and Americans with different meanings. For the Spanish of the 1st century, Mexicans were the inhabitants of Mexico-Tenochtitlan and their language. During the viceregal era, some Creoles and peninsulars living in New Spain used the name to call themselves.[53] The leaders of the War of Independence hesitated both in the name of the country and its inhabitants. Starting with the Iguala Plan, the country will definitively adopt the name of Mexico and its inhabitants were all Mexicans.
History
Contenido
El territorio actual de México fue descubierto y habitado por grupos de cazadores "Cazador (oficio)") y recolectores nómadas hace más de 30 000 años. La historiografía y arqueología mexicana llama a este periodo etapa lítica; una serie de hallazgos de herramientas y utensilios de piedra, cuyas antigüedades oscilan entre los años 30 000 a 14 000 a. C. establecen líneas migratorias desde la región de los actuales noreste y el altiplano central hacia el valle central y el occidente, prolongadas incluso hasta el suroeste. Alrededor del año se desarrollan los procesos que llevaron a la domesticación de plantas como la calabaza y el huaje[23] en regiones como el Valle de Tehuacán y la sierra de Tamaulipas. La domesticación del maíz ocurrió alrededor del quinto milenio antes de la era común y fue un hito que después condujo al establecimiento de aldeas sedentarias en Mesoamérica.[54][55].
Oasisamerica
The Oasis-Americans were cultivators, although the weather conditions did not allow them to carry out very efficient agriculture and therefore they had to resort to hunting toads and turtles, and gathering them to complement their subsistence. They built large villages in New Mexico and the archaeological zone of Casas Grandes "Casas Grandes (Mexico)"), in Chihuahua.[56].
Aridamerica
The inhabitants of the region known as Aridoamerica continued with their nomadic culture, although they maintained contact with the Mesoamericans. Some sites have continuous occupation since very ancient times, such as Cueva de la Perra (12,000 BC),[57] Cueva de la Candelaria (),[58] El Conchalito ()[59] and the caves of the Sierra de San Francisco (10,500 BC).[60] Contemporary historiography and archeology define an extensive cultural zone called "Gran Chichimeca" over most of the Altiplano, where, although complex societies like the Mesoamerican ones were not organized, they maintained a series of common features such as spoken languages, commercial exchange, military alliances against the civilizations of the center and the semi-nomadic condition; They stood out among the tribes of the area (besides of course the Chichimecas), the Tarahumaras, Tepehuanes, Pimas and Apaches. Some of the peoples that made up the Mesoamerican civilizations come from this region.[61].
Mesoamerica
The beginning of the Mesoamerican civilization is located between the year , with the appearance of pottery and the first agricultural villages,[62] and [63] During the Middle Preclassic (centuries - BC) the Olmec culture spread throughout Mesoamerica.[64] Some of its most important centers were La Venta and Tres Zapotes. They dedicated themselves to agriculture, mainly to the cultivation of corn and cotton.
The oldest Olmec center recorded is San Lorenzo "San Lorenzo (archaeological zone)"), it was built in the year in the current municipality of Texistepec, located in the Coatzacoalcos River basin, in the state of Veracruz; The flowering of the Olmec culture began in this place, since it is from this period that most of the sculptures and architectural elements that characterize the civilization date, many of which are preserved there. San Lorenzo was sacked in the year , and the monumental sculptures suffered an attempted destruction; some were buried, and others were moved to the La Venta ceremonial center.
La Venta was the most important ceremonial center of this culture, this city is the first planned architectural feature in ancient Mexico. Its great monumental architecture stands out, and its offerings made of jade. It has the oldest pyramid in Mesoamerica, and the characteristic colossal heads and thrones have also been found.
The Tres Zapotes ceremonial center was the last to be developed. It is the best known because it was the one that survived until a closer period, but the Olmec civilization that developed here was a culture already in decline, not the splendor that lived in the previous ceremonial centers.
It is thought that the Olmecs were invaded by some rival people, which caused the abandonment and destruction of some cities; with which it is believed that it spread through migrations. They dispersed to different places: some headed to the Mayan region, others marched to the center and others to the north. Those who integrated into the center went to the city Cuicuilco, but it disappeared due to the eruption of the Xitle volcano; That is why they were forced to travel to other places so they reached parts of the states of Morelos, Mexico, Oaxaca and Chiapas.[65][66].
The classical period covers the year 200 to 200, in this period the Mesoamerican civilizations reached their maximum cultural development. The largest pyramid bases in all of Mesoamerica were built, such as the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacán in the current State of Mexico or the Temple of the Double-Headed Serpent in Tikal.
The cities in this stage grew a lot until they reached their maximum population, such as Teotihuacán (State of Mexico), Monte Albán in Oaxaca and Tikal; These cities maintained close marital, commercial and political alliances between the priest-kings; This is known, because at the entrance of each one there were stone monuments that signified the arrival of Teotihuacan ambassadors; Likewise, Mayan and Zapotec products such as ceramics, jade beads, shells and sea snails have been found in Teotihuacán.[67].
Teotihuacán became the main city of this period, it was located in the central highland area, which allowed its inhabitants to take advantage of natural resources, such as obsidian to manufacture weapons, tools and utensils. They also had gods of rain and fertility such as Quetzalcóatl (which means "feathered serpent") and Tláloc (which means "nectar of the earth", although they also venerated this God in the Mayan and Zapotec culture).
The artisans obtained different materials from the area such as: jade, gray obsidian, green obsidian, black volcanic glass, shell and bone. With this they made vessels, pots, plates, glasses, ornaments, knives, masks, necklaces and different figures.
The Teotihuacans expressed what they saw through sculpture, ceramics and painting. On facades they represented the deity of Tláloc and the feathered serpent, related to rain and fertility respectively, as well as other characters important to them.
The Teotihuacans were polytheists, they had the following gods:
• - Tláloc: He was the god of rain and there are theories that he was also the god of fertility and the earth. He was represented as a human-animal, with a feather headdress and two large fangs as well as two large, bulging eyes.
• - Quetzalcóatl: He was the god of the winds. Its name means: The Feathered Serpent, it was represented as a giant snake.
• - Chalchiuhticue: She was the goddess of lakes and rivers. She was represented with a feather headdress, a necklace and orange fur.
• - Huehuetotl: He was the god of fire, husband of Chalchiuhticue. He was represented as an old man. It was the reincarnation of volcanoes and wisdom.
The decline of the Teotihuacan culture is unknown; some researchers say it could have been due to the overexploitation of natural resources, invasions by other peoples and some internal conflicts.
Their society was divided into: priest-kings, warriors, merchants, farmers, fishermen, artisans, war slaves and sacrificial tributes.
Teotihuacán is considered the main city of classical Mesoamerica, in addition to the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, the temple of Quetzalcóatl also stands out.[68].
The Mayan culture is another important civilization that lasted for centuries. The civilization developed outstanding art, literature and architecture, the most advanced writing system on the continent, as well as astronomical and mathematical knowledge. Among the latter, the use of a more precise calendar than that used in Europe at the time stands out, and it is one of the pioneer civilizations in the use of the number zero.[67].
It lived in a part of the southern region of Mesoamerica, in the current territories of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador and in the territory comprised by five states in the southeast of Mexico: Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Yucatán. The territory, because it was so large, was divided into three:
• - The northern area: covers the Yucatán Peninsula (comprising the states of: Yucatán, Campeche and Quintana Roo), it is also known as Puuc.
• - The central area: it is the largest, it includes the El Petén basin in Guatemala, extending to western Honduras and eastern Chiapas, Tabasco and the south of the Yucatan Peninsula.
• - The southern area: located on the Pacific coast, the Highlands of Guatemala, part of Chiapas and El Salvador. It has a mountainous area that runs through the south, southwest and southeast, and covers the Central American mountain range.
The Mayans used limestone to make pyramid bases, temples, platforms and ball games; Although they also used that material to make various monuments and sculptures, among these the steles stand out, which were carved stone columns with important people along with their name, date of birth or date of death. In their mural paintings they represented everyday scenes, such as fishing, festivals and ritual ceremonies related to war. For aesthetic reasons, the Mayans used to deform the skulls of children and cause strabismus.
The Mayan religion was polytheistic, the rulers were those who directed religious affairs (theocracy); Their gods were related to the natural elements, the stars and human actions. Among the gods that stood out were: Hanub Kú (the creator god of the Quiché Mayans), Itzamná (the creator god of the Yucatecan Mayans), Ix Chebel Ya (god of embroidery and painting), Kukulcán (Quetzalcóatl) (god of the wind), Kin (god of the sun), Ixchel (goddess of the moon), Chac (god of water), Yum Kaax (god of corn and agriculture), Ah Puch (god of death).
The Mayan cities were built from the astronomical positions related to the movement of the Sun, Moon and Venus. The Center of some cities was reserved for the rulers' family to live; The nobility lived around it, whose buildings were related to commerce; finally beyond were the farmland and the rest of the population.
The Mayans used limestone to make pyramids, temples, platforms and ball games. They also used it to make various monuments and sculptures, among which the steles stand out where they put glyphs this time.
Other materials from the region were used for daily life. They used wood, stucco, clay and stones to make masks, necklaces, rings and small sculptures. In addition, they made cotton fabrics for clothing and wove fiber baskets to carry seeds.
The Mayans developed navigation, built docks, canals and ports such as Xelhá, Xcaret and Tulum; which were important centers where they exchanged products such as salt and fish.[69].
The Zapotec culture inhabited what is now the state of Oaxaca, southern Guerrero and southern Puebla. It was distinguished by its excellent weavers and potters, it had notable advances in its writing, architecture and calendrical knowledge.[67].
Its summit city was Monte Albán, which had its splendor from the year 200 until its weakening around 900. The ceremonial city of Monte Albán was built on top of a mountain, with buildings oriented according to the stars, using the slope and board technique; Pyramid bases, ball courts and an observatory were built, located in the direction of the now known constellation of Orion. Like Teotihuacán, it is unknown why Monte Albán weakened. Society was divided into ruler-priests, merchants, warriors, artisans, war slaves and sacrificial tributes.[70]
They had two calendars:
• - Iza, had 365 days grouped into 18 months and used for harvests, it was organized into 18 months of 20 days each, with a period of five days at the end.
• - Piye: it had 260 days divided into 13 months and was used to name newborns, it was divided into months of 20 days.
They were polytheists, their main god was called Xipe Tótec, other gods were:.
• - Pitao Cocijo: god of thunder and rain.
• - Pitao Cozobi: god of corn.
• - Pitao Cozana: god of the ancestors.
• - Quetzalcóatl: god of the winds.
• - Xonaxi Quecuya: god of earthquakes.
• - Coqui Bezelao: god of the dead.
The postclassical period spans from the year 900 to , this period is characterized by a large increase in armed conflicts. The great importance of war, codices and writings can be seen in the ceramics, in addition to a notable detail being the architectural style of the buildings.[71].
The Toltec culture developed between the years 900 and The Toltecs dominated the Huastec region, in part of what is now San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas, as well as central Mexico such as Hidalgo, where the ceremonial center and capital called: Tollan-Xicocotitlan, better known as Tula, was located. The economy was based on an agriculture of extensive fields irrigated by complex canal systems, where corn, beans and amaranth were the main crops. Society was divided into several groups, the most privileged were the: military, officials, the supreme ruler and the priests, who were at the service of the military caste and were in charge of attending to worship, calendars and counting time. Traces of a fire have been found in Tula, so it is thought that the end of this city was very violent.[72].
Another postclassical culture is the Mixtec, which developed from 1300 to 1300, concluding with the conquest of the Spanish. They covered a region called the Mixteca that included the states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and parts of the state of Puebla and Chiapas. According to their mythology, the Mixtecs were descendants of the children of the Apoala tree. The main divinity of the Mixtecs was Dzahui, god of rain and patron of the Mixtec nation, another divinity of great importance was Nine Wind-Coo Dzahui, a civilizing hero who gave them the knowledge of agriculture and civilization. During the pre-Hispanic era, Mixtec society was characterized by its high hierarchy. The subsistence of the Mixtecs was based on agriculture, the ecological and topographic conditions of the territory of this town conditioned the development of certain crops adapted to the diversity of environments in the Mixteca.[73][71].
Due to its mythological origin, there is no scientific consensus on the date of the founding of the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan but it could have occurred at the beginning of the century. Some years later a fraction of the Mexica migrating from the north of the country would have founded the city of Mexico-Tlatelolco on another islet to the northwest.[78] Later, in 1428 Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco and Tlacopan established the Triple Alliance "Triple Alliance (Mexico)"),[79] which was dominated by the Mexica who created an empire in a territory of about squares. As part of this expansion, Tenochtitlan conquered the other city of Mexica origin of Tlatelolco in 1473,[78] which, given its proximity, was united into a single urban area. At the time of the arrival of the Spanish, Mexico-Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the ancient world, counting, based on modern estimates, an estimate of .[80][81].
The Mexica civilization that had Mexico-Tenochtitlan as its capital, designed this city to consolidate it as the axis of the inhabitants of the Basin of Mexico, whose series of lakes grew meter by meter, uniting the towns by means of gigantic roads. Natural isolation granted military and economic advantages that consolidated its strategic value, including for the development of a mixed economy based on agriculture, hunting, fishing and trade; with the possibility of communicating by water. The chinampas system was created by accumulating mud on reed rafts, deepening and building canals, raising aqueducts, as well as bridges literally over the water; element with which they not only knew how to coexist, but also potentiate its use in every sense. At the beginning of the century, the capital had a density of more than 2,000 inhabitants per square kilometer; Its layout was formed by a geometric network of canals in a quadrilateral of 3 km on each side with a surface area of almost a thousand hectares; At that time Rome occupied only 386 hectares more.
Its ceremonial center reached unprecedented dimensions: 325 meters from east to west and 312 from north to south, comprising an area of more than one hundred thousand square meters. There were 78 temples and government buildings built there, it had four cardinal entrances that were the beginnings of the city's road axes, built on the lakes that connected the island with the mainland.
Contemporaneous with his time, only four European cities were home to around one hundred thousand inhabitants, and Seville, which was then the largest in Spain, had barely 45,000 inhabitants. The population of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, shortly before the arrival of the Europeans, was more than 500,000 inhabitants, had an area of 600 km² (including the entire lake basin) and had public systems of education, health, lighting and drinking water.[82][83].
Conquest
The first European expedition that reached any area of current Mexican territory was that of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba "Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (discoverer of Yucatán)"), who on March 1, 1517 landed on Isla Mujeres. He would later set foot on continental soil on March 5, landing in the area that is now Cabo Catoche, Yucatán.[84][85] This exploration would follow. that of Juan de Grijalva in 1518.[86]The definitive incursion into the interior of the territory began on February 10, 1519, Hernán Cortés and his people arrived in Cozumel and reached the coast of Tabasco, where they were fought by the Chontales, in Centla.[87] In that region, Cortés founded the Villa de Santa María de la Victoria and received the bilingual as a gift. Nahuatl-Maya, Malintzin, a slave who served together with Gerónimo de Aguilar as an interpreter for foreigners.[88].
The Spanish headed to the coast of Veracruz, where they penetrated the interior of Mesoamerica. They established alliances with some indigenous peoples and advanced to Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Along the way they defeated the allies of the Mexica, as happened in Cholula. Moctezuma
The Tlaxcalans, Texcocanos and Totonacs formed a conglomerate that had allied themselves with the Spanish, a decisive factor in the battles against the Mexica. Cuauhtémoc, the last Tenochca tlatoani, was captured on August 13, 1521,[92] and executed in 1525.[93].
Once Tenochtitlan was subdued, Spanish soldiers were able to subdue the center of the territory. Hernán Cortés assumed the government as captain general of New Spain.[94].
Viceroyalty of New Spain
In 1527 the Audiencia of Mexico was established.[95] The first viceroy was Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco and he ruled from 1535.[96] New Spain was governed by 63 viceroys during the almost 300 years of colonial domination. Spanish domination faced indigenous resistance, which was sometimes manifested by force of arms, such as in the Chichimeca War (1546), the Mixtón War (1540-1551), the Pericúes Rebellion (1734-1737) and the rebellion of the Mayans of Cisteil (1761).[97].
The center of government of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was Mexico City, which became the most important city of the Spanish Empire outside the peninsula, not only because it was the capital of the richest and most extensive of its viceroyalties, but because from there the territories in North America, Central America, Antilles, Asia and Oceania were directly governed.[note 5].
The territorial expansion of the viceroyalty was a spaced process, guided by the desire for fame and fortune of many explorers, but also by the evangelizing action of some missionary groups. In general, the method of expansion was through, first, the forced displacement and violent subjugation of the native peoples, then small groups of colonizers arrived to establish infrastructure for the exploitation of the land or to supply trade routes, while undermining the native inhabitants with the introduction of diseases unknown to them, and finally missionaries and civil authorities arrived to carry out the acculturation of the indigenous settlements that persisted.
During the 20th century, exploration and conquest were limited to the territories of the west, east, north-central, south-central and south-west of present-day Mexico, and a large portion of Central America, that is, most of ancient Mesoamerica, except for the Yucatan Peninsula. This was the most fertile and accessible area for human settlements, an aspect that permanently consolidated it as the most populated area of the viceroyalty. In the century the conquest reached the northeast, northwest and southeast territories; the last two after waging extensive wars of conquest against the Chichimecas and Mayans respectively. Finally, in the 2nd century, the viceroyalty reached its maximum territorial extension, when missionary populations and military posts were established in the extreme north of the so-called "Spanish northern America", and the General Command of the Internal Provinces was founded; However, this area was merely claimed through maps and royal edicts, since effective Spanish control only reached the coastal strip of southern California (San Diego "San Diego (California)") —f. 1769—and Los Angeles—d. 1781—), the area surrounding the end point of the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro (Santa Fe "Santa Fe (New Mexico)") of New Mexico —f. 1610—) and the rancherías near San Antonio "San Antonio (Texas)") (f. 1718); The rest of the immense territory was under the domination of semi-nomadic tribes in the valleys and arid plains, or settlements and exploration were not conducive to the Arizona desert.
Independence
The Bourbon reforms that the government of the metropolis began to implement in the colonies of the Spanish Empire in America, starting in the 1740s, in order to revitalize Spanish influence and power, lost after the wars at the beginning of the century, began a process of degradation of the political, economic and social order that the so-called "Golden Age" had bequeathed to the American colonies.
The centralization of political power in Madrid subtracted some autonomous powers developed by civil and ecclesiastical authorities; The increase in the tax burden that the possessions had to deliver to the metropolis caused a deficit in the finances of each territory; In the midst of the industrial revolution, the ability of the viceroyalties to develop or encourage local industry was restricted. At the socioeconomic level, this deepened inequality in the caste system, increasing the conditions of misery of indigenous, mestizos and Afro-descendants; However, discontent became widespread until the Creoles saw their political and economic freedoms diminished, derived from the enlightened Spanish despotism; Therefore, influenced by the liberal ideas of American independence and the French Revolution, they began to develop identity and autonomist thoughts.
The French occupation of Spain in 1808 triggered several sovereignty movements in the American possessions. In that same year, a political crisis took place in New Spain that concluded with the dismissal of Viceroy Iturrigaray through a coup d'état; This was motivated by stopping the autonomist proposal of Francisco Primo de Verdad y Ramos.[112] In other parts of the viceroyalty, conspiracies were forged against Spanish rule, but they were suppressed, such as the Valladolid Conspiracy of 1809 led by José Mariano de Michelena. However, this had continuity in the Querétaro Conspiracy, whose main members were: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Ignacio Allende, Mariano Abasolo, Juan Aldama, Ignacio Aldama and Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez; This group had a more popular approach and deeper autonomy. When they were discovered on September 15, 1810, Josefa Ortiz entrusted Allende to consult Hidalgo about the plan to follow.
On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called the town of Dolores (Guanajuato) to insurgency, starting the war of independence. The popular drag component allowed a significant advance of the armed social revolt. He took San Miguel el Grande without combat (September 17) and Celaya (September 19), on the 21st in this town Hidalgo, Allende, Abasolo and the Aldama brothers were named military leaders of the insurgent movement; On September 28, the first major battle was fought when capturing Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)"), where José Mariano Jiménez joined the movement. On October 17, fearing a violent looting like that of Guanajuato, Valladolid surrendered. On October 30, the most important victory occurred when they defeated the royalist army in the Battle of Monte de las Cruces. However, they did not capture Mexico City, since the differences between Hidalgo and Allende over the steps to follow caused them to retreat towards the west. In Guadalajara "Guadalajara (Mexico)") (taken since November 11 by a local sympathizing insurgent group), on November 29, 1810, Hidalgo issued the Decree against slavery, gabelas and sealed paper. From there, the popular rebellion began a series of defeats at the hands of General Félix María Calleja, which weakened the insurgents in such a way that their leaders chose to march towards the northern municipalities, until they reached the border with the United States to supply themselves with weapons. In March 1811, Hidalgo, Allende, the Aldamas, Jiménez and Abasolo were arrested; between June and July they are shot.[113].
First empire
On September 28, 1821, a provisional government was installed, which in accordance with the founding documents (Plan of Iguala, Treaties of Córdoba and Act of Independence) established a parliamentary Monarchy, first installing a regency as executive power, which had to operate while the offer of the throne to a member of the Spanish royal family was accepted or rejected.
The law of November 17, 1821, issued by the Government Board to call for the formation of the Constituent Congress; It will formally assume that the areas that ratify it will be the members of the Empire. From this it was deduced that the nascent country was made up of twenty-one provinces: The 17 provinces and the two territories (Las Californias and Santa Fe de Nuevo México) that made up New Spain, in addition to the province of Chiapas (a member at that time of the Captaincy General of Guatemala) and the Captaincy General of Yucatán, elevated to provincial rank, like the northern territories.[120][121] On January 5, In 1822 the former Captaincy General of Guatemala (which included, in addition to the already incorporated Chiapas, the Soconusco "Soconusco (Chiapas)"), and the current Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica), whose component territories had declared their independence on September 15, 1821, proclaimed its adhesion to the Plan of Iguala and the Treaties of Córdoba, and consequently its full incorporation into the Mexican Empire.
On February 24, 1822, the Constituent Congress was installed. The popular clamor incited in the streets of Mexico City, added to the pressure of the army and some sectors of the congress, achieved the proclamation of Agustín de Iturbide as emperor on May 22, 1822.[122] Disputes between the congress and the monarch led to a political crisis, which caused the latter to dissolve the former, establish a new legislative body and a temporary legal order; However, the weak economic situation of the Empire added to this political situation to undermine the monarch's popular support. Given this, a group of opponents led by Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaims the Casa Mata Plan, which proposed the establishment of a republic. The republican insurrection triumphed in 1823, causing the exile of Iturbide and the separation of Central America.[123][124].
First Federal Republic
The Constituent Congress promulgated the Constitution of 1824 on October 4 of that year, establishing a republican and federal regime in the country. The first president was Guadalupe Victoria, who took office on October 10, 1824.[125] However, the new nation found itself faced with a series of political, economic and social structures weakened by the long independence war; Added to this were the struggles between liberals "Liberal Party (Mexico)") and conservatives "Conservative Party (Mexico)") (in any of their variants as antagonistic sides: republicans against monarchists and federalists against centralists), the latter with greater strength as they had support in the clergy, the army and the incipient Mexican bourgeoisie, to defend the privileges and privileges that the law had allowed them to preserve; The immensity of a disconnected territory that contrasted from region to region due to its general conditions also entered as a destabilizing factor. The Victorian government faced Spanish attempts at reconquest.[126].
The presidential succession would begin to be a conflictive situation from the first moment, when a revolt in the capital achieved the annulment of the 1828 elections won by Manuel Gómez Pedraza; Congress, which was the true entity of political power in Mexico, appointed Vicente Guerrero as president in 1829; The former insurgent leader faced the last attempt at reconquest and raised the prohibition of slavery to the constitution; However, that same year a coup d'état by his vice president Anastasio Bustamante overthrew him and his replacement José María Bocanegra. The coup plotter, who was a former royalist military man, appropriates the presidency; However, and after ordering the assassination of Guerrero in 1831, Bustamante himself fell due to a popular rebellion "Plan de Veracruz (1832)") in 1832, led by Antonio López de Santa Anna. After the interim office of Melchor Múzquiz and the reinstatement of Gómez Pedraza in his original mandate, Santa Anna ran and won the elections of 1833; However, his lackadaisical nature towards public office causes him to enter and leave the presidency three times in his first year of government, always replaced by his vice president, the liberal Valentín Gómez Farías.[124].
Centralist Republic
In his fourth interim term to replace Santa Anna (December 1833-April 1834), President Valentín Gómez Farías, supported by José María Luis Mora, ordered a series of liberal reforms to clean up the country's finances and consolidate federalism by expanding civil liberties; The measures provoked a conservative reaction, forcing the resignation of Gómez Farías and the return of Santa Anna. Influenced by the conservative groups that supported him, he began a process of counter-reforms before asking for leave again, this time he was replaced with a former moderate insurgent, Miguel Barragán; On October 23, 1835, the new president proclaimed the Centralist Republic and called a constituent congress. Barragán died in February 1836, before the promulgation of the Seven Laws in December of the same year. The unitary constitution eliminated the sovereignty of the states, replacing them with departments, now under the control of the national powers in the capital.
During that period, Barragan's replacement, José Justo Corro, faced widespread discontent from the majority of the current departments; discontent that escalated into separatist movements in several areas, the most violent and with the worst results being the one that occurred in Texas. However, the Texan emancipation movement was influenced and instigated by the growing American population, which since 1819 had begun to populate the territory; The Americans promoted the separation of the entity, in order to establish a slave system that no regime in Mexico had admitted to them (neither the viceroyalty, nor the empire, nor federalists, nor centralists), so they took advantage of the situation to take up arms; Receiving support from the United States, Texas achieved its independence in 1836.[127][128][126].
Separatist movements spread throughout the country (Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, Tabasco and the self-proclaimed Republic of the Río Grande) and mixed with the continuous federalist rebellions. In 1837 Anastasio Bustamante was elected for a period of seven years according to current law; but their constant outings to combat the aforementioned conflicts led to constant substitutions (Santa Anna, Bravo and Echeverría), between 1839 and 1841. External pressures were added to the internal pressures, while the Republic of Texas began its border claims, between 1838 and 1839 the so-called "War of the Cakes", by France, meant the first foreign aggression since the reconquest attempts. In 1841 Yucatán separated from Mexico and did not rejoin the country until 1848. Also in 1841, a federalist rebellion achieved a momentary triumph by overthrowing Echeverría (and consequently Bustamante), appointing Santa Anna once again, who promised to reinstate the 1824 constitution; However, the following year, the conservatives took control of the constituent congress, named Nicolás Bravo president and drafted a new centralist constitution, the Organic Bases, promulgated in 1843. The new document did not bring stability, continuing a series of persistent presidential successions (Santa Anna, Canalizo and Herrera), only stopped in 1845 by the coup d'état of Mariano Paredes and Arrillaga, dictatorial and pro- monarchical.[124].
American intervention
After the Republic of Texas was formally annexed to the United States in 1845, the government of that country resumed the border claims of the once separate nation of Mexico; The demand maintained that the Texan territory extended to the Rio Grande, when in reality since colonial times the territorial strip between it and the Nueces River (a limit held by Mexico) was the territory of Coahuila and Tamaulipas, even when the former and Texas had formed a unit. However, the dispute was a pretext to instigate, at best, the purchase of the extensive territories of Alta California and New Mexico, or even the violent seizure of these. The expansionist desires of the United States were also in the context of the dispute between slave and non-slave states to extend their territories.[129].
On May 26, 1846, invading troops in the aforementioned strip between the Bravo and Nueces rivers were ambushed by Mexican soldiers; This unleashed war between both countries. Mexico faced the American invasion between 1846 and 1848; The numerical superiority, weapons and availability of resources tipped the balance in favor of the Americans. Not only did the factors of inferior capabilities for its defense play against Mexico, but also the chaotic situation in the disputes for power in the capital, since nine changes in the presidency of the republic occurred, in the middle of the conflict, between seven characters (Paredes Arrillaga, Bravo, Salas, Gómez Farías, Santa Anna, Anaya and De la Peña); Even in the midst of the war, the federalists reinstated the Constitution of 1824; Also added is the indifference of some states to provide national defense and the divisions between combatants.
Except for the popular resistance in southern California (Los Angeles and San Diego) "San Diego (California)"), the indigenous rebellion in New Mexico, the local guerrillas in Tabasco, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Michoacán, Jalisco and Durango, and the army clashes in Nuevo León and Mexico City (highlighting the famous defense of Chapultepec Castle), there was no major containment of the invading advance. The United States occupied the capital on September 14, 1847. The Mexican government was forced to sign the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, by which it handed over more than half of the national territory to the United States (the present-day states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada and Utah; and portions of Colorado "Colorado (state)"), Oklahoma, Kansas and Wyoming).[note] 6][130][131][132][133].
The Reformation and the Second Empire
At the end of the war, clashes between political factions continued, another coup d'état overthrew the elected president Mariano Arista and his emerging successor Juan Bautista Ceballos; Its leader, Manuel María Lombardini, brought about Santa Anna's eleventh and final rise to power (1853-1855), which he exercised with a dictatorial character. In 1853, the sale of La Mesilla, a territory of current Arizona that the United States bought from Mexico in its expansionist desire, became effective, being the last important loss of national territory. In 1854 the liberals took up arms led by Juan Álvarez; The insurrection deposed Santa Anna, his short-lived successors (Carrera and De la Vega) could not contain the advance of the liberals, this time with a charge of popular drag.[134][124].
An outstanding generation of liberal politicians orchestrated the promulgation of the liberal Reform Laws between 1855 and 1856, affecting the interests of various groups, particularly the Church. In 1857, the new Mexican Magna Carta was promulgated; among other things, the document established a secular State in Mexico.[135] After the self-coup of Ignacio Comonfort in December 1858, Benito Juárez assumed the presidency of the republic as president of the Court, although he was forced to leave the capital, where several conservative rulers settled, unstable, (Zuloaga, Miramón, Pezuela Salas and Pavón). The Reform War (1858-1861) then began, which concluded with a new defeat for the conservatives.[136].
Constitutionally elected, Benito Juárez assumed the reins of the country in the face of a new war disaster, for which he had to suspend payment of the foreign debt; This causes the claim of Spain, the United Kingdom and France, which were stationed on the Mexican coasts in 1862 demanding payment; The negotiations led by Manuel Doblado achieved the departure of the first two countries; but Napoleon III would take advantage of the occasion to carry out his plans to establish a satellite empire in America that would contain the United States. The French intervention was temporarily stopped after the outstanding victory in the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862; The regrouping of the French and the support of conservative sectors reversed the situation, and the capital of the republic fell in May 1863. The conservatives established a regency that created the Second Mexican Empire; With the support of the French monarch, they convinced the Austrian Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg and his wife Charlotte of Belgium to assume the Mexican throne.
Despite the liberal intentions of the foreign monarchs (which is why they clashed with their conservative allies), the empire lacked popular support, linked more to the republican resistance led by Juárez, who after several escapes established himself in El Paso del Norte. The popular revolt of the Republican army, accompanied by partial French abandonment and American interference to generate international pressure, weakened the invaders and their Mexican accomplices. The French invasion and the empire concluded in 1867 with the surrender of the conservatives and the execution of Maximilian in Santiago de Querétaro.[137][138].
The Porfiriato
Benito Juárez continued as president until his death in 1872. The last years of his government were harshly criticized by the various liberal factions.[139] Juárez was succeeded by Lerdo de Tejada. After a rebellion provoked by Lerdo de Tejada's intentions to be re-elected, Porfirio Díaz became president in 1876 despite the legalist opposition of José María Iglesias, president parallel to Díaz. From there, and including the periods of his close associates (Juan N. Méndez briefly in 1876 and Manuel González between 1880 and 1884), he established a dictatorial regime that maintained political, economic and social control of the country through several steps: he built a state apparatus controlled through alliances with groups and individuals whom he placed in Congress, the Supreme Court "Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Mexico)") and the Governorships; subordination or gradual displacement (including physical elimination) as options for allies or opponents in the army, the press and intellectual groups; conciliation of interests with the church, landowners, businessmen and foreign powers investing in the country; deactivation and persecution of social movements, among others; These measures were essentially the first section of the assumed positivist postulate of "Order and Progress", thus began the Porfiriato.[140][141].
During that period, foreign and national investment was favored with great privileges by the government, which benefited economic development. In contrast, the living conditions of workers and peasants continued without major changes. The political opposition was eliminated by force, and the rebels were exiled or forced to work in places such as Valle Nacional, the Yaqui River valley or Yucatán.[142][143].
Mexican Revolution
Some social outbreaks, such as the Cananea (1906) and Río Blanco (1907) strikes, revealed discontent with the regime. The presidential elections of 1910 gave Díaz victory over Francisco I. Madero, who had been imprisoned. Escaped from prison, he called to arms in the San Luis Plan. On November 14, the revolution was advanced with the taking of Cuchillo Parado. On November 20, numerous groups from various social classes joined the rebellion, flying various flags. The Maderista stage of the revolution found its triumph on May 25, 1911 with the resignation of Porfirio Díaz; His replacement Francisco León de la Barra called for extraordinary elections, of which Madero emerged victorious; As president, his attempt to reconcile the positions of the political and bourgeois class still linked to the Porfiriato, with the social demands of more radical revolutionaries, who even, motivated by apparent inaction, fought it (Emiliano Zapata with the Ayala Plan and Pascual Orozco with the Empacadora Plan) during 1912, was unsuccessful.
In February 1913, the coup d'état led by Félix Díaz, Bernardo Reyes and Manuel Mondragón, found the support of the American ambassador, triggering violent clashes in the capital of the republic; Victoriano Huerta, military chief in charge of the offensive against the coup plotters, betrayed the president and made a pact with the rebels; Madero resigned and the short-lived interim term of Pedro Lascuráin legalized the usurpation of Huerta. The events ended with the murder of Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez.[144].
Madero's death triggered popular uprisings throughout Mexico, highlighted by Emiliano Zapata and the Southern Liberation Army in that region of the country; Francisco Villa and the Northern Division "Northern Division (Mexico)") in Chihuahua; Venustiano Carranza, who as governor of Coahuila, proclaimed the Plan of Guadalupe on March 26, 1913 and formed the Constitutionalist Army to start the rebellion, supported in the northwest of the country by Álvaro Obregón in Sonora, among others such as Abraham González and Felipe Ángeles. The massive response of the people to enlist in the revolutionary troops generated social cohesion manifested in cultural elements that emerged from life in combat. Huerta was deposed in August 1914 with the Toma de Zacatecas "Toma de Zacatecas (1914)") and replaced by Francisco Carvajal.[145].
With the purpose of unifying the revolutionaries, Carranza convened the Sovereign Revolutionary Convention, however the differences with the Zapatistas and Villistas caused a fracture in the movement. Carranza moved his government (emanating from the Guadalupe Plan) to Veracruz, while the Convention sustained three short governments in the capital (Gutiérrez, González Garza and Lagos Cházaro) between 1914 and 1915, which could not be sustained without the direct support of Villa and Zapata, engaged in multiple combats within the bloodiest stage of the war. The battle of Celaya in April 1915 was the turning point for both Villa and Zapata to definitively retreat to their control centers (Chihuahua and Morelos respectively). In 1917 the constituent congress, made up of members of all factions, promulgated the Constitution that currently governs Mexico, the first in the world that included social rights, and whose most significant articles, for collecting the main revolutionary demands, were the 3rd (education), 27 (land ownership) and 123 (labor rights).[146][147].
Post-revolutionary Mexico
Disputes for power between groups that emerged from the armed struggle marked nearly a decade of persistent violence. Carranza, in an attempt to displace the revolutionary military, promoted a civilian as his successor, the "Sonora Group" through an armed rebellion forced him to leave the capital, but he was assassinated in May 1920. Adolfo de la Huerta, a moderate of the rebel group, succeeded him, and handed over the presidency to the elected Álvaro Obregón. His pact to alternate power with Plutarco Elías Calles caused the last national uprising, the Delahuertista Rebellion in 1923; However, De la Huerta was defeated. In 1924, Plutarco Elías Calles came to power, creating the Bank of Mexico and facing the Cristero War in the western part of the country between 1926 and 1929. At the end of his term, Álvaro Obregón was elected president for the second time, but he was assassinated before taking office. The periods of the three presidents that followed (Portes Gil, Ortiz Rubio and Rodríguez) are known as Maximato, because they governed under the line of Calles, who was called the Maximum Chief of the Revolution. In 1929, the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) was founded, the predecessor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).[148].
Contemporary Mexico
In 1934, Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was elected president for the first six-year period (1934-1940). Cárdenas banished Calles, promoted education, Agrarian Reform and decreed the nationalization of oil "Oil Expropriation (Mexico)") (1938). During his government, the definitive hegemony of the president of the republic over the Mexican political system ended up being achieved. He created this, creating a corporatist system, in which his alliance with military, workers, peasants, popular and bureaucrat sectors, consolidated his command and the supremacy of office in the Mexican state.
The regime would be maintained from 1929 until 2000; In that period all the candidates of the official party (under its different acronyms: PNR/PRM/PRI) reached the presidency.[note 7] The PRI presidential regime was characterized by the absolute control of the political system and the hegemonic influence exercised by the president in power over the economic and social activities of the country, also sustained by the alliance with various sectors outside of politics, but beneficiaries of it. In this period, different levels of reach arose in the power of the president.
Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho, stopped the agrarian distribution, reconciled with the nascent industrial bourgeoisie and faced the beginning of the Second World War in which Mexico had an active participation as part of the allied side "Allies (Second World War)").
Beginning in the mid-1940s, Mexico experienced a time of great economic development known as the "Mexican Miracle." This development was favored by the recovery environment within the post-war framework. In 1960 the electrical industry was nationalized. Economic development was reflected in the increase in infrastructure and public and social protection services. As a consequence of the strengthening of the State, a series of client corporations associated with the government developed that caused conflicts with independent organizations. This was the case during the teachers' movement of 1958 and the railroad strike of 1959. The demand for greater political freedoms was expressed in various ways, most notably by the student movement of 1968, which concluded with the murder of students by the Army in Tlatelolco, and in the various guerrillas that appeared in various parts of the country and that were violently repressed by the State.
At the end of the 1970s, the Mexican economy showed signs of exhaustion that led to bankruptcy at the beginning of the following decade, in the context of an oil boom. The evolution of the country's historical events, added to the internal failures of the regime, diminished the president's influence in all aspects of public life. The social movements joined the economic crisis of 1982, the growth of the political opposition of the left (Mexican Communist Party) and the right (National Action Party "National Action Party (Mexico)") and the growth of de facto powers outside the state (media, businessmen, crime and the church), to considerably undermine the room for maneuver in which the "meta-constitutional powers" outside the legal framework of presidentialism operated. PRI member As a result of opposition pressure, a political reform was introduced in 1977 that legalized the left-wing opposition. During the following years, most parastatal companies were privatized. In 1985, several parts of the central and western country were shaken by an earthquake that left thousands dead or missing, most of them in the capital city.[149].
Mexico in the 21st century
In 2000, the PRI lost the presidency after 71 years in power, when Vicente Fox won the presidential election. He was succeeded in the government by Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, who became president in the midst of the disputed presidential elections of 2006. In that same year, the war against drug trafficking began, which has left more than 350,000 dead, of which 15,273 occurred in 2010.[152] The PRI returned to the presidency in the 2012 elections, this time refuted by the opposition for the irregular use of economic and media resources by the winning candidate Enrique Peña Nieto. His six-year term took place within the framework of a worsening of the War against organized crime, which reached record levels of violence at the end of his term. At the same time, different officials at various levels, including the president, were involved in relevant cases of corruption that increased the levels of social discontent.[153][154].
The former head of Government of the Federal District and presidential candidate of the Left in 2006 and 2012, Andrés Manuel López Obrador ran again in a presidential election, this time with the Together We Will Make History coalition; achieved victory on election day on July 1, 2018 with 53.3% of the votes cast, in addition to achieving a majority in the chambers of deputies and senators.[155][156][157][149] In this period, progress was experienced in social policy and macroeconomic stability. However, there were stalemates on health and safety; Universal health coverage was not achieved, although vaccination against COVID-19 was highlighted. On the other hand, despite reducing high-impact crimes and reversing the homicide rate, violence persists at levels from the previous decade, especially in areas where crime is disputed.[158][159][160].
In the 2024 elections, Claudia Sheinbaum, candidate of the Let's Keep Making History coalition, would win with 59.7% of the votes, being the first woman to serve as President of the country.
Government and politics
Form of government
Mexico is a representative republic "Representation (political)"), democratic, federal and secular; composed of free and sovereign States (and these of Municipalities) in everything concerning their internal regime, and of Mexico City (capital of the country); united in a federation established according to the principles of its Constitution. According to this fundamental law, sovereignty and public power are the origin and correspondence of the people, and it is the people who decide to exercise it through a system of separation of powers: President (executive), Congress of the Union (legislative) and a judicial power, deposited in different institutions, whose head is the Supreme Court of Justice "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (Mexico)").[161][162][163][164] The political system Mexican is historically characterized by the preeminence of the Executive Branch over the other two.[165].
The Mexican political system includes autonomous bodies that serve as a counterweight in specific areas (Fiscalía General de la República "Fiscalía General de la República (Mexico)", National Human Rights Commission "National Human Rights Commission (Mexico)", National Electoral Institute, Bank of Mexico and National Institute of Statistics and Geography).
The president of the United Mexican States is the head of the executive power. He is, at the same time, head of State and head of Government.[166][167] Likewise, he is the supreme commander of the Armed Forces.[168][169].
He is elected by direct and universal vote. Once elected, he takes office on October 1 of the year of the election. His position lasts for a period of six years, without the possibility of re-election;[170] not even in the case of having held it as interim, provisional or substitute.[171] The Presidency of the Republic can only be resigned for serious reasons, which must be qualified by the Congress of the Union; The position may also be subject to a revocation process through a popular vote.[172][173] In the event of death, dismissal or resignation, the head of the Ministry of the Interior "Secretary of the Interior (Mexico)" assumes the position immediately and provisionally); If the absence is on the day of the inauguration, it would be the president of the Senate, the provisional president; If the absolute absence is the result of a revocation of mandate, the provisional exercise of the position corresponds to the president of Congress "President of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)"); Then, with the reservations contemplated in the constitution, it is up to Congress to appoint a substitute or interim.[174] Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo is the president of Mexico for the period 2024-2030.
The current Constitution of 1917 provides for this position in its third title, third chapter and is addressed by fifteen articles. They specify the obligations, powers, requirements and restrictions thereof. Specifications ranging from the command of the armed forces; the ownership of foreign, economic, social development and public security policy; the promulgation and execution of laws issued by the legislative branch; propose appointments to positions that require approval of the Senate or the Chamber of Deputies "Cámara de Diputados (Mexico)"); and various prerogatives granted in other articles of the same Magna Carta and federal laws.[175].
The Congress of the Union is the custodian body of the federal Legislative Power. This is made up of a bicameral assembly, divided between the Senate - made up of 128 members - and the Chamber of Deputies "Cámara de Diputados (Mexico)") - which consists of 500 legislators.[176].
The current 1917 Constitution provides for this body in its third title, chapter II, sections I, II and III, and addresses it in twenty-eight articles. They specify the obligations, powers, requirements and restrictions of the legislative apparatus; mainly the exclusive power among the powers of the union (and distributed between the two chambers) to study, discuss, vote and issue the initiatives of laws, regulations, codes, standards and reforms to all of this, that are presented during its sessions, that is, it has the deliberative action to legislate on all matters of the Mexican State. Also its duties include determining the composition of the political division of the national territory; the power to change the headquarters of the powers of the union; approve the president's declaration of war; the approval of initiatives, accountability, demand for appearances and eventual removals of the holders or members of the three powers of the Union, including the president of the republic; the election of the interim or substitute of the latter; and various prerogatives granted to it by other articles of the Magna Carta and federal laws.[177].
The exclusive powers of the Chamber of Deputies include publishing the official declaration of the president-elect issued by the Electoral Court; Coordinate and evaluate the Superior Audit of the Federation; ratify the appointment of Secretary of the Treasury "Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico)"); approve the National Development Plan; legislative ownership in relation to the budget and income proposed by the executive branch; the power to decide whether or not to proceed against any member of the powers of the union (except the president, a matter that corresponds to the Senate) in the event of committing a crime, under the terms of article 111 of the constitution; designate the heads of the autonomous bodies (INE, CNDH "National Human Rights Commission (Mexico)") and INEGI).[178][179].
The Senate's exclusive powers include legislating foreign policy; approve or not the international treaties and agreements signed by the President of the Republic; authorize all types of movement of the Armed Forces, whether within the national territory (through the National Guard) or outside it, as well as the transit of foreign troops within the country; ratify all executive appointments regarding the Armed Forces and Foreign Policy; declare the disappearance of state powers, designating an interim government and establishing the methods for its eventual replacement; accept or deny the resignation of the heads of the main bodies of the Judicial Branch of the Federation; legislate on national security matters, including the approval of proposed government policy; appoint the attorney general of the Republic "Fiscalía General de la República (Mexico)") and the members of the governing board of the Bank of Mexico; decide through decrees on border limits of the states; the power to decide whether or not to proceed against the President of the Republic in the event of committing a crime, under the terms of article 110 of the Constitution.[180].
The Judicial Branch of the Federation (PJF) is the set of organizations that hold said power in Mexico, one of the three Branches of the Union that make up the government system in that country. It is made up of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (Mexico)") (SCJN) - its highest court -, the Judicial Disciplinary Court, the Judicial Administration Body, the Electoral Court of the Judicial Branch of the Federation, the regional plenary sessions, the collegiate circuit and appeal courts, and the district courts.
Its foundations are found in Title III, Chapter IV (covering fourteen articles) of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States and the "Organic Law of the Judicial Power of the Federation." The courts of the States and of Mexico City can act in aid of the Federal Justice, in the cases provided for by the Magna Carta and the laws.
The management of the Judicial Branch of the Federation, with the exception of the Supreme Court of Justice, is in charge of the Judicial Administration Body; while observance and regulations correspond to the Judicial Disciplinary Court.[164][181][182].
The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (SCJN) is the highest constitutional court and highest jurisdictional authority of the Judicial Branch of Mexico, with the exception of electoral matters, which is the responsibility of the Electoral Court. It is made up of nine judges elected by popular vote for a period of twelve years, [note 8] called ministers "Minister of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Mexico)"), one of whom is designated as its president "President of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Mexico)"); This serves as the person responsible for the direction of the organization and the greatest representative before the other powers.[181].
The current Constitution of 1917 provides for this body in its third title, chapter IV, and addresses it in five articles. They specify the obligations, powers, requirements and restrictions of the court; mainly the exclusive power, among the bodies of the same judicial system, to study, discuss, and issue final rulings in constitutional controversies or unconstitutionality actions that arise between the powers of the Union, the state powers, municipal authorities, autonomous bodies, or the contradiction of a norm with the Magna Carta. That is, it is responsible for ensuring the order established by the Constitution and maintaining the balance between the various government institutions. Its duties also include, as a last legal instance, definitively resolving judicial matters of great social relevance, through the jurisdictional resolutions it issues. Due to the above, and since it is the main and highest court of constitutional nature, there is no body or authority that is above it or judicial appeal that can be filed against its decisions.[181][183].
Governments of the federal entities
The entities of the Mexican Federation are free and sovereign, autonomous in their internal regime. They have the power to govern themselves according to their own laws; They have their own constitution that must not contradict the principles of the federal constitution. The powers of its executive and legislative powers are understood as those that are rights of the entities; such as the ownership of command of the public force (state police and assigned national guard); the direction and regulation of its own economic, social development and public security policies; as well as the administration of those resources that arise from their local taxes or own income.
States cannot make alliances with other states, or with any independent nation, without the permission of the federation. The minting of currency is also prohibited; tax merchandise or transit of Mexicans and foreigners; contract external debt; legislate on tax matters for those economic aspects that are exclusive to the federal government and have its own Armed Forces.
The political organization of each state is based on a separation of powers: The legislative power falls on a unicameral congress; The executive power rests on a governor elected by universal suffrage; and the judicial power rests on a Superior Court of Justice. Given that the states have legal autonomy, each one has its own civil and criminal codes, as well as public security bodies.[184] However, it is up to the Senate to resolve differences in territorial limits or declare the disappearance of powers in case of serious alteration of order; and to the Supreme Court of Justice "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (Mexico)") to resolve constitutional controversies between the entities, or these with their municipalities, the federal powers and the autonomous bodies.[180][185].
The states are internally divided into municipalities—or demarcations, in the case of Mexico City—. Each municipality enjoys autonomy in its ability to elect its own city council, which is responsible, in most cases, for providing all the public services required by its population. This concept, which would emerge from the Mexican Revolution, is known as "free municipality." The city council is headed by a municipal president, elected every three years. Each municipality has a council made up of councilors based on their population size and trustees according to the number established by state law. In total in Mexico there are 2,462 municipalities (2,478, including the 16 districts of the capital); The state with the largest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, and the state with the smallest number is Baja California Sur, with only 5.[186].
At the same time, municipalities are empowered by local constitutions to organize themselves territorially; most of them calling "Delegations" those communities located outside the urban area that constitutes the so-called "Municipal Headquarters." Although these do not have greater autonomy than the election of their delegate and participation in community development projects; since the functions of these administrative entities are merely executory of the determinations of the city council.[187].
Mexico City
Mexico City is the federal entity, headquarters of the Powers of the Union and capital of the country; It enjoys autonomy in everything concerning its internal regime and its political and administrative organization. In accordance with the characteristics of the states, the capital of the country deposits its local powers in a Head of Government, Congress and a Superior Court of Justice. It is divided into Demarcations that have the same executive powers of a municipality, but without the legislative powers (city council) of these; However, they will have a collegiate body called "Council", integrated proportionally with respect to the number of inhabitants of each district, whose functions will be supervision and control of the actions of the mayor, control of public spending of the mayor's office and preparation of its budget.[188][189].
Territorial organization
The current structure and management of the territorial organization respond to that of a Federation, that is, sovereign territorial units; Furthermore, the central government is directly responsible for those territorial components assigned to it by law (airspace, seas and adjacent islands). Understanding this concept as an organization of political division, the country is made up of 32 federative entities (31 states and Mexico City, capital of the republic). And these at the same time are divided into municipalities.[190].
Electoral politics
The representativeness of public power is mainly deposited in a multi-party system, where political parties are the main entity of citizen participation; all of this regulated by autonomous electoral institutions (National Electoral Institute, Electoral Court and Electoral Prosecutor's Office). The INE (under its previous name, IFE) was created with the purpose of making the organization of elections in the country more transparent,[191] after the controversial federal electoral process of July 1988,[192] in which the opposition parties accused the manipulation of the figures by the Ministry of the Interior "Secretaría de Gobernación (Mexico)").[193] Under its model, each state created an autonomous body with the purpose of organizing the elections. local elections.[194] Among other functions, the INE is in charge of matters related to the Electoral Registry and registering the political parties that participate in federal electoral processes. Mexico is one of the few countries in the world where the heads of the Judiciary are elected by popular and universal vote, under the same format as the heads of the other two branches of government.[195][196].
In 2025, six national parties were registered with the INE. These parties are, in order of registration, the National Action Party (PAN), the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the Labor Party "Partido del Trabajo (Mexico)") (PT), the Green Ecologist Party of Mexico (Green), the Citizen Movement party "Citizen Movement (political party)") (MC) and the Morena Party "Morena (political party)"). If it obtains less than 3% of the votes cast in the elections, a party may lose its registration.[197][198].
Article 39 of the constitution establishes that sovereignty resides in the people, and both political power and the system of government respond to their needs, which includes the power to modify it through the will expressed at the polls. Articles 35 and 71, of the same Magna Carta, confer on the general population the power to present initiatives for popular consultation and the promulgation of laws through mechanisms of participatory democracy; In the first case, the request must be supported by at least two percent of the total number of registered voters on the INE electoral roll, in the second, 0.13 percent will suffice. Popular consultations will be valid when at least 40% of the registered voters participate, and the result of this will be binding with the absolute majority (half plus one) in favor or against the matter put to vote.[199][200][201].
Foreign relations
In its foreign policy, the Mexican State upholds several principles that are defined in the country's Magna Carta. These principles are the right of self-determination, the principle of non-intervention, the peaceful resolution of conflicts, the prohibition of the threat or use of force in international relations, the legal equality of states, international cooperation for development and the fight for international peace and security. The president has the power to represent the country to celebrate international treaties and in all matters related to foreign policy.[202][203][204] The country's geopolitical weight is developed from its strategic location as a neighbor of the United States, the preponderant economic volume among emerging economies (especially in Latin America) and its position as the largest Spanish-speaking country, which grants it significant leadership on the continent.[205].
In many ways, the principles of Mexican foreign policy have their origin in the difficulties that the country faced for much of the century in search of international recognition, particularly from European powers and the United States. Therefore, in accordance with the Estrada Doctrine, Mexico refuses to classify other governments favorably or unfavorably, since this practice is considered to violate the sovereignty of other States. In other words, it rejects the practice of recognizing de facto governments, but reserves the "right of legation", that is, to maintain or break diplomatic relations with other governments in favor of its national interest or the causes with which the country is in solidarity.[206][207].
Throughout the century, Mexico became a political reference in Latin America. In observing the Estrada doctrine, the country maintained political relations with Cuba after the socialist Revolution in that country; In contrast, he broke relations with the dictatorships of South America. During the 1970s it supported the causes of the Non-Aligned Movement.[208] In the 1980s, Mexico participated in the Contadora group, which mediated the pacification processes of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua.[209][210][211][212].
Since the beginning of the century, Mexico's foreign policy was aimed at projecting a new image of the country to the world and favoring the relationship with the United States. He sought prominence where he had not had it by his own decision, getting involved in the organization of regional institutions or hosting international summits. The rapprochement towards the United States was accompanied by distancing itself from Latin America. Estrangement corrected in the last decade (particularly with Cuba, Venezuela and Bolivia).[213] However, all administrations privileged the economic aspect in Mexican foreign relations.
Mexico maintains diplomatic relations of different levels and intensity with 190 members of the UN (only with Ecuador and Peru it does not have them), the Holy See, Palestine and the European Union; in addition to representative links with Catalonia, the Basque Country, Puerto Rico, Quebec and Taiwan. It is a full member of the UN (and all related bodies of the United Nations system, including five terms as a non-permanent member of the Security Council), OAS, OECD, USMCA, G-20 "Group of 20 (industrialized and emerging countries)"), G-5, APEC, G3, GL, CIN, UL, ABINIA, Celac, OEI, AEC, Pacific Alliance, MIST, UFC, Interpol, CIJEG and UNESCO.
Armed forces
The Armed Forces of Mexico are the set of military institutions legally constituted to guarantee the sovereignty, territorial integrity, independence and internal security of the country; in addition to collaborating with the authorities to help the population in situations of social emergency, as well as promoting civic or community benefit actions. The president of Mexico is the "Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces", which makes him the only one authorized to dispose of them; However, the normative legislation and the authorization of its war actions are subject to the Senate of the Republic.[218][219][220][221].
In 2025 they are made up of 398,002 elements in total, divided into three permanent military institutions, grouped in two Secretaries of State which are:[222] Secretariat of National Defense "Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Mexico)") (in charge of the Mexican Army and the Mexican Air Force)[168] and Secretariat of the Navy "Secretaría de Marina (Mexico)") (in charge of the Mexican Navy). Mexico).[169].
For the year 2025, the assigned budget was 224,176,495,255 (two hundred twenty-four thousand, one hundred seventy-six million, four hundred ninety-five thousand, two hundred fifty-five) pesos; 158 287 750 650 (one hundred fifty-eight thousand, two hundred eighty-seven million, seven hundred fifty thousand, six hundred fifty) for SEDENA and 65 888 744 605 (sixty-five thousand, eight hundred eighty-eight million, seven hundred forty-four thousand, six hundred five) for SEMAR.[223].
The "Supreme Command", and the only one empowered to dispose of the three forces, partially and totally, is the president of Mexico. However, the administration and high command correspond to the "General Secretary of Defense" (for the first two branches) and the "Admiral Secretary of the Navy." The operations of the Army and the Air Force are in charge of the "Chief of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the National Defense" and the "Commanders of the Army and the Air Force" respectively; and in the case of the Navy of the "Chief of General Staff of the Navy." Therefore, the president may at any time coordinate with the other two branches, or with any police authority, for the fulfillment of his general missions.[168][169].
• - Mexican Army: 275,443 soldiers (2025).[224] It is the land branch of the Mexican Armed Forces and depends on the Secretariat of National Defense "Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Mexico)"). It is responsible for defending territorial integrity, independence and national sovereignty, guaranteeing internal security, implementing the DN-III-E Plan in the event of disasters and carrying out civic actions and social works that tend to progress the country. Its members emerge from voluntary military service and the national military service "Servicio Militar Nacional (Mexico)"), which is also its reserve force.
• - Mexican Navy: 92,043 sailors (2025).[225] It is the maritime branch of the Mexican Armed Forces and depends on the Secretary of the Navy "Secretaría de Marina (Mexico)"). It is responsible for the surveillance and safeguarding of the coasts, islands, cays and reefs, the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone, the continental shelf and maritime airspace, in order to guarantee the naval defense of independence, territorial integrity, national sovereignty and internal security; It is also in charge of inspecting internal waters, navigable waterways and lakes, implementing the Marine Plan in case of disasters and carrying out civic actions and social works that tend to progress the country.
Geography
México se encuentra entre las coordenadas 32° y 14° norte y 86° y 118° oeste;[4] casi toda la superficie del país se ubica en la placa Norteamericana, aunque con algunas partes de Chiapas en la placa del Caribe y de la península de Baja California en la placa de Cocos y la placa Pacífica; además en la zona económica exclusiva de las aguas mexicanas en el océano Pacífico se encuentra la Placa de Rivera,[239] geofísicamente, algunos geógrafos incluyen el territorio al este del istmo de Tehuantepec en América Central.[240] Sin embargo, geopolíticamente, México es considerado dentro de América del Norte, junto con Canadá y los Estados Unidos.[241].
El país cubre una superficie total de ,[4] de los cuales corresponden a su superficie continental y 5127 km² a su superficie insular.[4] En su superficie, cuenta también con de área marítima en su zona económica exclusiva,[242] misma que limita con la zona económica exclusiva de cinco países, estos son los Estados Unidos, Guatemala, Belice, Honduras y Cuba.[243] En tierra, limita al norte con los Estados Unidos a lo largo de 3155 km, mientras que al sureste comparte frontera con Guatemala en 958 km y con Belice en 276 km.[4] Tiene 11 122 km de litorales continentales,[4] por lo que ocupa el segundo lugar en el continente americano, solo después de Canadá;[244] la extensión de sus costas están repartidas en dos vertientes: al oeste, el océano Pacífico y el golfo de California; y al este, el golfo de México y el mar Caribe, que forman parte de la cuenca del océano Atlántico.[245] Sobre el océano Atlántico el país tiene 3294 kilómetros lineales de costas y 7828 km más sobre el océano Pacífico, incluido el mar de Cortés; 17 de las 32 entidades federativas de México tienen costa: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Sonora, Yucatán, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche y Quintana Roo; las once primeras en el océano Pacífico. Estos 17 estados costeros constituyen 56.3 % de la superficie continental del país, y en ellos existen 153 municipios con frente costero constituidos por 35 626 localidades.
Relief
The Mexican relief is characterized by being very rugged and hosting multiple volcanoes.[246] Due to its geomorphology, the country is divided into 15 physiographic provinces,[4] these are the Baja California Peninsula, the Sonoran Plain, the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierras and Plains of North America, the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Great Plain of North America, the Pacific Coastal Plain, the Coastal Plain of the Northern Gulf, the Mesa del Centro, the Neovolcanic Axis, the Yucatán Peninsula, the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Coastal Plain of the Southern Gulf, the mountains of Chiapas and Guatemala and the Central American Cordillera.[4].
The territory is crossed by the Madre Oriental and Madre Occidental mountain ranges, which are an extension of the Rocky Mountains. The Sierra Madre Occidental ends in Nayarit, at the confluence with the Neovolcanic Axis. From there, parallel to the Pacific coast, runs the Sierra Madre del Sur.
The Neovolcanic Axis crosses the territory from west to east, until it joins with the Sierra Madre Oriental in the Mixteco Shield or Zempoaltépetl (at altitude). In the Neovolcanic Axis, with great volcanic activity as its name indicates, the highest peaks in Mexico are located: the peak of Orizaba or Citlaltépetl (), the Popocatépetl (), the Iztaccíhuatl (), the Nevado de Toluca () La Malinche () and the Nevado de Colima (). The birth of Paricutín, the youngest volcano in the world, took place in this geological province.
The southeastern extensions of the Sierra Madre Oriental are known as Sierra Madre de Oaxaca or Juárez, which ends with the Sierra Madre del Sur on the isthmus of Tehuantepec. To the east of this region extend the Central Table of Chiapas and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, which has its highest point in the Tacaná volcano ().
The most visible geographical features of the Mexican territory are the Baja California peninsula, in the northwest, and the Yucatán peninsula, to the east. The first is crossed from north to south by a mountain range that is called the Sierra de Baja California), the Sierra de San Francisco or the Giganta. Its highest point is the Tres Vírgenes volcano (). The Yucatán peninsula, on the other hand, is an almost completely flat limestone platform.
Located between the Madre Oriental and Occidental mountain ranges, and the Neovolcanic Axis, is the Mexican Plateau, which in turn is divided into two parts by small mountain ranges such as Zacatecas and San Luis. The northern part is more arid and lower than the southern part. The Chihuahua Desert and the Zacatecas semi-desert are located there. To the south of the transversal mountain ranges is the fertile Bajío region "Bajío (México)") and numerous valleys of cold or temperate land, such as the Purépecha Plateau, the valleys of Toluca, Mexico, and the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca. Most of the Mexican population is concentrated in this southern half of the highlands.
Between the Neovolcanic Axis and the Sierra Madre del Sur are located the Balsas Depression and the Tierra Caliente of Michoacán, Jalisco and Guerrero. To the east, crossing the intricate Mixteca mountain range, are the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, surrounded by steep mountains that complicate access and communications.
Spread across its territorial sea are numerous islands, among which the Revillagigedo archipelagos (Socorro, Clarión, San Benedicto, Roca Partida) and the Marías Islands, in the Pacific, stand out; those of Guadalupe, Cedros, Ángel de la Guarda, Coronado, Alijos rocks, Tiburón Island, Isla del Carmen "Isla del Carmen (Campeche)"), in front of the Baja California peninsula and the coast of Sonora; and those of Ciudad del Carmen, Cozumel, Mujeres, and the Alacranes reef, in the Atlantic basin. Together they have an area of 5127 km².
Climate
Mexico is a country with great climatic diversity. The geographical location of the country places it in two well-differentiated areas, separated by the Tropic of Cancer. This parallel divides the country into two zones whose climates would be clearly different (a tropical zone and a temperate zone) if it were not for the fact that the relief and the presence of the oceans greatly influence the configuration of the climate map in the country.
In this way, in Mexico it is possible to find cold high mountain climates a few hundred kilometers from the hottest climates of the coastal plain. The most notable for its variations is the climate of the Sierra Tarahumara in Chihuahua, where the lowest temperatures in the country occur, sometimes reaching −25 °C, and the highest in the Mexicali Desert, Baja California, which sometimes exceeds 50 °C. The warm rainy zone includes the low coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. In this region, temperatures range between 15.6 °C and 40 °C. A warm zone includes the lands located between the and Here, temperatures range between 16.7 °C in January and 21.1 °C in July. The cold zone goes from the to the altitude.
The temperate subhumid or semi-dry climate reaches temperatures that range between 10 and 20 °C and has rainfall "Precipitation (meteorology)") no greater than 1000 mm per year. At an altitude higher than , the presence of this climate depends on the latitude of the region. In areas with this type of climate, frost is a constant that occurs every year, as well as the presence of annual sleet and snowfall that tend to be more common in the north of the country and in mountainous areas.
A second type of climate is warm-humid and warm-subhumid. In areas with this climate, it rains during the summer or throughout the year. The rainfall reaches an index of 1500 mm, and has an annual thermal average that ranges between 24 and 26 °C. The areas with this type of climate are located in the coastal plains of the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the north of Chiapas and in the Yucatan Peninsula.
The dry tropics present varieties of previous climates. It is located in the slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Oriental, the upper basins of the Balsas and Papaloapan rivers, as well as in certain regions of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Yucatán Peninsula and the state of Chiapas. The dry tropics are, therefore, the largest area of extreme hot climates in Mexico.
Temperate zones are regions where annual precipitation is less than 350 mm. The annual temperature varies between 15 and 25 °C, and its precipitation rate is also highly variable. Most of the Mexican territory, located north of the Tropic of Cancer, is an area with these types of characteristics.
The wet season extends between the months of May and October. On average it rains 70 days a year. The dominant trend, however, is the lack of rain in most of the territory, a fact related to the obstacles that the high mountains that frame the Mexican Plateau represent to rain clouds. In the temperate highland zone of the country, the average rainfall is 635 mm per year. The coldest area, in high mountains, registers rates of 460 mm. Meanwhile, the semi-desert of the northern Altiplano barely reaches 254 mm of annual rainfall. In contrast to the aridity of this territory (which concentrates 80% of the Mexican population), there are some regions that can receive almost 1000 mm and up to 3000 mm.
Hydrography
The rivers of Mexico are grouped into three slopes. The Pacific slope, the Gulf slope and the interior slope. The longest of the Mexican rivers is the Bravo, on the Gulf side. This has a length of 3034 km, and serves as the border with the United States. Other important rivers are: the Usumacinta, which is the largest in Mexico and serves as the international border with Guatemala; the Grijalva River, the second largest in the country, both rivers join in the Tabasco plain, forming the largest hydraulic basin in Mexico; and the Pánuco River, to whose basin the Valley of Mexico belongs.
The Lerma, Santiago and Balsas rivers flow into the Pacific, which are of vital importance for the cities of the highlands of Mexico; the Sonora, Fuerte, Mayo "Río Mayo (Sonora)"), Yaqui and Piaxtla rivers, which support the prosperous agriculture of the northwest of the country, and the Colorado River, shared with the United States. Inland rivers, that is, those that do not flow into the sea, are usually short and have little flow. The Casas Grandes river in Chihuahua, and the Nazas, in Durango, stand out. Most of Mexico's rivers have little flow, and almost none of them are navigable.
Mexico is home to numerous lakes and lagoons in its territory, but of modest size. The most important inland body of water is Lake Chapala, in the state of Jalisco, which is at risk of disappearing due to overexploitation. Other important lakes are Lake Pátzcuaro, Zirahuén and Cuitzeo, all of them in Michoacán. In addition, the construction of dams has led to the formation of artificial lakes, such as the "Thousand Islands" lake in Oaxaca.[4].
Biodiversity
Mexico is one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the world. With around 200,000 different species; It is home to 10 to 12% of the world's biodiversity.[27] It is in first place in reptile biodiversity with 864 known species, second in mammals with 564 species, fourth in amphibians with 376 species, eleventh in birds with around 1,128 species and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species.[247] Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and the fourth in total number of species.[248] Approximately 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislation.[248] The Mexican government created the National Biodiversity Information System, which is responsible for studying and promoting the substantial use of ecosystems.
In Mexico, there are 187 federal protected natural areas of which 148 have an exclusively terrestrial surface, 31 have a land and marine surface and 6 exclusively marine that represent 90,958,494 hectares, of which 21,499,881 hectares correspond to protected land surface that represents 10.94% of the national land surface, in terms of marine surface, 69,458,613 hectares are protected, which corresponds to to 22.05% of the marine surface of the national territory. They include 44 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks, 5 natural monuments, 42 areas to protect flora and fauna, 9 areas for the protection of natural resources and 18 sanctuaries (areas with rich diversity of species), in addition there are 41 biosphere reserves declared by UNESCO and 6 of them have been declared natural heritage of humanity.[27] There are also 384 areas voluntarily designated for conservation. that protect 631,743.49 hectares.[249].
• - Fauna and flora endemic to Mexico.
• - Spider monkey.
• - Black bear.
• - Xoloitzcuintle dog.
• - Chihuahua dog.
• - Mexican wolf.
• - Puma.
• - Jaguar (ocelot).
• - Buffalo (American bison).
• - American antelope.
• - Vaquita porpoise.
• - Gray whale.
• - Sea lion.
• - Iguana.
• - Rattlesnake.
• - Loggerhead turtle.
• - Golden Eagle.
• - Macaw.
• - Quetzal.
• - Guajolote (turkey).
• - Axolotl.
• - Red-eyed frog.
• - Pejelagarto.
• - Monarch butterfly.
• - .
Economy
Economic history
During the colonial era and the 19th century, Mexico was a country dedicated to primary economic activities, highlighting agriculture, especially those native products unknown in Europe. Most of its income from foreign sales came from mining exploitation, especially silver. Of this mineral, Mexico has occupied first place in the world in production for more than two centuries. At the same time, it developed an intense commercial exchange activity with Asia through the Philippines with the famous Nao of China.[263].
The industrialization process of Mexico during the Colony and the first century of independent life was extremely slow. Between the centuries and , colonial laws prevented the development of manufacturing in New Spain as in the rest of the Spanish Empire. These had to be imported from the metropolis, which in turn acquired them mostly from the industrialized nations of northern Europe. For most of the century there were attempts to provide the country with an industrial plant. Governments tried to attract foreign entrepreneurs, without much success. During the 1830s, Lucas Alamán established the Banco de Avió, intended for industrial development. However, all these attempts bore little fruit.[263].
At the end of the century, in the Porfiriato, the textile industry was the most developed. He had settled in the valley of Puebla, in the region of Orizaba and the Valley of Mexico. The government of Porfirio Díaz gave great privileges to foreign capital with the intention of attracting direct investment in the construction of communications and transportation infrastructure, and in the growth of the industrial plant. However, the benefits went to a few foreigners and local businessmen close to the dictator, while the majority of Mexicans lived in conditions of misery and exploitation.[263].
In that period of more than thirty years, between 1876 and 1910, the railway network grew intensively: it reached 20,000 km of tracks. On the other hand, the first hydroelectric plant in the nation called Necaxa was built in Puebla and the exploitation of oil fields began, which placed Mexico in the first place in the world for oil exports in the 1910s. It is worth mentioning that the rich oil fields of Faja de Oro&action=edit&redlink=1 "Faja de Oro (Veracruz) (not yet written)") and Cerro Azul "Cerro Azul (Veracruz)"), located in the north of the state of Veracruz, were brutally exhausted by the Standard Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell and their Mexican subsidiaries, with a meager benefit for the Mexican treasury.[263].
After the triumph of the Revolution, a second period of industrial expansion began in Mexico, favored, among other things, by the nationalization of oil and the Second World War. In the decades that followed the conclusion of that international conflict, the Mexican economy had a mixed character, that is, investment came from both private initiative and the State. Strategic sectors were converted into parastatal industries, such as mining, steel, electricity production, road infrastructure, among others. With the intention of promoting technology transfer, the government allowed many international firms to establish subsidiaries in the country, although always associated with national capital. Agriculture, on the other hand, was heavily subsidized by the State, which became the main intermediary of agricultural products. During the period between 1940 and 1970, Mexico's economy grew at a rate of 6.27% annually, in what was called the Mexican Miracle.[263].
However, protectionism and the closure of the Mexican market, as well as the debt fever of the 1970s that ended with the debt crisis of the 1980s, ended the period of growth of the Mexican economy. In 1982, the country was bankrupt, and unable to pay its international debts. Something similar was happening in the rest of Latin America. To get out of the trance, the government changed its policies and began the period that in Mexico is known as the period of the technocrats "Technocracy (bureaucracy)"), within the framework of neoliberal policies; marked in this period by austerity in social spending, the push given to the privatization of large parastatal companies (of which only two remain to date: Pemex and the Federal Electricity Commission), and an economic growth dependent on manufacturing exports (basically, to the United States).[263].
In the last 25 years, within the framework of the so-called era of neoliberalism, significant reforms and structural adjustments to the economy have been carried out in Mexico. The first economic reforms were carried out between 1989 and 1994, during the administration of Carlos Salinas de Gortari, the most important and transcendent, due to its multiple impacts on the country's economic structure - some positive and others negative -, the controversial negotiation of the free trade agreement with the United States and Canada (the North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA), which came into force on the first day of 1994, officially leaving behind the exhausted developmental model. of import substitution growth, whose golden era is located in the fifties and sixties of the last century, and a neoliberal model oriented to the “exterior”, promoting exports, prevailed. The latest economic reforms are recent, and were carried out between 2013 and 2014, under the administration of Enrique Peña Nieto. Due to its potential impact on the growth rate, the energy sector stood out, since since 2015 the private sector, national and foreign, was actively participating in the tasks of exploration and exploitation of crude oil and gas, as well as in the generation of electrical energy, activities previously reserved for the State. These structural reforms, controversial and controversial, generated – each one at its time – favorable expectations regarding the future growth of the Mexican economy, which, however, did not fully materialize.
Notwithstanding the limitations of the Mexican economic system arising from general social conditions, the context of the so-called War on Drug Trafficking, dependence on the US economy and corruption rates caused the stagnation of the economy, which, even with its commercial diversification, continued to be sustained by the effects of oil revenues and remittances from Mexicans residing in the United States mainly. However, in the recent five years, economic consistency and stability, especially in macroeconomic indicators, has been benefited by a set of internal and external factors such as the record increase in remittances,[264] the record increase in foreign investment,[265] as well as international reserves,[266] the strengthening of the exchange rate against the dollar, whose effect was colloquially called "super peso" and the rise of the phenomenon known as “nearshoring” in Mexico (in the context of the United States-China trade war), which has increased the transfer of investments from Asia to the Hispanic American country.[267][268][269][270][271][272][273].
Economic indicators
Considered an "emerging economy", as countries whose growth has been sustained in recent years are called, it had a GDP growth rate of 1.2% in 2024. According to data from the International Monetary Fund, in 2024 it was the twelfth world economy by nominal GDP and the thirteenth by purchasing power parity "Annex: Countries by GDP (PPP)") (PPP); On a regional scale, it is the second economy in Latin America and the fourth on the continent. The basic profile of the Mexican economy places it as a market economy focused on the production and export of manufacturing, although with strong support from the oil industry and tourism activity. This is complemented by a current context of strength in employment, public social spending, investment policy guarantees, income from remittances and the relocation of investments from Asia to Mexico.[274][275][276][277][278].
In 2024 Mexico was the tenth largest exporter in the world; Since the mid-1980s, the country has leaned towards a strong commercial opening towards other markets, which has made it the world leader in free trade agreements, having signed agreements of this type with 50 countries in 14 different treaties. Its main trade association is the USMCA (substitute for NAFTA), which it signed with the United States and Canada. It also has a free trade agreement with the European Union (1999), with the bloc called EFTA (Luxembourg, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Norway); and in 2004 a similar commitment was also sealed with Japan.[279][280].
Mexico is the first country in Latin America to be included in the World Government Bond Index (World Government Bond Index, in English), which recognizes credit rating, liquidity and macroeconomic policies.[281].
Agriculture
52.49% of the country's total area is suitable for agriculture, the confluence of climates and reliefs in the national territory allow the diversification of the types of products harvested. There are around 88 million hectares with some type of agricultural use and five million agricultural producers in three variants, for export (mainly in the north), for the domestic market (mainly in the center and west) and for subsistence (especially in the south); Around 71 percent are small and medium producers; The working population in the sector is around 27 million workers. Total production in 2024 was just over 286 million tons, the main products being: corn, sugar cane, avocado, grasses, sorghum, green chili, tomato, beans, barley and wheat; The fruits include orange, banana, apple and lemon, and the vegetables include onion and red tomato. Mexico is the world's main exporter of tomato, watermelon, cucumber, avocado, onion, lemon, papaya, tequila and beer; second of asparagus, chickpeas, shelled walnuts, confectionery and Brussels sprouts; and in general it occupies seventh place in the world.[282][283][284][285][286][287].
Cattle raising
58% of the surface dedicated to agricultural activities is used by livestock. The type of soil and climate favors the suitability of large areas in plains, plains and plateaus that allow the raising of livestock, in order of size of national production: pigs, cattle, sheep and goats. There are around 110 million heads of livestock in the country, 600 million animals in the poultry sector and two million hives in the beekeeping area; Just as happens with agriculture, in three variants, for export, for the domestic market and for subsistence. Total production in 2022 was almost eight million tons of meat, the main products being: chicken, beef and pork, far above goat, sheep and turkey; Of the derivatives, in the same year, 3 million tons of eggs, 40 million tons of milk and 65,649 tons of honey stand out. At the international level, Mexico is seventh as a world power in livestock products, ranking fourth in egg production, sixth in beef and poultry, as well as eighth in pork.[4][288][289][290][291][292][292][293].
Fishing
Mexico has more than 11,000 kilometers of coastline, all located in tropical areas, guaranteeing the diversity of species, which gives it great fishing potential. There are 17,338 producers in 23,293 fishing establishments in 37 seaports and various inland water areas (rivers, lakes and lagoons). In 2021, total production was 3.8 million tons, highlighting in order: sardine, shrimp, tuna, anchovy and mojarra. At an international level it occupies the 18th position among producers and the same among exporters.[294].
Forestry
Mexico has around 55.8 million hectares of forests and jungles, 80% of these are under the communal property regime through 8,500 ejidatarios and communities, the vast majority of indigenous origin and in socioeconomic conditions of marginality or poverty, a situation that on the one hand allows the extension of sustainable areas and the conservation of ecosystems through systems of uses and customs, but has also caused problems for community members when facing alienation of their lands by landowners and criminals. The volume of forestry production in 2021 was around 9.35 million cubic meters, while foreign sales reached 3,846 million dollars.[295][296][297][298][299].
Mining
The mining-metallurgy sector in Mexico is an important activity that contributes to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). According to the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI), the mining-metallurgy sector represented 8.6% of industrial GDP and 2.5% of national GDP in 2021; Production amounted to around 153 million cubic tons, which represented income of 1.21 billion pesos. There are 2,930 mineral producers in the country; Mexico is the main producer of silver (6,300 tons in 2022) worldwide and ranks among the first 10 positions in the world production of 17 minerals, including fluorite, sodium sulfate, wollastonite, celestite, lead, molybdenum, barite, diatomite, magnesium sulfate, zinc, salt, gypsum, cadmium, gold and feldspar.[300][301][302][303].
Oil
The history and trajectory of the oil industry in Mexico have a sociopolitical significance that transcends its immediate economic function; Various social and historical processes have made its exercise a symbolism of national sovereignty over natural resources; To this is added that in the times of greatest oil boom, almost half of public income and expenses came from this sector. That is why, and according to the current constitution, the oil industry in Mexico constitutes a system of majority participation of the state (exploration, production, refining, marketing and export) through the state company Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos); It should be noted that the same fundamental norm states that public companies in the energy sector do not constitute monopolies, and therefore are not subject to laws and economic positions contrary to this system. The energy reforms of 2008 and 2013 began to open the sector in a minimal way, but legal adjustments in 2019 reversed this.[304][305][306].
Pemex is not only the largest parastatal in Mexico, it is also the main company in any sector in the country, with revenues, in 2023, of 109 billion pesos;[307] it is the sixth largest oil producing company in the world, the sixth in oil sales, and is the largest company in any branch in Latin America.[308]
As for the country in general, it is 11th in production (2.9 million barrels per day), 12th in exports (1.2 million barrels per day) and 24th in proven reserves.[309][310][311].
Industry
The proximity to the United States, the diversity of regions with certain economic features and the strategic geographic location on the continent allow for the breadth of industrial sectors that range from the simple transformation of raw materials into manufactured products to the development of technologies, including the satisfaction of the entire production chain. Beyond the energy sector, which is the most profitable, the country's main industries are metallurgy, mining, mechanics (specifically, the automotive industry), aerospace, construction, lumber and food. The country's main industrial hubs are located near the metropolitan areas of Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey, in addition to the Bajío area "Bajío (Mexico)") and the border areas with United States. Regarding finished products, those most manufactured in Mexico are: electronic devices, petroleum products, medical devices, automobiles, textile supplies, beverages and food.[4][312][313][314].
Foreign trade
Mexican foreign trade is an important part of the country's economy, together with the domestic market it generates around half of the total gross domestic product. The country has been characterized by having a strategic position in international trade. As mentioned above, it is the tenth largest exporter in the world and has 14 free trade agreements with 50 countries. Immersed in the largest exchange market in the world, with the United States and Canada. The geographical conditions of an extensive coastline and a long border with the largest economy on the planet also favor the exchange of goods with the two other important markets, the European Union and the Asia-Pacific.[280][315].
Mexican foreign trade is based on the import and export of products and services. This is a priority for the country, since it allows the exchange of products, merchandise and monetary resources. It is characterized by having a good production capacity due to the high internal and external demand for certain goods and services. In 2024, the total value of Mexican exports was 617.1 billion dollars;[279] the main products sold abroad were, in order of profits: automobiles, computers, auto parts, cargo trucks, crude oil, televisions and insulated cable. As for imports, in the same year, their total value was 625,312 million dollars; The main products purchased from abroad are: gasoline, heavy machinery, electrical machinery, motor vehicles, plastics, pharmaceutical products and mechanical equipment. According to the previous data, it is recorded that Mexico's trade balance is in deficit.[316][317][318].
Tourism
Tourism is an important economic activity for the country and makes it one of the most notable nations in the world, placed in sixth place in terms of international tourist arrivals, with 45.0 million visitors in 2024, equaling the historical mark of 2019, when it received the same amount. It is the first destination for foreign tourists within Latin America. In that year, tourism contributed 7.5% of the national GDP, and represented 14.2% of direct and indirect jobs in the Mexican economy. For the same cycle, income from foreign tourists reached USD 32,956,300,000 (thirty-two thousand, nine hundred and fifty-six million, three hundred thousand dollars).[29][322].
Mexico's main tourist attractions are the archaeological sites of Mesoamerican cultures, colonial cities and beach resorts. The natural wealth and historical cultural heritage—the fusion of European culture (particularly Spanish) with Mesoamerican culture; They also make Mexico an attractive tourist destination worldwide. The vast majority of foreign tourists who visit Mexico come from the United States, Canada and Colombia. The next largest group are visitors from Europe and Asia. A small number of tourists also come from the rest of Latin American countries.[323].
However, local tourism has generated an important economic impact for the country, where service providers seek greater dissemination and attention to national tourists, creating new tourist and recreational centers sponsored by FONATUR (National Fund for the Promotion of Tourism) who has taken on the task of studying the preferences and tastes of Mexicans on their days of rest; Communication and transportation routes have been improved and rehabilitated, the busiest airports have been remodeled, telecommunications systems have been updated, credits have been opened for new hospitality infrastructure and the provision of services, casinos or betting houses have been opened, health improvements have been made, and greater security has been granted in areas of recreational activity.
In the 2022 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) classification, which measures factors that make it attractive to make investments or develop businesses in the travel and tourism sector of a specific country, Mexico reached 40th place worldwide, ranking first among Latin American countries and third on the American continent.[324].
• - Main tourist destinations in Mexico.
• - Riviera Maya
Quintana Roo.
• - Mexico City.
• - Cancun
Quintana Roo.
• - Cabo San Lucas
Baja California Sur.
• - Guadalajara "Guadalajara (Mexico)")
Jalisco.
Poverty
In Mexico, 29.6% of the total inhabitants live in poverty, according to the "Analysis of the results of the measurement of multidimensional poverty 2024" made by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography, which is equal to 38.5 million people. On the other hand, the situation of people in extreme poverty is equivalent to 5.3% of the total inhabitants (seven million). According to the same organization, only 32.5% of the Mexican population (42.3 million) is neither poor nor vulnerable.[325].
According to the 2024 UN human development report, Mexico has a human development index of 0.789, ranking 77th in the world.[26] Historically it has made great progress alongside countries such as Indonesia, Turkey, Thailand and South Africa, considering the fact that in 2010 it had a human development index of 0.743.[326][327][328] However, its inequality-adjusted human development index is 0.609; considered medium.[329].
Mexico is a very unequal country: 0.2% of the population owns 60% of the country's wealth, while 38.5 million people live in poverty (2024).[330].
• - States of Mexico by poverty level (2022).
• - Poverty in Nuevo León.
• - Irregular settlements in Tlalnepantla, metropolitan area of Mexico City.
Science and technology
In Mexico, access to science and technology is guaranteed as a human right by the Constitution (article 3, section V); Therefore, the state must provide the means and facilities for research and innovation, as well as the massive dissemination or use of these, in all areas of knowledge.[334].
According to data from Scopus, a bibliographic database of summaries and citations of articles in scientific journals, Mexico is ranked 27th in the world in terms of scientific publications, being second in Latin America after Brazil and second among Spanish-speaking countries, after Spain. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, in its 2022 and 2023 editions, Mexico was ranked 58th in innovation, while in 2024 it ranked 56th and in 2025, it returned to 58th place.[337][338][339][340] Mexico is one of the countries with the most awards for the Prize in Information Sciences. UNESCO.[341].
However, in terms proportional to its economy and population size, Mexico's participation in science and technology is scarce.[342][343][344] For example, Mexico is the OECD country that invests the least in research and development with an approximate 0.47% of GDP;[345] while the OECD average is close to 2.5%.[343] Only one Mexican citizen has received an Award Nobel Prize in science (Mario Molina "Mario Molina (chemist)"), chemistry 1995), for work carried out abroad; while seven have received the science and technology category of the Prince of Asturias Award.[346] Although the ancient Mayans achieved sophistication in their mathematics and astronomical calculations, no modern Mexican has been awarded the Fields Medal, the Abel Prize or the Turing Prize.
In Mexico, basic research is carried out almost entirely by public organizations, such as universities, hospitals and some government centers.[347][348][349][350] Among the most active organizations are the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) founded in 1910, the National Institute of Public Health (INSP) founded in 1987, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) founded in 1943, the Center for Research and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav) of the National Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1961 and 1936 respectively; and the College of Mexico (COLMEX) in social sciences and humanities, founded in 1940. Likewise, since 1970 there has been the National Council of Humanities, Sciences and Technologies (CONAHCYT), the government agency "Federal Public Administration (Mexico)") in charge of regulating and promoting the scientific and technological advance of the country, and which also provides its own research centers. There are also societies such as the Mexican Academy of Sciences and the National College "El Colegio Nacional (México)"), which carry out consulting and dissemination work in science and the arts.
Among the most notable specific discoveries and inventions that Mexico and Mexicans have contributed to humanity are: the discovery of vanadium (Andrés Manuel del Río), the invention of one of the first semi-automatic and automatic firearms (the Mondragón rifle), the independent development of the method of vaginal histology known as Papanicolaou staining (Eliseo Ramírez Ulloa")),[351] pioneering research on cosmic rays (Manuel Sandoval Vallarta), the synthesis of the first contraceptive pill (Luis Miramontes and the Syntex company"), the first color television system (Guillermo González Camarena), the discovery of the Herbig-Haro nebulae where stars are formed (Guillermo Haro), the calcium hypothesis of neurotransmitter release (Ricardo Miledi), the transformation of eigenstates of the quantum harmonic oscillator and diffraction in time") (Marcos Moshinsky), contributions to the study of stellar atmospheres and contributions to the instrumentation of various NASA probes (Guido Münch), the so-called "green revolution" that developed biotechnology essential for global agricultural productivity (Norman Borlaug), collaboration in the creation of the Google PageRank algorithm, RAID storage and distributed databases (Héctor García-Molina) and the discovery of the causes of the deterioration of the ozone layer (Mario Molina "Mario Molina (chemical)")).
Infrastructure
Energy
In Mexico, energy generation is in charge of a parastatal company, the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE), an organization that as of October 2009, in an action that generated much controversy, took control of the geographical area (center of the country) that until then was managed by the Compañía de Luz y Fuerza del Centro (LFC). The CFE is in charge, as its name indicates, of the operation of electricity generating plants and their distribution throughout the national territory. The other company in charge of the exploitation of energy resources is Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex), organized into divisions that are in charge of specific aspects of the oil industry.
The main form of energy generation in the country is combined cycle thermoelectric, primarily using natural gas, which in 2021 produced 55% of the country's total electricity. Among the most important plants of this type is Los Azufres, in the state of Michoacán, and its infrastructure represented 51.9% of the total. Hydroelectric energy follows, at a distance, with a volume of 9.7% of the energy generation structure. Other types of generation are core electricity, geothermal, coal, solar, wind and bioenergy.[352].
Mexico has an installed capacity to produce 918 MW (October 2021) of geothermal energy. This represents 3.24% of the total electricity generated in the country. There is the largest geothermal energy plant in the world, the Cerro Prieto geothermal energy plant.[353].
Dams
According to the National Water Commission in Mexico, there are more than 5,000 dams and drainage ditches; Of these, 180 are classified as large, with a storage volume of more than 150,000,000,000 (one hundred and fifty billion) cubic meters of water.[354] Among the most relevant dams, the La Angostura dam is located in the state of Chiapas, which has the largest reservoir in the country.[354] In terms of electricity generation, the dam Chicoasén is the one with the greatest power in the country, with 2,400 megawatts,[355] which has one of the highest curtains in the world.
Drinking water and sanitation
The drinking water, sewage and sanitation service is operated by municipal or metropolitan public companies that work exclusively with each city in the country; which manage storage entities such as canals, wells, hydraulic towers, among others. Although Mexico prides itself on having some of the best drinking water and sanitation operating organizations in Latin America, it also has some whose performance is poor. Access, efficiency and quality of water and sanitation services vary greatly from one locality to another, largely reflecting the different levels of development across the country. In general, the Mexican water and sanitation sector is marked by the following problems:[354].
• - Low technical and commercial efficiency in the provision of services;
• - Inadequate quality of water supply services;
• - Poor quality of sanitation services, especially with regard to wastewater treatment;.
• - Insufficient coverage in the poorest rural areas.
Petrochemistry
The petrochemical industry in Mexico is a branch of productive activity that includes establishments dedicated to the production of basic chemical substances derived from natural gas, oil and coal, such as acyclic hydrocarbons: ethane, hexane, ethylene, propylene, etc. Mexico has an extensive infrastructure for the exploration and production of crude oil and natural gas, refineries, gas processing complexes and petrochemical complexes for the transformation of hydrocarbons. Currently, it has fifteen refining plants that have a total refining capacity of 818,000 barrels per day. The petrochemical industry serves as a platform to support the development and growth of Mexico, in addition to forming productive chains. This industry supplies more than 40 branches of industrial activity and demands goods and services from 30 industries. The main chains that are supported by petrochemicals are: textile, automotive/transport, detergents and cosmetics, footwear, packaging/beverages and food, agriculture, construction and clothing.[356].
Transportation
The total length of the land road network in the country was 810,129 kilometers in 2022.[357] Of these, a third corresponds to covered gaps, and just over 10,000 kilometers corresponds to four-lane roads. Highways in Mexico are classified as federal, which are in charge of the SCT, are free and make up just over 40,000 kilometers;[358] state highways, which are free and built by the state governments; and toll highways, managed by a consortium called Caminos y Puentes Federales (CAPUFE), which collects the resources from the toll, which are reinvested in the maintenance of the highways. Some of these high-speed roads are the most expensive in Mexico, such as the one that connects Mexico City with Toluca, or the Autopista del Sol "Autopista del Sol (Mexico)"), which links Mexico City with the port of Acapulco.
In the recent decade, significant works were built with the purpose of making land transportation faster between the different regions of the country. Perhaps the most emblematic work of these is the Chiapas Bridge, built on the Malpaso dam, on the Grijalva River, and which allows a saving of up to six hours in the transfer from Mexico City to Tuxtla Gutiérrez, the capital of Chiapas.
Most of the railway network is currently used for freight transport. After the privatization of Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México, the parastatal company formed after the nationalization of this transportation system with the purpose of operating and maintaining the railway network, the concessionaires were dedicated exclusively to the transportation of goods, and the network has remained practically unchanged for more than two decades. The country had a total of 17,360 kilometers of railway tracks in 2022.[359] The Chihuahua to the Pacific Railway transports passengers, taking advantage of the fact that the route through the Sierra Madre Occidental has important tourist value due to its natural landscapes.
In the 20th century, Mexico returned to passenger rail transportation due to vehicular traffic congestion, the inaugurations of the Valley of Mexico Suburban Train in 2008 and the Mexico-Toluca Interurban Train in 2023[360][361] have allowed the formalization in other places of projects such as the Tula-Buenavista routes,[362] Pachuca-Buenavista[363]Tlajomulco de Zúñiga-Guadalajara-Zapopan,[364] and the largest suburban train section Adames-Aguascalientes-Peñuelas with 80 kilometers in length that runs through the entire state from north to south.[365] Other projections are the interurban trains Guanajuato-Querétaro, Tijuana-Mexicali, Querétaro-San Luis Potosí and Coatzacoalcos-Salina Cruz, which are being studied to recover the railway infrastructure, reduce the transportation time of passengers and goods for ecological and technological purposes.[366].
Communications
The media in Mexico also remained in the hands of private initiative, starting in the 1990s. Previously they were operated by parastatal companies, such as Telefonos de México. The Mexican Postal Service and Mexican Telegraphs remain in the hands of the State.
Regarding television, there was the Mexican Television Institute (Imevisión), although from the beginning individuals had the right to concessions. The main private television networks in Mexico are the duopoly Televisa and TV Azteca. Televisa is also the largest producer of Spanish-language content in the world, mainly traditional "soap operas." Grupo Imagen Multimedia is a media conglomerate that owns the third national television network: Imagen Televisión. Grupo Multimedios is another Spanish-speaking media conglomerate that broadcasts in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The federal government operates Channel 22 "Canal 22 (México)") of the Ministry of Culture "Secretaría de Cultura (México)"), Channel Fourteen of the Public Broadcasting System of the Mexican State and Channel Once "Canal 11 (México)"); the latter, through the National Polytechnic Institute attached to the Ministry of Public Education. Likewise, states have the power to operate television stations through decentralized organizations created for this purpose. In Mexico there are 885 television stations, some of them with national coverage. Meanwhile, 72% percent of Mexican households have some restricted television service (cable, satellite or online).[372][373].
In radio, there are multiple private companies, the most important of which are based in Mexico City; In many cities of the republic there are local stations. The Federation operates the Mexican Radio Institute (IMER), and some of its agencies operate other stations, such as Radio Educación, dependent on the Ministry of Public Education, and the many indigenous radio stations, which depended on the National Indigenous Institute, converted into the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples. Several universities also have their own radio stations, among which stands out Radio Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, from UNAM, whose coverage reaches almost the entire national territory, and can be heard on the international band and the Internet. There are 1017 amplitude modulated radio stations in Mexico, 814 frequency modulated radio stations and 10 shortwave radio stations.[372][373].
Fixed telephony is operated by a few companies, of which Telmex is by far the largest. Telephone coverage has also been steadily increasing. It is estimated that 80% of Mexican homes have a landline, and in many small communities there are community telephone booths. There are around 24.5 million fixed telephone lines and almost 124 million mobile lines; the latter with greater market diversification than residential lines, although with considerable weight, especially in coverage, of the Telcel company.[372][373].
Media
Mexico tops the list with the highest concentration of media worldwide and ranks third among the OECD countries that offer the most expensive services. In this framework, the telecommunications market in Mexico is dominated by Grupo Televisa and Grupo Carso.[375].
Newspapers printed in Mexico are an important source of information and news for the population. The written press in Mexico has a long history that dates back to colonial times. Currently, printed newspapers are published in different formats, such as standard, tabloid and Berliner. Printed newspapers also differ in their frequency, which can be daily, weekly or monthly.
In Mexico, there are several companies that publish printed newspapers. Some of the largest companies are Grupo Reforma, which publishes newspapers such as Reforma and Mural; Grupo Milenio, which broadcasts Milenio Diario and Milenio Jalisco; and Mexican Editorial Organization (OEM), which publishes newspapers such as El Sol de México, Esto and El Sol del Bajío. In Mexico, the newspapers with the greatest circulation (in alphabetical order) are El Universal "El Universal (Mexico)"), La Jornada "La Jornada (Mexico newspaper)") and Diario Reforma "Reforma (newspaper)"), with a center, left and right editorial line, respectively. In the most important states and cities there are local newspapers with greater circulation than national ones. There are popular newspapers that are widely read, such as El Grafico, Metro and La Prensa. The main sports newspaper is called Record, with circulations higher than even the general information newspapers. There are also free newspapers that summarize the most important events of the day and that are distributed through the so-called "fliers", some examples are La Crónica or El Publimetro.[376][377][377][378][379].
In Mexico, open television stations are operated mainly by private companies: Televisa, Televisión Azteca and Grupo Imagen. There is also the decentralized public body: Public Radio Broadcasting System of the Mexican State (SPR). In addition to private companies, there are other public and private operators with channels with less coverage (highlighting Multimedios Televisión) as well as various local operators, including state governments and universities. The programming of television stations is regulated for broadcast through the General Directorate of Radio, Television and Cinematography "General Directorate of Radio, Television and Cinematography (Mexico)"), an institute dependent on the Ministry of the Interior of Mexico "Secretaría de Gobernación (México)"), which determines the schedules for the transmission of recorded material.[380].
The main television networks are shown in the following table:[381].
• - *Canal Once is retransmitted through a network of stations owned by the IPN and on several stations in the SPR network.
Demography
El más reciente censo general de población y vivienda, implementado por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía fue en el año 2020. Sus resultados arrojaron al momento de su ejecución que la población total de México era de 126 014 024 de habitantes (11.º lugar mundial), 51.2 % corresponden a mujeres y 48.8 % a hombres, la edad promedio es de 29 años, el porcentaje de crecimiento respecto al censo de 2010 fue de 1.2 %, la tasa de fecundidad es de 2.1 y alrededor de 1.2 millones de habitantes no nacieron en el territorio nacional.[386][387].
Durante todo el siglo , la población de México apenas se había duplicado, esto en relación con el censo de 1790 comparado con el primero del México independiente en 1895. Esta tendencia de crecimiento continuó durante las primeras dos décadas del siglo , no obstante, en el censo de 1920 se registra una pérdida de cerca de 2 millones de habitantes. El fenómeno puede explicarse porque durante el decenio de 1910 a 1920 tuvo lugar la Revolución mexicana.
La tasa de crecimiento se incrementó drásticamente entre los decenios de 1930 a 1980, cuando el país llegó a registrar índices de crecimiento mayores a 3 % (1950-1980). La población mexicana se duplicaba en veinte años, y a ese ritmo se esperaba que para el año 2000 hubiera 120 millones de mexicanos. Ante esta situación, el gobierno federal creó el Consejo Nacional de Población (CONAPO), con la misión de establecer políticas de control de la natalidad y realizar investigaciones sobre la población del país. Las medidas resultaron exitosas, y la tasa de crecimiento descendió hasta 0.7 en el 2020. La esperanza de vida pasó de 36 años (en 1895) a 75 años (en el año 2020).[4].
También cambió la cara de los mexicanos. A principios del siglo , cerca del 90 % de la población vivía en localidades rurales (pueblos, rancherías, caseríos). El censo de 1960 arrojó datos en los que la población urbana era por primera vez mayor que la rural (50.6 % del total). El número de personas que radicaba en su estado natal en 1895 constituía el 96.6 % de la población total del país. En el censo de 1920 sumaban poco más del 90 %. Treinta años más tarde constituían el 80 % y en la actualidad poco más de 18 % de los mexicanos radican fuera del estado en que nacieron. Ambas tendencias pueden explicarse por el proceso de industrialización de las ciudades grandes y medianas, así como por la depauperación gradual del campo, ocasionada por la recesión de las actividades agropecuarias. Las entidades federativas que concentran la mayor población son Estado de México, Ciudad de México, Veracruz, Jalisco y Puebla. En cambio, las menos pobladas son Baja California Sur, Campeche y Quintana Roo. Este último estado es uno de los que presenta una tasa de crecimiento poblacional más alta en el país, debido a la industria turística de Cancún, que concentra el 50 % de la población quintanarroense.[4].
Por otra parte, la población hablante de lenguas indígenas (único criterio contemplado en la metodología de INEGI para contabilizar a la población indígena del país) cayó de 17 % en 1895 a apenas 9.4 % en 2020. Sin embargo, en números absolutos hubo un incremento, pues pasó de poco más de un millón a veintitrés en el censo de 2020. Son las comunidades indígenas las que expulsan una mayor población. La emigración indígena, hasta 1980, tuvo como destinos principales las ciudades medianas y grandes cercanas a las regiones de origen. A partir de la década de los noventa, la migración indígena cobró un rostro internacional, y hoy se dirige principalmente a Estados Unidos.[388][389].
Metropolitan areas
Metropolitan areas have traditionally been defined as the group of municipalities or cities that interact strongly with each other, normally around a city core.[390] In 2004, in a joint effort between CONAPO, INEGI and SEDESOL, it was agreed to define metropolitan areas for the first time.[391].
On October 19, 2023, the Secretariat of Agrarian, Territorial and Urban Development, CONAPO and INEGI, published the document Metrópolis of Mexico 2020, which establishes the new official guidelines to determine the metropolitan areas of the country, as well as the plans, programs and projects that will guide public policies on the matter. The new delimitation determined three definitions:[392].
• - Metropolitan area: Group of municipalities whose relationship is based on a high degree of physical or functional inter-municipal or interstate integration and the total population of the municipalities that comprise it is 200,000 inhabitants or more. The urban locality or conurbation that gives rise to the metropolitan area has 100 thousand inhabitants or more.
• - Municipal metropolis: Municipality that is not part of a metropolitan area, however, has a total population of 300,000 inhabitants or more and is economically or politically relevant to the state. The urban locality that gives rise to the municipal metropolis has 200,000 inhabitants or more.
• - Conurbation area: Group of municipalities whose relationship is based on a high degree of physical or functional inter-municipal or interstate integration. The urban locality or conurbation that gives rise to the metropolitan area has between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants.
According to this new delimitation, Mexico has 92 metropolises made up of 421 municipalities that are classified into: 48 metropolitan areas, 22 municipal metropolises and 22 suburban areas; The 48 metropolitan areas are made up of 345 municipalities in which 67.6 million people reside; 12 million live in the 22 municipal metropolises; and 2.9 million live in the 54 municipalities that make up the 22 metropolitan areas. In this way, 82.5 million people, 65.5 percent of the national population, live in these metropolises.[392].
The following is a list of the major metropolitan areas of Mexico, as reported in the 2020 census.
Most populated municipalities and districts
If the municipalities are considered as isolated entities and unrelated to metropolitan areas, according to the 2020 census data, the most populated municipality in the country is Tijuana, with 1,922,523 inhabitants,[395] followed by the municipality of Iztapalapa, with 1,835,436 inhabitants, while León occupies third place with 1,721,215 inhabitants. They are followed on the list by Puebla and Ecatepec, which have very similar populations (1,692,181 and 1,645,352 respectively).[396] It should be noted that strictly speaking Iztapalapa, which occupies second place, is a territorial demarcation of Mexico City.[note 10] At the opposite pole are several municipalities in the state of Oaxaca, whose populations do not exceed a thousand people.
ethnic groups
Mexico is ethnically diverse; According to article 2 of the Mexican Constitution, the country is defined as a multicultural nation founded on the principle of indigenous peoples.[398] The institutional discourse in the construction of the Mexican identity imaginary is based on the idea of the «mestizo nation» or, inspired by the expression of José Vasconcelos Calderón (1925), a "melting pot of all races", which identifies the construction of "mestizaje" as the basis of homogenization both culturally and from an ethnic point of view. This idea has been criticized by academic experts in studies on the construction of raciality, considering it a form of "social engineering" to determine a "racial policy" that ends up being exclusive.[399].
The predominant policy of Mexico's first century of independent life was racist. After the triumph of the Revolution, several thinkers considered that Mexico was a culturally mestizo nation, and then social policies were aimed at "assimilating" indigenous particularities to the construction of a new "national culture" of republican style. The consequences were the reduction in absolute and relative terms of people who spoke indigenous languages and Afro-Mexican peoples.
The language criterion has been used to determine the number of indigenous people in the country. However, this has been criticized, since ethnic identity is not given only by linguistic identity, as Guillermo Bonfil Batalla pointed out in his work Deep Mexico.
According to the 2020 census organized by the INEGI, in Mexico there are 23.2 million people aged three years and older who self-identify as indigenous, which is equivalent to 19.4% of the total population in that age range; of which 16.1 million do not speak indigenous languages. The total population in indigenous households in 2020 was , which is equivalent to 9.4% of the country's total population. The average size of indigenous households was 4.1 people. The 2020 Population and Housing Census identified that in Mexico there were indigenous language speakers aged three years and older, which represented 6.1% of the country's total population in that age range. Of the 7.4 million people aged three and older who speak an indigenous language, 6.4 million (87.2%) also spoke Spanish and 866 thousand (11.8%) did not. Currently, 68 indigenous languages are spoken in Mexico. The most frequent are Nahuatl (22.4%), Mayan (10.5%) and Tseltal (8.0%).[388][389].
The National Institute of Indigenous Peoples recognizes 68 indigenous ethnic groups distinguished from each other on the basis of linguistic criteria. The largest, in demographic terms, are the Nahua, the Mayan, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Otomí and the Purépecha. All of them are descendants of the ancient Mesoamerican peoples. The least numerous groups are the Kiliwa, settled in the north of Baja California, and the Lacandón of Chiapas, with just a few dozen members.[400].
Emigration
The United States is the country where the most Mexicans live after Mexico. The Mexican presence in the northern neighbor begins with the annexation of the northern half of the country's territory in 1848. Some of the Mexicans who remained on the other side of the border returned to Mexico, but others stayed there, and preserved their language and customs. They were joined by a good number of braceros, who went to settle in the United States, some temporarily, through a labor agreement between the governments of Washington and Mexico during World War II. The latest economic crises in Mexico have favored emigration to the north, and it is estimated that at the beginning of the century, about 38 million Mexicans or descendants of Mexicans lived in the United States. Most of them are concentrated in California, Texas, New Mexico and Illinois.[402][403].
The second destination is Canada, reaching position 62 in foreign communities with 126,745 Mexicans. The European country with the largest number of Mexicans is Spain, the third destination that, in 2021, had 66,092 Mexican residents, mainly for kinship, marital and educational reasons; According to the Institute of Mexicans Abroad (2021), the fourth country in the world to have the most Mexicans is Brazil, with around 24,171 individuals, mainly to carry out business, commercial, industrial and tourist activities; The fifth destination is the United Kingdom, which is the second in Europe with the largest number of Mexican residents, in 2021 it had 18,000 Mexicans; Germany is the sixth destination and one of high growth in a short time. Other important communities of Mexicans abroad are those of Bolivia, the Netherlands, Argentina, Chile, France and Japan; Recently, Mexican communities have been increasing in Costa Rica, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Venezuela and Cuba.[404].
Immigration
Immigration to Mexico was not massive as in the United States or Canada, but it received countless communities from very distant nations, for example from the Asian continent. Immigration to the country is rather compared to that of other Latin Americans such as Peru, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Paraguay. Among the main foreign communities with a strong presence in the national territory for many years are the American, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Italian, British, Cuban, French, Chinese, Russian, Lebanese, Jewish, Gypsy, Japanese, Chilean, Peruvian, Korean, Filipino, Greek, Irish, Swiss), Hungarian, Polish, Syrian, Turkish communities, among others.
Immigration in Mexico has not had an overwhelming impact on the total population compared to other countries, but there has been a considerable increase in the foreign population since the country was consolidated as an independent nation, and this has been growing in recent years. Due to its geographical position, the immigrant arrives in the national territory for family, educational, economic, climatological, cultural and transit reasons, which has led to the permanence of foreigners throughout the territory. The country has not historically sought mass immigration but it has suddenly begun to occur. In previous years, the foreign attraction of more selective immigration had been sought, to which was added an old tradition of political asylum due to religious or ideological persecution; That is why intellectuals, scientists and artists from other nations reside in this country and have contributed to various scientific and artistic fields in the country on a par with Mexicans who stand out in the same fields.
Mexico is also a country of emigrants, it is a peculiar case; 75% of emigrants seek the United States as their final destination; for every ten Mexicans who leave their country, four foreigners enter the national territory legally and illegally; and decide to stay in the country indefinitely. The National Immigration Institute and INEGI are the only institutions that compile official statistics on foreigners who have a legal stay of more than six months since they entered the country. However, the difficult control situation at national borders and customs prevents having an exact count of the entry of foreigners, their origin and their destination. 80% of foreigners living in Mexico come from neighboring countries (United States and Guatemala), other important communities come mainly from Spanish-speaking nations, of which the Spanish, Colombian, Argentinian, Cuban communities among others stand out, the rest of the immigration comes from various regions of the world. The entity with the largest foreign population is Baja California, followed by Nuevo León, Jalisco, Mexico City, Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Chiapas, State of Mexico, Baja California Sur and Sonora.
At the beginning of the century there were important changes in Mexican politics that had an impact on the increase in resident and naturalized foreigners. The country has often not been a final destination like the United States, but it has an important geographic and strategic location that has generated bilateral and international relations with the United States and Canada regarding immigration control. Globalization, multiculturalism, work and an accelerated rate of mobility of human beings will continue to increase the foreign population legally and illegally within Mexican territory.
Violence
Mexico is the second country that contributes the highest number of violent deaths to the total intentional homicides committed in the world. Official statistics from the Mexican National Public Security System "Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Pública (Mexico)") estimate that the number is 20,824 intentional homicides in 2016. Although the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) differs with the figure, as it recorded the death of 23,000 people in 2016.[406].
Mexico, in 2017, experienced its most violent year with 25,339 homicides, figures from the NGO Citizen Council for Public Security and Criminal Justice.[407] This NGO differs slightly in figures from those provided by the Executive Secretariat of the National Public Security System (SESNSP), which is 25,324 intentional homicides.[408].
Figures from 2006 to August 2019:.
• - Missing persons: 40,180.
• - Clandestine graves: 3024.
• - Unidentified bodies in forensic service: 26,000[409].
Figures as of January 2020:.
• - Missing people: 61,637[410].
Of the 115,147 reports of missing persons nationwide until 2025, between 2000 and 2024, 88 percent of the reports of missing persons are concentrated. Meanwhile, those registered between 2018 and May 2024 make up 48 percent of the total, and the year in which there was the highest number of absent people was 2023, with 10,315. [411].
Religion
Mexican State the Catholic Starting in the second half of the century, a process of introducing creeds other than Catholic ones began.[413][414][415].
The 1920s were marked by a religious conflict known as the Cristero War, in which many peasants encouraged by the clergy confronted the federal government that had decided to put into effect the constitutional laws of 1917. Among the measures contemplated by the Magna Carta were the suppression of monastic orders and the cancellation of all religious worship. The war ended with an agreement between the parties in conflict (Catholic Church and State), through which the respective fields of action were defined. Until the mid-1990s, the Mexican constitution did not recognize the existence of any religious group. In 1993, a law was enacted through which the State granted them legal personality as religious associations. This fact allowed the reestablishment of diplomatic relations with the Holy See, which the Mexican State did not recognize as a political entity.
According to the 2020 Population and Housing Census, it captured 97.9 million Catholic people, which represents the largest religious group in the country. They are followed by Protestants/Evangelical Christians, with just over 14 million people. The religion of the Jewish group is made up of almost 59 thousand believers; and those who practice religions with ethnic and Afro roots together represent just over 74 thousand people. The spiritualist religious group groups almost 37 thousand people; while the followers of the Islamic religion make up almost eight thousand practitioners. Other religious groups have a population of around 70 thousand people. Those who declared themselves believers without religious affiliation represent 3.1 million and the population without religion corresponds to 10.2 million people.[397][416][417].
According to Jacobo Grinberg-Zylberbaum (in texts edited by the National Autonomous University of Mexico), the survival of magical-religious rituals of the ancient indigenous groups is notable, not only in the current indigenous people but in the mestizos and whites "Blanco (person)") that make up rural and urban Mexican society. There is frequently a syncretism between shamanism and the Catholic tradition. Another religion of syncretism popular in Mexico (especially in recent years) is Santeria. This is mainly due to the large number of Cubans who settled in the territory after the Cuban Revolution (mainly in states such as Veracruz and Yucatán). Although Mexico was also a recipient of slaves from Africa in the 19th century, the heyday of these cults is relatively new.[418].
The proportion of Catholics is variable in different social areas. In the cities it is usually lower, although there are some indigenous regions where members of Protestant faiths reach 30%. Even in some areas of Chiapas the community of indigenous Muslims numbers about 5,000 believers. The greatest religious diversity occurs in the northern part of the country, bordering the United States, and in the southeast, whose population has a strong indigenous component. The center, and especially the Bajío region "Bajío (México)"), is an area with an almost absolutely Catholic predominance. For example, in the state of Guanajuato 90.8% declare themselves Catholic, while in Zacatecas 92.3% and in Aguascalientes 89.3% are Catholic.[397] The number of people who do not profess any religion is also important, totaling more than ten million inhabitants.
Languages
The General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples recognizes Spanish and 68 indigenous Mexican languages as national languages.[11] Spanish is the dominant language in official affairs and is the mother tongue of the majority of Mexicans. At the same time, it should be noted that this is the country that is home to the largest number of Spanish speakers in the world.[426].
7% of the population speaks an indigenous language. The government officially recognizes 68 indigenous languages—grouping together similar varieties that some linguists should consider distinct languages. Among the indigenous languages, those with the largest number of speakers are Nahuatl and Yucatec Mayan; Together, they number more than two million people.[388][389][400].
The opposite case is that of Lacandon, whose number of speakers does not reach 100. Even more evident is the case of languages such as Kiliwa, whose speakers are estimated between 10 and 50 individuals (the information varies according to the various sources), a problem that is accentuated due to the geographical isolation of the Kiliwa families. Equally significant is the case of the speakers of the Zoque Ayapaneco dialect who, due to recent research, are known to be only two individuals who also do not exercise the use of the language and therefore it is considered extinct. The SEP "Secretary of Public Education (Mexico)") has established bilingual education systems in indigenous and rural communities due to the need for communication with the Spanish-speaking majority that arose —de facto—; A considerable percentage of the indigenous population is bilingual or trilingual.[427].
Due to the proximity to the United States, the presence of English is constant, especially in urban centers, in music and in cinema; It is also very common in the business environment due to the economic activities that Mexico has with the rest of the world.
Of the languages brought to Mexico by non-Spanish European immigrants, the case of Chipileño Veneto, spoken in Chipilo, a city in Puebla founded in 1882 by Italian immigrants, draws attention. Today, almost all residents of the city use Veneto in their daily activities. Veneto is also spoken in Veracruz, in Huatusco "Huatusco (Veracruz)") and Colonia Manuel González. In Mexico there is the dialect variant most similar to the language currently spoken in Venice; Furthermore, Mexico is among the first places in number of Venetian speakers, next to Italy, Slovenia and Croatia.[428].
Another similar case is that of Plódich (or Plautdietsch), a language classified as Low Saxon (or "Low German") that is spoken in Mennonite communities in the states of Chihuahua, Zacatecas, Durango and Campeche.[429] Likewise, Romani Vlax, the language spoken in gypsy communities, is present mainly in the states of Oaxaca and Veracruz.[430].
French is also spoken in the state of Veracruz, with French colonization in this state, particularly in the towns of Jicaltepec "Jicaltepec (Veracruz)"), Perote "Perote (Veracruz)"), San Rafael "San Rafael (Veracruz)") and Mentidero. The Italian heard in Zentla "Zentla (Veracruz)"), the Riviera Maya, the Baja California peninsula and Mexico City. Another case is the German one in the area of Soconusco "Soconusco (Chiapas)"), Chiapas, where German colonies were established and in the capital of the state of Puebla, since the Volkswagen assembly plant is located there, there is also the presence of German communities in Sinaloa such as those in Mazatlán and Culiacán.[431].
Education
Mexico has one of the oldest traditions in education in the world, dating back to the Mexica empire, which was the first recorded civilization that established mandatory universal education for all its citizens,[439] although with differences depending on the sex of the individuals.[440] Although Mesoamerican cultures, especially the Mexica and Mayans, already had their own writing, language, art and culture, it was after the Spanish conquest, in the century that the Spanish language was introduced; Furthermore, since that century, an entire European-style educational system was created, replacing the Mexica system.[439].
The Constitution of Mexico establishes in its third article that the state will provide preschool, primary, secondary and upper secondary education "Higher Middle Education (Mexico)") in a secular, free and compulsory manner;
In the country, illiteracy levels have been significantly reduced in the last 50 years, going from 25.8% in 1970 to 4.7% in 2020. In terms of schooling, the percentage of attendance for each educational level with respect to the total population age group is 63.3% for preschool level, 93.8% for basic education (primary and secondary) and 45.3% in middle school. higher or higher (baccalaureates of all types and undergraduate and engineering level studies); The average level of schooling is 9.7 years, equivalent in Mexico to practically completing the first year of high school.[397][443].
On September 21, 1551, the first university in Mexico was created, which was the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico, inaugurating its courses on January 25, 1553.[444] On September 22, 1910, the National Autonomous University of Mexico was founded, with the name of the National University of Mexico,[445] considered the highest house of studies in the country,[446] and which currently has three laureates of the Nobel Prize: Octavio Paz (literature), Alfonso García Robles (peace) and Mario J. Molina "Mario Molina (chemist)") (chemistry).[447] UNAM is currently considered the second best university in Latin America.[448].
In higher education, the National Polytechnic Institute and the Metropolitan Autonomous University in the country's capital also stand out, while in the interior of the country public and private institutions stand out such as the University of Guadalajara, the Autonomous University of Nuevo León, the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, the Tecnológico de Monterrey, the University of Guanajuato, the Michoacana University of San Nicolás de Hidalgo, the Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí and the Autonomous University of Baja California, all of them ranked among the 100 best in Latin America.[448].
Although there are also other private institutions such as the Institute of Technology and Higher Studies of Monterrey, University of the Americas of Puebla, Universidad Anáhuac, Universidad La Salle "Universidad La Salle (Mexico)"), Universidad Panamericana "Universidad Panamericana (Mexico)"), Universidad Iberoamericana "Universidad Iberoamericana (Mexico City)"), Universidad Regional del Sureste, Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Universidad Tecnológica de México, Universidad del Valle de México, among others.
The educational model of technological universities is a link in the Mexican higher education system, a product of the studies carried out by the SEP "Secretaría de Educación Pública (Mexico)"), which compared the teaching schemes in Mexico with those used by developed countries.[449] By 2023 there were 169 technological universities throughout the country.[450].
Culture
En México, el ejercicio, conservación y divulgación de toda manifestación cultural, así como el acceso a las artes, están garantizados como derechos humanos por la Constitución (artículo 4.º, párrafo XIV); por lo que el estado deberá proveer los medios y facilidades para el libre desarrollo de la expresión y apreciación artísticas en la población general; y la protección de la diversidad cultural manifestada en los pueblos indígenas, los afrodescendientes, las identidades regionales y las comunidades inmigrantes, incluyendo en esto, cualquier tipo de patrimonio material o inmaterial.[451].
La cultura mexicana refleja la complejidad de la historia del país a través de la mezcla de culturas indígenas y la cultura hispana principalmente, durante los 300 años de dominio colonial español en México. La era del Porfiriato (1876-1911) estuvo marcada por el progreso económico y la paz, después de cuatro décadas de disturbios civiles y guerra; México vio el desarrollo de la filosofía y las artes, promovido por el propio presidente Porfirio Díaz. Desde entonces, como se acentuó durante la Revolución Mexicana, la identidad cultural ha tenido su fundamento en el mestizaje: la mezcla de diferentes razas y culturas. A la luz de las diversas etnias que formaron el pueblo mexicano, José Vasconcelos en La Raza Cósmica (1925) definió a México y América Latina como el crisol de todas las razas (ampliando así la definición de mestizo) no sólo biológica sino culturalmente.[452] Otros intelectuales mexicanos lucharon con la idea de «Lo Mexicano», que busca "descubrir el espíritu nacional de la cultura mexicana".[453] El premio Nobel, Octavio Paz, explora la noción de un carácter nacional mexicano en El laberinto de la soledad (1950).
National symbols
The anthem, the flag and the national coat of arms are the patriotic symbols of Mexico that represent the identity of the country and reinforce the feeling of belonging that seeks the union of those who inhabit the country. This category includes the symbols that the laws recognize as belonging to the Mexican Nation, which have changed throughout history.[454].
Music
Some renowned Mexican composers of academic music have been:[455].
In the year 1711, the opera La Partenope premiered in Mexico City, with music by Manuel de Sumaya,[456] master of the cathedral chapel together with Francisco López Capillas and Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, one of the greatest Mexican baroque composers, the special importance of this opera is that it is the first composed in North America, this opera begins the fruitful and still little studied history of Mexican operatic creation. interrupted since then for three hundred years.
The opera Guatemotzín"), by Aniceto Ortega, is the first conscious attempt to incorporate native elements to the formal characteristics of the opera. Within the Mexican operatic production of the century, the opera Agorante, rey de la Nubia") by Miguel Meneses stands out, premiered during the commemorative festivities for the birthday of Emperor Maximilian I, the operas Pirro de Aragón") by Leonardo Canales, Keofar") by Felipe Villanueva and before the entire operatic production of Melesio Morales, the most important Mexican opera composer of the century, whose works were very successful among the public in Mexico City and were premiered in Europe. In the first half of the century, Julián Carrillo, Sofía Cancino de Cuevas, José F. Vásquez among others stood out in Mexican operatic creation, all of them were relegated by the official musical historiography that only recognized the work of nationalist composers.
Since the end of the century there has been a growing interest among composers in writing opera. Among the Mexican composers from the beginning of the century who stand out with their operas, we must mention Federico Ibarra, Daniel Catán, Víctor Rasgado, Luis Jaime Cortez, Julio Estrada, Gabriela Ortiz among others.
Some notable artists have been the trumpeter Rafael Méndez "Rafael Méndez (trumpeter)"), the keyboardist and composer Juan García Esquivel, the drummer Tino Contreras, the pianist and composer Eugenio Toussaint and the drummer Antonio Sánchez "Antonio Sánchez (drummer)").[457].
Mexican music is the result of various influences. Very little is known about pre-Hispanic music, although there are numerous groups that claim this tradition throughout the country. The Deer Dance, of the Yaqui Indians of Sonora and Mayo Indians of Sonora and Sinaloa, is one of the few testimonies of pre-Hispanic music that have persisted to the present day, both in its instrumentation and in its lyrics; although there are also records of custom sounds from other ethnic groups such as the Tének of San Luis Potosí and their tigrillo dance or the Huaves of Oaxaca and their turtle sounds, etc.
In pre-Hispanic peoples, the only string instrument used was the percussion bow and the music was more rhythmic and creating atmospheres than melodic. The eeneg (monochord), from the chordophone family, is also used by the komkaak. Among the instruments that were used are the teponaztli and the huehuetl, the first being an idiophone instrument and the second a membranophone instrument; clay or reed ocarinas and flutes, bone or wooden scrapers, and bells. After the arrival of the Spanish, the indigenous people learned European music from the missionaries. Many of the Conquista dances that are practiced in the country's indigenous communities have their origins in that time; as well as certain genres associated with Catholic worship, such as the Matachines dance and the Concheros son, among others. In Tabasco, in the city of Tenosique, the carnival is celebrated every year, which many say is the strangest in the world, which begins with the pochó dance. Endemic indigenous music was also strongly influenced by the dances of slaves and maroon blacks, something that is easier to appreciate in the music of the indigenous communities of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas and Tabasco, among others.
Internationally known is the mariachi group, associated with the great figures of the Mexican ranchera song, which had its period of flowering between the decades of 1940 and 1970. Coming from western Mexico, specifically from the state of Jalisco, the mariachi was originally a folkloric and indigenous group, and its clothing had nothing to do with that of the charro (that is, the costume of the rich cattle ranchers). They performed "mariachi sones" until their arrival in Mexico City, at the beginning of the century, where they transformed (and continue to do so) and began to play "bravado songs", corridos and boleros, adapting them to their style. Lucha Reyes "Lucha Reyes (Mexican singer)") was one of the first figures to record hits accompanied by mariachi. In the so-called Golden Age of Mexican cinema, mariachis became known to the world with the films of Jorge Negrete and Pedro Infante. With Javier Solís, the bolero accompanied by mariachi became fashionable; With Miguel Aceves Mejía, the falsetto of the huapango was incorporated, and with José Alfredo Jiménez the regional values of the working class in the cities were taken up. Currently, ranchera music, accompanied by mariachi, continues to have important performers and composers who have gone beyond national borders, creating its own musical genre that year after year various singers receive awards. Among the contemporary singers most recognized for their career and popularity in many parts of the world were Vicente Fernández and Juan Gabriel.
Son is a music in which indigenous, Spanish and African influences are mixed, even Asian in some cases. It is a genre with a 6/8 rhythm, whose instrumentation varies from region to region. In addition to the already mentioned mariachi sones, there are son jarocho, son huasteco (huapango), son abajeño") and many more. Genres of later appearance are the jarana and the Yucatecan trova, which are cultivated in the Yucatan peninsula, and which received Caribbean influence (especially the Cuban son) and even Andean (Colombian bambuco); and the Chilean "Chilena (musical genre)"), originating in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca, the Chilean Costa Chica received the influence of the Chilean cueca and the Peruvian marinera.
The syrup is a continuous succession of sounds and dances (something like a Mexican "suite"). The name comes from the time when "apothecaries" (pharmacists) made remedies by combining various elements called "syrups." There are syrups from Tapatío, Mixtec, del Valle, Tlaxcalteca, Michoacano, etc.
At the beginning of the century and until the end of the 1930s, with the influence of late romanticism, the so-called "fine Mexican song" (a term not very clear) had its rise, very much in popular taste, despite the fact that it was performed by lyrical singers, such as Pedro Vargas, Álvaro Carrillo Alarcón and Nicolás Urcelay. Some of the most notable composers were Agustín Lara, María Grever and Consuelo Velázquez, influenced by the style of Mexican and Italian composers at the end of the century.
The bolero, which arrived from the Caribbean "Caribbean (zone)") to Mexico through Yucatán, became one of the public's favorite genres. During the decades from 1940 to 1960, many harmonized guitar and vocal trios, such as Los Panchos, were celebrated. Recently the bolero has regained popularity.
Among the great singers of Mexican folk music are Óscar Chávez, Tehua (María del Rosario Graciela Rayas Trejo), Gabino Palomares, author of the emblematic song The Curse of Malinche, Guillermo Velázquez and Amparo Ochoa, who base their songs on indigenous roots and at the same time compose songs dealing with problems of indigenous cultures. Erasmo Palma was a Rarámuri violinist who managed to stand out in other countries with his traditional music and songs in his mother tongue and in Spanish.
Other performers of traditional Mexican music are: Jaramar, Alejandra Robles, Susana Harp, Geo Meneses and Lila Downs, the latter singing in various languages, mainly Spanish and English. In his musical style he vindicates the roots of the Mexican indigenous peoples, including Mixtec, Zapotec, Purépecha, Mayan and Nahuatl, in addition to regional music from Mexico and the world such as ranchera music, son, Chilean, Colombian cumbia, bolero, pop-rock, jazz, bossa nova, among other rhythms and musical genres.
Endogenous music includes mariachi, norteño (grupero) and wind band. Modern music made its appearance in the 1950s, as well as the rock and roll movement in Mexico and was sung in Spanish as part of the global musical phenomenon. Mexican rock was developed through the growing urban culture in the late 1960s, which revolutionized thought and dance in a free style of expression. Mass events and festivals were born in the 1970s, as is the historical case of the Avándaro festival. From then on, contemporary artistic manifestations were censored and repressed.
Contemporary music, in addition to Mexican rock (or national rock, represented by Maná "Maná (band)"), El Tri "El Tri (band)"), Zoé, Molotov "Molotov (band)"), Caifanes "Caifanes (band)"), Café Tacvba, Julieta Venegas and Panda "Panda (band)"), among others), is represented in heavy metal, electronic, pop, punk, reggae and music alternative. Hip-hop or rap is also widely heard in Mexico, those who mainly represent it are the group Cartel de Santa, singers such as Pato Machete, C-Kan, MC Davo, and the late Adán Zapata of la Mente En Blanco "Mente En Blanco (band)"). As part of global multiculturalism in the 1980s, new styles, attitudes and sounds appeared, such as progressive rock with fusion of symphonic and ethnic instruments, heavy metal, punk, reggae, etc. These come to be combined with Mexican sounds, giving rise to various musical manifestations within the same field.
Mariachi in its most commercial form has been modified to give rise to arrangements (mariachi light) and perform songs more similar to a ballad than to a son or a ranchera song. Its interpreters are products of large television companies.
Banda music is a media and commercial phenomenon, also urban due to the incessant migration of farmers to big cities. Along with the band, the most widespread genre is northern music, with instrumentation based on basso Segundo, accordion, electric bass and drums.
Tropical music occupies a large fan space in several regions of the country, derived mainly from the arrival of tropical rhythms from the island of Cuba since the 1920s, popularized in the films of the golden age of Mexican cinema. Thus, Cha-cha-cha and Mambo invade the radio in the 1940s and 1950s, mimicking the idiosyncrasy of the Mexican. Dámaso Pérez Prado composes Mambos dedicated to educational institutions. largest in Mexico, the UNAM and the IPN, Sonora Matancera becomes an icon of Cuba in Mexico. The Mexican musician Tony Camargo is one of the greatest representatives of this music and a pioneer of it in the country, his hit "El Año Viejo" took him to the top and became a classic to this day.
However, other tropical rhythms arrived in the country, Guaguancó, Boogaloo among others, began to be recorded by Mexican artists, Sonora Santanera became the most popular by imitating the style of Cuban orchestras with tropical boleros among other rhythms, but from the 1960s, Salsa arrived from other Caribbean countries and also from the United States, and from Colombia, the miniature "Cumbia (Colombia)") arrived, all of these rhythms Together they were assimilated by Mexican musical groups forming the "tropical genre", the popularity over several decades has led to the formation of local tropical variants that have been mixed with Mexican folk music, examples such as Mexican cumbia are part of this fusion, of which the most successful group in recent years has been Los Ángeles Azules. The sonidero phenomenon and its street dances are also derived from this love of tropical music in the country.
Dance
The dance of the people of Mexico has a sacred knowledge of natural phenomena, deities, living beings and everyday life. Music or the sound of some object accompany the body movement of the human being to express their feelings about the movement of their body. The Deer Dance is a ritual dance celebrated by the Yaqui and Mayo Indians of the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora. This dance is a dramatization of the deer hunt, a cultural hero of these people, by the paskolas (hunters).
During the colony, the Spanish and Creole landowners held magnificent parties for Carnival; Mestizos and indigenous people were denied access to these festivals. During the festivals, the richest people made a display of their wealth using clothes full of decorations and fabrics.[458] As a form of satire, the segregated castes began to make costumes and celebrate to parody the whites; To do this, they used pink masks with a very prominent chin (so as not to be recognized), costumes imitating the sumptuous ones used by white people with exaggerated ornamentation of mirrors, beads and beads, as well as conical hats. Among the most notable dances are the chinelos in Morelos, the parachicos in Chiapas and the carnivals of Tlaxcala.
Also in the viceregal stage, the syrup was spread throughout much of western, central and southeastern Mexico. The reason why this name has been imposed on both the dance and the dance that accompanies it is uncertain. It has been proposed, for example, that it is a word of Arabic origin that designates happiness or celebration. The possibility has also been raised that the name of the genre comes from its nature as a mixture of several musical styles in a single piece. Carnivals are another European cultural heritage with a very marked syncretism of Hispanicity and indigenism, since carnivals were the popular expression of comparsas and pagan music to express the feelings of the people before beginning the celebrations of Holy Week; Thus, the pre-Hispanic roots are shown in the Tenosique Carnival in Tabasco, the image of the Spanish face is shown in the colonial dances and carnival troupes of chinelos in Morelos, huehues") in Tlaxcala and parachicos in Chiapas. Since 1849, the Chimalhuacán Carnival, one of the oldest in the country, has been celebrated. Other Mexican carnivals of great importance are: Tlaxcala Carnival that stands out for its Hispanic and indigenous elements.
Of all the Mexican syrups, the best known internationally is perhaps the Tapatío syrup, originally from Jalisco, and performed by the group called mariachi. There are other Mexican syrups such as Michoacán syrup, Guerrero syrup, Mixtec syrup or Mazahua syrup. In the Porfiriato, rhythms come from Europe such as polkas and mazurkas danced in Poland and the former Czechoslovakia that adapt to the popular dance of the northerners of Mexico, in the Baja California peninsula the chaveranes that come from Arkansas in the United States are danced. The waltz that came from Austria and spread among Mexican society at the time, acquiring its own identity in this country. The danzón, the Cuban son and the double step were quickly incorporated into the popular dance of Mexicans; orchestras and wind bands accompany the steps of these dances.
Literature
In the Baroque period, authors such as the playwright Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (who emigrated to Spain), Diego de Ribera, Alonso Ramírez de Vargas, Ioseph de Valdés, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora stand out.
In the classicist and enlightened period, authors such as: Diego José Abad, Francisco Javier Alegre, Francisco Javier Clavijero, Rafael Landívar, José Mariano Beristáin y Souza, José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi "The Mexican thinker" and Fray Servando Teresa de Mier shine.
In the century, romantic writers such as: José María Lacunza, Guillermo Prieto "Guillermo Prieto (politician)"), Manuel Carpio, Andrés Quintana Roo, José Joaquín Pesado, Ignacio Rodríguez Galván, Ignacio Ramírez are framed; and neoclassical or academic writers such as: Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Manuel Acuña, Manuel M. Flores, Vicente Riva Palacio, Joaquín Arcadio Pagaza, Justo Sierra, Manuel José Othón and the playwright Fernando Calderón y Beltrán.
In the century, quality authors are projected such as Amado Nervo, Alfonso Reyes, José Juan Tablada, Martín Luis Guzmán, Xavier Villaurrutia, Rodolfo Usigli, Salvador Novo, Juan Rulfo (one of the two Prince of Asturias Awards, along with Fuentes), Elena Garro, Octavio Paz,[459] José Revueltas, Rosario Castellanos, Juan José Arreola, Jaime Sabines, Carlos Monsiváis, Pita Love, Carlos Fuentes, José Agustín, José Emilio Pacheco Carlos Montemayor. Along with them, it is also possible to include the Spanish writer and filmmaker Luis Buñuel and the French novelist Marguerite Duras, who at various times in their lives have lived and edited in Spanish for Mexican publishers; in the same way that, in the political sphere, the Marxist theorist León Trotsky lived in Mexico City and edited his last work. Many of Mexico's great authors have had their work published by the Fondo de Cultura Económica.
In the narrative genre, the writer Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi is considered the author of the first novel in independent Mexico;[460] the most prominent Mexican representatives of this genre in contemporary times are Juan Rulfo, Juan José Arreola, Agustín Yáñez, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso, José Emilio Pacheco, Carlos Fuentes, Sergio Pitol (these last five mentioned, along with Paz, winners of the Prize Cervantes), José Agustín, Rosario Castellanos, Elena Garro, Juan Villoro, Parménides García Saldaña, Daniel Sada, Jorge Volpi, among others.[461].
Philosophy
The stages of philosophy in Mexico are subdivided in relation to the history of Mexico and the institutions of the Mexican State, as follows: pre-Columbian thought, colonial thought, thought of the century, Mexican Revolution and period of professionalization of philosophy (from when philosophy reaches Universities as a discipline of professional study). Within philosophy in Mexico there is a group of works considered specifically as "Mexican philosophy", one that took Mexican social and political reality as its object of study. It is within this group where many of the prominent Mexican philosophers appear, such as José Vasconcelos, Leopoldo Zea, Luis Villoro, Octavio Paz, Emilio Uranga, Samuel Ramos, Arnaldo Córdova, Carlos Pereyra, Roger Bartra, Alfredo López Austin, Bolívar Echeverría, Enrique Semo, Pablo González Casanova, Alonso Aguilar Monteverde"), Ángel Bassols Batalla, Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez, José Revueltas and Eli de Gortari.[462].
Paint
Painting is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave painting in Mexican territory is around 10,000 years old, and has been found in the caves of the Baja California peninsula. Pre-Hispanic Mexico is present in buildings and caves, in Mexica codices, in ceramics, in clothing, etc.; Examples of this are the Mayan mural paintings of Bonampak or those of Teotihuacán, those of Cacaxtla and those of Monte Albán.
Mural painting had an important flourishing during the 19th century, both in religious buildings and in lineage houses; such is the case of the convents of Acolman, Actopan "Actopan (Hidalgo)"), Huejotzingo, Tecamachalco and Zinacantepec. It is said that it was mainly indigenous painters led by friars who created them. These were also manifested in illustrated manuscripts such as the Mendocino Codex.
For a time it was believed that the first European painter to live in New Spain was Rodrigo de Cifuentes, an apocryphal artist to whom works such as El bautizo de los caciques de Tlaxcala, painting of the main altarpiece of the Ex Convent of San Francisco in Tlaxcala, were even attributed. Among the native painters was Marcos Aquino. The religiosity of the New Spanish people made painting important for the evangelization of society, the friars realized the graphic skills of the indigenous people, who enriched the baroque and mannerist style. The arrival of multiple European painters and some students from New Spain was relevant, such as Juan Correa "Juan Correa (1646-1716)"), Cristóbal Villalpando or Miguel Cabrera "Miguel Cabrera (painter)"), who made the walls and altarpieces the main source of ideological and political expression of the artists.
The painting of the century had a very marked romantic influence, landscapes and portraits were the greatest expression of this era. Hermenegildo Bustos is one of the most appreciated painters in the historiography of Mexican art. Also notable in these years were Santiago Rebull, José Salomé Pina, Félix Parra, Eugenio Landesio and his famous disciple, the landscaper José María Velasco Gómez, as well as Julio Ruelas.
Mexican painting of the century has achieved world renown with figures such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, Joaquín Clausell, Rufino Tamayo and Frida Kahlo, a generation of idealists who marked the image of modern Mexico in the face of strong social and economic criticism. The Oaxacan school quickly gained fame and prestige, dissemination of an ancient and modern culture, freedom of design is observed in terms of color and texture of the canvases and murals as a transition period between the century and the century.
Throughout history, several prominent painters of different nationalities have captured the face of Mexico in their works. Among the most notable we can mention Daniel Thomas Egerton, Carl Nebel, Thomas Moran, Edouard Manet, Remedios Varo and Leonora Carrington.[463].
Sculpture
Sculpture in Mexico is strongly manifested in the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures (Mayans, Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Aztecs) and is generally religious in nature.
Since the Spanish conquest, civil and religious sculpture has been worked on by indigenous artists, guided by masters from the peninsula, which is why some pre-Hispanic features are shown. Since the century, mestizo and Creole sculptors have been creating works with a marked influence of European classicism.
Romanticism tended to break the strict rules and models of classicism, as it pursued ideas influenced by realism and nationalism. Religious sculpture was reduced to sporadic imagery, while secular sculpture continued into portraits and monumental art of a civic nature. Between 1820 and 1880 the predominant themes were, successively: religious images, biblical scenes, allegories to the symbols of the insurgency movement and scenes and characters from pre-Cortesian history, and portraits of the ancient aristocracy, the nascent bourgeoisie and champions of the pre-revolution. The transcendent thing consisted of introducing civil motives, the first national types and glimpses of a current of self-expression.
During the century, some great exponents of Mexican sculpture were Juan Soriano, José Luis Cuevas, Enrique Carbajal Sebastián, Leonora Carrington.[464].
Architecture
The presence of human beings in Mexican territory has left important archaeological finds of utmost importance for the explanation of the habitat of primitive man and contemporary man. The Mesoamerican civilizations managed to have great stylistic and proportional development on the human and urban scale, the form evolved from simplicity to aesthetic complexity; In the north of the country, adobe and stone architecture and multi-family housing are evident, as we can see in Paquimé; and troglodyte dwelling in caves of the Sierra Madre Occidental.
Urban planning had a great development in pre-Hispanic cultures, where we can observe the magnitude of the cities of Teotihuacán, Tollan-Xicocotitlan and México-Tenochtitlan. Within environmental urban planning, the Mayan cities stand out as they are incorporated into the monumentality of their buildings with the thickness of the jungle and complex networks of roads called sakbés.
With the arrival of the Spanish, architectural theories of the Greco-Latin order with Arab influences were introduced. Due to the process of evangelization, when the first temples and monastic convents were built, their own models were planned such as mendicant monasteries, unique in architecture. The interaction between Spaniards and indigenous people gave rise to artistic styles such as the so-called tequitqui (from the Nahuatl; worker or builder). Years later, Baroque and Mannerism prevailed in large cathedrals and civil buildings, while in rural areas, haciendas or stately estates with Mozarabic tendencies were built.[465].
In the century the neoclassical movement emerged as a response to the objectives of the republican nation, one of its examples is the Hospicio Cabañas where the strict plasticity of the classical orders is represented in its architectural elements, new religious, civil and military buildings also emerge that demonstrate the presence of neoclassicism. The romanticists for a past seen through archeology show images of medieval, Islamic Europe and pre-Hispanic Mexico in the form of architectural elements in the construction of international fair pavilions, seeking an identity of the national culture. The art nouveau, and the art deco were styles introduced into the design of the Palace of Fine Arts "Palacio de Bellas Artes (Mexico City)") to mark the character of identity of the Mexican nation with Greco-Roman and pre-Hispanic symbology.
Modern architecture in Mexico has an important development in the plasticity of form and space, José Villagrán García develops a theory of form that sets the teaching pattern in many architecture schools in the country within functionalism. The emergence of the new Mexican architecture was born as a formal order of the policies of a nationalist state that sought modernity and differentiation from other nations. Juan O'Gorman was one of the first environmental architects in Mexico, developing the "organic" theory, trying to integrate the building with the landscape within the same approaches of Frank Lloyd Wright.[466] In the search for a new architecture that did not resemble the styles of the past, he achieved a joint manifestation with mural painting and landscaping.
Craft
The objects created in the hands of the artisans represent the cultural diversity and personality of the different regional communities of the country, covering various artisanal areas such as pottery and ceramics, textiles, wood, chandlery, metalwork, goldsmithing, jewelry, vegetable fibers, cardboard and paper, saddlery and leatherworking, maque and lacquer, lapidary and stonework, bone and horn, shell and snail, glass and plumeria, silver and copper, and painting and engraving. popular.[467].
Some representative crafts are:
Cinema
Mexican films from the golden age of the 1940s and 1950s are the largest examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to Hollywood of those years.[469] Mexican films were exported and exhibited throughout Latin America and Europe. The film María Candelaria (1944) by Emilio Fernández, winner of La Palme d'Or at the Cannes festival. Famous actors and actresses from this period include Dolores del Río, internationally famous actress, actress of Hollywood silent and sound cinema, image of Mexican cinema and the pioneer and most important figure of the golden age of Mexican cinema, Sara García, Pedro Armendáriz, Pedro Infante, Ignacio López Tarso, Lilia Prado, Silvia Pinal, María Félix, Katy Jurado, Jorge Negrete, Fernando Soler, Ninón Sevilla, the silent actors Ramón Novarro or Lupe Vélez and the comedians Joaquín Pardavé, Cantinflas and Tin Tan. The films from the Golden Age of Mexican cinema make up the majority of the 100 best films of Mexican cinema, a list prepared by the magazine Somos in 1994, with the participation of the most renowned critics of national cinema, such as the writer Carlos Monsiváis and the photographer Gabriel Figueroa.
It is worth mentioning the Spanish nationalized Mexican director, Luis Buñuel and his contributions to surrealist cinema: Un Chien Andalou and L'age D'Or "The Golden Age (film)"), both co-produced with Salvador Dalí and which he made in France; Later, in Mexico, he made Los Olvidados "The Forgotten (film)") (declared Memory of the World by UNESCO in 2003), which earned him its revaluation at the Cannes Festival, as well as Subida al cielo, Nazarín "Nazarín (film)") and Simon of the Desert, which also obtained worldwide recognition through Cannes. In Spain he would make Viridiana with which he won the Palme d'Or, and he would return to France to film, among others, Le charme discret de la burgeoisie with which he won the Oscar for best foreign film.
Contemporary Mexican cinema includes notable figures such as directors Arturo Ripstein, Felipe Cazals, while internationally Alejandro González Iñarritu, Guillermo del Toro and Alfonso Cuarón among others stand out, as well as the photographer Emmanuel Lubezki.
Photograph
The first Mexican daguerreotypist was called José María Díaz González, he was a student at the Academy of San Carlos, and in 1844 he opened a studio on Santo Domingo Street, Mexico City, where he made oil miniatures and daguerreotypes. Later, when the daguerreotype technique was surpassed, there are reports of the use of paper in photography in Mexico since 1851. Prices drop, the private sphere is no longer its exclusive space. Photography is also used as political promotion. Following the death of President Benito Juárez, "the company Cruces y Campa sells an edition of 20,000 copies of his portrait in business card format." At the beginning of the 20th century, Jesús Hermenegildo Abitia was a studio and outdoor photographer, and a cameraman for documentary and fiction films. Agustín Víctor Casasola was a photographer who managed to establish himself as the quintessential portraitist of the ruling class: Porfirio Díaz, Francisco Villa, Huerta, among others. The photographs of Manuel Álvarez Bravo emerge in the corners, managing to scrutinize what others cannot detect, while the photographer Nacho López was able to transfer his scripts and stories to his photographs.[470].
Gastronomy
In 2005, Mexico presented the candidacy of its gastronomy for a UNESCO World Heritage Site, being the first time that a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for this purpose.[472] However, in the first instance the result was negative, as the committee did not place adequate emphasis on the importance of corn in Mexican cuisine.[473] Finally, on November 16, 2010, Mexican gastronomy was recognized as Intangible Cultural Heritage of the UNESCO. Humanity.[474].
The origin of current Mexican cuisine is established during Spanish colonization, being a mixture of the foods of Spain and the native Indians.[475] Of indigenous origin are corn, chili (known in almost the entire Spanish-speaking world as "ají"), beans, pumpkins, avocados, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, turkey and many other fruits and condiments. Likewise, some cooking techniques used today are inherited from pre-Hispanic peoples, such as the nixtamalization of corn, cooking food in ground-level ovens, and grinding in molcajete and metate. With the Spanish came pork, beef and chicken; pepper, sugar, milk and all its derivatives, wheat and rice, citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily diet of Mexicans.
From that meeting of two culinary traditions that are millennia old, pozole, mole, barbecue "Barbacoa (Mexico)") and tamales in their current forms, chocolate, a varied range of breads, tacos, and the wide repertoire of Mexican appetizers were born. Drinks such as atole, champurrado, milk chocolate and fresh waters were born; desserts such as citron (biznaga) and the entire range of crystallized sweets, eggnog, cajeta, jericaya and the wide repertoire of delicacies created in nuns' convents in all parts of the country.
Some Mexican drinks have crossed their borders and are consumed daily in Central America, the United States, Canada, Spain and the Philippines; such is the case of Jamaica water, rice horchata, root water"), margaritas "Margarita (cocktail)") and tequila itself.
The history of the country and its links with other peoples allowed the incorporation of other cuisines into Mexican cuisine. The Nao de China, which was actually a Manila galleon, brought from the East a range of various spices and, above all, rice. A good poblano mole is unthinkable without Mexican-style rice. Arab cuisine came to Mexico indirectly through the conquering Spanish. The relationship with Latin American countries also left its mark on popular cuisine, perhaps the best-known cases are the ceviches and the Moros con Cristianos "Moors and Christians (gastronomy)") indebted to Cuban gastronomy, which have been assimilated and reworked with ingredients from Mexico.
The invasions left their mark on all of Mexican culture, and cuisine is no exception. The taste for ground beef arrived with Charlotte's Belgian army. Box bread was, according to legend, an invention of the American troops who came to Mexico in 1847. The arrival of immigrants from other latitudes throughout the century also participated in the construction of Mexican gastronomy. As an example, the Italian cheeses and polenta that are manufactured today in Chipilo, Puebla; or the French from Orizaba just like their bread and the Germans (Mennonites) from Chihuahua. The English miners of Mexico laid the foundations for paste, a puff pastry that today is filled with cheese and potatoes as well as green mole of pumpkin seeds.
Mexican Nobel Prize winners
To date, three Mexicans have received the Nobel Prize:
• - 1982 Peace: Alfonso García Robles.[477].
• - 1990 Literature: Octavio Paz.[478].
• - 1997 Chemistry: Mario Molina "Mario Molina (chemist)").[479].
Cultural heritage
In Mexico, according to information from the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), in October 2023, 49,347 archaeological sites were registered. They are those where evidence of previous human occupation has been found, and do not necessarily correspond to pre-Hispanic sites, (of which 193 are recorded in total), although most of them are. For example, in Monterrey, Nuevo León, there is a museum on industrial archeology. In Mexico City, material remains have been rescued from a colonial convent that was located on the same site where the Palace of Fine Arts "Palacio de Bellas Artes (Mexico City)" is currently located. As has been said, there are numerous sites belonging to pre-Hispanic peoples, thousands of them, although not all of them are open to the public. The area that concentrates most of these sites is the Mayan area, followed by Central Mexico and the valleys of Oaxaca.[480][481].
El deporte en México se enmarca principalmente en cinco características distintivas: la práctica masiva en forma lúdica de deportes de conjunto, especialmente fútbol y baloncesto; la inclusión de la educación física en los planes de estudio de todos los niveles; una cultura de activación física aun en vías de desarrollo frente a problemas de salud pública; la preponderante presencia del fútbol en la mayor parte del país, en términos de simpatizantes, infraestructura, impacto económico de todo tipo, profesionalización y deporte formativo; y el poco impacto de sistemas públicos o privados que generen deportistas de alto rendimiento (que limita la presencia del país como potencia regional o mundial en la mayoría de las disciplinas).[486][487].
El deporte más extendido y popular es el fútbol, tanto en su difusión, como en su práctica de conjunto; este goza de gran aceptación y popularidad en todo el país. Sin embargo, en el noroeste del territorio nacional tienen mayor presencia el baloncesto (comúnmente llamado basquetbol), el béisbol y el softbol, estos dos últimos también con muy buena aceptación en el sur del país. Es precisamente el béisbol el que ocupa el segundo lugar en número de aficionados; le sigue el boxeo, en el cual México destaca como potencia mundial; la lucha libre y el taekwondo completan la lista de deportes más seguidos.
En términos de ejercer la disciplina deportiva, se debe distinguir entre el deporte organizado (de alta competencia y federado) y el deporte aficionado (primordialmente individual y con fines de cultura física). En el primer caso, el segundo deporte (después del fútbol) más practicado a nivel nacional es el taekwondo, siguiéndole el baloncesto y el béisbol.[488] Para el segundo caso, las disciplinas de acondicionamiento físico como caminata, correr, natación o aquellas vinculadas a los gimnasios son las más practicadas.[489].
Organization
In Mexico, sports practice is recognized as a human right protected by the state, this in article 4 (paragraph XV) of the Constitution.[490] Organized sport is regulated by the General Law of Physical Culture and Sports.
The institution in charge of the promotion, administration and regulation, in terms of public policies, linked to the physical activation of the general population, and the regulation of organized sports, both amateur and professional, is the National Commission of Physical Culture and Sports (CONADE), attached to the Ministry of Public Education "Secretaría de Educación Pública (Mexico)").[491].
Traditional sports
Charrería is often called the national sport of Mexicans.[493] This sport is derived from the work of caporales on cattle ranches.[494] Its origin dates back to colonial times,[495] and the creation of the charro suit in its definitive form is attributed to Emperor Maximilian I.[496].
Some sports have an origin in the pre-Hispanic cultures of Mesoamerica. Such is the case of the Tarascan pelota"),[497] the Purépecha pelota, the Mixteca pelota of Oaxaca and the ulama "Ulama (game)") of Sinaloa, all of these linked to the ancient ball game played by the Mesoamerican peoples.[498] This ball game dramatized the movement of the stars in the sky, and in theory its current descendants do as well; of course, now the defeated teams do not They are sacrificed to the gods.
In Chihuahua, the Tarahumara perform ritual races called rarajípara") and ariweta"). The first is for men, and is played in teams that take turns to complete a journey of several kilometers through the mountains by kicking a small ball. The second is for women, and they must make the journey pushing a hoop.
Professional sports
The most popular and widely spread sport in the country is soccer or, as it is written and pronounced in the country itself, futbol.[500] The Mexican league is made up of four divisions, these are the Liga MX, the Liga de Expansión MX, the second division, and the third division; in addition to a Women's League.[501].
The Mexican team has participated in seventeen editions of the Soccer World Cup, where it has obtained notable results in the competitions it played as host in 1970 and 1986, where it reached the quarterfinals and finished in sixth place in both tournaments. Its greatest achievement at the international level has been the title of the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup, a tournament in which it hosted. This trophy makes it the only senior team, of those not affiliated with Conmebol or UEFA, to win a tournament organized directly by FIFA. Other notable performances are the runners-up of the Copa América in Ecuador 1993 and Colombia 2001, a competition in which he participated as a guest, precisely from the 1993 edition to 2016, returning in 2024.
In short, he has thirteen Concacaf Championships, one Concacaf Cup "Concacaf Cup (FIFA Confederations Cup Qualification)"), one FIFA Confederations Cup and one Concacaf Nations League. In addition, it has two regional titles in the NAFC Cup (predecessor of Concacaf) and the 1991 North American Nations Cup, being the most successful team in those competitions.
The official stadium for their host games is the Azteca stadium, home of one of the nationally recognized soccer teams: Club América; which holds the largest number of international titles with ten in total: seven in the Concacaf Champions Cup, one in the Concacaf Giants Cup and two in the Inter-American Cup.[502] At the same time, it ranks 9th in the world in terms of most international titles won.[503][504][505].
The Olympic team won the gold medal at the London 2012 Olympic Games and the bronze medal at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, while the under-17 soccer team was crowned twice in the U-17 Soccer World Cup in Peru 2005,[506] and Mexico 2011.[507] The under-20 team was runner-up at the World Championship in Tunisia. 1977,[508] and third place in Colombia 2011.[509] On the part of the women's representatives, the under-17 team was runner-up in the world in Uruguay 2018. The beach soccer team was second place in the 2007 World Cup.[510].
Another sport with a great professional tradition is baseball (written and pronounced beisbol, locally), which according to the latest surveys is the third most popular sport in Mexico.[511] Baseball is the most popular sport in the northern and southeastern regions. Mexico has several professional leagues, among which the Mexican Baseball League (LMB) and the Mexican Pacific League (LMP) stand out. The popularity of the LMB is due to the fact that the teams it has are distributed throughout almost the entire country; It is the one with the greatest tradition, as it was founded in 1925;[512] and has provided the majority of Mexican players who reach the Major Leagues, it is affiliated with the Minor Leagues of the United States under the 'AAA' classification and has its own talent development academy located in El Carmen "El Carmen (Nuevo León)"), Nuevo León; It is currently made up of 18 teams divided into two zones (North Zone "North Zone (LMB)") and South Zone "South Zone (LMB)").
Mexico's participation in the world
Despite not having an established Olympic committee, Mexico participated for the first time in the Olympic Games in Paris 1900. Three brothers: Manuel, Pablo and Eustaquio Escandón y Barrón (accompanied by William Hayden Wright) participated in the Polo Tournament "Polo (sport)") obtaining third place in "The Grand Prix of the Exhibition". This victory is officially considered Mexico's first Olympic medal.[549].
Mexico was the first country in Latin America and the Spanish-speaking world to host the Summer Olympic Games in 1968. The opening ceremony was held on October 12, in commemoration of the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the so-called "New World." Among the novelties presented by the Organizing Committee is the fact that the so-called "Olympic flame" was lit for the first time by a woman; Enriqueta Basilio, the Baja California gazelle, track athlete. In the Olympic Games, his best participation was precisely on this occasion, when he won nine medals, three of each metal. Perhaps the most remembered of them are those of Felipe "El Tibio" Muñoz, gold in swimming; and that of Sergeant José Pedraza, who won silver in walking in a disputed race against the Soviets Vladimir Golubnichy and Nikolav Smaga.
Some of the memorable figures of Mexican Olympics are:
• - Joaquín Capilla (diver "Jumping (swimming)"), the top Mexican Olympic medalist with four (one gold in the 10 m platform in Melbourne 1956, one silver in the 10 m platform in Helsinki 1952 and two bronze medals in the 10 m platform and 3 m springboard in London 1948 and Melbourne 1956, respectively), and the first to win a medal in three editions of the summer event.
• - Humberto Mariles Cortés in horse riding, who is the only Mexican winner of two gold medals, in the individual jumping and team jumping events in London 1948 (together with Rubén Uriza Castro and Alberto Valdés Ramos), in addition to the bronze medal in the three-day team event, making him the only Mexican to have won three medals in the same Olympic event.
• - Ernesto Canto, who by winning the gold medal in the world athletics championship in Helsinki 1983 and the gold medal in Los Angeles 1984, became the first Mexican athlete to be an Olympic and world champion, in addition to being the only winner of all the official competitions of the so-called Olympic cycle (Central American Games, Pan American Games, World Championships and the Olympic Games), by winning gold in Havana 1982 and Caracas 1983.
• - María del Rosario Espinoza would be the second to win the double crown with the world championship in Beijing 2007 and the Olympic championship in Beijing 2008, and the second to win all official competitions, with gold in Mayagüez 2010 and Guadalajara 2011, although unlike Canto, she did not do so in the same Olympic cycle. She is also the second Mexican athlete (after Joaquín Capilla) to obtain a medal in three Olympic Games.
• - Portal:Mexico. Content related to Mexico.
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category about Mexico.
• - Wikinews has news related to Mexico.
• - Wikiquote hosts famous phrases from or about Mexico.
• - Wikisource contains original works from or about Mexico.
• - Wikiviajes hosts travel guides from or about Mexico.
• - Official site of the Presidency of the Republic.
• - Official site of the Senate of the Republic.
• - Official site of the Chamber of Deputies.
• - Official site of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation.
• - Official site of the National Institute of Statistics and Geography.
• - Official site of «Data México» of the Ministry of Economy.
• - Site of the Official Gazette of the Federation.
• - Digital library of federal laws on the official site of the Chamber of Deputies.
References
[1] ↑ Real Academia Española. «mexicano». Diccionario de la lengua española (23.ª edición).: https://dle.rae.es/mexicano
[11] ↑ a b c Cámara de Diputados. «Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas». Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma publicada el 18 de octubre de 2023».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGDLPI.pdf
[13] ↑ Real Academia Española y Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española (2023). «México». Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (2.ª edición, versión provisional).: https://www.rae.es/dpd/M%C3%A9xico
[14] ↑ «Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma (no es necesario actualizar el enlace, pues este lo hace automáticamente cuando se presente una nueva reforma).».: http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf_mov/Constitucion_Politica.pdf
[18] ↑ «Artículo 44 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «La reforma a este artículo en 2016, así como al 43 y 122 de la misma constitución, y el texto vigente del artículo 1.º de la Constitución local, afirman su carácter de entidad federativa, mas no de estado, en virtud de su condición de capital de la república.».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/2020-06/CPEUM-044.pdf
[48] ↑ G. Monzón, Luis (et. al.). «¿República Mexicana o Estados Unidos Mexicanos?» (PDF). Ciudad de México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Consultado el 6 de julio de 2018. Frecuentemente, en términos populares e incluso oficiales, el término se utiliza indistintamente del marcado por la Constitución. Sin embargo, el uso de este es históricamente polémico y a la vez, culturalmente válido y correcto.: https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/7/3448/6.pdf
[52] ↑ «U ALMEJEN NOJ AꞋALMAJTꞋAANIL U MÚUCHꞋ PÉETLUꞋUMILOꞋOB MÉXICO | U Noj Aꞌalmajtꞌaanil México ichil a tꞌaan». inali.gob.mx. Consultado el 29 de noviembre de 2022.: https://www.inali.gob.mx/bicen/pdf/CPEUM_maya.pdf
[53] ↑ Por ejemplo, Francisco Xavier Clavijero comienza su Historia antigua de México y de su conquista hablando del país del Anáhuac en el primer capítulo, pero a lo largo de él se referirá indistintamente al territorio mexicano o reino de los mexicanos a una amplia porción de Nueva España que incluía no solo los dominios de los mexicas, sino también territorios mayas y purépechas.
[54] ↑ Márquez Morfín y Hernández Espinoza, 2005: 14.
[55] ↑ Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Los orígenes mexicanos — México en la etapa lítica (José Luis Lorenzo)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 104-123. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[61] ↑ Pedro Tomé (junio de 2010). «Redescubriendo la Gran Chichimeca: Revalorización regional y antropología social en la recuperación de una pluralidad étnica mexicana». Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/63201/1/Gran_Chichimeca.pdf
[66] ↑ Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Formación y desarrollo de Mesoamérica — El mundo olmeca (Ignacio Bernal)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 129-136. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[67] ↑ a b c Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Formación y desarrollo de Mesoamérica — La época clásica (Ignacio Bernal)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 137-147. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[71] ↑ a b Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Formación y desarrollo de Mesoamérica — La época mexicana (Ignacio Bernal)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 147-150. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[74] ↑ «La historia de la migración de ese grupo indígena que salió de Aztlán —lugar de lo blanco— para fundar México-Tenochtitlán, ha sido contada de diversas formas, tanto por los mismos protagonistas como por los conquistadores y, en épocas actuales, por historiadores mexicanos y extranjeros; por ello no existe un consenso para determinar la fecha exacta de cuando este pueblo se estableció en medio del lago de Tetzcoco. Se ha determinado 1325; sin embargo, esto no es seguro por dos causas: primero, porque las fuentes documentales nos dan varias fechas y, segundo, porque aún existe polémica sobre el cómputo del tiempo utilizado por los mexicas en su calendario. Entre las excepciones más serias descalificando ese año, refirió, está la de Nigel Davies, quien basándose en cómputos hechos por los historiadores Wigberto Jiménez Moreno y Paul Kirchhoff, establece como fecha 1345», en «En nuestro país se exalta el pasado mexica y se discrimina a los indígenas actuales», Boletín UNAM-DGCS-553, México, 16 de julio de 2003, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
[75] ↑ Ricky, Donald (1 de enero de 2009). Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere (en inglés). Native American Book Publishers. ISBN 9781878592736. Consultado el 4 de mayo de 2017.: https://books.google.com.mx/books?id=Hx98AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA1465
[80] ↑ Para un estudio sobre este cálculo véase De Rojas, José Luis. "Cuantificaciones referentes a la ciudad de Tenochtitlán en 1519", en Historia Mexicana, El Colegio de México, vol. 66, n.º 4 (264). México, El Colegio de México.: http://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/1946
[98] ↑ Gerhard, Peter (1986). Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas e Instituto de Geografía, ed. Geografía Histórica de la Nueva España 1519-1821 (Primera edición). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-0293-2.
[99] ↑ Gerhard, Peter (1996). Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, ed. La frontera norte de la Nueva España (Primera edición). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-2255-0.
[100] ↑ Gerhard, Peter (1991). Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas e Instituto de Geografía, ed. La frontera sureste de la Nueva España (Primera edición). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-1784-0.
[120] ↑ Archivo del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM. «Leyes Mexicanas — Año 1821 (Decreto del 17 de noviembre de 1821. Sobre convocatoria á Cortes.)» (PDF). Consultado el 10 de septiembre de 2022. «Página 14 del archivo.».: https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/2/616/16.pdf
[133] ↑ Vázquez, Josefina Zoraida (1998). Colegio de México y Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, ed. México al tiempo de su guerra con Estados Unidos (1846-1848) (Segunda edición). México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 968-16-5693-8. Consultado el 27 de noviembre de 2024.: https://muse.jhu.edu/book/74393/pdf
[141] ↑ «Las doce riendas». Porfirio Díaz: Místico de la autoridad. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. 1987. pp. 31-54. ISBN 9789681627805. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[156] ↑ Instituto Nacional Electoral (2018). «Resultados del cómputo a nivel distrito y entidad del Proceso Electoral Federal 2017-2018. Presidencia». Consultado el 29 de noviembre de 2018.: https://www.ine.mx/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Presidente.zip
[157] ↑ BBC Mundo (2 de julio de 2018). «López Obrador gana en México: ¿por qué es histórico el triunfo de AMLO en la elección presidencial mexicana?». Consultado el 9 de febrero de 2019.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-44678613
[158] ↑ Alejandro Páez Varela, Álvaro Delgado, Héctor Alejandro Quintanar y Fabrizio Mejía Madrid (23 de septiembre de 2024). «AMLO: avances, pendientes: ¿Salud, seguridad, educación? ¿Qué deja el sexenio y qué queda a deber?». Sin Embargo. Consultado el 1 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.sinembargo.mx/23-09-2024/4553733
[160] ↑ Daniel Pardo (30 de septiembre de 2024). «3 asignaturas pendientes que deja AMLO al abandonar la presidencia de México (y qué propone Sheinbaum para solucionarlas)». BBC Mundo. Consultado el 1 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cv22e6g3x59o
[167] ↑ «Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma publicada el 16 de julio de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOAPF.pdf
[168] ↑ a b c «Ley Orgánica del Ejército y Fuerza Aérea Mexicanos». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 20 de agosto de 2025. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 16 de julio de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOEFAM.pdf
[169] ↑ a b c «Ley Orgánica de la Armada de México». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 5 de enero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 1.º de diciembre de 2023».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOAM.pdf
[170] ↑ Myers Gallardo, Alfonso (2017). «Reelección en México ¿dónde estamos? ¿a dónde vamos?». En Lugo, Alberto y Cienfuegos, David, ed. Cien años de evolución constitucional. Retos y dilemas de la Constitución mexicana. México, Cámara de Diputados: Tirant lo Blanch. p. 259-278. ISBN 978-84-9143-935-6.: http://biblioteca.diputados.gob.mx/janium/bv/lxiii/ciena_evo_cons.pdf
[181] ↑ a b c «Artículo 94 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto original, historial de reformas y texto vigente.».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/CPEUM-094.pdf
[182] ↑ «Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial de la Federación». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 3 de diciembre de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 28 de noviembre de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOPJF.pdf
[183] ↑ «Artículos del 2 al 20 de la Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial de la Federación». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de enero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la publicación de la nueva ley el 20 de diciembre de 2024».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOPJF.pdf
[195] ↑ «Iniciativa con Proyecto de Decreto por el que se reforman, adicionan y derogan diversas disposiciones de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, en materia de reforma al Poder Judicial». Sistema de Información Legislativa de la Secretaría de Gobernación. 5 de febrero de 2024. Consultado el 6 de enero de 2025.: http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Archivos/Documentos/2024/02/asun_4696973_20240205_1707785928.pdf
[196] ↑ «DECRETO por el que se reforman, adicionan y derogan diversas disposiciones de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, en materia de reforma del Poder Judicial.». Cámara de Diputados. 15 de septiembre de 2024. Consultado el 6 de enero de 2025.: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/ref/dof/CPEUM_ref_258_15sep24.pdf
[198] ↑ «Artículo 94 de la Ley General de Partidos Políticos». Consultado el 5 de enero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 24 de noviembre de 2023».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGPP.pdf
[202] ↑ «Párrafo X del Artículo 89 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto original, historial de reformas y texto vigente.».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/CPEUM-089_2.pdf
[205] ↑ Mendoza Sánchez, Juan Carlos (2014). Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones en México, ed. Cien años de política exterior mexicana (Segunda edición). México: Grupo Editorial Cenzontle. ISBN 978-607-9093-17-4. Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2025.: https://www.inehrm.gob.mx/recursos/Libros/Cien_Interiores_Final.pdf
[206] ↑ Historia de las relaciones internacionales de México, 1821-2010. México: Dirección General de Acervo Histórico - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 2011. ISBN 978-607-446-024-7. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[211] ↑ Las relaciones diplomáticas de México. México: Plaza y Valdés Editores. 2001. ISBN 968-36-8090-9. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[212] ↑ Alicia Frohmann. «De Contadora al Grupo de los Ocho: El reaprendizaje de la concertación política regional». JSTOR. Consultado el 12 de abril de 2025.: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/41391311.pdf
[218] ↑ «Ley de Seguridad Nacional». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 5 denero de 2025. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 20 de mayo de 2021».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LSN.pdf
[222] ↑ «Artículos 29 y 30 de la Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma publicada el 16 de julio de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOAPF.pdf
[223] ↑ «Presupuesto de Egresos de la Federación para el Ejercicio Fiscal 2025 (página 32)». Cámara de Diputados. 1 de enero de 2025. Consultado el 2 de enero de 2025. «Sumatoria del gasto programable para los ramos de Defensa Nacional y Marina».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/PEF_2025.pdf
[224] ↑ a b «Presupuestos de Egresos de la Federación 2025: Analítico de Plazas y Remuneraciones: Ramo 07 Defensa Nacional». México: Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público. 1 de enero de 2025. Consultado el 3 de enero de 2025. «De acuerdo con la clave de nivel de las series EM0200 a EM2000, los elementos registrados son considerados personal militar del Ejército Mexicano (275 443); de la serie EM2200 a EM2400 es considerado personal militar de la Fuerza Aérea Mexicana (30 516 plazas); y los niveles que no comienzan con la serie EM (8968 en total) son considerados civiles que laboran tanto en la Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional, como en el Instituto de Seguridad Social para las Fuerzas Armadas, en el Aeropuerto Felipe Ángeles, el Tren Maya y el Corredor Interoceánico; que en total dan a todo el ramo de Defensa Nacional 314 927 plazas».: https://www.ppef.hacienda.gob.mx/work/models/GYPPF25Q/PPEF2025/lurbgnma/docs/07/r07_appcd.pdf
[225] ↑ «Presupuestos de Egresos de la Federación 2025: Analítico de Plazas y Remuneraciones: Ramo 13 Marina». México: Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público. 1 de enero de 2025. Consultado el 3 de enero de 2025. «De acuerdo con la clave de nivel de las series AM0200 a AM0800, los elementos registrados son considerados personal militar de la Armada de México (92 043); y los niveles que no comienzan con la serie AM son considerados civiles que laboran en la Secretaría de Marina (3507); que en total dan a todo el ramo de Marina 95 550 plazas».: https://www.ppef.hacienda.gob.mx/work/models/GYPPF25Q/PPEF2025/lurbgnma/docs/13/r13_appcd.pdf
[228] ↑ Oficina del Alto Comisionado para los Derechos Humanos (lista actualizada). «Lista de todos los Estados Miembros de las Naciones Unidas que son parte o signatarios en los diversos instrumentos de derechos humanos de las Naciones Unidas» (web) (en inglés).: https://indicators.ohchr.org/
[229] ↑ Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales, vigilado por el Comité de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales.
[230] ↑ Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos, vigilado por el Comité de Derechos Humanos.
[231] ↑ Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial, vigilada por el Comité para la Eliminación de Discriminación Racial.
[232] ↑ Convención Internacional para la protección de todas las personas contra las desapariciones forzadas.
[233] ↑ Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer, vigilada por el Comité para la Eliminación de Discriminación contra la Mujer.
[234] ↑ Convención contra la tortura y otros tratos o penas crueles, inhumanos o degradantes, vigilada por el Comité contra la tortura.
[235] ↑ Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño, vigilada por el Comité de los Derechos del Niño.
[236] ↑ Convención internacional sobre la protección de los derechos de todos los trabajadores migratorios y de sus familiares. La convención entrará en vigor cuando sea ratificada por veinte estados.
[237] ↑ Convención sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad, vigilado por el Comité sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad.
[269] ↑ Cecilia Barría (19 de mayo de 2023). «Por qué el "superpeso" mexicano es la moneda más líquida de América Latina y qué tiene que ver esto en su fortaleza frente al dólar». BBC Mundo. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2023.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-65640818
[272] ↑ Redacción (24 de febrero de 2023). «EL DINAMISMO DE LOS MOTORES ECONÓMICOS DE MÉXICO». IMCO. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2023. - [https://imco.org.mx/el-dinamismo-de-los-motores-economicos-de-mexico/#:~:text=En%202022%2C%20la%20econom%C3%ADa%20mexicana,de%20(%2D)8.5%25%20en%202020.](https://imco.org.mx/el-dinamismo-de-los-motores-economicos-de-mexico/#:~:text=En%202022%2C%20la%20econom%C3%ADa%20mexicana,de%20(%2D)8.5%25%20en%202020.)
[296] ↑ «Principales indicadores del sector forestal en México». Comisión Nacional Forestal. 2021. Consultado el 15 de octubre de 2023.: https://databosques.cnf.gob.mx/inicio/
[299] ↑ «Madera, Carbón Vegetal y Manufacturas de Madera». Secretaría de Economía. 2021. Consultado el 15 de octubre de 2023. - [https://www.economia.gob.mx/datamexico/es/profile/product/wood-charcoal-wood#:~:text=Los%20principales%20or%C3%ADgenes%20comerciales%20de,Canad%C3%A1%20(US%24128M).](https://www.economia.gob.mx/datamexico/es/profile/product/wood-charcoal-wood#:~:text=Los%20principales%20or%C3%ADgenes%20comerciales%20de,Canad%C3%A1%20(US%24128M).)
[313] ↑ «Producción industrial de México creció un 3.3 % en 2022». Forbes. 10 de febrero de 2023. Consultado el 15 de octubre de 2023. - [https://www.forbes.com.mx/produccion-industrial-de-mexico-crecio-un-3-3-en-2022/#:~:text=EFE.,Estad%C3%ADstica%20y%20Geograf%C3%ADa%20(Inegi).](https://www.forbes.com.mx/produccion-industrial-de-mexico-crecio-un-3-3-en-2022/#:~:text=EFE.,Estad%C3%ADstica%20y%20Geograf%C3%ADa%20(Inegi).)
[329] ↑ «Human Development Reports» (en inglés). United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Consultado el 16 de julio de 2018.: http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/IHDI
[332] ↑ «HIGH ALTITUDE WATER CHERENKOV / EL OBSERVATORIO DE RAYOS GAMMA HAWC». www.inaoep.mx. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2021.: https://www.inaoep.mx/~hawc/sitio/gtm.php
[334] ↑ «Fracción V del artículo 3 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto original, historial de reformas y texto vigente».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/CPEUM-003_2.pdf
[339] ↑ Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual (2024). «Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship». www.wipo.int (en inglés). p. 18. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. Consultado el 6 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/
[342] ↑ «México, estancado en porcentaje del PIB que destina a investigación y desarrollo». IBERO. 28 de noviembre de 2017. Consultado el 14 de noviembre de 2021.: https://ibero.mx/prensa/href
[344] ↑ C.V, DEMOS, Desarrollo de Medios, S. A. de (10 de mayo de 2009). «La Jornada: México destina sólo 0.4 % del PIB a la investigación científica». www.jornada.com.mx. Consultado el 14 de noviembre de 2021.: https://www.jornada.com.mx/2009/05/10/economia/028n1eco
[351] ↑ Papanicolaou, George N. (1933-05). «The sexual cycle in the human female as revealed by vaginal smears». American Journal of Anatomy (en inglés) 52 (S1): 519-637. ISSN 0002-9106. doi:10.1002/aja.1000520402. Consultado el 8 de enero de 2023. «A preliminary report on the same subject was published by [Ramirez] in 1922, but unfortunately I have been unable to obtain the article. […] Ramirez arrived at the same conclusion that I had in 1925, that pregnancy may be diagnosed through the cytological characteristics of vaginal smears.».: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aja.1000520402
[380] ↑ «Contenidos de Radio y Televisión». Dirección General de Radio, Televisión y Cinematografía. Consultado el 16 de octubre de 2023.: https://dgrtc.segob.gob.mx/es/DGRTC/Contenidos
[399] ↑ Manrique, Linnete (2016). «Dreaming of a cosmic race: José Vasconcelos and the politics of race in Mexico, 1920s-1930s». Cogent Arts & Humanities (en inglés). Londres. Consultado el 16 de abril de 2018.: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311983.2016.1218316
[400] ↑ a b Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas. «CATÁLOGO DE LAS LENGUAS INDÍGENAS NACIONALES». Consultado el 20 de octubre de 2023.: https://www.inali.gob.mx/clin-inali/
[419] ↑ Suárez, Hugo José (2008). «Peregrinación barrial de la Virgen de San Juan de los Lagos en Guanajuato». Archives de sciences sociales des religions (142): 87-111. Consultado el 26 de agosto. «La imagen venerada de la Virgen de San Juan de los Lagos se encuentra en el santuario que se ubica en la cabecera municipal de San Juan de los Lagos, en Jalisco. Anualmente en enero y febrero se congregan millones de visitantes que acuden desde todos los rincones del país en peregrinaciones multitudinarias. La tradición tiene más de 390 años. Después de la Virgen de Guadalupe en la Ciudad de México, es el segundo culto de mayor confluencia en México. (Nota al pie 9, p. 92).».: https://assr.revues.org/pdf/14173
[420] ↑ Pilgrimage: from the Ganges to Graceland : an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by Linda Kay Davidson, David Martin Gitlitz 2002 ISBN 1-57607-004-2 page 571.
[428] ↑ «Chipilo, el pueblo italiano de México donde sobrevive "una forma de hablar única en el mundo"». BBC Mundo. 14 de septiembre de 2023. Consultado el 20 de octubre de 2023.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cn0e8jy291vo
[430] ↑ «Pangloss Collection | Romani_(Northern_Vlax,_Mexico) corpus». pangloss.cnrs.fr. Consultado el 23 de marzo de 2025. - [https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Romani_(Northern_Vlax,_Mexico)?lang=en&mode=normal&seeMore=true](https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Romani_(Northern_Vlax,_Mexico)?lang=en&mode=normal&seeMore=true)
[437] ↑ «Asociación de Intérpretes y Traductores de Lengua de Señas de Baja California». Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2012. .: http://interpretesbc.blogspot.com/
[452] ↑ Vasconcelos, José (1997). La Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race). Didier T. Jaén (translator). The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-8018-5655-6. (requiere registro).: https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160
[453] ↑ Phelan, John Leddy (1 de agosto de 1956). «México y lo Mexicano». Hispanic American Historical Review (en inglés) 36 (3): 309-318. JSTOR 2509215. doi:10.1215/00182168-36.3.309.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.jstor.org/stable/2509215
[454] ↑ «Ley sobre el Escudo, la Bandera y el Himno Nacionales». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 1 de abril de 2024».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LEBHN.pdf
[460] ↑ Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (13 de noviembre de 2010). «José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi prefiguró en su obra el México Independiente». Consultado el 13 de enero de 2014.: http://www.conaculta.gob.mx/detalle-nota/?id=9386#.UtRqvY7LWb4
[481] ↑ «Red de zonas arqueológicas del INAH». Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Consultado el 20 de octubre de 2023.: https://inah.gob.mx/zonas-arqueologicas
[484] ↑ «Artículo 74 de la Ley Federal del Trabajo». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 21 de febrero de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LFT.pdf
[491] ↑ «Ley General de Cultura Física y Deporte». 7 de junio de 2013. Consultado el 28 de diciembre de 2022. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 20 de diciembre de 2022».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGCFD.pdf
[501] ↑ «Estatuto Social de la Federación Mexicana de Futbol». FMF.mx. 15 de julio de 2021. Archivado desde el original el 12 de diciembre de 2022. Consultado el 11 de diciembre de 2022. «Artículo 10: Los afiliados del sector profesional se integran por Liga MX, Ascenso MX, Liga Premier y Liga TDP».: https://web.archive.org/web/20221212030618/https://fmf.mx/docs/Reglamentos/Estatutos_FMF_2021.pdf
[502] ↑ Raúl Torre (2007). Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF), ed. «The Best Clubs of Central and North America» (en inglés). Consultado el 16 de mayo de 2008.: http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/torre-cam-best.html
[505] ↑ Oscar Guevara (26 de septiembre de 2024). «América ha ganado 40 títulos oficiales en 8 diferentes torneos». Liga MX. Consultado el 29 de noviembre de 2024.: https://ligamx.net/cancha/detallenoticia/44922
[523] ↑ «Historia del Voleibol en México - Panorama del Voleibol en México y en el mundo». Consultado el 17 de septiembre de 2018.: http://www.voleibol.mx/historia.html
[552] ↑ El término Presidenta, está oficializado en dos documentos de mandato constitucional; el Dictamen de la resolución final del Tribunal Electoral, respecto a la declaratoria de «Presidenta electa», para la candidata ganadora de las elecciones de 2024; y el Bando solemne que emite la Cámara de Diputados para divulgar la declaratoria de «Presidenta electa». Además está debidamente validado en las normas del idioma español por la RAE y el DPD.: https://www.te.gob.mx/EE/SUP/2024/EEP/1/SUP_2024_EEP_1-1498426.pdf
[553] ↑ No aplica a nivel federal, si no únicamente a nivel estatal, específicamente en estados de la República situados al norte del país (a excepción de Sonora) y cuyos municipios más meridionales poseen frontera con los Estados Unidos o lo son cercanos a ella, siendo el UTC-07:00 en todo el estado de Baja California; UTC-06:00 en los municipios de Manuel Benavides, Ojinaga y Coyame del Sotol (en el oeste de Chihuahua); UTC-05:00 en los municipios de Guadalupe, Praxedis G. Guerrero, Juárez, Ascensión y Janos (en el oriente de Chihuahua), Acuña, Allende, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jiménez, Morelos, Nava, Ocampo, Piedras Negras, Villa Unión y Zaragoza (en Coahuila), Anáhuac (en Nuevo León), y Camargo, Guerrero, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, Matamoros, Mier, Miguel Alemán, Nuevo Laredo, Reynosa, Río Bravo y Valle Hermoso (en Tamaulipas).
[554] ↑ En el español de España se utiliza también la grafía Méjico. Según el Diccionario panhispánico de dudas de la Real Academia Española, aunque también es correcta la forma con j, se recomienda la grafía con x, por ser la usada en el propio país y, mayoritariamente, en el resto de Hispanoamérica.[13].
[555] ↑ A la letra, Clavijero dice:[36]
[556] ↑ Esto incluyó lo que actualmente es México, más los actuales estados estadounidenses de California, Nevada, Colorado, Utah, Nuevo México, Arizona, Texas, Oregón, Washington, Florida y partes de Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Kansas, Oklahoma y Luisiana; así como la parte suroeste de la Columbia Británica del actual Canadá; más la capitanía general de Guatemala (que incluía el estado de Chiapas, los actuales países de Guatemala, Belice, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua); más la Capitanía General de Cuba (actuales Cuba, República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, Trinidad y Tobago y Guadalupe); la provincia de Venezuela, la actual provincia de Bocas del Toro en Panamá y así como, finalmente, la Capitanía General de Filipinas (comprendiendo las Filipinas, las islas Carolinas y las islas Marianas, en el océano Pacífico, en Asia y Oceanía). Además de 1626 hasta 1642 los españoles se establecieron en el norte de la isla de Taiwán (llamada por los portugueses Formosa; «Hermosa» en castellano) y su administración recayó en la Nueva España.
[557] ↑ Los territorios correspondientes a los siguientes condados: Colorado →Moffat, Routt, Río Blanco, Garfield, Eagle, Mesa, Pitkin, Delta, Gunnison, Montrose, Ouray, Hinsdale, San Miguel, Dolores, San Juan, Montezuma, La Plata, Mineral, Archuleta, Río Grande, Conejos, Huérfano, Costilla, Las Ánimas y Baca; Kansas → Morton, Stevens, Meade y Seward; Oklahoma → Cimarrón, Texas y Beaver; Wyoming → Lincoln, Uinta, Sweetwater y Carbón.
[558] ↑ Ortiz Rubio, Rodríguez, Cárdenas, Ávila Camacho, Alemán Valdés, Ruiz Cortines, López Mateos, Díaz Ordaz, Echeverría, López Portillo, de la Madrid, Salinas y Zedillo.
[559] ↑ Este artículo versa sobre los contenidos de la fuente principal, la Constitución mexicana; sin embargo, de acuerdo al artículo tercero transitorio del Decreto de reforma constitucional al Poder Judicial de la Federación, los ministros que resulten electos en los comicios extraordinarios de 2025, de manera excepcional durarán ocho y once años, por lo que vencerá el año 2033 y 2036 para cuatro y cinco de ellos, respectivamente. Los periodos que correspondan a cada cargo se determinarán en función del número de votos que obtenga cada candidatura, correspondiendo un periodo mayor a quienes alcancen mayor votación. Salvo en el caso de las ministras en funciones que fueron electas en dicho proceso, que solo cumpliran el periodo para el que fueron designadas originalmente (15 años), con una prórroga de su mandato hasta la siguiente elección judicial.: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/ref/dof/CPEUM_ref_258_15sep24.pdf
[560] ↑ Para las entidades erigidas en 1823 y 1824, las fechas de creación corresponden a las de la instalación de los congresos locales y las consecuentes ratificaciones del Acta Constitutiva de la Federación Mexicana. No obstante, todos los estados federados y los territorios de administración federal ya habían sido constituidos como provincias del Imperio Mexicano, tal y como se menciona en la primera división política oficial, producto de la adhesión al decreto del 17 de noviembre de 1821 para formar las Cortes.
[561] ↑ Iztapalapa no es un municipio, sino una demarcación política de la Ciudad de México, subdivisiones homólogas al municipio en el territorio capitalino, aunque con atribuciones jurídicas y políticas más acotadas; caso similar al de la Ciudad de México, que posee un estatuto político distinto al de los estados federados en la Unión. El INEGI lo cuenta en la lista de los municipios más poblados.
[562] ↑ Incluye: Anabautista/Menonita, Anglicano/Episcopal, Bautista, Luterana, Metodista, Presbiteriana; Otras protestantes como Amistad Cristiana, Asambleas de Dios, Iglesia Apostólica de la Fe en Cristo Jesús, Iglesia de Dios, Iglesia de Dios de la Profecía, Iglesia de Dios en México del Evangelio, Completo Príncipe de Paz; Otras asociaciones pentecostales como Iglesia Cristiana Interdenominacional, Iglesia del Dios Vivo, Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad, la Luz del Mundo, Iglesia de Cristo, Iglesia del Nazareno, Movimientos Sincréticos Judaicos Neoisraelitas; y otras cristianas evangélicas como Adventistas del Séptimo Día, Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días (Mormones), Testigos de Jehová, Cristianas Evangélicas y Pentecostales
In macroeconomic terms, by gross domestic product (GDP) it is the twelfth world economy and the thirteenth by purchasing power parity "Annex: Countries by GDP (PPP)") (PPP) in 2024; On a regional scale, it is the second economy in Latin America and the fourth on the continent.[24][25] According to the 2024 UN human development report, it has a high human development index of 0.789, and ranks 77th in the world.[26].
Mexico is also one of the countries with the greatest diversity of climates in the world, considered one of the seventeen megadiverse countries on the planet, it is home to 10-12% of the world's biodiversity[27] and is home to more than 12,000 endemic species.[28].
According to the World Tourism Organization, Mexico is the main tourist destination in Latin America and the sixth most visited in the world in 2024.[29] This is largely due to the thirty-six cultural or natural sites, as well as intangible elements, which are considered by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, and in this sense it is the first on the continent.[30].
Place names
Mexico is a place name of Nahuatl origin whose meaning is disputed. It derives from the Nahuatl word Mexihko[31] (AFI: ), which designated the capital of the Mexicas. According to Bernardino de Sahagún (1st century) - who is the oldest documentary source -, the word would mean 'the place of Mexih', from Mexitl, where metl 'maguey', cihtli 'hare' and -co locative:[32] Mexih or Mexitl, who was a legendary Nahua priest, led his followers in the search for an eagle on a cactus for the founding of his city after abandoning the also legendary Aztlán.
However, currently the most widespread version of the meaning of the word is: "the navel of the moon" or "in the place of the lake of the Moon",[33] from Metzxicco:[34] metztli (moon), xictli (navel, center) and -co (locative), according to Cecilio Robelo and Alfonso Caso. On the other hand, Sahagún writes the origin of the word in the following way:
Francisco Xavier Clavijero suggested that the toponym should be interpreted as "[in the] place of Mexihtli", that is, of Huitzilopochtli, since Mexihtli was one of its alternative names. In the same text, Clavijero adds as a note that he believed for some time that the word meant "in the center of the maguey", but that through knowledge of the history of the Mexica he came to the conclusion that the toponym refers to the tutelary god of the Mexica.[note 4].
There is a fourth version, disclosed by the writer Arturo Ortega Morán, in the sense that the Nahuatl Juan Luna Cárdenas has pointed out that the word Mexico comes from the Nahuatl word Metzico, and the meaning of the latter is: "The place of the Metzikah, the followers of Metzitli, those who entrusted themselves to the moon."[37].
The first term or proper name with which the country was referred to appeared on November 6, 1813 when the Congress of Anáhuac issued the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America. This name made clear reference to the name used by the Constitution of Cádiz, to delimit the territory of the Spanish Empire that corresponded to the Viceroyalty of New Spain and its dependent areas (Captaincy General of Guatemala, Cuba, Florida, Puerto Rico and the Spanish part of the island of Santo Domingo - today the Dominican Republic), assuming, with this, that this was the geographical space on which the new nation would be established.[38][39][40] Subsequently the Decree Constitutional Law for the Freedom of Mexican America of October 22, 1814 changed this name, adapting it with the term "Mexico*"* (used as an adjective), and using it as a demonym in some articles.
The documents that preceded the consummation of independence (Plan of Iguala and Treaties of Córdoba), used the two aforementioned terms (Northern America and Mexican America), but used a new one, which they credited as the name of the new nation: "Mexican Empire*"*.[41][42] The Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire, signed on September 28, 1821 upon consummation of independence, established definitively the name as Mexican Empire.[43]This name would be briefly taken up by the second empire (1864-1867).[44].
Since its formation as a federal State, the official name of the country is United Mexican States, although the Constitution of 1824 used the expressions "Mexican Nation" and "United Mexican States" interchangeably.[45]The fundamental documents of the centralist republics (Seven Laws in 1835 and Organic Bases of 1843) established República Mexicana as the official name.[46][47] The Constitution of 1857 continued to use the name "Mexican Republic",[48] but the text also used the expression "United Mexican States", making the two official accordingly.[49] However, the widespread use of the synthesis "Mexico", common to all previous denominations, allowed this to prevail as a common name. The current Constitution, promulgated in 1917, establishes that the official name of the country is "United Mexican States." In its Nahuatl version,[50] the official name is Mexika Sentik Wexteyowalko,[51] and in its Yucatec Mayan version, U Múuchꞌ Péetluꞌumiloꞌob México. In fact, by virtue of the legal equality of Spanish with the country's 68 indigenous languages, all of them have their own translation of the official name.[52].
The demonym "Mexican" has been used in the Spanish language since contact between Iberians and Americans with different meanings. For the Spanish of the 1st century, Mexicans were the inhabitants of Mexico-Tenochtitlan and their language. During the viceregal era, some Creoles and peninsulars living in New Spain used the name to call themselves.[53] The leaders of the War of Independence hesitated both in the name of the country and its inhabitants. Starting with the Iguala Plan, the country will definitively adopt the name of Mexico and its inhabitants were all Mexicans.
History
Contenido
El territorio actual de México fue descubierto y habitado por grupos de cazadores "Cazador (oficio)") y recolectores nómadas hace más de 30 000 años. La historiografía y arqueología mexicana llama a este periodo etapa lítica; una serie de hallazgos de herramientas y utensilios de piedra, cuyas antigüedades oscilan entre los años 30 000 a 14 000 a. C. establecen líneas migratorias desde la región de los actuales noreste y el altiplano central hacia el valle central y el occidente, prolongadas incluso hasta el suroeste. Alrededor del año se desarrollan los procesos que llevaron a la domesticación de plantas como la calabaza y el huaje[23] en regiones como el Valle de Tehuacán y la sierra de Tamaulipas. La domesticación del maíz ocurrió alrededor del quinto milenio antes de la era común y fue un hito que después condujo al establecimiento de aldeas sedentarias en Mesoamérica.[54][55].
Oasisamerica
The Oasis-Americans were cultivators, although the weather conditions did not allow them to carry out very efficient agriculture and therefore they had to resort to hunting toads and turtles, and gathering them to complement their subsistence. They built large villages in New Mexico and the archaeological zone of Casas Grandes "Casas Grandes (Mexico)"), in Chihuahua.[56].
Aridamerica
The inhabitants of the region known as Aridoamerica continued with their nomadic culture, although they maintained contact with the Mesoamericans. Some sites have continuous occupation since very ancient times, such as Cueva de la Perra (12,000 BC),[57] Cueva de la Candelaria (),[58] El Conchalito ()[59] and the caves of the Sierra de San Francisco (10,500 BC).[60] Contemporary historiography and archeology define an extensive cultural zone called "Gran Chichimeca" over most of the Altiplano, where, although complex societies like the Mesoamerican ones were not organized, they maintained a series of common features such as spoken languages, commercial exchange, military alliances against the civilizations of the center and the semi-nomadic condition; They stood out among the tribes of the area (besides of course the Chichimecas), the Tarahumaras, Tepehuanes, Pimas and Apaches. Some of the peoples that made up the Mesoamerican civilizations come from this region.[61].
Mesoamerica
The beginning of the Mesoamerican civilization is located between the year , with the appearance of pottery and the first agricultural villages,[62] and [63] During the Middle Preclassic (centuries - BC) the Olmec culture spread throughout Mesoamerica.[64] Some of its most important centers were La Venta and Tres Zapotes. They dedicated themselves to agriculture, mainly to the cultivation of corn and cotton.
The oldest Olmec center recorded is San Lorenzo "San Lorenzo (archaeological zone)"), it was built in the year in the current municipality of Texistepec, located in the Coatzacoalcos River basin, in the state of Veracruz; The flowering of the Olmec culture began in this place, since it is from this period that most of the sculptures and architectural elements that characterize the civilization date, many of which are preserved there. San Lorenzo was sacked in the year , and the monumental sculptures suffered an attempted destruction; some were buried, and others were moved to the La Venta ceremonial center.
La Venta was the most important ceremonial center of this culture, this city is the first planned architectural feature in ancient Mexico. Its great monumental architecture stands out, and its offerings made of jade. It has the oldest pyramid in Mesoamerica, and the characteristic colossal heads and thrones have also been found.
The Tres Zapotes ceremonial center was the last to be developed. It is the best known because it was the one that survived until a closer period, but the Olmec civilization that developed here was a culture already in decline, not the splendor that lived in the previous ceremonial centers.
It is thought that the Olmecs were invaded by some rival people, which caused the abandonment and destruction of some cities; with which it is believed that it spread through migrations. They dispersed to different places: some headed to the Mayan region, others marched to the center and others to the north. Those who integrated into the center went to the city Cuicuilco, but it disappeared due to the eruption of the Xitle volcano; That is why they were forced to travel to other places so they reached parts of the states of Morelos, Mexico, Oaxaca and Chiapas.[65][66].
The classical period covers the year 200 to 200, in this period the Mesoamerican civilizations reached their maximum cultural development. The largest pyramid bases in all of Mesoamerica were built, such as the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacán in the current State of Mexico or the Temple of the Double-Headed Serpent in Tikal.
The cities in this stage grew a lot until they reached their maximum population, such as Teotihuacán (State of Mexico), Monte Albán in Oaxaca and Tikal; These cities maintained close marital, commercial and political alliances between the priest-kings; This is known, because at the entrance of each one there were stone monuments that signified the arrival of Teotihuacan ambassadors; Likewise, Mayan and Zapotec products such as ceramics, jade beads, shells and sea snails have been found in Teotihuacán.[67].
Teotihuacán became the main city of this period, it was located in the central highland area, which allowed its inhabitants to take advantage of natural resources, such as obsidian to manufacture weapons, tools and utensils. They also had gods of rain and fertility such as Quetzalcóatl (which means "feathered serpent") and Tláloc (which means "nectar of the earth", although they also venerated this God in the Mayan and Zapotec culture).
The artisans obtained different materials from the area such as: jade, gray obsidian, green obsidian, black volcanic glass, shell and bone. With this they made vessels, pots, plates, glasses, ornaments, knives, masks, necklaces and different figures.
The Teotihuacans expressed what they saw through sculpture, ceramics and painting. On facades they represented the deity of Tláloc and the feathered serpent, related to rain and fertility respectively, as well as other characters important to them.
The Teotihuacans were polytheists, they had the following gods:
• - Tláloc: He was the god of rain and there are theories that he was also the god of fertility and the earth. He was represented as a human-animal, with a feather headdress and two large fangs as well as two large, bulging eyes.
• - Quetzalcóatl: He was the god of the winds. Its name means: The Feathered Serpent, it was represented as a giant snake.
• - Chalchiuhticue: She was the goddess of lakes and rivers. She was represented with a feather headdress, a necklace and orange fur.
• - Huehuetotl: He was the god of fire, husband of Chalchiuhticue. He was represented as an old man. It was the reincarnation of volcanoes and wisdom.
The decline of the Teotihuacan culture is unknown; some researchers say it could have been due to the overexploitation of natural resources, invasions by other peoples and some internal conflicts.
Their society was divided into: priest-kings, warriors, merchants, farmers, fishermen, artisans, war slaves and sacrificial tributes.
Teotihuacán is considered the main city of classical Mesoamerica, in addition to the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon, the temple of Quetzalcóatl also stands out.[68].
The Mayan culture is another important civilization that lasted for centuries. The civilization developed outstanding art, literature and architecture, the most advanced writing system on the continent, as well as astronomical and mathematical knowledge. Among the latter, the use of a more precise calendar than that used in Europe at the time stands out, and it is one of the pioneer civilizations in the use of the number zero.[67].
It lived in a part of the southern region of Mesoamerica, in the current territories of Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador and in the territory comprised by five states in the southeast of Mexico: Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Yucatán. The territory, because it was so large, was divided into three:
• - The northern area: covers the Yucatán Peninsula (comprising the states of: Yucatán, Campeche and Quintana Roo), it is also known as Puuc.
• - The central area: it is the largest, it includes the El Petén basin in Guatemala, extending to western Honduras and eastern Chiapas, Tabasco and the south of the Yucatan Peninsula.
• - The southern area: located on the Pacific coast, the Highlands of Guatemala, part of Chiapas and El Salvador. It has a mountainous area that runs through the south, southwest and southeast, and covers the Central American mountain range.
The Mayans used limestone to make pyramid bases, temples, platforms and ball games; Although they also used that material to make various monuments and sculptures, among these the steles stand out, which were carved stone columns with important people along with their name, date of birth or date of death. In their mural paintings they represented everyday scenes, such as fishing, festivals and ritual ceremonies related to war. For aesthetic reasons, the Mayans used to deform the skulls of children and cause strabismus.
The Mayan religion was polytheistic, the rulers were those who directed religious affairs (theocracy); Their gods were related to the natural elements, the stars and human actions. Among the gods that stood out were: Hanub Kú (the creator god of the Quiché Mayans), Itzamná (the creator god of the Yucatecan Mayans), Ix Chebel Ya (god of embroidery and painting), Kukulcán (Quetzalcóatl) (god of the wind), Kin (god of the sun), Ixchel (goddess of the moon), Chac (god of water), Yum Kaax (god of corn and agriculture), Ah Puch (god of death).
The Mayan cities were built from the astronomical positions related to the movement of the Sun, Moon and Venus. The Center of some cities was reserved for the rulers' family to live; The nobility lived around it, whose buildings were related to commerce; finally beyond were the farmland and the rest of the population.
The Mayans used limestone to make pyramids, temples, platforms and ball games. They also used it to make various monuments and sculptures, among which the steles stand out where they put glyphs this time.
Other materials from the region were used for daily life. They used wood, stucco, clay and stones to make masks, necklaces, rings and small sculptures. In addition, they made cotton fabrics for clothing and wove fiber baskets to carry seeds.
The Mayans developed navigation, built docks, canals and ports such as Xelhá, Xcaret and Tulum; which were important centers where they exchanged products such as salt and fish.[69].
The Zapotec culture inhabited what is now the state of Oaxaca, southern Guerrero and southern Puebla. It was distinguished by its excellent weavers and potters, it had notable advances in its writing, architecture and calendrical knowledge.[67].
Its summit city was Monte Albán, which had its splendor from the year 200 until its weakening around 900. The ceremonial city of Monte Albán was built on top of a mountain, with buildings oriented according to the stars, using the slope and board technique; Pyramid bases, ball courts and an observatory were built, located in the direction of the now known constellation of Orion. Like Teotihuacán, it is unknown why Monte Albán weakened. Society was divided into ruler-priests, merchants, warriors, artisans, war slaves and sacrificial tributes.[70]
They had two calendars:
• - Iza, had 365 days grouped into 18 months and used for harvests, it was organized into 18 months of 20 days each, with a period of five days at the end.
• - Piye: it had 260 days divided into 13 months and was used to name newborns, it was divided into months of 20 days.
They were polytheists, their main god was called Xipe Tótec, other gods were:.
• - Pitao Cocijo: god of thunder and rain.
• - Pitao Cozobi: god of corn.
• - Pitao Cozana: god of the ancestors.
• - Quetzalcóatl: god of the winds.
• - Xonaxi Quecuya: god of earthquakes.
• - Coqui Bezelao: god of the dead.
The postclassical period spans from the year 900 to , this period is characterized by a large increase in armed conflicts. The great importance of war, codices and writings can be seen in the ceramics, in addition to a notable detail being the architectural style of the buildings.[71].
The Toltec culture developed between the years 900 and The Toltecs dominated the Huastec region, in part of what is now San Luis Potosí and Zacatecas, as well as central Mexico such as Hidalgo, where the ceremonial center and capital called: Tollan-Xicocotitlan, better known as Tula, was located. The economy was based on an agriculture of extensive fields irrigated by complex canal systems, where corn, beans and amaranth were the main crops. Society was divided into several groups, the most privileged were the: military, officials, the supreme ruler and the priests, who were at the service of the military caste and were in charge of attending to worship, calendars and counting time. Traces of a fire have been found in Tula, so it is thought that the end of this city was very violent.[72].
Another postclassical culture is the Mixtec, which developed from 1300 to 1300, concluding with the conquest of the Spanish. They covered a region called the Mixteca that included the states of Oaxaca, Guerrero and parts of the state of Puebla and Chiapas. According to their mythology, the Mixtecs were descendants of the children of the Apoala tree. The main divinity of the Mixtecs was Dzahui, god of rain and patron of the Mixtec nation, another divinity of great importance was Nine Wind-Coo Dzahui, a civilizing hero who gave them the knowledge of agriculture and civilization. During the pre-Hispanic era, Mixtec society was characterized by its high hierarchy. The subsistence of the Mixtecs was based on agriculture, the ecological and topographic conditions of the territory of this town conditioned the development of certain crops adapted to the diversity of environments in the Mixteca.[73][71].
Due to its mythological origin, there is no scientific consensus on the date of the founding of the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan but it could have occurred at the beginning of the century. Some years later a fraction of the Mexica migrating from the north of the country would have founded the city of Mexico-Tlatelolco on another islet to the northwest.[78] Later, in 1428 Tenochtitlan, Tetzcoco and Tlacopan established the Triple Alliance "Triple Alliance (Mexico)"),[79] which was dominated by the Mexica who created an empire in a territory of about squares. As part of this expansion, Tenochtitlan conquered the other city of Mexica origin of Tlatelolco in 1473,[78] which, given its proximity, was united into a single urban area. At the time of the arrival of the Spanish, Mexico-Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the ancient world, counting, based on modern estimates, an estimate of .[80][81].
The Mexica civilization that had Mexico-Tenochtitlan as its capital, designed this city to consolidate it as the axis of the inhabitants of the Basin of Mexico, whose series of lakes grew meter by meter, uniting the towns by means of gigantic roads. Natural isolation granted military and economic advantages that consolidated its strategic value, including for the development of a mixed economy based on agriculture, hunting, fishing and trade; with the possibility of communicating by water. The chinampas system was created by accumulating mud on reed rafts, deepening and building canals, raising aqueducts, as well as bridges literally over the water; element with which they not only knew how to coexist, but also potentiate its use in every sense. At the beginning of the century, the capital had a density of more than 2,000 inhabitants per square kilometer; Its layout was formed by a geometric network of canals in a quadrilateral of 3 km on each side with a surface area of almost a thousand hectares; At that time Rome occupied only 386 hectares more.
Its ceremonial center reached unprecedented dimensions: 325 meters from east to west and 312 from north to south, comprising an area of more than one hundred thousand square meters. There were 78 temples and government buildings built there, it had four cardinal entrances that were the beginnings of the city's road axes, built on the lakes that connected the island with the mainland.
Contemporaneous with his time, only four European cities were home to around one hundred thousand inhabitants, and Seville, which was then the largest in Spain, had barely 45,000 inhabitants. The population of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, shortly before the arrival of the Europeans, was more than 500,000 inhabitants, had an area of 600 km² (including the entire lake basin) and had public systems of education, health, lighting and drinking water.[82][83].
Conquest
The first European expedition that reached any area of current Mexican territory was that of Francisco Hernández de Córdoba "Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (discoverer of Yucatán)"), who on March 1, 1517 landed on Isla Mujeres. He would later set foot on continental soil on March 5, landing in the area that is now Cabo Catoche, Yucatán.[84][85] This exploration would follow. that of Juan de Grijalva in 1518.[86]The definitive incursion into the interior of the territory began on February 10, 1519, Hernán Cortés and his people arrived in Cozumel and reached the coast of Tabasco, where they were fought by the Chontales, in Centla.[87] In that region, Cortés founded the Villa de Santa María de la Victoria and received the bilingual as a gift. Nahuatl-Maya, Malintzin, a slave who served together with Gerónimo de Aguilar as an interpreter for foreigners.[88].
The Spanish headed to the coast of Veracruz, where they penetrated the interior of Mesoamerica. They established alliances with some indigenous peoples and advanced to Mexico-Tenochtitlan. Along the way they defeated the allies of the Mexica, as happened in Cholula. Moctezuma
The Tlaxcalans, Texcocanos and Totonacs formed a conglomerate that had allied themselves with the Spanish, a decisive factor in the battles against the Mexica. Cuauhtémoc, the last Tenochca tlatoani, was captured on August 13, 1521,[92] and executed in 1525.[93].
Once Tenochtitlan was subdued, Spanish soldiers were able to subdue the center of the territory. Hernán Cortés assumed the government as captain general of New Spain.[94].
Viceroyalty of New Spain
In 1527 the Audiencia of Mexico was established.[95] The first viceroy was Antonio de Mendoza y Pacheco and he ruled from 1535.[96] New Spain was governed by 63 viceroys during the almost 300 years of colonial domination. Spanish domination faced indigenous resistance, which was sometimes manifested by force of arms, such as in the Chichimeca War (1546), the Mixtón War (1540-1551), the Pericúes Rebellion (1734-1737) and the rebellion of the Mayans of Cisteil (1761).[97].
The center of government of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was Mexico City, which became the most important city of the Spanish Empire outside the peninsula, not only because it was the capital of the richest and most extensive of its viceroyalties, but because from there the territories in North America, Central America, Antilles, Asia and Oceania were directly governed.[note 5].
The territorial expansion of the viceroyalty was a spaced process, guided by the desire for fame and fortune of many explorers, but also by the evangelizing action of some missionary groups. In general, the method of expansion was through, first, the forced displacement and violent subjugation of the native peoples, then small groups of colonizers arrived to establish infrastructure for the exploitation of the land or to supply trade routes, while undermining the native inhabitants with the introduction of diseases unknown to them, and finally missionaries and civil authorities arrived to carry out the acculturation of the indigenous settlements that persisted.
During the 20th century, exploration and conquest were limited to the territories of the west, east, north-central, south-central and south-west of present-day Mexico, and a large portion of Central America, that is, most of ancient Mesoamerica, except for the Yucatan Peninsula. This was the most fertile and accessible area for human settlements, an aspect that permanently consolidated it as the most populated area of the viceroyalty. In the century the conquest reached the northeast, northwest and southeast territories; the last two after waging extensive wars of conquest against the Chichimecas and Mayans respectively. Finally, in the 2nd century, the viceroyalty reached its maximum territorial extension, when missionary populations and military posts were established in the extreme north of the so-called "Spanish northern America", and the General Command of the Internal Provinces was founded; However, this area was merely claimed through maps and royal edicts, since effective Spanish control only reached the coastal strip of southern California (San Diego "San Diego (California)") —f. 1769—and Los Angeles—d. 1781—), the area surrounding the end point of the Camino Real de Tierra Adentro (Santa Fe "Santa Fe (New Mexico)") of New Mexico —f. 1610—) and the rancherías near San Antonio "San Antonio (Texas)") (f. 1718); The rest of the immense territory was under the domination of semi-nomadic tribes in the valleys and arid plains, or settlements and exploration were not conducive to the Arizona desert.
Independence
The Bourbon reforms that the government of the metropolis began to implement in the colonies of the Spanish Empire in America, starting in the 1740s, in order to revitalize Spanish influence and power, lost after the wars at the beginning of the century, began a process of degradation of the political, economic and social order that the so-called "Golden Age" had bequeathed to the American colonies.
The centralization of political power in Madrid subtracted some autonomous powers developed by civil and ecclesiastical authorities; The increase in the tax burden that the possessions had to deliver to the metropolis caused a deficit in the finances of each territory; In the midst of the industrial revolution, the ability of the viceroyalties to develop or encourage local industry was restricted. At the socioeconomic level, this deepened inequality in the caste system, increasing the conditions of misery of indigenous, mestizos and Afro-descendants; However, discontent became widespread until the Creoles saw their political and economic freedoms diminished, derived from the enlightened Spanish despotism; Therefore, influenced by the liberal ideas of American independence and the French Revolution, they began to develop identity and autonomist thoughts.
The French occupation of Spain in 1808 triggered several sovereignty movements in the American possessions. In that same year, a political crisis took place in New Spain that concluded with the dismissal of Viceroy Iturrigaray through a coup d'état; This was motivated by stopping the autonomist proposal of Francisco Primo de Verdad y Ramos.[112] In other parts of the viceroyalty, conspiracies were forged against Spanish rule, but they were suppressed, such as the Valladolid Conspiracy of 1809 led by José Mariano de Michelena. However, this had continuity in the Querétaro Conspiracy, whose main members were: Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Ignacio Allende, Mariano Abasolo, Juan Aldama, Ignacio Aldama and Josefa Ortiz de Domínguez; This group had a more popular approach and deeper autonomy. When they were discovered on September 15, 1810, Josefa Ortiz entrusted Allende to consult Hidalgo about the plan to follow.
On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla called the town of Dolores (Guanajuato) to insurgency, starting the war of independence. The popular drag component allowed a significant advance of the armed social revolt. He took San Miguel el Grande without combat (September 17) and Celaya (September 19), on the 21st in this town Hidalgo, Allende, Abasolo and the Aldama brothers were named military leaders of the insurgent movement; On September 28, the first major battle was fought when capturing Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)"), where José Mariano Jiménez joined the movement. On October 17, fearing a violent looting like that of Guanajuato, Valladolid surrendered. On October 30, the most important victory occurred when they defeated the royalist army in the Battle of Monte de las Cruces. However, they did not capture Mexico City, since the differences between Hidalgo and Allende over the steps to follow caused them to retreat towards the west. In Guadalajara "Guadalajara (Mexico)") (taken since November 11 by a local sympathizing insurgent group), on November 29, 1810, Hidalgo issued the Decree against slavery, gabelas and sealed paper. From there, the popular rebellion began a series of defeats at the hands of General Félix María Calleja, which weakened the insurgents in such a way that their leaders chose to march towards the northern municipalities, until they reached the border with the United States to supply themselves with weapons. In March 1811, Hidalgo, Allende, the Aldamas, Jiménez and Abasolo were arrested; between June and July they are shot.[113].
First empire
On September 28, 1821, a provisional government was installed, which in accordance with the founding documents (Plan of Iguala, Treaties of Córdoba and Act of Independence) established a parliamentary Monarchy, first installing a regency as executive power, which had to operate while the offer of the throne to a member of the Spanish royal family was accepted or rejected.
The law of November 17, 1821, issued by the Government Board to call for the formation of the Constituent Congress; It will formally assume that the areas that ratify it will be the members of the Empire. From this it was deduced that the nascent country was made up of twenty-one provinces: The 17 provinces and the two territories (Las Californias and Santa Fe de Nuevo México) that made up New Spain, in addition to the province of Chiapas (a member at that time of the Captaincy General of Guatemala) and the Captaincy General of Yucatán, elevated to provincial rank, like the northern territories.[120][121] On January 5, In 1822 the former Captaincy General of Guatemala (which included, in addition to the already incorporated Chiapas, the Soconusco "Soconusco (Chiapas)"), and the current Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica), whose component territories had declared their independence on September 15, 1821, proclaimed its adhesion to the Plan of Iguala and the Treaties of Córdoba, and consequently its full incorporation into the Mexican Empire.
On February 24, 1822, the Constituent Congress was installed. The popular clamor incited in the streets of Mexico City, added to the pressure of the army and some sectors of the congress, achieved the proclamation of Agustín de Iturbide as emperor on May 22, 1822.[122] Disputes between the congress and the monarch led to a political crisis, which caused the latter to dissolve the former, establish a new legislative body and a temporary legal order; However, the weak economic situation of the Empire added to this political situation to undermine the monarch's popular support. Given this, a group of opponents led by Antonio López de Santa Anna proclaims the Casa Mata Plan, which proposed the establishment of a republic. The republican insurrection triumphed in 1823, causing the exile of Iturbide and the separation of Central America.[123][124].
First Federal Republic
The Constituent Congress promulgated the Constitution of 1824 on October 4 of that year, establishing a republican and federal regime in the country. The first president was Guadalupe Victoria, who took office on October 10, 1824.[125] However, the new nation found itself faced with a series of political, economic and social structures weakened by the long independence war; Added to this were the struggles between liberals "Liberal Party (Mexico)") and conservatives "Conservative Party (Mexico)") (in any of their variants as antagonistic sides: republicans against monarchists and federalists against centralists), the latter with greater strength as they had support in the clergy, the army and the incipient Mexican bourgeoisie, to defend the privileges and privileges that the law had allowed them to preserve; The immensity of a disconnected territory that contrasted from region to region due to its general conditions also entered as a destabilizing factor. The Victorian government faced Spanish attempts at reconquest.[126].
The presidential succession would begin to be a conflictive situation from the first moment, when a revolt in the capital achieved the annulment of the 1828 elections won by Manuel Gómez Pedraza; Congress, which was the true entity of political power in Mexico, appointed Vicente Guerrero as president in 1829; The former insurgent leader faced the last attempt at reconquest and raised the prohibition of slavery to the constitution; However, that same year a coup d'état by his vice president Anastasio Bustamante overthrew him and his replacement José María Bocanegra. The coup plotter, who was a former royalist military man, appropriates the presidency; However, and after ordering the assassination of Guerrero in 1831, Bustamante himself fell due to a popular rebellion "Plan de Veracruz (1832)") in 1832, led by Antonio López de Santa Anna. After the interim office of Melchor Múzquiz and the reinstatement of Gómez Pedraza in his original mandate, Santa Anna ran and won the elections of 1833; However, his lackadaisical nature towards public office causes him to enter and leave the presidency three times in his first year of government, always replaced by his vice president, the liberal Valentín Gómez Farías.[124].
Centralist Republic
In his fourth interim term to replace Santa Anna (December 1833-April 1834), President Valentín Gómez Farías, supported by José María Luis Mora, ordered a series of liberal reforms to clean up the country's finances and consolidate federalism by expanding civil liberties; The measures provoked a conservative reaction, forcing the resignation of Gómez Farías and the return of Santa Anna. Influenced by the conservative groups that supported him, he began a process of counter-reforms before asking for leave again, this time he was replaced with a former moderate insurgent, Miguel Barragán; On October 23, 1835, the new president proclaimed the Centralist Republic and called a constituent congress. Barragán died in February 1836, before the promulgation of the Seven Laws in December of the same year. The unitary constitution eliminated the sovereignty of the states, replacing them with departments, now under the control of the national powers in the capital.
During that period, Barragan's replacement, José Justo Corro, faced widespread discontent from the majority of the current departments; discontent that escalated into separatist movements in several areas, the most violent and with the worst results being the one that occurred in Texas. However, the Texan emancipation movement was influenced and instigated by the growing American population, which since 1819 had begun to populate the territory; The Americans promoted the separation of the entity, in order to establish a slave system that no regime in Mexico had admitted to them (neither the viceroyalty, nor the empire, nor federalists, nor centralists), so they took advantage of the situation to take up arms; Receiving support from the United States, Texas achieved its independence in 1836.[127][128][126].
Separatist movements spread throughout the country (Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, Tabasco and the self-proclaimed Republic of the Río Grande) and mixed with the continuous federalist rebellions. In 1837 Anastasio Bustamante was elected for a period of seven years according to current law; but their constant outings to combat the aforementioned conflicts led to constant substitutions (Santa Anna, Bravo and Echeverría), between 1839 and 1841. External pressures were added to the internal pressures, while the Republic of Texas began its border claims, between 1838 and 1839 the so-called "War of the Cakes", by France, meant the first foreign aggression since the reconquest attempts. In 1841 Yucatán separated from Mexico and did not rejoin the country until 1848. Also in 1841, a federalist rebellion achieved a momentary triumph by overthrowing Echeverría (and consequently Bustamante), appointing Santa Anna once again, who promised to reinstate the 1824 constitution; However, the following year, the conservatives took control of the constituent congress, named Nicolás Bravo president and drafted a new centralist constitution, the Organic Bases, promulgated in 1843. The new document did not bring stability, continuing a series of persistent presidential successions (Santa Anna, Canalizo and Herrera), only stopped in 1845 by the coup d'état of Mariano Paredes and Arrillaga, dictatorial and pro- monarchical.[124].
American intervention
After the Republic of Texas was formally annexed to the United States in 1845, the government of that country resumed the border claims of the once separate nation of Mexico; The demand maintained that the Texan territory extended to the Rio Grande, when in reality since colonial times the territorial strip between it and the Nueces River (a limit held by Mexico) was the territory of Coahuila and Tamaulipas, even when the former and Texas had formed a unit. However, the dispute was a pretext to instigate, at best, the purchase of the extensive territories of Alta California and New Mexico, or even the violent seizure of these. The expansionist desires of the United States were also in the context of the dispute between slave and non-slave states to extend their territories.[129].
On May 26, 1846, invading troops in the aforementioned strip between the Bravo and Nueces rivers were ambushed by Mexican soldiers; This unleashed war between both countries. Mexico faced the American invasion between 1846 and 1848; The numerical superiority, weapons and availability of resources tipped the balance in favor of the Americans. Not only did the factors of inferior capabilities for its defense play against Mexico, but also the chaotic situation in the disputes for power in the capital, since nine changes in the presidency of the republic occurred, in the middle of the conflict, between seven characters (Paredes Arrillaga, Bravo, Salas, Gómez Farías, Santa Anna, Anaya and De la Peña); Even in the midst of the war, the federalists reinstated the Constitution of 1824; Also added is the indifference of some states to provide national defense and the divisions between combatants.
Except for the popular resistance in southern California (Los Angeles and San Diego) "San Diego (California)"), the indigenous rebellion in New Mexico, the local guerrillas in Tabasco, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Michoacán, Jalisco and Durango, and the army clashes in Nuevo León and Mexico City (highlighting the famous defense of Chapultepec Castle), there was no major containment of the invading advance. The United States occupied the capital on September 14, 1847. The Mexican government was forced to sign the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, by which it handed over more than half of the national territory to the United States (the present-day states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada and Utah; and portions of Colorado "Colorado (state)"), Oklahoma, Kansas and Wyoming).[note] 6][130][131][132][133].
The Reformation and the Second Empire
At the end of the war, clashes between political factions continued, another coup d'état overthrew the elected president Mariano Arista and his emerging successor Juan Bautista Ceballos; Its leader, Manuel María Lombardini, brought about Santa Anna's eleventh and final rise to power (1853-1855), which he exercised with a dictatorial character. In 1853, the sale of La Mesilla, a territory of current Arizona that the United States bought from Mexico in its expansionist desire, became effective, being the last important loss of national territory. In 1854 the liberals took up arms led by Juan Álvarez; The insurrection deposed Santa Anna, his short-lived successors (Carrera and De la Vega) could not contain the advance of the liberals, this time with a charge of popular drag.[134][124].
An outstanding generation of liberal politicians orchestrated the promulgation of the liberal Reform Laws between 1855 and 1856, affecting the interests of various groups, particularly the Church. In 1857, the new Mexican Magna Carta was promulgated; among other things, the document established a secular State in Mexico.[135] After the self-coup of Ignacio Comonfort in December 1858, Benito Juárez assumed the presidency of the republic as president of the Court, although he was forced to leave the capital, where several conservative rulers settled, unstable, (Zuloaga, Miramón, Pezuela Salas and Pavón). The Reform War (1858-1861) then began, which concluded with a new defeat for the conservatives.[136].
Constitutionally elected, Benito Juárez assumed the reins of the country in the face of a new war disaster, for which he had to suspend payment of the foreign debt; This causes the claim of Spain, the United Kingdom and France, which were stationed on the Mexican coasts in 1862 demanding payment; The negotiations led by Manuel Doblado achieved the departure of the first two countries; but Napoleon III would take advantage of the occasion to carry out his plans to establish a satellite empire in America that would contain the United States. The French intervention was temporarily stopped after the outstanding victory in the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862; The regrouping of the French and the support of conservative sectors reversed the situation, and the capital of the republic fell in May 1863. The conservatives established a regency that created the Second Mexican Empire; With the support of the French monarch, they convinced the Austrian Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg and his wife Charlotte of Belgium to assume the Mexican throne.
Despite the liberal intentions of the foreign monarchs (which is why they clashed with their conservative allies), the empire lacked popular support, linked more to the republican resistance led by Juárez, who after several escapes established himself in El Paso del Norte. The popular revolt of the Republican army, accompanied by partial French abandonment and American interference to generate international pressure, weakened the invaders and their Mexican accomplices. The French invasion and the empire concluded in 1867 with the surrender of the conservatives and the execution of Maximilian in Santiago de Querétaro.[137][138].
The Porfiriato
Benito Juárez continued as president until his death in 1872. The last years of his government were harshly criticized by the various liberal factions.[139] Juárez was succeeded by Lerdo de Tejada. After a rebellion provoked by Lerdo de Tejada's intentions to be re-elected, Porfirio Díaz became president in 1876 despite the legalist opposition of José María Iglesias, president parallel to Díaz. From there, and including the periods of his close associates (Juan N. Méndez briefly in 1876 and Manuel González between 1880 and 1884), he established a dictatorial regime that maintained political, economic and social control of the country through several steps: he built a state apparatus controlled through alliances with groups and individuals whom he placed in Congress, the Supreme Court "Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Mexico)") and the Governorships; subordination or gradual displacement (including physical elimination) as options for allies or opponents in the army, the press and intellectual groups; conciliation of interests with the church, landowners, businessmen and foreign powers investing in the country; deactivation and persecution of social movements, among others; These measures were essentially the first section of the assumed positivist postulate of "Order and Progress", thus began the Porfiriato.[140][141].
During that period, foreign and national investment was favored with great privileges by the government, which benefited economic development. In contrast, the living conditions of workers and peasants continued without major changes. The political opposition was eliminated by force, and the rebels were exiled or forced to work in places such as Valle Nacional, the Yaqui River valley or Yucatán.[142][143].
Mexican Revolution
Some social outbreaks, such as the Cananea (1906) and Río Blanco (1907) strikes, revealed discontent with the regime. The presidential elections of 1910 gave Díaz victory over Francisco I. Madero, who had been imprisoned. Escaped from prison, he called to arms in the San Luis Plan. On November 14, the revolution was advanced with the taking of Cuchillo Parado. On November 20, numerous groups from various social classes joined the rebellion, flying various flags. The Maderista stage of the revolution found its triumph on May 25, 1911 with the resignation of Porfirio Díaz; His replacement Francisco León de la Barra called for extraordinary elections, of which Madero emerged victorious; As president, his attempt to reconcile the positions of the political and bourgeois class still linked to the Porfiriato, with the social demands of more radical revolutionaries, who even, motivated by apparent inaction, fought it (Emiliano Zapata with the Ayala Plan and Pascual Orozco with the Empacadora Plan) during 1912, was unsuccessful.
In February 1913, the coup d'état led by Félix Díaz, Bernardo Reyes and Manuel Mondragón, found the support of the American ambassador, triggering violent clashes in the capital of the republic; Victoriano Huerta, military chief in charge of the offensive against the coup plotters, betrayed the president and made a pact with the rebels; Madero resigned and the short-lived interim term of Pedro Lascuráin legalized the usurpation of Huerta. The events ended with the murder of Madero and Vice President José María Pino Suárez.[144].
Madero's death triggered popular uprisings throughout Mexico, highlighted by Emiliano Zapata and the Southern Liberation Army in that region of the country; Francisco Villa and the Northern Division "Northern Division (Mexico)") in Chihuahua; Venustiano Carranza, who as governor of Coahuila, proclaimed the Plan of Guadalupe on March 26, 1913 and formed the Constitutionalist Army to start the rebellion, supported in the northwest of the country by Álvaro Obregón in Sonora, among others such as Abraham González and Felipe Ángeles. The massive response of the people to enlist in the revolutionary troops generated social cohesion manifested in cultural elements that emerged from life in combat. Huerta was deposed in August 1914 with the Toma de Zacatecas "Toma de Zacatecas (1914)") and replaced by Francisco Carvajal.[145].
With the purpose of unifying the revolutionaries, Carranza convened the Sovereign Revolutionary Convention, however the differences with the Zapatistas and Villistas caused a fracture in the movement. Carranza moved his government (emanating from the Guadalupe Plan) to Veracruz, while the Convention sustained three short governments in the capital (Gutiérrez, González Garza and Lagos Cházaro) between 1914 and 1915, which could not be sustained without the direct support of Villa and Zapata, engaged in multiple combats within the bloodiest stage of the war. The battle of Celaya in April 1915 was the turning point for both Villa and Zapata to definitively retreat to their control centers (Chihuahua and Morelos respectively). In 1917 the constituent congress, made up of members of all factions, promulgated the Constitution that currently governs Mexico, the first in the world that included social rights, and whose most significant articles, for collecting the main revolutionary demands, were the 3rd (education), 27 (land ownership) and 123 (labor rights).[146][147].
Post-revolutionary Mexico
Disputes for power between groups that emerged from the armed struggle marked nearly a decade of persistent violence. Carranza, in an attempt to displace the revolutionary military, promoted a civilian as his successor, the "Sonora Group" through an armed rebellion forced him to leave the capital, but he was assassinated in May 1920. Adolfo de la Huerta, a moderate of the rebel group, succeeded him, and handed over the presidency to the elected Álvaro Obregón. His pact to alternate power with Plutarco Elías Calles caused the last national uprising, the Delahuertista Rebellion in 1923; However, De la Huerta was defeated. In 1924, Plutarco Elías Calles came to power, creating the Bank of Mexico and facing the Cristero War in the western part of the country between 1926 and 1929. At the end of his term, Álvaro Obregón was elected president for the second time, but he was assassinated before taking office. The periods of the three presidents that followed (Portes Gil, Ortiz Rubio and Rodríguez) are known as Maximato, because they governed under the line of Calles, who was called the Maximum Chief of the Revolution. In 1929, the National Revolutionary Party (PNR) was founded, the predecessor of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).[148].
Contemporary Mexico
In 1934, Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was elected president for the first six-year period (1934-1940). Cárdenas banished Calles, promoted education, Agrarian Reform and decreed the nationalization of oil "Oil Expropriation (Mexico)") (1938). During his government, the definitive hegemony of the president of the republic over the Mexican political system ended up being achieved. He created this, creating a corporatist system, in which his alliance with military, workers, peasants, popular and bureaucrat sectors, consolidated his command and the supremacy of office in the Mexican state.
The regime would be maintained from 1929 until 2000; In that period all the candidates of the official party (under its different acronyms: PNR/PRM/PRI) reached the presidency.[note 7] The PRI presidential regime was characterized by the absolute control of the political system and the hegemonic influence exercised by the president in power over the economic and social activities of the country, also sustained by the alliance with various sectors outside of politics, but beneficiaries of it. In this period, different levels of reach arose in the power of the president.
Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho, stopped the agrarian distribution, reconciled with the nascent industrial bourgeoisie and faced the beginning of the Second World War in which Mexico had an active participation as part of the allied side "Allies (Second World War)").
Beginning in the mid-1940s, Mexico experienced a time of great economic development known as the "Mexican Miracle." This development was favored by the recovery environment within the post-war framework. In 1960 the electrical industry was nationalized. Economic development was reflected in the increase in infrastructure and public and social protection services. As a consequence of the strengthening of the State, a series of client corporations associated with the government developed that caused conflicts with independent organizations. This was the case during the teachers' movement of 1958 and the railroad strike of 1959. The demand for greater political freedoms was expressed in various ways, most notably by the student movement of 1968, which concluded with the murder of students by the Army in Tlatelolco, and in the various guerrillas that appeared in various parts of the country and that were violently repressed by the State.
At the end of the 1970s, the Mexican economy showed signs of exhaustion that led to bankruptcy at the beginning of the following decade, in the context of an oil boom. The evolution of the country's historical events, added to the internal failures of the regime, diminished the president's influence in all aspects of public life. The social movements joined the economic crisis of 1982, the growth of the political opposition of the left (Mexican Communist Party) and the right (National Action Party "National Action Party (Mexico)") and the growth of de facto powers outside the state (media, businessmen, crime and the church), to considerably undermine the room for maneuver in which the "meta-constitutional powers" outside the legal framework of presidentialism operated. PRI member As a result of opposition pressure, a political reform was introduced in 1977 that legalized the left-wing opposition. During the following years, most parastatal companies were privatized. In 1985, several parts of the central and western country were shaken by an earthquake that left thousands dead or missing, most of them in the capital city.[149].
Mexico in the 21st century
In 2000, the PRI lost the presidency after 71 years in power, when Vicente Fox won the presidential election. He was succeeded in the government by Felipe Calderón Hinojosa, who became president in the midst of the disputed presidential elections of 2006. In that same year, the war against drug trafficking began, which has left more than 350,000 dead, of which 15,273 occurred in 2010.[152] The PRI returned to the presidency in the 2012 elections, this time refuted by the opposition for the irregular use of economic and media resources by the winning candidate Enrique Peña Nieto. His six-year term took place within the framework of a worsening of the War against organized crime, which reached record levels of violence at the end of his term. At the same time, different officials at various levels, including the president, were involved in relevant cases of corruption that increased the levels of social discontent.[153][154].
The former head of Government of the Federal District and presidential candidate of the Left in 2006 and 2012, Andrés Manuel López Obrador ran again in a presidential election, this time with the Together We Will Make History coalition; achieved victory on election day on July 1, 2018 with 53.3% of the votes cast, in addition to achieving a majority in the chambers of deputies and senators.[155][156][157][149] In this period, progress was experienced in social policy and macroeconomic stability. However, there were stalemates on health and safety; Universal health coverage was not achieved, although vaccination against COVID-19 was highlighted. On the other hand, despite reducing high-impact crimes and reversing the homicide rate, violence persists at levels from the previous decade, especially in areas where crime is disputed.[158][159][160].
In the 2024 elections, Claudia Sheinbaum, candidate of the Let's Keep Making History coalition, would win with 59.7% of the votes, being the first woman to serve as President of the country.
Government and politics
Form of government
Mexico is a representative republic "Representation (political)"), democratic, federal and secular; composed of free and sovereign States (and these of Municipalities) in everything concerning their internal regime, and of Mexico City (capital of the country); united in a federation established according to the principles of its Constitution. According to this fundamental law, sovereignty and public power are the origin and correspondence of the people, and it is the people who decide to exercise it through a system of separation of powers: President (executive), Congress of the Union (legislative) and a judicial power, deposited in different institutions, whose head is the Supreme Court of Justice "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (Mexico)").[161][162][163][164] The political system Mexican is historically characterized by the preeminence of the Executive Branch over the other two.[165].
The Mexican political system includes autonomous bodies that serve as a counterweight in specific areas (Fiscalía General de la República "Fiscalía General de la República (Mexico)", National Human Rights Commission "National Human Rights Commission (Mexico)", National Electoral Institute, Bank of Mexico and National Institute of Statistics and Geography).
The president of the United Mexican States is the head of the executive power. He is, at the same time, head of State and head of Government.[166][167] Likewise, he is the supreme commander of the Armed Forces.[168][169].
He is elected by direct and universal vote. Once elected, he takes office on October 1 of the year of the election. His position lasts for a period of six years, without the possibility of re-election;[170] not even in the case of having held it as interim, provisional or substitute.[171] The Presidency of the Republic can only be resigned for serious reasons, which must be qualified by the Congress of the Union; The position may also be subject to a revocation process through a popular vote.[172][173] In the event of death, dismissal or resignation, the head of the Ministry of the Interior "Secretary of the Interior (Mexico)" assumes the position immediately and provisionally); If the absence is on the day of the inauguration, it would be the president of the Senate, the provisional president; If the absolute absence is the result of a revocation of mandate, the provisional exercise of the position corresponds to the president of Congress "President of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico)"); Then, with the reservations contemplated in the constitution, it is up to Congress to appoint a substitute or interim.[174] Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo is the president of Mexico for the period 2024-2030.
The current Constitution of 1917 provides for this position in its third title, third chapter and is addressed by fifteen articles. They specify the obligations, powers, requirements and restrictions thereof. Specifications ranging from the command of the armed forces; the ownership of foreign, economic, social development and public security policy; the promulgation and execution of laws issued by the legislative branch; propose appointments to positions that require approval of the Senate or the Chamber of Deputies "Cámara de Diputados (Mexico)"); and various prerogatives granted in other articles of the same Magna Carta and federal laws.[175].
The Congress of the Union is the custodian body of the federal Legislative Power. This is made up of a bicameral assembly, divided between the Senate - made up of 128 members - and the Chamber of Deputies "Cámara de Diputados (Mexico)") - which consists of 500 legislators.[176].
The current 1917 Constitution provides for this body in its third title, chapter II, sections I, II and III, and addresses it in twenty-eight articles. They specify the obligations, powers, requirements and restrictions of the legislative apparatus; mainly the exclusive power among the powers of the union (and distributed between the two chambers) to study, discuss, vote and issue the initiatives of laws, regulations, codes, standards and reforms to all of this, that are presented during its sessions, that is, it has the deliberative action to legislate on all matters of the Mexican State. Also its duties include determining the composition of the political division of the national territory; the power to change the headquarters of the powers of the union; approve the president's declaration of war; the approval of initiatives, accountability, demand for appearances and eventual removals of the holders or members of the three powers of the Union, including the president of the republic; the election of the interim or substitute of the latter; and various prerogatives granted to it by other articles of the Magna Carta and federal laws.[177].
The exclusive powers of the Chamber of Deputies include publishing the official declaration of the president-elect issued by the Electoral Court; Coordinate and evaluate the Superior Audit of the Federation; ratify the appointment of Secretary of the Treasury "Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público (Mexico)"); approve the National Development Plan; legislative ownership in relation to the budget and income proposed by the executive branch; the power to decide whether or not to proceed against any member of the powers of the union (except the president, a matter that corresponds to the Senate) in the event of committing a crime, under the terms of article 111 of the constitution; designate the heads of the autonomous bodies (INE, CNDH "National Human Rights Commission (Mexico)") and INEGI).[178][179].
The Senate's exclusive powers include legislating foreign policy; approve or not the international treaties and agreements signed by the President of the Republic; authorize all types of movement of the Armed Forces, whether within the national territory (through the National Guard) or outside it, as well as the transit of foreign troops within the country; ratify all executive appointments regarding the Armed Forces and Foreign Policy; declare the disappearance of state powers, designating an interim government and establishing the methods for its eventual replacement; accept or deny the resignation of the heads of the main bodies of the Judicial Branch of the Federation; legislate on national security matters, including the approval of proposed government policy; appoint the attorney general of the Republic "Fiscalía General de la República (Mexico)") and the members of the governing board of the Bank of Mexico; decide through decrees on border limits of the states; the power to decide whether or not to proceed against the President of the Republic in the event of committing a crime, under the terms of article 110 of the Constitution.[180].
The Judicial Branch of the Federation (PJF) is the set of organizations that hold said power in Mexico, one of the three Branches of the Union that make up the government system in that country. It is made up of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (Mexico)") (SCJN) - its highest court -, the Judicial Disciplinary Court, the Judicial Administration Body, the Electoral Court of the Judicial Branch of the Federation, the regional plenary sessions, the collegiate circuit and appeal courts, and the district courts.
Its foundations are found in Title III, Chapter IV (covering fourteen articles) of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States and the "Organic Law of the Judicial Power of the Federation." The courts of the States and of Mexico City can act in aid of the Federal Justice, in the cases provided for by the Magna Carta and the laws.
The management of the Judicial Branch of the Federation, with the exception of the Supreme Court of Justice, is in charge of the Judicial Administration Body; while observance and regulations correspond to the Judicial Disciplinary Court.[164][181][182].
The Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (SCJN) is the highest constitutional court and highest jurisdictional authority of the Judicial Branch of Mexico, with the exception of electoral matters, which is the responsibility of the Electoral Court. It is made up of nine judges elected by popular vote for a period of twelve years, [note 8] called ministers "Minister of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Mexico)"), one of whom is designated as its president "President of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation (Mexico)"); This serves as the person responsible for the direction of the organization and the greatest representative before the other powers.[181].
The current Constitution of 1917 provides for this body in its third title, chapter IV, and addresses it in five articles. They specify the obligations, powers, requirements and restrictions of the court; mainly the exclusive power, among the bodies of the same judicial system, to study, discuss, and issue final rulings in constitutional controversies or unconstitutionality actions that arise between the powers of the Union, the state powers, municipal authorities, autonomous bodies, or the contradiction of a norm with the Magna Carta. That is, it is responsible for ensuring the order established by the Constitution and maintaining the balance between the various government institutions. Its duties also include, as a last legal instance, definitively resolving judicial matters of great social relevance, through the jurisdictional resolutions it issues. Due to the above, and since it is the main and highest court of constitutional nature, there is no body or authority that is above it or judicial appeal that can be filed against its decisions.[181][183].
Governments of the federal entities
The entities of the Mexican Federation are free and sovereign, autonomous in their internal regime. They have the power to govern themselves according to their own laws; They have their own constitution that must not contradict the principles of the federal constitution. The powers of its executive and legislative powers are understood as those that are rights of the entities; such as the ownership of command of the public force (state police and assigned national guard); the direction and regulation of its own economic, social development and public security policies; as well as the administration of those resources that arise from their local taxes or own income.
States cannot make alliances with other states, or with any independent nation, without the permission of the federation. The minting of currency is also prohibited; tax merchandise or transit of Mexicans and foreigners; contract external debt; legislate on tax matters for those economic aspects that are exclusive to the federal government and have its own Armed Forces.
The political organization of each state is based on a separation of powers: The legislative power falls on a unicameral congress; The executive power rests on a governor elected by universal suffrage; and the judicial power rests on a Superior Court of Justice. Given that the states have legal autonomy, each one has its own civil and criminal codes, as well as public security bodies.[184] However, it is up to the Senate to resolve differences in territorial limits or declare the disappearance of powers in case of serious alteration of order; and to the Supreme Court of Justice "Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación (Mexico)") to resolve constitutional controversies between the entities, or these with their municipalities, the federal powers and the autonomous bodies.[180][185].
The states are internally divided into municipalities—or demarcations, in the case of Mexico City—. Each municipality enjoys autonomy in its ability to elect its own city council, which is responsible, in most cases, for providing all the public services required by its population. This concept, which would emerge from the Mexican Revolution, is known as "free municipality." The city council is headed by a municipal president, elected every three years. Each municipality has a council made up of councilors based on their population size and trustees according to the number established by state law. In total in Mexico there are 2,462 municipalities (2,478, including the 16 districts of the capital); The state with the largest number of municipalities is Oaxaca, with 570, and the state with the smallest number is Baja California Sur, with only 5.[186].
At the same time, municipalities are empowered by local constitutions to organize themselves territorially; most of them calling "Delegations" those communities located outside the urban area that constitutes the so-called "Municipal Headquarters." Although these do not have greater autonomy than the election of their delegate and participation in community development projects; since the functions of these administrative entities are merely executory of the determinations of the city council.[187].
Mexico City
Mexico City is the federal entity, headquarters of the Powers of the Union and capital of the country; It enjoys autonomy in everything concerning its internal regime and its political and administrative organization. In accordance with the characteristics of the states, the capital of the country deposits its local powers in a Head of Government, Congress and a Superior Court of Justice. It is divided into Demarcations that have the same executive powers of a municipality, but without the legislative powers (city council) of these; However, they will have a collegiate body called "Council", integrated proportionally with respect to the number of inhabitants of each district, whose functions will be supervision and control of the actions of the mayor, control of public spending of the mayor's office and preparation of its budget.[188][189].
Territorial organization
The current structure and management of the territorial organization respond to that of a Federation, that is, sovereign territorial units; Furthermore, the central government is directly responsible for those territorial components assigned to it by law (airspace, seas and adjacent islands). Understanding this concept as an organization of political division, the country is made up of 32 federative entities (31 states and Mexico City, capital of the republic). And these at the same time are divided into municipalities.[190].
Electoral politics
The representativeness of public power is mainly deposited in a multi-party system, where political parties are the main entity of citizen participation; all of this regulated by autonomous electoral institutions (National Electoral Institute, Electoral Court and Electoral Prosecutor's Office). The INE (under its previous name, IFE) was created with the purpose of making the organization of elections in the country more transparent,[191] after the controversial federal electoral process of July 1988,[192] in which the opposition parties accused the manipulation of the figures by the Ministry of the Interior "Secretaría de Gobernación (Mexico)").[193] Under its model, each state created an autonomous body with the purpose of organizing the elections. local elections.[194] Among other functions, the INE is in charge of matters related to the Electoral Registry and registering the political parties that participate in federal electoral processes. Mexico is one of the few countries in the world where the heads of the Judiciary are elected by popular and universal vote, under the same format as the heads of the other two branches of government.[195][196].
In 2025, six national parties were registered with the INE. These parties are, in order of registration, the National Action Party (PAN), the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the Labor Party "Partido del Trabajo (Mexico)") (PT), the Green Ecologist Party of Mexico (Green), the Citizen Movement party "Citizen Movement (political party)") (MC) and the Morena Party "Morena (political party)"). If it obtains less than 3% of the votes cast in the elections, a party may lose its registration.[197][198].
Article 39 of the constitution establishes that sovereignty resides in the people, and both political power and the system of government respond to their needs, which includes the power to modify it through the will expressed at the polls. Articles 35 and 71, of the same Magna Carta, confer on the general population the power to present initiatives for popular consultation and the promulgation of laws through mechanisms of participatory democracy; In the first case, the request must be supported by at least two percent of the total number of registered voters on the INE electoral roll, in the second, 0.13 percent will suffice. Popular consultations will be valid when at least 40% of the registered voters participate, and the result of this will be binding with the absolute majority (half plus one) in favor or against the matter put to vote.[199][200][201].
Foreign relations
In its foreign policy, the Mexican State upholds several principles that are defined in the country's Magna Carta. These principles are the right of self-determination, the principle of non-intervention, the peaceful resolution of conflicts, the prohibition of the threat or use of force in international relations, the legal equality of states, international cooperation for development and the fight for international peace and security. The president has the power to represent the country to celebrate international treaties and in all matters related to foreign policy.[202][203][204] The country's geopolitical weight is developed from its strategic location as a neighbor of the United States, the preponderant economic volume among emerging economies (especially in Latin America) and its position as the largest Spanish-speaking country, which grants it significant leadership on the continent.[205].
In many ways, the principles of Mexican foreign policy have their origin in the difficulties that the country faced for much of the century in search of international recognition, particularly from European powers and the United States. Therefore, in accordance with the Estrada Doctrine, Mexico refuses to classify other governments favorably or unfavorably, since this practice is considered to violate the sovereignty of other States. In other words, it rejects the practice of recognizing de facto governments, but reserves the "right of legation", that is, to maintain or break diplomatic relations with other governments in favor of its national interest or the causes with which the country is in solidarity.[206][207].
Throughout the century, Mexico became a political reference in Latin America. In observing the Estrada doctrine, the country maintained political relations with Cuba after the socialist Revolution in that country; In contrast, he broke relations with the dictatorships of South America. During the 1970s it supported the causes of the Non-Aligned Movement.[208] In the 1980s, Mexico participated in the Contadora group, which mediated the pacification processes of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua.[209][210][211][212].
Since the beginning of the century, Mexico's foreign policy was aimed at projecting a new image of the country to the world and favoring the relationship with the United States. He sought prominence where he had not had it by his own decision, getting involved in the organization of regional institutions or hosting international summits. The rapprochement towards the United States was accompanied by distancing itself from Latin America. Estrangement corrected in the last decade (particularly with Cuba, Venezuela and Bolivia).[213] However, all administrations privileged the economic aspect in Mexican foreign relations.
Mexico maintains diplomatic relations of different levels and intensity with 190 members of the UN (only with Ecuador and Peru it does not have them), the Holy See, Palestine and the European Union; in addition to representative links with Catalonia, the Basque Country, Puerto Rico, Quebec and Taiwan. It is a full member of the UN (and all related bodies of the United Nations system, including five terms as a non-permanent member of the Security Council), OAS, OECD, USMCA, G-20 "Group of 20 (industrialized and emerging countries)"), G-5, APEC, G3, GL, CIN, UL, ABINIA, Celac, OEI, AEC, Pacific Alliance, MIST, UFC, Interpol, CIJEG and UNESCO.
Armed forces
The Armed Forces of Mexico are the set of military institutions legally constituted to guarantee the sovereignty, territorial integrity, independence and internal security of the country; in addition to collaborating with the authorities to help the population in situations of social emergency, as well as promoting civic or community benefit actions. The president of Mexico is the "Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces", which makes him the only one authorized to dispose of them; However, the normative legislation and the authorization of its war actions are subject to the Senate of the Republic.[218][219][220][221].
In 2025 they are made up of 398,002 elements in total, divided into three permanent military institutions, grouped in two Secretaries of State which are:[222] Secretariat of National Defense "Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Mexico)") (in charge of the Mexican Army and the Mexican Air Force)[168] and Secretariat of the Navy "Secretaría de Marina (Mexico)") (in charge of the Mexican Navy). Mexico).[169].
For the year 2025, the assigned budget was 224,176,495,255 (two hundred twenty-four thousand, one hundred seventy-six million, four hundred ninety-five thousand, two hundred fifty-five) pesos; 158 287 750 650 (one hundred fifty-eight thousand, two hundred eighty-seven million, seven hundred fifty thousand, six hundred fifty) for SEDENA and 65 888 744 605 (sixty-five thousand, eight hundred eighty-eight million, seven hundred forty-four thousand, six hundred five) for SEMAR.[223].
The "Supreme Command", and the only one empowered to dispose of the three forces, partially and totally, is the president of Mexico. However, the administration and high command correspond to the "General Secretary of Defense" (for the first two branches) and the "Admiral Secretary of the Navy." The operations of the Army and the Air Force are in charge of the "Chief of the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the National Defense" and the "Commanders of the Army and the Air Force" respectively; and in the case of the Navy of the "Chief of General Staff of the Navy." Therefore, the president may at any time coordinate with the other two branches, or with any police authority, for the fulfillment of his general missions.[168][169].
• - Mexican Army: 275,443 soldiers (2025).[224] It is the land branch of the Mexican Armed Forces and depends on the Secretariat of National Defense "Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Mexico)"). It is responsible for defending territorial integrity, independence and national sovereignty, guaranteeing internal security, implementing the DN-III-E Plan in the event of disasters and carrying out civic actions and social works that tend to progress the country. Its members emerge from voluntary military service and the national military service "Servicio Militar Nacional (Mexico)"), which is also its reserve force.
• - Mexican Navy: 92,043 sailors (2025).[225] It is the maritime branch of the Mexican Armed Forces and depends on the Secretary of the Navy "Secretaría de Marina (Mexico)"). It is responsible for the surveillance and safeguarding of the coasts, islands, cays and reefs, the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone, the continental shelf and maritime airspace, in order to guarantee the naval defense of independence, territorial integrity, national sovereignty and internal security; It is also in charge of inspecting internal waters, navigable waterways and lakes, implementing the Marine Plan in case of disasters and carrying out civic actions and social works that tend to progress the country.
Geography
México se encuentra entre las coordenadas 32° y 14° norte y 86° y 118° oeste;[4] casi toda la superficie del país se ubica en la placa Norteamericana, aunque con algunas partes de Chiapas en la placa del Caribe y de la península de Baja California en la placa de Cocos y la placa Pacífica; además en la zona económica exclusiva de las aguas mexicanas en el océano Pacífico se encuentra la Placa de Rivera,[239] geofísicamente, algunos geógrafos incluyen el territorio al este del istmo de Tehuantepec en América Central.[240] Sin embargo, geopolíticamente, México es considerado dentro de América del Norte, junto con Canadá y los Estados Unidos.[241].
El país cubre una superficie total de ,[4] de los cuales corresponden a su superficie continental y 5127 km² a su superficie insular.[4] En su superficie, cuenta también con de área marítima en su zona económica exclusiva,[242] misma que limita con la zona económica exclusiva de cinco países, estos son los Estados Unidos, Guatemala, Belice, Honduras y Cuba.[243] En tierra, limita al norte con los Estados Unidos a lo largo de 3155 km, mientras que al sureste comparte frontera con Guatemala en 958 km y con Belice en 276 km.[4] Tiene 11 122 km de litorales continentales,[4] por lo que ocupa el segundo lugar en el continente americano, solo después de Canadá;[244] la extensión de sus costas están repartidas en dos vertientes: al oeste, el océano Pacífico y el golfo de California; y al este, el golfo de México y el mar Caribe, que forman parte de la cuenca del océano Atlántico.[245] Sobre el océano Atlántico el país tiene 3294 kilómetros lineales de costas y 7828 km más sobre el océano Pacífico, incluido el mar de Cortés; 17 de las 32 entidades federativas de México tienen costa: Baja California, Baja California Sur, Colima, Chiapas, Guerrero, Jalisco, Michoacán, Nayarit, Oaxaca, Sinaloa, Sonora, Yucatán, Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche y Quintana Roo; las once primeras en el océano Pacífico. Estos 17 estados costeros constituyen 56.3 % de la superficie continental del país, y en ellos existen 153 municipios con frente costero constituidos por 35 626 localidades.
Relief
The Mexican relief is characterized by being very rugged and hosting multiple volcanoes.[246] Due to its geomorphology, the country is divided into 15 physiographic provinces,[4] these are the Baja California Peninsula, the Sonoran Plain, the Sierra Madre Occidental, the Sierras and Plains of North America, the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Great Plain of North America, the Pacific Coastal Plain, the Coastal Plain of the Northern Gulf, the Mesa del Centro, the Neovolcanic Axis, the Yucatán Peninsula, the Sierra Madre del Sur, the Coastal Plain of the Southern Gulf, the mountains of Chiapas and Guatemala and the Central American Cordillera.[4].
The territory is crossed by the Madre Oriental and Madre Occidental mountain ranges, which are an extension of the Rocky Mountains. The Sierra Madre Occidental ends in Nayarit, at the confluence with the Neovolcanic Axis. From there, parallel to the Pacific coast, runs the Sierra Madre del Sur.
The Neovolcanic Axis crosses the territory from west to east, until it joins with the Sierra Madre Oriental in the Mixteco Shield or Zempoaltépetl (at altitude). In the Neovolcanic Axis, with great volcanic activity as its name indicates, the highest peaks in Mexico are located: the peak of Orizaba or Citlaltépetl (), the Popocatépetl (), the Iztaccíhuatl (), the Nevado de Toluca () La Malinche () and the Nevado de Colima (). The birth of Paricutín, the youngest volcano in the world, took place in this geological province.
The southeastern extensions of the Sierra Madre Oriental are known as Sierra Madre de Oaxaca or Juárez, which ends with the Sierra Madre del Sur on the isthmus of Tehuantepec. To the east of this region extend the Central Table of Chiapas and the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, which has its highest point in the Tacaná volcano ().
The most visible geographical features of the Mexican territory are the Baja California peninsula, in the northwest, and the Yucatán peninsula, to the east. The first is crossed from north to south by a mountain range that is called the Sierra de Baja California), the Sierra de San Francisco or the Giganta. Its highest point is the Tres Vírgenes volcano (). The Yucatán peninsula, on the other hand, is an almost completely flat limestone platform.
Located between the Madre Oriental and Occidental mountain ranges, and the Neovolcanic Axis, is the Mexican Plateau, which in turn is divided into two parts by small mountain ranges such as Zacatecas and San Luis. The northern part is more arid and lower than the southern part. The Chihuahua Desert and the Zacatecas semi-desert are located there. To the south of the transversal mountain ranges is the fertile Bajío region "Bajío (México)") and numerous valleys of cold or temperate land, such as the Purépecha Plateau, the valleys of Toluca, Mexico, and the Poblano-Tlaxcalteca. Most of the Mexican population is concentrated in this southern half of the highlands.
Between the Neovolcanic Axis and the Sierra Madre del Sur are located the Balsas Depression and the Tierra Caliente of Michoacán, Jalisco and Guerrero. To the east, crossing the intricate Mixteca mountain range, are the Central Valleys of Oaxaca, surrounded by steep mountains that complicate access and communications.
Spread across its territorial sea are numerous islands, among which the Revillagigedo archipelagos (Socorro, Clarión, San Benedicto, Roca Partida) and the Marías Islands, in the Pacific, stand out; those of Guadalupe, Cedros, Ángel de la Guarda, Coronado, Alijos rocks, Tiburón Island, Isla del Carmen "Isla del Carmen (Campeche)"), in front of the Baja California peninsula and the coast of Sonora; and those of Ciudad del Carmen, Cozumel, Mujeres, and the Alacranes reef, in the Atlantic basin. Together they have an area of 5127 km².
Climate
Mexico is a country with great climatic diversity. The geographical location of the country places it in two well-differentiated areas, separated by the Tropic of Cancer. This parallel divides the country into two zones whose climates would be clearly different (a tropical zone and a temperate zone) if it were not for the fact that the relief and the presence of the oceans greatly influence the configuration of the climate map in the country.
In this way, in Mexico it is possible to find cold high mountain climates a few hundred kilometers from the hottest climates of the coastal plain. The most notable for its variations is the climate of the Sierra Tarahumara in Chihuahua, where the lowest temperatures in the country occur, sometimes reaching −25 °C, and the highest in the Mexicali Desert, Baja California, which sometimes exceeds 50 °C. The warm rainy zone includes the low coastal plain of the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific. In this region, temperatures range between 15.6 °C and 40 °C. A warm zone includes the lands located between the and Here, temperatures range between 16.7 °C in January and 21.1 °C in July. The cold zone goes from the to the altitude.
The temperate subhumid or semi-dry climate reaches temperatures that range between 10 and 20 °C and has rainfall "Precipitation (meteorology)") no greater than 1000 mm per year. At an altitude higher than , the presence of this climate depends on the latitude of the region. In areas with this type of climate, frost is a constant that occurs every year, as well as the presence of annual sleet and snowfall that tend to be more common in the north of the country and in mountainous areas.
A second type of climate is warm-humid and warm-subhumid. In areas with this climate, it rains during the summer or throughout the year. The rainfall reaches an index of 1500 mm, and has an annual thermal average that ranges between 24 and 26 °C. The areas with this type of climate are located in the coastal plains of the Gulf of Mexico, the Pacific Ocean, the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the north of Chiapas and in the Yucatan Peninsula.
The dry tropics present varieties of previous climates. It is located in the slopes of the Sierra Madre Occidental and Oriental, the upper basins of the Balsas and Papaloapan rivers, as well as in certain regions of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the Yucatán Peninsula and the state of Chiapas. The dry tropics are, therefore, the largest area of extreme hot climates in Mexico.
Temperate zones are regions where annual precipitation is less than 350 mm. The annual temperature varies between 15 and 25 °C, and its precipitation rate is also highly variable. Most of the Mexican territory, located north of the Tropic of Cancer, is an area with these types of characteristics.
The wet season extends between the months of May and October. On average it rains 70 days a year. The dominant trend, however, is the lack of rain in most of the territory, a fact related to the obstacles that the high mountains that frame the Mexican Plateau represent to rain clouds. In the temperate highland zone of the country, the average rainfall is 635 mm per year. The coldest area, in high mountains, registers rates of 460 mm. Meanwhile, the semi-desert of the northern Altiplano barely reaches 254 mm of annual rainfall. In contrast to the aridity of this territory (which concentrates 80% of the Mexican population), there are some regions that can receive almost 1000 mm and up to 3000 mm.
Hydrography
The rivers of Mexico are grouped into three slopes. The Pacific slope, the Gulf slope and the interior slope. The longest of the Mexican rivers is the Bravo, on the Gulf side. This has a length of 3034 km, and serves as the border with the United States. Other important rivers are: the Usumacinta, which is the largest in Mexico and serves as the international border with Guatemala; the Grijalva River, the second largest in the country, both rivers join in the Tabasco plain, forming the largest hydraulic basin in Mexico; and the Pánuco River, to whose basin the Valley of Mexico belongs.
The Lerma, Santiago and Balsas rivers flow into the Pacific, which are of vital importance for the cities of the highlands of Mexico; the Sonora, Fuerte, Mayo "Río Mayo (Sonora)"), Yaqui and Piaxtla rivers, which support the prosperous agriculture of the northwest of the country, and the Colorado River, shared with the United States. Inland rivers, that is, those that do not flow into the sea, are usually short and have little flow. The Casas Grandes river in Chihuahua, and the Nazas, in Durango, stand out. Most of Mexico's rivers have little flow, and almost none of them are navigable.
Mexico is home to numerous lakes and lagoons in its territory, but of modest size. The most important inland body of water is Lake Chapala, in the state of Jalisco, which is at risk of disappearing due to overexploitation. Other important lakes are Lake Pátzcuaro, Zirahuén and Cuitzeo, all of them in Michoacán. In addition, the construction of dams has led to the formation of artificial lakes, such as the "Thousand Islands" lake in Oaxaca.[4].
Biodiversity
Mexico is one of the 17 megadiverse countries in the world. With around 200,000 different species; It is home to 10 to 12% of the world's biodiversity.[27] It is in first place in reptile biodiversity with 864 known species, second in mammals with 564 species, fourth in amphibians with 376 species, eleventh in birds with around 1,128 species and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species.[247] Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and the fourth in total number of species.[248] Approximately 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislation.[248] The Mexican government created the National Biodiversity Information System, which is responsible for studying and promoting the substantial use of ecosystems.
In Mexico, there are 187 federal protected natural areas of which 148 have an exclusively terrestrial surface, 31 have a land and marine surface and 6 exclusively marine that represent 90,958,494 hectares, of which 21,499,881 hectares correspond to protected land surface that represents 10.94% of the national land surface, in terms of marine surface, 69,458,613 hectares are protected, which corresponds to to 22.05% of the marine surface of the national territory. They include 44 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks, 5 natural monuments, 42 areas to protect flora and fauna, 9 areas for the protection of natural resources and 18 sanctuaries (areas with rich diversity of species), in addition there are 41 biosphere reserves declared by UNESCO and 6 of them have been declared natural heritage of humanity.[27] There are also 384 areas voluntarily designated for conservation. that protect 631,743.49 hectares.[249].
• - Fauna and flora endemic to Mexico.
• - Spider monkey.
• - Black bear.
• - Xoloitzcuintle dog.
• - Chihuahua dog.
• - Mexican wolf.
• - Puma.
• - Jaguar (ocelot).
• - Buffalo (American bison).
• - American antelope.
• - Vaquita porpoise.
• - Gray whale.
• - Sea lion.
• - Iguana.
• - Rattlesnake.
• - Loggerhead turtle.
• - Golden Eagle.
• - Macaw.
• - Quetzal.
• - Guajolote (turkey).
• - Axolotl.
• - Red-eyed frog.
• - Pejelagarto.
• - Monarch butterfly.
• - .
Economy
Economic history
During the colonial era and the 19th century, Mexico was a country dedicated to primary economic activities, highlighting agriculture, especially those native products unknown in Europe. Most of its income from foreign sales came from mining exploitation, especially silver. Of this mineral, Mexico has occupied first place in the world in production for more than two centuries. At the same time, it developed an intense commercial exchange activity with Asia through the Philippines with the famous Nao of China.[263].
The industrialization process of Mexico during the Colony and the first century of independent life was extremely slow. Between the centuries and , colonial laws prevented the development of manufacturing in New Spain as in the rest of the Spanish Empire. These had to be imported from the metropolis, which in turn acquired them mostly from the industrialized nations of northern Europe. For most of the century there were attempts to provide the country with an industrial plant. Governments tried to attract foreign entrepreneurs, without much success. During the 1830s, Lucas Alamán established the Banco de Avió, intended for industrial development. However, all these attempts bore little fruit.[263].
At the end of the century, in the Porfiriato, the textile industry was the most developed. He had settled in the valley of Puebla, in the region of Orizaba and the Valley of Mexico. The government of Porfirio Díaz gave great privileges to foreign capital with the intention of attracting direct investment in the construction of communications and transportation infrastructure, and in the growth of the industrial plant. However, the benefits went to a few foreigners and local businessmen close to the dictator, while the majority of Mexicans lived in conditions of misery and exploitation.[263].
In that period of more than thirty years, between 1876 and 1910, the railway network grew intensively: it reached 20,000 km of tracks. On the other hand, the first hydroelectric plant in the nation called Necaxa was built in Puebla and the exploitation of oil fields began, which placed Mexico in the first place in the world for oil exports in the 1910s. It is worth mentioning that the rich oil fields of Faja de Oro&action=edit&redlink=1 "Faja de Oro (Veracruz) (not yet written)") and Cerro Azul "Cerro Azul (Veracruz)"), located in the north of the state of Veracruz, were brutally exhausted by the Standard Oil Company, Royal Dutch Shell and their Mexican subsidiaries, with a meager benefit for the Mexican treasury.[263].
After the triumph of the Revolution, a second period of industrial expansion began in Mexico, favored, among other things, by the nationalization of oil and the Second World War. In the decades that followed the conclusion of that international conflict, the Mexican economy had a mixed character, that is, investment came from both private initiative and the State. Strategic sectors were converted into parastatal industries, such as mining, steel, electricity production, road infrastructure, among others. With the intention of promoting technology transfer, the government allowed many international firms to establish subsidiaries in the country, although always associated with national capital. Agriculture, on the other hand, was heavily subsidized by the State, which became the main intermediary of agricultural products. During the period between 1940 and 1970, Mexico's economy grew at a rate of 6.27% annually, in what was called the Mexican Miracle.[263].
However, protectionism and the closure of the Mexican market, as well as the debt fever of the 1970s that ended with the debt crisis of the 1980s, ended the period of growth of the Mexican economy. In 1982, the country was bankrupt, and unable to pay its international debts. Something similar was happening in the rest of Latin America. To get out of the trance, the government changed its policies and began the period that in Mexico is known as the period of the technocrats "Technocracy (bureaucracy)"), within the framework of neoliberal policies; marked in this period by austerity in social spending, the push given to the privatization of large parastatal companies (of which only two remain to date: Pemex and the Federal Electricity Commission), and an economic growth dependent on manufacturing exports (basically, to the United States).[263].
In the last 25 years, within the framework of the so-called era of neoliberalism, significant reforms and structural adjustments to the economy have been carried out in Mexico. The first economic reforms were carried out between 1989 and 1994, during the administration of Carlos Salinas de Gortari, the most important and transcendent, due to its multiple impacts on the country's economic structure - some positive and others negative -, the controversial negotiation of the free trade agreement with the United States and Canada (the North American Free Trade Agreement, NAFTA), which came into force on the first day of 1994, officially leaving behind the exhausted developmental model. of import substitution growth, whose golden era is located in the fifties and sixties of the last century, and a neoliberal model oriented to the “exterior”, promoting exports, prevailed. The latest economic reforms are recent, and were carried out between 2013 and 2014, under the administration of Enrique Peña Nieto. Due to its potential impact on the growth rate, the energy sector stood out, since since 2015 the private sector, national and foreign, was actively participating in the tasks of exploration and exploitation of crude oil and gas, as well as in the generation of electrical energy, activities previously reserved for the State. These structural reforms, controversial and controversial, generated – each one at its time – favorable expectations regarding the future growth of the Mexican economy, which, however, did not fully materialize.
Notwithstanding the limitations of the Mexican economic system arising from general social conditions, the context of the so-called War on Drug Trafficking, dependence on the US economy and corruption rates caused the stagnation of the economy, which, even with its commercial diversification, continued to be sustained by the effects of oil revenues and remittances from Mexicans residing in the United States mainly. However, in the recent five years, economic consistency and stability, especially in macroeconomic indicators, has been benefited by a set of internal and external factors such as the record increase in remittances,[264] the record increase in foreign investment,[265] as well as international reserves,[266] the strengthening of the exchange rate against the dollar, whose effect was colloquially called "super peso" and the rise of the phenomenon known as “nearshoring” in Mexico (in the context of the United States-China trade war), which has increased the transfer of investments from Asia to the Hispanic American country.[267][268][269][270][271][272][273].
Economic indicators
Considered an "emerging economy", as countries whose growth has been sustained in recent years are called, it had a GDP growth rate of 1.2% in 2024. According to data from the International Monetary Fund, in 2024 it was the twelfth world economy by nominal GDP and the thirteenth by purchasing power parity "Annex: Countries by GDP (PPP)") (PPP); On a regional scale, it is the second economy in Latin America and the fourth on the continent. The basic profile of the Mexican economy places it as a market economy focused on the production and export of manufacturing, although with strong support from the oil industry and tourism activity. This is complemented by a current context of strength in employment, public social spending, investment policy guarantees, income from remittances and the relocation of investments from Asia to Mexico.[274][275][276][277][278].
In 2024 Mexico was the tenth largest exporter in the world; Since the mid-1980s, the country has leaned towards a strong commercial opening towards other markets, which has made it the world leader in free trade agreements, having signed agreements of this type with 50 countries in 14 different treaties. Its main trade association is the USMCA (substitute for NAFTA), which it signed with the United States and Canada. It also has a free trade agreement with the European Union (1999), with the bloc called EFTA (Luxembourg, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Norway); and in 2004 a similar commitment was also sealed with Japan.[279][280].
Mexico is the first country in Latin America to be included in the World Government Bond Index (World Government Bond Index, in English), which recognizes credit rating, liquidity and macroeconomic policies.[281].
Agriculture
52.49% of the country's total area is suitable for agriculture, the confluence of climates and reliefs in the national territory allow the diversification of the types of products harvested. There are around 88 million hectares with some type of agricultural use and five million agricultural producers in three variants, for export (mainly in the north), for the domestic market (mainly in the center and west) and for subsistence (especially in the south); Around 71 percent are small and medium producers; The working population in the sector is around 27 million workers. Total production in 2024 was just over 286 million tons, the main products being: corn, sugar cane, avocado, grasses, sorghum, green chili, tomato, beans, barley and wheat; The fruits include orange, banana, apple and lemon, and the vegetables include onion and red tomato. Mexico is the world's main exporter of tomato, watermelon, cucumber, avocado, onion, lemon, papaya, tequila and beer; second of asparagus, chickpeas, shelled walnuts, confectionery and Brussels sprouts; and in general it occupies seventh place in the world.[282][283][284][285][286][287].
Cattle raising
58% of the surface dedicated to agricultural activities is used by livestock. The type of soil and climate favors the suitability of large areas in plains, plains and plateaus that allow the raising of livestock, in order of size of national production: pigs, cattle, sheep and goats. There are around 110 million heads of livestock in the country, 600 million animals in the poultry sector and two million hives in the beekeeping area; Just as happens with agriculture, in three variants, for export, for the domestic market and for subsistence. Total production in 2022 was almost eight million tons of meat, the main products being: chicken, beef and pork, far above goat, sheep and turkey; Of the derivatives, in the same year, 3 million tons of eggs, 40 million tons of milk and 65,649 tons of honey stand out. At the international level, Mexico is seventh as a world power in livestock products, ranking fourth in egg production, sixth in beef and poultry, as well as eighth in pork.[4][288][289][290][291][292][292][293].
Fishing
Mexico has more than 11,000 kilometers of coastline, all located in tropical areas, guaranteeing the diversity of species, which gives it great fishing potential. There are 17,338 producers in 23,293 fishing establishments in 37 seaports and various inland water areas (rivers, lakes and lagoons). In 2021, total production was 3.8 million tons, highlighting in order: sardine, shrimp, tuna, anchovy and mojarra. At an international level it occupies the 18th position among producers and the same among exporters.[294].
Forestry
Mexico has around 55.8 million hectares of forests and jungles, 80% of these are under the communal property regime through 8,500 ejidatarios and communities, the vast majority of indigenous origin and in socioeconomic conditions of marginality or poverty, a situation that on the one hand allows the extension of sustainable areas and the conservation of ecosystems through systems of uses and customs, but has also caused problems for community members when facing alienation of their lands by landowners and criminals. The volume of forestry production in 2021 was around 9.35 million cubic meters, while foreign sales reached 3,846 million dollars.[295][296][297][298][299].
Mining
The mining-metallurgy sector in Mexico is an important activity that contributes to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP). According to the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI), the mining-metallurgy sector represented 8.6% of industrial GDP and 2.5% of national GDP in 2021; Production amounted to around 153 million cubic tons, which represented income of 1.21 billion pesos. There are 2,930 mineral producers in the country; Mexico is the main producer of silver (6,300 tons in 2022) worldwide and ranks among the first 10 positions in the world production of 17 minerals, including fluorite, sodium sulfate, wollastonite, celestite, lead, molybdenum, barite, diatomite, magnesium sulfate, zinc, salt, gypsum, cadmium, gold and feldspar.[300][301][302][303].
Oil
The history and trajectory of the oil industry in Mexico have a sociopolitical significance that transcends its immediate economic function; Various social and historical processes have made its exercise a symbolism of national sovereignty over natural resources; To this is added that in the times of greatest oil boom, almost half of public income and expenses came from this sector. That is why, and according to the current constitution, the oil industry in Mexico constitutes a system of majority participation of the state (exploration, production, refining, marketing and export) through the state company Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos); It should be noted that the same fundamental norm states that public companies in the energy sector do not constitute monopolies, and therefore are not subject to laws and economic positions contrary to this system. The energy reforms of 2008 and 2013 began to open the sector in a minimal way, but legal adjustments in 2019 reversed this.[304][305][306].
Pemex is not only the largest parastatal in Mexico, it is also the main company in any sector in the country, with revenues, in 2023, of 109 billion pesos;[307] it is the sixth largest oil producing company in the world, the sixth in oil sales, and is the largest company in any branch in Latin America.[308]
As for the country in general, it is 11th in production (2.9 million barrels per day), 12th in exports (1.2 million barrels per day) and 24th in proven reserves.[309][310][311].
Industry
The proximity to the United States, the diversity of regions with certain economic features and the strategic geographic location on the continent allow for the breadth of industrial sectors that range from the simple transformation of raw materials into manufactured products to the development of technologies, including the satisfaction of the entire production chain. Beyond the energy sector, which is the most profitable, the country's main industries are metallurgy, mining, mechanics (specifically, the automotive industry), aerospace, construction, lumber and food. The country's main industrial hubs are located near the metropolitan areas of Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey, in addition to the Bajío area "Bajío (Mexico)") and the border areas with United States. Regarding finished products, those most manufactured in Mexico are: electronic devices, petroleum products, medical devices, automobiles, textile supplies, beverages and food.[4][312][313][314].
Foreign trade
Mexican foreign trade is an important part of the country's economy, together with the domestic market it generates around half of the total gross domestic product. The country has been characterized by having a strategic position in international trade. As mentioned above, it is the tenth largest exporter in the world and has 14 free trade agreements with 50 countries. Immersed in the largest exchange market in the world, with the United States and Canada. The geographical conditions of an extensive coastline and a long border with the largest economy on the planet also favor the exchange of goods with the two other important markets, the European Union and the Asia-Pacific.[280][315].
Mexican foreign trade is based on the import and export of products and services. This is a priority for the country, since it allows the exchange of products, merchandise and monetary resources. It is characterized by having a good production capacity due to the high internal and external demand for certain goods and services. In 2024, the total value of Mexican exports was 617.1 billion dollars;[279] the main products sold abroad were, in order of profits: automobiles, computers, auto parts, cargo trucks, crude oil, televisions and insulated cable. As for imports, in the same year, their total value was 625,312 million dollars; The main products purchased from abroad are: gasoline, heavy machinery, electrical machinery, motor vehicles, plastics, pharmaceutical products and mechanical equipment. According to the previous data, it is recorded that Mexico's trade balance is in deficit.[316][317][318].
Tourism
Tourism is an important economic activity for the country and makes it one of the most notable nations in the world, placed in sixth place in terms of international tourist arrivals, with 45.0 million visitors in 2024, equaling the historical mark of 2019, when it received the same amount. It is the first destination for foreign tourists within Latin America. In that year, tourism contributed 7.5% of the national GDP, and represented 14.2% of direct and indirect jobs in the Mexican economy. For the same cycle, income from foreign tourists reached USD 32,956,300,000 (thirty-two thousand, nine hundred and fifty-six million, three hundred thousand dollars).[29][322].
Mexico's main tourist attractions are the archaeological sites of Mesoamerican cultures, colonial cities and beach resorts. The natural wealth and historical cultural heritage—the fusion of European culture (particularly Spanish) with Mesoamerican culture; They also make Mexico an attractive tourist destination worldwide. The vast majority of foreign tourists who visit Mexico come from the United States, Canada and Colombia. The next largest group are visitors from Europe and Asia. A small number of tourists also come from the rest of Latin American countries.[323].
However, local tourism has generated an important economic impact for the country, where service providers seek greater dissemination and attention to national tourists, creating new tourist and recreational centers sponsored by FONATUR (National Fund for the Promotion of Tourism) who has taken on the task of studying the preferences and tastes of Mexicans on their days of rest; Communication and transportation routes have been improved and rehabilitated, the busiest airports have been remodeled, telecommunications systems have been updated, credits have been opened for new hospitality infrastructure and the provision of services, casinos or betting houses have been opened, health improvements have been made, and greater security has been granted in areas of recreational activity.
In the 2022 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Index (TTCI) classification, which measures factors that make it attractive to make investments or develop businesses in the travel and tourism sector of a specific country, Mexico reached 40th place worldwide, ranking first among Latin American countries and third on the American continent.[324].
• - Main tourist destinations in Mexico.
• - Riviera Maya
Quintana Roo.
• - Mexico City.
• - Cancun
Quintana Roo.
• - Cabo San Lucas
Baja California Sur.
• - Guadalajara "Guadalajara (Mexico)")
Jalisco.
Poverty
In Mexico, 29.6% of the total inhabitants live in poverty, according to the "Analysis of the results of the measurement of multidimensional poverty 2024" made by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography, which is equal to 38.5 million people. On the other hand, the situation of people in extreme poverty is equivalent to 5.3% of the total inhabitants (seven million). According to the same organization, only 32.5% of the Mexican population (42.3 million) is neither poor nor vulnerable.[325].
According to the 2024 UN human development report, Mexico has a human development index of 0.789, ranking 77th in the world.[26] Historically it has made great progress alongside countries such as Indonesia, Turkey, Thailand and South Africa, considering the fact that in 2010 it had a human development index of 0.743.[326][327][328] However, its inequality-adjusted human development index is 0.609; considered medium.[329].
Mexico is a very unequal country: 0.2% of the population owns 60% of the country's wealth, while 38.5 million people live in poverty (2024).[330].
• - States of Mexico by poverty level (2022).
• - Poverty in Nuevo León.
• - Irregular settlements in Tlalnepantla, metropolitan area of Mexico City.
Science and technology
In Mexico, access to science and technology is guaranteed as a human right by the Constitution (article 3, section V); Therefore, the state must provide the means and facilities for research and innovation, as well as the massive dissemination or use of these, in all areas of knowledge.[334].
According to data from Scopus, a bibliographic database of summaries and citations of articles in scientific journals, Mexico is ranked 27th in the world in terms of scientific publications, being second in Latin America after Brazil and second among Spanish-speaking countries, after Spain. According to the World Intellectual Property Organization, in its 2022 and 2023 editions, Mexico was ranked 58th in innovation, while in 2024 it ranked 56th and in 2025, it returned to 58th place.[337][338][339][340] Mexico is one of the countries with the most awards for the Prize in Information Sciences. UNESCO.[341].
However, in terms proportional to its economy and population size, Mexico's participation in science and technology is scarce.[342][343][344] For example, Mexico is the OECD country that invests the least in research and development with an approximate 0.47% of GDP;[345] while the OECD average is close to 2.5%.[343] Only one Mexican citizen has received an Award Nobel Prize in science (Mario Molina "Mario Molina (chemist)"), chemistry 1995), for work carried out abroad; while seven have received the science and technology category of the Prince of Asturias Award.[346] Although the ancient Mayans achieved sophistication in their mathematics and astronomical calculations, no modern Mexican has been awarded the Fields Medal, the Abel Prize or the Turing Prize.
In Mexico, basic research is carried out almost entirely by public organizations, such as universities, hospitals and some government centers.[347][348][349][350] Among the most active organizations are the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) founded in 1910, the National Institute of Public Health (INSP) founded in 1987, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) founded in 1943, the Center for Research and Advanced Studies (Cinvestav) of the National Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1961 and 1936 respectively; and the College of Mexico (COLMEX) in social sciences and humanities, founded in 1940. Likewise, since 1970 there has been the National Council of Humanities, Sciences and Technologies (CONAHCYT), the government agency "Federal Public Administration (Mexico)") in charge of regulating and promoting the scientific and technological advance of the country, and which also provides its own research centers. There are also societies such as the Mexican Academy of Sciences and the National College "El Colegio Nacional (México)"), which carry out consulting and dissemination work in science and the arts.
Among the most notable specific discoveries and inventions that Mexico and Mexicans have contributed to humanity are: the discovery of vanadium (Andrés Manuel del Río), the invention of one of the first semi-automatic and automatic firearms (the Mondragón rifle), the independent development of the method of vaginal histology known as Papanicolaou staining (Eliseo Ramírez Ulloa")),[351] pioneering research on cosmic rays (Manuel Sandoval Vallarta), the synthesis of the first contraceptive pill (Luis Miramontes and the Syntex company"), the first color television system (Guillermo González Camarena), the discovery of the Herbig-Haro nebulae where stars are formed (Guillermo Haro), the calcium hypothesis of neurotransmitter release (Ricardo Miledi), the transformation of eigenstates of the quantum harmonic oscillator and diffraction in time") (Marcos Moshinsky), contributions to the study of stellar atmospheres and contributions to the instrumentation of various NASA probes (Guido Münch), the so-called "green revolution" that developed biotechnology essential for global agricultural productivity (Norman Borlaug), collaboration in the creation of the Google PageRank algorithm, RAID storage and distributed databases (Héctor García-Molina) and the discovery of the causes of the deterioration of the ozone layer (Mario Molina "Mario Molina (chemical)")).
Infrastructure
Energy
In Mexico, energy generation is in charge of a parastatal company, the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE), an organization that as of October 2009, in an action that generated much controversy, took control of the geographical area (center of the country) that until then was managed by the Compañía de Luz y Fuerza del Centro (LFC). The CFE is in charge, as its name indicates, of the operation of electricity generating plants and their distribution throughout the national territory. The other company in charge of the exploitation of energy resources is Petróleos Mexicanos (Pemex), organized into divisions that are in charge of specific aspects of the oil industry.
The main form of energy generation in the country is combined cycle thermoelectric, primarily using natural gas, which in 2021 produced 55% of the country's total electricity. Among the most important plants of this type is Los Azufres, in the state of Michoacán, and its infrastructure represented 51.9% of the total. Hydroelectric energy follows, at a distance, with a volume of 9.7% of the energy generation structure. Other types of generation are core electricity, geothermal, coal, solar, wind and bioenergy.[352].
Mexico has an installed capacity to produce 918 MW (October 2021) of geothermal energy. This represents 3.24% of the total electricity generated in the country. There is the largest geothermal energy plant in the world, the Cerro Prieto geothermal energy plant.[353].
Dams
According to the National Water Commission in Mexico, there are more than 5,000 dams and drainage ditches; Of these, 180 are classified as large, with a storage volume of more than 150,000,000,000 (one hundred and fifty billion) cubic meters of water.[354] Among the most relevant dams, the La Angostura dam is located in the state of Chiapas, which has the largest reservoir in the country.[354] In terms of electricity generation, the dam Chicoasén is the one with the greatest power in the country, with 2,400 megawatts,[355] which has one of the highest curtains in the world.
Drinking water and sanitation
The drinking water, sewage and sanitation service is operated by municipal or metropolitan public companies that work exclusively with each city in the country; which manage storage entities such as canals, wells, hydraulic towers, among others. Although Mexico prides itself on having some of the best drinking water and sanitation operating organizations in Latin America, it also has some whose performance is poor. Access, efficiency and quality of water and sanitation services vary greatly from one locality to another, largely reflecting the different levels of development across the country. In general, the Mexican water and sanitation sector is marked by the following problems:[354].
• - Low technical and commercial efficiency in the provision of services;
• - Inadequate quality of water supply services;
• - Poor quality of sanitation services, especially with regard to wastewater treatment;.
• - Insufficient coverage in the poorest rural areas.
Petrochemistry
The petrochemical industry in Mexico is a branch of productive activity that includes establishments dedicated to the production of basic chemical substances derived from natural gas, oil and coal, such as acyclic hydrocarbons: ethane, hexane, ethylene, propylene, etc. Mexico has an extensive infrastructure for the exploration and production of crude oil and natural gas, refineries, gas processing complexes and petrochemical complexes for the transformation of hydrocarbons. Currently, it has fifteen refining plants that have a total refining capacity of 818,000 barrels per day. The petrochemical industry serves as a platform to support the development and growth of Mexico, in addition to forming productive chains. This industry supplies more than 40 branches of industrial activity and demands goods and services from 30 industries. The main chains that are supported by petrochemicals are: textile, automotive/transport, detergents and cosmetics, footwear, packaging/beverages and food, agriculture, construction and clothing.[356].
Transportation
The total length of the land road network in the country was 810,129 kilometers in 2022.[357] Of these, a third corresponds to covered gaps, and just over 10,000 kilometers corresponds to four-lane roads. Highways in Mexico are classified as federal, which are in charge of the SCT, are free and make up just over 40,000 kilometers;[358] state highways, which are free and built by the state governments; and toll highways, managed by a consortium called Caminos y Puentes Federales (CAPUFE), which collects the resources from the toll, which are reinvested in the maintenance of the highways. Some of these high-speed roads are the most expensive in Mexico, such as the one that connects Mexico City with Toluca, or the Autopista del Sol "Autopista del Sol (Mexico)"), which links Mexico City with the port of Acapulco.
In the recent decade, significant works were built with the purpose of making land transportation faster between the different regions of the country. Perhaps the most emblematic work of these is the Chiapas Bridge, built on the Malpaso dam, on the Grijalva River, and which allows a saving of up to six hours in the transfer from Mexico City to Tuxtla Gutiérrez, the capital of Chiapas.
Most of the railway network is currently used for freight transport. After the privatization of Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México, the parastatal company formed after the nationalization of this transportation system with the purpose of operating and maintaining the railway network, the concessionaires were dedicated exclusively to the transportation of goods, and the network has remained practically unchanged for more than two decades. The country had a total of 17,360 kilometers of railway tracks in 2022.[359] The Chihuahua to the Pacific Railway transports passengers, taking advantage of the fact that the route through the Sierra Madre Occidental has important tourist value due to its natural landscapes.
In the 20th century, Mexico returned to passenger rail transportation due to vehicular traffic congestion, the inaugurations of the Valley of Mexico Suburban Train in 2008 and the Mexico-Toluca Interurban Train in 2023[360][361] have allowed the formalization in other places of projects such as the Tula-Buenavista routes,[362] Pachuca-Buenavista[363]Tlajomulco de Zúñiga-Guadalajara-Zapopan,[364] and the largest suburban train section Adames-Aguascalientes-Peñuelas with 80 kilometers in length that runs through the entire state from north to south.[365] Other projections are the interurban trains Guanajuato-Querétaro, Tijuana-Mexicali, Querétaro-San Luis Potosí and Coatzacoalcos-Salina Cruz, which are being studied to recover the railway infrastructure, reduce the transportation time of passengers and goods for ecological and technological purposes.[366].
Communications
The media in Mexico also remained in the hands of private initiative, starting in the 1990s. Previously they were operated by parastatal companies, such as Telefonos de México. The Mexican Postal Service and Mexican Telegraphs remain in the hands of the State.
Regarding television, there was the Mexican Television Institute (Imevisión), although from the beginning individuals had the right to concessions. The main private television networks in Mexico are the duopoly Televisa and TV Azteca. Televisa is also the largest producer of Spanish-language content in the world, mainly traditional "soap operas." Grupo Imagen Multimedia is a media conglomerate that owns the third national television network: Imagen Televisión. Grupo Multimedios is another Spanish-speaking media conglomerate that broadcasts in Mexico, Spain, and the United States. The federal government operates Channel 22 "Canal 22 (México)") of the Ministry of Culture "Secretaría de Cultura (México)"), Channel Fourteen of the Public Broadcasting System of the Mexican State and Channel Once "Canal 11 (México)"); the latter, through the National Polytechnic Institute attached to the Ministry of Public Education. Likewise, states have the power to operate television stations through decentralized organizations created for this purpose. In Mexico there are 885 television stations, some of them with national coverage. Meanwhile, 72% percent of Mexican households have some restricted television service (cable, satellite or online).[372][373].
In radio, there are multiple private companies, the most important of which are based in Mexico City; In many cities of the republic there are local stations. The Federation operates the Mexican Radio Institute (IMER), and some of its agencies operate other stations, such as Radio Educación, dependent on the Ministry of Public Education, and the many indigenous radio stations, which depended on the National Indigenous Institute, converted into the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples. Several universities also have their own radio stations, among which stands out Radio Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, from UNAM, whose coverage reaches almost the entire national territory, and can be heard on the international band and the Internet. There are 1017 amplitude modulated radio stations in Mexico, 814 frequency modulated radio stations and 10 shortwave radio stations.[372][373].
Fixed telephony is operated by a few companies, of which Telmex is by far the largest. Telephone coverage has also been steadily increasing. It is estimated that 80% of Mexican homes have a landline, and in many small communities there are community telephone booths. There are around 24.5 million fixed telephone lines and almost 124 million mobile lines; the latter with greater market diversification than residential lines, although with considerable weight, especially in coverage, of the Telcel company.[372][373].
Media
Mexico tops the list with the highest concentration of media worldwide and ranks third among the OECD countries that offer the most expensive services. In this framework, the telecommunications market in Mexico is dominated by Grupo Televisa and Grupo Carso.[375].
Newspapers printed in Mexico are an important source of information and news for the population. The written press in Mexico has a long history that dates back to colonial times. Currently, printed newspapers are published in different formats, such as standard, tabloid and Berliner. Printed newspapers also differ in their frequency, which can be daily, weekly or monthly.
In Mexico, there are several companies that publish printed newspapers. Some of the largest companies are Grupo Reforma, which publishes newspapers such as Reforma and Mural; Grupo Milenio, which broadcasts Milenio Diario and Milenio Jalisco; and Mexican Editorial Organization (OEM), which publishes newspapers such as El Sol de México, Esto and El Sol del Bajío. In Mexico, the newspapers with the greatest circulation (in alphabetical order) are El Universal "El Universal (Mexico)"), La Jornada "La Jornada (Mexico newspaper)") and Diario Reforma "Reforma (newspaper)"), with a center, left and right editorial line, respectively. In the most important states and cities there are local newspapers with greater circulation than national ones. There are popular newspapers that are widely read, such as El Grafico, Metro and La Prensa. The main sports newspaper is called Record, with circulations higher than even the general information newspapers. There are also free newspapers that summarize the most important events of the day and that are distributed through the so-called "fliers", some examples are La Crónica or El Publimetro.[376][377][377][378][379].
In Mexico, open television stations are operated mainly by private companies: Televisa, Televisión Azteca and Grupo Imagen. There is also the decentralized public body: Public Radio Broadcasting System of the Mexican State (SPR). In addition to private companies, there are other public and private operators with channels with less coverage (highlighting Multimedios Televisión) as well as various local operators, including state governments and universities. The programming of television stations is regulated for broadcast through the General Directorate of Radio, Television and Cinematography "General Directorate of Radio, Television and Cinematography (Mexico)"), an institute dependent on the Ministry of the Interior of Mexico "Secretaría de Gobernación (México)"), which determines the schedules for the transmission of recorded material.[380].
The main television networks are shown in the following table:[381].
• - *Canal Once is retransmitted through a network of stations owned by the IPN and on several stations in the SPR network.
Demography
El más reciente censo general de población y vivienda, implementado por el Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía fue en el año 2020. Sus resultados arrojaron al momento de su ejecución que la población total de México era de 126 014 024 de habitantes (11.º lugar mundial), 51.2 % corresponden a mujeres y 48.8 % a hombres, la edad promedio es de 29 años, el porcentaje de crecimiento respecto al censo de 2010 fue de 1.2 %, la tasa de fecundidad es de 2.1 y alrededor de 1.2 millones de habitantes no nacieron en el territorio nacional.[386][387].
Durante todo el siglo , la población de México apenas se había duplicado, esto en relación con el censo de 1790 comparado con el primero del México independiente en 1895. Esta tendencia de crecimiento continuó durante las primeras dos décadas del siglo , no obstante, en el censo de 1920 se registra una pérdida de cerca de 2 millones de habitantes. El fenómeno puede explicarse porque durante el decenio de 1910 a 1920 tuvo lugar la Revolución mexicana.
La tasa de crecimiento se incrementó drásticamente entre los decenios de 1930 a 1980, cuando el país llegó a registrar índices de crecimiento mayores a 3 % (1950-1980). La población mexicana se duplicaba en veinte años, y a ese ritmo se esperaba que para el año 2000 hubiera 120 millones de mexicanos. Ante esta situación, el gobierno federal creó el Consejo Nacional de Población (CONAPO), con la misión de establecer políticas de control de la natalidad y realizar investigaciones sobre la población del país. Las medidas resultaron exitosas, y la tasa de crecimiento descendió hasta 0.7 en el 2020. La esperanza de vida pasó de 36 años (en 1895) a 75 años (en el año 2020).[4].
También cambió la cara de los mexicanos. A principios del siglo , cerca del 90 % de la población vivía en localidades rurales (pueblos, rancherías, caseríos). El censo de 1960 arrojó datos en los que la población urbana era por primera vez mayor que la rural (50.6 % del total). El número de personas que radicaba en su estado natal en 1895 constituía el 96.6 % de la población total del país. En el censo de 1920 sumaban poco más del 90 %. Treinta años más tarde constituían el 80 % y en la actualidad poco más de 18 % de los mexicanos radican fuera del estado en que nacieron. Ambas tendencias pueden explicarse por el proceso de industrialización de las ciudades grandes y medianas, así como por la depauperación gradual del campo, ocasionada por la recesión de las actividades agropecuarias. Las entidades federativas que concentran la mayor población son Estado de México, Ciudad de México, Veracruz, Jalisco y Puebla. En cambio, las menos pobladas son Baja California Sur, Campeche y Quintana Roo. Este último estado es uno de los que presenta una tasa de crecimiento poblacional más alta en el país, debido a la industria turística de Cancún, que concentra el 50 % de la población quintanarroense.[4].
Por otra parte, la población hablante de lenguas indígenas (único criterio contemplado en la metodología de INEGI para contabilizar a la población indígena del país) cayó de 17 % en 1895 a apenas 9.4 % en 2020. Sin embargo, en números absolutos hubo un incremento, pues pasó de poco más de un millón a veintitrés en el censo de 2020. Son las comunidades indígenas las que expulsan una mayor población. La emigración indígena, hasta 1980, tuvo como destinos principales las ciudades medianas y grandes cercanas a las regiones de origen. A partir de la década de los noventa, la migración indígena cobró un rostro internacional, y hoy se dirige principalmente a Estados Unidos.[388][389].
Metropolitan areas
Metropolitan areas have traditionally been defined as the group of municipalities or cities that interact strongly with each other, normally around a city core.[390] In 2004, in a joint effort between CONAPO, INEGI and SEDESOL, it was agreed to define metropolitan areas for the first time.[391].
On October 19, 2023, the Secretariat of Agrarian, Territorial and Urban Development, CONAPO and INEGI, published the document Metrópolis of Mexico 2020, which establishes the new official guidelines to determine the metropolitan areas of the country, as well as the plans, programs and projects that will guide public policies on the matter. The new delimitation determined three definitions:[392].
• - Metropolitan area: Group of municipalities whose relationship is based on a high degree of physical or functional inter-municipal or interstate integration and the total population of the municipalities that comprise it is 200,000 inhabitants or more. The urban locality or conurbation that gives rise to the metropolitan area has 100 thousand inhabitants or more.
• - Municipal metropolis: Municipality that is not part of a metropolitan area, however, has a total population of 300,000 inhabitants or more and is economically or politically relevant to the state. The urban locality that gives rise to the municipal metropolis has 200,000 inhabitants or more.
• - Conurbation area: Group of municipalities whose relationship is based on a high degree of physical or functional inter-municipal or interstate integration. The urban locality or conurbation that gives rise to the metropolitan area has between 50,000 and 100,000 inhabitants.
According to this new delimitation, Mexico has 92 metropolises made up of 421 municipalities that are classified into: 48 metropolitan areas, 22 municipal metropolises and 22 suburban areas; The 48 metropolitan areas are made up of 345 municipalities in which 67.6 million people reside; 12 million live in the 22 municipal metropolises; and 2.9 million live in the 54 municipalities that make up the 22 metropolitan areas. In this way, 82.5 million people, 65.5 percent of the national population, live in these metropolises.[392].
The following is a list of the major metropolitan areas of Mexico, as reported in the 2020 census.
Most populated municipalities and districts
If the municipalities are considered as isolated entities and unrelated to metropolitan areas, according to the 2020 census data, the most populated municipality in the country is Tijuana, with 1,922,523 inhabitants,[395] followed by the municipality of Iztapalapa, with 1,835,436 inhabitants, while León occupies third place with 1,721,215 inhabitants. They are followed on the list by Puebla and Ecatepec, which have very similar populations (1,692,181 and 1,645,352 respectively).[396] It should be noted that strictly speaking Iztapalapa, which occupies second place, is a territorial demarcation of Mexico City.[note 10] At the opposite pole are several municipalities in the state of Oaxaca, whose populations do not exceed a thousand people.
ethnic groups
Mexico is ethnically diverse; According to article 2 of the Mexican Constitution, the country is defined as a multicultural nation founded on the principle of indigenous peoples.[398] The institutional discourse in the construction of the Mexican identity imaginary is based on the idea of the «mestizo nation» or, inspired by the expression of José Vasconcelos Calderón (1925), a "melting pot of all races", which identifies the construction of "mestizaje" as the basis of homogenization both culturally and from an ethnic point of view. This idea has been criticized by academic experts in studies on the construction of raciality, considering it a form of "social engineering" to determine a "racial policy" that ends up being exclusive.[399].
The predominant policy of Mexico's first century of independent life was racist. After the triumph of the Revolution, several thinkers considered that Mexico was a culturally mestizo nation, and then social policies were aimed at "assimilating" indigenous particularities to the construction of a new "national culture" of republican style. The consequences were the reduction in absolute and relative terms of people who spoke indigenous languages and Afro-Mexican peoples.
The language criterion has been used to determine the number of indigenous people in the country. However, this has been criticized, since ethnic identity is not given only by linguistic identity, as Guillermo Bonfil Batalla pointed out in his work Deep Mexico.
According to the 2020 census organized by the INEGI, in Mexico there are 23.2 million people aged three years and older who self-identify as indigenous, which is equivalent to 19.4% of the total population in that age range; of which 16.1 million do not speak indigenous languages. The total population in indigenous households in 2020 was , which is equivalent to 9.4% of the country's total population. The average size of indigenous households was 4.1 people. The 2020 Population and Housing Census identified that in Mexico there were indigenous language speakers aged three years and older, which represented 6.1% of the country's total population in that age range. Of the 7.4 million people aged three and older who speak an indigenous language, 6.4 million (87.2%) also spoke Spanish and 866 thousand (11.8%) did not. Currently, 68 indigenous languages are spoken in Mexico. The most frequent are Nahuatl (22.4%), Mayan (10.5%) and Tseltal (8.0%).[388][389].
The National Institute of Indigenous Peoples recognizes 68 indigenous ethnic groups distinguished from each other on the basis of linguistic criteria. The largest, in demographic terms, are the Nahua, the Mayan, the Zapotec, the Mixtec, the Otomí and the Purépecha. All of them are descendants of the ancient Mesoamerican peoples. The least numerous groups are the Kiliwa, settled in the north of Baja California, and the Lacandón of Chiapas, with just a few dozen members.[400].
Emigration
The United States is the country where the most Mexicans live after Mexico. The Mexican presence in the northern neighbor begins with the annexation of the northern half of the country's territory in 1848. Some of the Mexicans who remained on the other side of the border returned to Mexico, but others stayed there, and preserved their language and customs. They were joined by a good number of braceros, who went to settle in the United States, some temporarily, through a labor agreement between the governments of Washington and Mexico during World War II. The latest economic crises in Mexico have favored emigration to the north, and it is estimated that at the beginning of the century, about 38 million Mexicans or descendants of Mexicans lived in the United States. Most of them are concentrated in California, Texas, New Mexico and Illinois.[402][403].
The second destination is Canada, reaching position 62 in foreign communities with 126,745 Mexicans. The European country with the largest number of Mexicans is Spain, the third destination that, in 2021, had 66,092 Mexican residents, mainly for kinship, marital and educational reasons; According to the Institute of Mexicans Abroad (2021), the fourth country in the world to have the most Mexicans is Brazil, with around 24,171 individuals, mainly to carry out business, commercial, industrial and tourist activities; The fifth destination is the United Kingdom, which is the second in Europe with the largest number of Mexican residents, in 2021 it had 18,000 Mexicans; Germany is the sixth destination and one of high growth in a short time. Other important communities of Mexicans abroad are those of Bolivia, the Netherlands, Argentina, Chile, France and Japan; Recently, Mexican communities have been increasing in Costa Rica, Panama, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Venezuela and Cuba.[404].
Immigration
Immigration to Mexico was not massive as in the United States or Canada, but it received countless communities from very distant nations, for example from the Asian continent. Immigration to the country is rather compared to that of other Latin Americans such as Peru, Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Paraguay. Among the main foreign communities with a strong presence in the national territory for many years are the American, Spanish, Portuguese, German, Italian, British, Cuban, French, Chinese, Russian, Lebanese, Jewish, Gypsy, Japanese, Chilean, Peruvian, Korean, Filipino, Greek, Irish, Swiss), Hungarian, Polish, Syrian, Turkish communities, among others.
Immigration in Mexico has not had an overwhelming impact on the total population compared to other countries, but there has been a considerable increase in the foreign population since the country was consolidated as an independent nation, and this has been growing in recent years. Due to its geographical position, the immigrant arrives in the national territory for family, educational, economic, climatological, cultural and transit reasons, which has led to the permanence of foreigners throughout the territory. The country has not historically sought mass immigration but it has suddenly begun to occur. In previous years, the foreign attraction of more selective immigration had been sought, to which was added an old tradition of political asylum due to religious or ideological persecution; That is why intellectuals, scientists and artists from other nations reside in this country and have contributed to various scientific and artistic fields in the country on a par with Mexicans who stand out in the same fields.
Mexico is also a country of emigrants, it is a peculiar case; 75% of emigrants seek the United States as their final destination; for every ten Mexicans who leave their country, four foreigners enter the national territory legally and illegally; and decide to stay in the country indefinitely. The National Immigration Institute and INEGI are the only institutions that compile official statistics on foreigners who have a legal stay of more than six months since they entered the country. However, the difficult control situation at national borders and customs prevents having an exact count of the entry of foreigners, their origin and their destination. 80% of foreigners living in Mexico come from neighboring countries (United States and Guatemala), other important communities come mainly from Spanish-speaking nations, of which the Spanish, Colombian, Argentinian, Cuban communities among others stand out, the rest of the immigration comes from various regions of the world. The entity with the largest foreign population is Baja California, followed by Nuevo León, Jalisco, Mexico City, Tamaulipas, Chihuahua, Chiapas, State of Mexico, Baja California Sur and Sonora.
At the beginning of the century there were important changes in Mexican politics that had an impact on the increase in resident and naturalized foreigners. The country has often not been a final destination like the United States, but it has an important geographic and strategic location that has generated bilateral and international relations with the United States and Canada regarding immigration control. Globalization, multiculturalism, work and an accelerated rate of mobility of human beings will continue to increase the foreign population legally and illegally within Mexican territory.
Violence
Mexico is the second country that contributes the highest number of violent deaths to the total intentional homicides committed in the world. Official statistics from the Mexican National Public Security System "Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Pública (Mexico)") estimate that the number is 20,824 intentional homicides in 2016. Although the London-based International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) differs with the figure, as it recorded the death of 23,000 people in 2016.[406].
Mexico, in 2017, experienced its most violent year with 25,339 homicides, figures from the NGO Citizen Council for Public Security and Criminal Justice.[407] This NGO differs slightly in figures from those provided by the Executive Secretariat of the National Public Security System (SESNSP), which is 25,324 intentional homicides.[408].
Figures from 2006 to August 2019:.
• - Missing persons: 40,180.
• - Clandestine graves: 3024.
• - Unidentified bodies in forensic service: 26,000[409].
Figures as of January 2020:.
• - Missing people: 61,637[410].
Of the 115,147 reports of missing persons nationwide until 2025, between 2000 and 2024, 88 percent of the reports of missing persons are concentrated. Meanwhile, those registered between 2018 and May 2024 make up 48 percent of the total, and the year in which there was the highest number of absent people was 2023, with 10,315. [411].
Religion
Mexican State the Catholic Starting in the second half of the century, a process of introducing creeds other than Catholic ones began.[413][414][415].
The 1920s were marked by a religious conflict known as the Cristero War, in which many peasants encouraged by the clergy confronted the federal government that had decided to put into effect the constitutional laws of 1917. Among the measures contemplated by the Magna Carta were the suppression of monastic orders and the cancellation of all religious worship. The war ended with an agreement between the parties in conflict (Catholic Church and State), through which the respective fields of action were defined. Until the mid-1990s, the Mexican constitution did not recognize the existence of any religious group. In 1993, a law was enacted through which the State granted them legal personality as religious associations. This fact allowed the reestablishment of diplomatic relations with the Holy See, which the Mexican State did not recognize as a political entity.
According to the 2020 Population and Housing Census, it captured 97.9 million Catholic people, which represents the largest religious group in the country. They are followed by Protestants/Evangelical Christians, with just over 14 million people. The religion of the Jewish group is made up of almost 59 thousand believers; and those who practice religions with ethnic and Afro roots together represent just over 74 thousand people. The spiritualist religious group groups almost 37 thousand people; while the followers of the Islamic religion make up almost eight thousand practitioners. Other religious groups have a population of around 70 thousand people. Those who declared themselves believers without religious affiliation represent 3.1 million and the population without religion corresponds to 10.2 million people.[397][416][417].
According to Jacobo Grinberg-Zylberbaum (in texts edited by the National Autonomous University of Mexico), the survival of magical-religious rituals of the ancient indigenous groups is notable, not only in the current indigenous people but in the mestizos and whites "Blanco (person)") that make up rural and urban Mexican society. There is frequently a syncretism between shamanism and the Catholic tradition. Another religion of syncretism popular in Mexico (especially in recent years) is Santeria. This is mainly due to the large number of Cubans who settled in the territory after the Cuban Revolution (mainly in states such as Veracruz and Yucatán). Although Mexico was also a recipient of slaves from Africa in the 19th century, the heyday of these cults is relatively new.[418].
The proportion of Catholics is variable in different social areas. In the cities it is usually lower, although there are some indigenous regions where members of Protestant faiths reach 30%. Even in some areas of Chiapas the community of indigenous Muslims numbers about 5,000 believers. The greatest religious diversity occurs in the northern part of the country, bordering the United States, and in the southeast, whose population has a strong indigenous component. The center, and especially the Bajío region "Bajío (México)"), is an area with an almost absolutely Catholic predominance. For example, in the state of Guanajuato 90.8% declare themselves Catholic, while in Zacatecas 92.3% and in Aguascalientes 89.3% are Catholic.[397] The number of people who do not profess any religion is also important, totaling more than ten million inhabitants.
Languages
The General Law of Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples recognizes Spanish and 68 indigenous Mexican languages as national languages.[11] Spanish is the dominant language in official affairs and is the mother tongue of the majority of Mexicans. At the same time, it should be noted that this is the country that is home to the largest number of Spanish speakers in the world.[426].
7% of the population speaks an indigenous language. The government officially recognizes 68 indigenous languages—grouping together similar varieties that some linguists should consider distinct languages. Among the indigenous languages, those with the largest number of speakers are Nahuatl and Yucatec Mayan; Together, they number more than two million people.[388][389][400].
The opposite case is that of Lacandon, whose number of speakers does not reach 100. Even more evident is the case of languages such as Kiliwa, whose speakers are estimated between 10 and 50 individuals (the information varies according to the various sources), a problem that is accentuated due to the geographical isolation of the Kiliwa families. Equally significant is the case of the speakers of the Zoque Ayapaneco dialect who, due to recent research, are known to be only two individuals who also do not exercise the use of the language and therefore it is considered extinct. The SEP "Secretary of Public Education (Mexico)") has established bilingual education systems in indigenous and rural communities due to the need for communication with the Spanish-speaking majority that arose —de facto—; A considerable percentage of the indigenous population is bilingual or trilingual.[427].
Due to the proximity to the United States, the presence of English is constant, especially in urban centers, in music and in cinema; It is also very common in the business environment due to the economic activities that Mexico has with the rest of the world.
Of the languages brought to Mexico by non-Spanish European immigrants, the case of Chipileño Veneto, spoken in Chipilo, a city in Puebla founded in 1882 by Italian immigrants, draws attention. Today, almost all residents of the city use Veneto in their daily activities. Veneto is also spoken in Veracruz, in Huatusco "Huatusco (Veracruz)") and Colonia Manuel González. In Mexico there is the dialect variant most similar to the language currently spoken in Venice; Furthermore, Mexico is among the first places in number of Venetian speakers, next to Italy, Slovenia and Croatia.[428].
Another similar case is that of Plódich (or Plautdietsch), a language classified as Low Saxon (or "Low German") that is spoken in Mennonite communities in the states of Chihuahua, Zacatecas, Durango and Campeche.[429] Likewise, Romani Vlax, the language spoken in gypsy communities, is present mainly in the states of Oaxaca and Veracruz.[430].
French is also spoken in the state of Veracruz, with French colonization in this state, particularly in the towns of Jicaltepec "Jicaltepec (Veracruz)"), Perote "Perote (Veracruz)"), San Rafael "San Rafael (Veracruz)") and Mentidero. The Italian heard in Zentla "Zentla (Veracruz)"), the Riviera Maya, the Baja California peninsula and Mexico City. Another case is the German one in the area of Soconusco "Soconusco (Chiapas)"), Chiapas, where German colonies were established and in the capital of the state of Puebla, since the Volkswagen assembly plant is located there, there is also the presence of German communities in Sinaloa such as those in Mazatlán and Culiacán.[431].
Education
Mexico has one of the oldest traditions in education in the world, dating back to the Mexica empire, which was the first recorded civilization that established mandatory universal education for all its citizens,[439] although with differences depending on the sex of the individuals.[440] Although Mesoamerican cultures, especially the Mexica and Mayans, already had their own writing, language, art and culture, it was after the Spanish conquest, in the century that the Spanish language was introduced; Furthermore, since that century, an entire European-style educational system was created, replacing the Mexica system.[439].
The Constitution of Mexico establishes in its third article that the state will provide preschool, primary, secondary and upper secondary education "Higher Middle Education (Mexico)") in a secular, free and compulsory manner;
In the country, illiteracy levels have been significantly reduced in the last 50 years, going from 25.8% in 1970 to 4.7% in 2020. In terms of schooling, the percentage of attendance for each educational level with respect to the total population age group is 63.3% for preschool level, 93.8% for basic education (primary and secondary) and 45.3% in middle school. higher or higher (baccalaureates of all types and undergraduate and engineering level studies); The average level of schooling is 9.7 years, equivalent in Mexico to practically completing the first year of high school.[397][443].
On September 21, 1551, the first university in Mexico was created, which was the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico, inaugurating its courses on January 25, 1553.[444] On September 22, 1910, the National Autonomous University of Mexico was founded, with the name of the National University of Mexico,[445] considered the highest house of studies in the country,[446] and which currently has three laureates of the Nobel Prize: Octavio Paz (literature), Alfonso García Robles (peace) and Mario J. Molina "Mario Molina (chemist)") (chemistry).[447] UNAM is currently considered the second best university in Latin America.[448].
In higher education, the National Polytechnic Institute and the Metropolitan Autonomous University in the country's capital also stand out, while in the interior of the country public and private institutions stand out such as the University of Guadalajara, the Autonomous University of Nuevo León, the Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, the Tecnológico de Monterrey, the University of Guanajuato, the Michoacana University of San Nicolás de Hidalgo, the Autonomous University of the State of Morelos, the Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí and the Autonomous University of Baja California, all of them ranked among the 100 best in Latin America.[448].
Although there are also other private institutions such as the Institute of Technology and Higher Studies of Monterrey, University of the Americas of Puebla, Universidad Anáhuac, Universidad La Salle "Universidad La Salle (Mexico)"), Universidad Panamericana "Universidad Panamericana (Mexico)"), Universidad Iberoamericana "Universidad Iberoamericana (Mexico City)"), Universidad Regional del Sureste, Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México, Universidad Tecnológica de México, Universidad del Valle de México, among others.
The educational model of technological universities is a link in the Mexican higher education system, a product of the studies carried out by the SEP "Secretaría de Educación Pública (Mexico)"), which compared the teaching schemes in Mexico with those used by developed countries.[449] By 2023 there were 169 technological universities throughout the country.[450].
Culture
En México, el ejercicio, conservación y divulgación de toda manifestación cultural, así como el acceso a las artes, están garantizados como derechos humanos por la Constitución (artículo 4.º, párrafo XIV); por lo que el estado deberá proveer los medios y facilidades para el libre desarrollo de la expresión y apreciación artísticas en la población general; y la protección de la diversidad cultural manifestada en los pueblos indígenas, los afrodescendientes, las identidades regionales y las comunidades inmigrantes, incluyendo en esto, cualquier tipo de patrimonio material o inmaterial.[451].
La cultura mexicana refleja la complejidad de la historia del país a través de la mezcla de culturas indígenas y la cultura hispana principalmente, durante los 300 años de dominio colonial español en México. La era del Porfiriato (1876-1911) estuvo marcada por el progreso económico y la paz, después de cuatro décadas de disturbios civiles y guerra; México vio el desarrollo de la filosofía y las artes, promovido por el propio presidente Porfirio Díaz. Desde entonces, como se acentuó durante la Revolución Mexicana, la identidad cultural ha tenido su fundamento en el mestizaje: la mezcla de diferentes razas y culturas. A la luz de las diversas etnias que formaron el pueblo mexicano, José Vasconcelos en La Raza Cósmica (1925) definió a México y América Latina como el crisol de todas las razas (ampliando así la definición de mestizo) no sólo biológica sino culturalmente.[452] Otros intelectuales mexicanos lucharon con la idea de «Lo Mexicano», que busca "descubrir el espíritu nacional de la cultura mexicana".[453] El premio Nobel, Octavio Paz, explora la noción de un carácter nacional mexicano en El laberinto de la soledad (1950).
National symbols
The anthem, the flag and the national coat of arms are the patriotic symbols of Mexico that represent the identity of the country and reinforce the feeling of belonging that seeks the union of those who inhabit the country. This category includes the symbols that the laws recognize as belonging to the Mexican Nation, which have changed throughout history.[454].
Music
Some renowned Mexican composers of academic music have been:[455].
In the year 1711, the opera La Partenope premiered in Mexico City, with music by Manuel de Sumaya,[456] master of the cathedral chapel together with Francisco López Capillas and Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, one of the greatest Mexican baroque composers, the special importance of this opera is that it is the first composed in North America, this opera begins the fruitful and still little studied history of Mexican operatic creation. interrupted since then for three hundred years.
The opera Guatemotzín"), by Aniceto Ortega, is the first conscious attempt to incorporate native elements to the formal characteristics of the opera. Within the Mexican operatic production of the century, the opera Agorante, rey de la Nubia") by Miguel Meneses stands out, premiered during the commemorative festivities for the birthday of Emperor Maximilian I, the operas Pirro de Aragón") by Leonardo Canales, Keofar") by Felipe Villanueva and before the entire operatic production of Melesio Morales, the most important Mexican opera composer of the century, whose works were very successful among the public in Mexico City and were premiered in Europe. In the first half of the century, Julián Carrillo, Sofía Cancino de Cuevas, José F. Vásquez among others stood out in Mexican operatic creation, all of them were relegated by the official musical historiography that only recognized the work of nationalist composers.
Since the end of the century there has been a growing interest among composers in writing opera. Among the Mexican composers from the beginning of the century who stand out with their operas, we must mention Federico Ibarra, Daniel Catán, Víctor Rasgado, Luis Jaime Cortez, Julio Estrada, Gabriela Ortiz among others.
Some notable artists have been the trumpeter Rafael Méndez "Rafael Méndez (trumpeter)"), the keyboardist and composer Juan García Esquivel, the drummer Tino Contreras, the pianist and composer Eugenio Toussaint and the drummer Antonio Sánchez "Antonio Sánchez (drummer)").[457].
Mexican music is the result of various influences. Very little is known about pre-Hispanic music, although there are numerous groups that claim this tradition throughout the country. The Deer Dance, of the Yaqui Indians of Sonora and Mayo Indians of Sonora and Sinaloa, is one of the few testimonies of pre-Hispanic music that have persisted to the present day, both in its instrumentation and in its lyrics; although there are also records of custom sounds from other ethnic groups such as the Tének of San Luis Potosí and their tigrillo dance or the Huaves of Oaxaca and their turtle sounds, etc.
In pre-Hispanic peoples, the only string instrument used was the percussion bow and the music was more rhythmic and creating atmospheres than melodic. The eeneg (monochord), from the chordophone family, is also used by the komkaak. Among the instruments that were used are the teponaztli and the huehuetl, the first being an idiophone instrument and the second a membranophone instrument; clay or reed ocarinas and flutes, bone or wooden scrapers, and bells. After the arrival of the Spanish, the indigenous people learned European music from the missionaries. Many of the Conquista dances that are practiced in the country's indigenous communities have their origins in that time; as well as certain genres associated with Catholic worship, such as the Matachines dance and the Concheros son, among others. In Tabasco, in the city of Tenosique, the carnival is celebrated every year, which many say is the strangest in the world, which begins with the pochó dance. Endemic indigenous music was also strongly influenced by the dances of slaves and maroon blacks, something that is easier to appreciate in the music of the indigenous communities of Guerrero, Oaxaca, Chiapas and Tabasco, among others.
Internationally known is the mariachi group, associated with the great figures of the Mexican ranchera song, which had its period of flowering between the decades of 1940 and 1970. Coming from western Mexico, specifically from the state of Jalisco, the mariachi was originally a folkloric and indigenous group, and its clothing had nothing to do with that of the charro (that is, the costume of the rich cattle ranchers). They performed "mariachi sones" until their arrival in Mexico City, at the beginning of the century, where they transformed (and continue to do so) and began to play "bravado songs", corridos and boleros, adapting them to their style. Lucha Reyes "Lucha Reyes (Mexican singer)") was one of the first figures to record hits accompanied by mariachi. In the so-called Golden Age of Mexican cinema, mariachis became known to the world with the films of Jorge Negrete and Pedro Infante. With Javier Solís, the bolero accompanied by mariachi became fashionable; With Miguel Aceves Mejía, the falsetto of the huapango was incorporated, and with José Alfredo Jiménez the regional values of the working class in the cities were taken up. Currently, ranchera music, accompanied by mariachi, continues to have important performers and composers who have gone beyond national borders, creating its own musical genre that year after year various singers receive awards. Among the contemporary singers most recognized for their career and popularity in many parts of the world were Vicente Fernández and Juan Gabriel.
Son is a music in which indigenous, Spanish and African influences are mixed, even Asian in some cases. It is a genre with a 6/8 rhythm, whose instrumentation varies from region to region. In addition to the already mentioned mariachi sones, there are son jarocho, son huasteco (huapango), son abajeño") and many more. Genres of later appearance are the jarana and the Yucatecan trova, which are cultivated in the Yucatan peninsula, and which received Caribbean influence (especially the Cuban son) and even Andean (Colombian bambuco); and the Chilean "Chilena (musical genre)"), originating in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca, the Chilean Costa Chica received the influence of the Chilean cueca and the Peruvian marinera.
The syrup is a continuous succession of sounds and dances (something like a Mexican "suite"). The name comes from the time when "apothecaries" (pharmacists) made remedies by combining various elements called "syrups." There are syrups from Tapatío, Mixtec, del Valle, Tlaxcalteca, Michoacano, etc.
At the beginning of the century and until the end of the 1930s, with the influence of late romanticism, the so-called "fine Mexican song" (a term not very clear) had its rise, very much in popular taste, despite the fact that it was performed by lyrical singers, such as Pedro Vargas, Álvaro Carrillo Alarcón and Nicolás Urcelay. Some of the most notable composers were Agustín Lara, María Grever and Consuelo Velázquez, influenced by the style of Mexican and Italian composers at the end of the century.
The bolero, which arrived from the Caribbean "Caribbean (zone)") to Mexico through Yucatán, became one of the public's favorite genres. During the decades from 1940 to 1960, many harmonized guitar and vocal trios, such as Los Panchos, were celebrated. Recently the bolero has regained popularity.
Among the great singers of Mexican folk music are Óscar Chávez, Tehua (María del Rosario Graciela Rayas Trejo), Gabino Palomares, author of the emblematic song The Curse of Malinche, Guillermo Velázquez and Amparo Ochoa, who base their songs on indigenous roots and at the same time compose songs dealing with problems of indigenous cultures. Erasmo Palma was a Rarámuri violinist who managed to stand out in other countries with his traditional music and songs in his mother tongue and in Spanish.
Other performers of traditional Mexican music are: Jaramar, Alejandra Robles, Susana Harp, Geo Meneses and Lila Downs, the latter singing in various languages, mainly Spanish and English. In his musical style he vindicates the roots of the Mexican indigenous peoples, including Mixtec, Zapotec, Purépecha, Mayan and Nahuatl, in addition to regional music from Mexico and the world such as ranchera music, son, Chilean, Colombian cumbia, bolero, pop-rock, jazz, bossa nova, among other rhythms and musical genres.
Endogenous music includes mariachi, norteño (grupero) and wind band. Modern music made its appearance in the 1950s, as well as the rock and roll movement in Mexico and was sung in Spanish as part of the global musical phenomenon. Mexican rock was developed through the growing urban culture in the late 1960s, which revolutionized thought and dance in a free style of expression. Mass events and festivals were born in the 1970s, as is the historical case of the Avándaro festival. From then on, contemporary artistic manifestations were censored and repressed.
Contemporary music, in addition to Mexican rock (or national rock, represented by Maná "Maná (band)"), El Tri "El Tri (band)"), Zoé, Molotov "Molotov (band)"), Caifanes "Caifanes (band)"), Café Tacvba, Julieta Venegas and Panda "Panda (band)"), among others), is represented in heavy metal, electronic, pop, punk, reggae and music alternative. Hip-hop or rap is also widely heard in Mexico, those who mainly represent it are the group Cartel de Santa, singers such as Pato Machete, C-Kan, MC Davo, and the late Adán Zapata of la Mente En Blanco "Mente En Blanco (band)"). As part of global multiculturalism in the 1980s, new styles, attitudes and sounds appeared, such as progressive rock with fusion of symphonic and ethnic instruments, heavy metal, punk, reggae, etc. These come to be combined with Mexican sounds, giving rise to various musical manifestations within the same field.
Mariachi in its most commercial form has been modified to give rise to arrangements (mariachi light) and perform songs more similar to a ballad than to a son or a ranchera song. Its interpreters are products of large television companies.
Banda music is a media and commercial phenomenon, also urban due to the incessant migration of farmers to big cities. Along with the band, the most widespread genre is northern music, with instrumentation based on basso Segundo, accordion, electric bass and drums.
Tropical music occupies a large fan space in several regions of the country, derived mainly from the arrival of tropical rhythms from the island of Cuba since the 1920s, popularized in the films of the golden age of Mexican cinema. Thus, Cha-cha-cha and Mambo invade the radio in the 1940s and 1950s, mimicking the idiosyncrasy of the Mexican. Dámaso Pérez Prado composes Mambos dedicated to educational institutions. largest in Mexico, the UNAM and the IPN, Sonora Matancera becomes an icon of Cuba in Mexico. The Mexican musician Tony Camargo is one of the greatest representatives of this music and a pioneer of it in the country, his hit "El Año Viejo" took him to the top and became a classic to this day.
However, other tropical rhythms arrived in the country, Guaguancó, Boogaloo among others, began to be recorded by Mexican artists, Sonora Santanera became the most popular by imitating the style of Cuban orchestras with tropical boleros among other rhythms, but from the 1960s, Salsa arrived from other Caribbean countries and also from the United States, and from Colombia, the miniature "Cumbia (Colombia)") arrived, all of these rhythms Together they were assimilated by Mexican musical groups forming the "tropical genre", the popularity over several decades has led to the formation of local tropical variants that have been mixed with Mexican folk music, examples such as Mexican cumbia are part of this fusion, of which the most successful group in recent years has been Los Ángeles Azules. The sonidero phenomenon and its street dances are also derived from this love of tropical music in the country.
Dance
The dance of the people of Mexico has a sacred knowledge of natural phenomena, deities, living beings and everyday life. Music or the sound of some object accompany the body movement of the human being to express their feelings about the movement of their body. The Deer Dance is a ritual dance celebrated by the Yaqui and Mayo Indians of the Mexican states of Sinaloa and Sonora. This dance is a dramatization of the deer hunt, a cultural hero of these people, by the paskolas (hunters).
During the colony, the Spanish and Creole landowners held magnificent parties for Carnival; Mestizos and indigenous people were denied access to these festivals. During the festivals, the richest people made a display of their wealth using clothes full of decorations and fabrics.[458] As a form of satire, the segregated castes began to make costumes and celebrate to parody the whites; To do this, they used pink masks with a very prominent chin (so as not to be recognized), costumes imitating the sumptuous ones used by white people with exaggerated ornamentation of mirrors, beads and beads, as well as conical hats. Among the most notable dances are the chinelos in Morelos, the parachicos in Chiapas and the carnivals of Tlaxcala.
Also in the viceregal stage, the syrup was spread throughout much of western, central and southeastern Mexico. The reason why this name has been imposed on both the dance and the dance that accompanies it is uncertain. It has been proposed, for example, that it is a word of Arabic origin that designates happiness or celebration. The possibility has also been raised that the name of the genre comes from its nature as a mixture of several musical styles in a single piece. Carnivals are another European cultural heritage with a very marked syncretism of Hispanicity and indigenism, since carnivals were the popular expression of comparsas and pagan music to express the feelings of the people before beginning the celebrations of Holy Week; Thus, the pre-Hispanic roots are shown in the Tenosique Carnival in Tabasco, the image of the Spanish face is shown in the colonial dances and carnival troupes of chinelos in Morelos, huehues") in Tlaxcala and parachicos in Chiapas. Since 1849, the Chimalhuacán Carnival, one of the oldest in the country, has been celebrated. Other Mexican carnivals of great importance are: Tlaxcala Carnival that stands out for its Hispanic and indigenous elements.
Of all the Mexican syrups, the best known internationally is perhaps the Tapatío syrup, originally from Jalisco, and performed by the group called mariachi. There are other Mexican syrups such as Michoacán syrup, Guerrero syrup, Mixtec syrup or Mazahua syrup. In the Porfiriato, rhythms come from Europe such as polkas and mazurkas danced in Poland and the former Czechoslovakia that adapt to the popular dance of the northerners of Mexico, in the Baja California peninsula the chaveranes that come from Arkansas in the United States are danced. The waltz that came from Austria and spread among Mexican society at the time, acquiring its own identity in this country. The danzón, the Cuban son and the double step were quickly incorporated into the popular dance of Mexicans; orchestras and wind bands accompany the steps of these dances.
Literature
In the Baroque period, authors such as the playwright Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (who emigrated to Spain), Diego de Ribera, Alonso Ramírez de Vargas, Ioseph de Valdés, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora stand out.
In the classicist and enlightened period, authors such as: Diego José Abad, Francisco Javier Alegre, Francisco Javier Clavijero, Rafael Landívar, José Mariano Beristáin y Souza, José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi "The Mexican thinker" and Fray Servando Teresa de Mier shine.
In the century, romantic writers such as: José María Lacunza, Guillermo Prieto "Guillermo Prieto (politician)"), Manuel Carpio, Andrés Quintana Roo, José Joaquín Pesado, Ignacio Rodríguez Galván, Ignacio Ramírez are framed; and neoclassical or academic writers such as: Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Manuel Acuña, Manuel M. Flores, Vicente Riva Palacio, Joaquín Arcadio Pagaza, Justo Sierra, Manuel José Othón and the playwright Fernando Calderón y Beltrán.
In the century, quality authors are projected such as Amado Nervo, Alfonso Reyes, José Juan Tablada, Martín Luis Guzmán, Xavier Villaurrutia, Rodolfo Usigli, Salvador Novo, Juan Rulfo (one of the two Prince of Asturias Awards, along with Fuentes), Elena Garro, Octavio Paz,[459] José Revueltas, Rosario Castellanos, Juan José Arreola, Jaime Sabines, Carlos Monsiváis, Pita Love, Carlos Fuentes, José Agustín, José Emilio Pacheco Carlos Montemayor. Along with them, it is also possible to include the Spanish writer and filmmaker Luis Buñuel and the French novelist Marguerite Duras, who at various times in their lives have lived and edited in Spanish for Mexican publishers; in the same way that, in the political sphere, the Marxist theorist León Trotsky lived in Mexico City and edited his last work. Many of Mexico's great authors have had their work published by the Fondo de Cultura Económica.
In the narrative genre, the writer Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi is considered the author of the first novel in independent Mexico;[460] the most prominent Mexican representatives of this genre in contemporary times are Juan Rulfo, Juan José Arreola, Agustín Yáñez, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso, José Emilio Pacheco, Carlos Fuentes, Sergio Pitol (these last five mentioned, along with Paz, winners of the Prize Cervantes), José Agustín, Rosario Castellanos, Elena Garro, Juan Villoro, Parménides García Saldaña, Daniel Sada, Jorge Volpi, among others.[461].
Philosophy
The stages of philosophy in Mexico are subdivided in relation to the history of Mexico and the institutions of the Mexican State, as follows: pre-Columbian thought, colonial thought, thought of the century, Mexican Revolution and period of professionalization of philosophy (from when philosophy reaches Universities as a discipline of professional study). Within philosophy in Mexico there is a group of works considered specifically as "Mexican philosophy", one that took Mexican social and political reality as its object of study. It is within this group where many of the prominent Mexican philosophers appear, such as José Vasconcelos, Leopoldo Zea, Luis Villoro, Octavio Paz, Emilio Uranga, Samuel Ramos, Arnaldo Córdova, Carlos Pereyra, Roger Bartra, Alfredo López Austin, Bolívar Echeverría, Enrique Semo, Pablo González Casanova, Alonso Aguilar Monteverde"), Ángel Bassols Batalla, Adolfo Sánchez Vázquez, José Revueltas and Eli de Gortari.[462].
Paint
Painting is one of the oldest arts in Mexico. Cave painting in Mexican territory is around 10,000 years old, and has been found in the caves of the Baja California peninsula. Pre-Hispanic Mexico is present in buildings and caves, in Mexica codices, in ceramics, in clothing, etc.; Examples of this are the Mayan mural paintings of Bonampak or those of Teotihuacán, those of Cacaxtla and those of Monte Albán.
Mural painting had an important flourishing during the 19th century, both in religious buildings and in lineage houses; such is the case of the convents of Acolman, Actopan "Actopan (Hidalgo)"), Huejotzingo, Tecamachalco and Zinacantepec. It is said that it was mainly indigenous painters led by friars who created them. These were also manifested in illustrated manuscripts such as the Mendocino Codex.
For a time it was believed that the first European painter to live in New Spain was Rodrigo de Cifuentes, an apocryphal artist to whom works such as El bautizo de los caciques de Tlaxcala, painting of the main altarpiece of the Ex Convent of San Francisco in Tlaxcala, were even attributed. Among the native painters was Marcos Aquino. The religiosity of the New Spanish people made painting important for the evangelization of society, the friars realized the graphic skills of the indigenous people, who enriched the baroque and mannerist style. The arrival of multiple European painters and some students from New Spain was relevant, such as Juan Correa "Juan Correa (1646-1716)"), Cristóbal Villalpando or Miguel Cabrera "Miguel Cabrera (painter)"), who made the walls and altarpieces the main source of ideological and political expression of the artists.
The painting of the century had a very marked romantic influence, landscapes and portraits were the greatest expression of this era. Hermenegildo Bustos is one of the most appreciated painters in the historiography of Mexican art. Also notable in these years were Santiago Rebull, José Salomé Pina, Félix Parra, Eugenio Landesio and his famous disciple, the landscaper José María Velasco Gómez, as well as Julio Ruelas.
Mexican painting of the century has achieved world renown with figures such as David Alfaro Siqueiros, José Clemente Orozco, Diego Rivera, Joaquín Clausell, Rufino Tamayo and Frida Kahlo, a generation of idealists who marked the image of modern Mexico in the face of strong social and economic criticism. The Oaxacan school quickly gained fame and prestige, dissemination of an ancient and modern culture, freedom of design is observed in terms of color and texture of the canvases and murals as a transition period between the century and the century.
Throughout history, several prominent painters of different nationalities have captured the face of Mexico in their works. Among the most notable we can mention Daniel Thomas Egerton, Carl Nebel, Thomas Moran, Edouard Manet, Remedios Varo and Leonora Carrington.[463].
Sculpture
Sculpture in Mexico is strongly manifested in the pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures (Mayans, Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Aztecs) and is generally religious in nature.
Since the Spanish conquest, civil and religious sculpture has been worked on by indigenous artists, guided by masters from the peninsula, which is why some pre-Hispanic features are shown. Since the century, mestizo and Creole sculptors have been creating works with a marked influence of European classicism.
Romanticism tended to break the strict rules and models of classicism, as it pursued ideas influenced by realism and nationalism. Religious sculpture was reduced to sporadic imagery, while secular sculpture continued into portraits and monumental art of a civic nature. Between 1820 and 1880 the predominant themes were, successively: religious images, biblical scenes, allegories to the symbols of the insurgency movement and scenes and characters from pre-Cortesian history, and portraits of the ancient aristocracy, the nascent bourgeoisie and champions of the pre-revolution. The transcendent thing consisted of introducing civil motives, the first national types and glimpses of a current of self-expression.
During the century, some great exponents of Mexican sculpture were Juan Soriano, José Luis Cuevas, Enrique Carbajal Sebastián, Leonora Carrington.[464].
Architecture
The presence of human beings in Mexican territory has left important archaeological finds of utmost importance for the explanation of the habitat of primitive man and contemporary man. The Mesoamerican civilizations managed to have great stylistic and proportional development on the human and urban scale, the form evolved from simplicity to aesthetic complexity; In the north of the country, adobe and stone architecture and multi-family housing are evident, as we can see in Paquimé; and troglodyte dwelling in caves of the Sierra Madre Occidental.
Urban planning had a great development in pre-Hispanic cultures, where we can observe the magnitude of the cities of Teotihuacán, Tollan-Xicocotitlan and México-Tenochtitlan. Within environmental urban planning, the Mayan cities stand out as they are incorporated into the monumentality of their buildings with the thickness of the jungle and complex networks of roads called sakbés.
With the arrival of the Spanish, architectural theories of the Greco-Latin order with Arab influences were introduced. Due to the process of evangelization, when the first temples and monastic convents were built, their own models were planned such as mendicant monasteries, unique in architecture. The interaction between Spaniards and indigenous people gave rise to artistic styles such as the so-called tequitqui (from the Nahuatl; worker or builder). Years later, Baroque and Mannerism prevailed in large cathedrals and civil buildings, while in rural areas, haciendas or stately estates with Mozarabic tendencies were built.[465].
In the century the neoclassical movement emerged as a response to the objectives of the republican nation, one of its examples is the Hospicio Cabañas where the strict plasticity of the classical orders is represented in its architectural elements, new religious, civil and military buildings also emerge that demonstrate the presence of neoclassicism. The romanticists for a past seen through archeology show images of medieval, Islamic Europe and pre-Hispanic Mexico in the form of architectural elements in the construction of international fair pavilions, seeking an identity of the national culture. The art nouveau, and the art deco were styles introduced into the design of the Palace of Fine Arts "Palacio de Bellas Artes (Mexico City)") to mark the character of identity of the Mexican nation with Greco-Roman and pre-Hispanic symbology.
Modern architecture in Mexico has an important development in the plasticity of form and space, José Villagrán García develops a theory of form that sets the teaching pattern in many architecture schools in the country within functionalism. The emergence of the new Mexican architecture was born as a formal order of the policies of a nationalist state that sought modernity and differentiation from other nations. Juan O'Gorman was one of the first environmental architects in Mexico, developing the "organic" theory, trying to integrate the building with the landscape within the same approaches of Frank Lloyd Wright.[466] In the search for a new architecture that did not resemble the styles of the past, he achieved a joint manifestation with mural painting and landscaping.
Craft
The objects created in the hands of the artisans represent the cultural diversity and personality of the different regional communities of the country, covering various artisanal areas such as pottery and ceramics, textiles, wood, chandlery, metalwork, goldsmithing, jewelry, vegetable fibers, cardboard and paper, saddlery and leatherworking, maque and lacquer, lapidary and stonework, bone and horn, shell and snail, glass and plumeria, silver and copper, and painting and engraving. popular.[467].
Some representative crafts are:
Cinema
Mexican films from the golden age of the 1940s and 1950s are the largest examples of Latin American cinema, with a huge industry comparable to Hollywood of those years.[469] Mexican films were exported and exhibited throughout Latin America and Europe. The film María Candelaria (1944) by Emilio Fernández, winner of La Palme d'Or at the Cannes festival. Famous actors and actresses from this period include Dolores del Río, internationally famous actress, actress of Hollywood silent and sound cinema, image of Mexican cinema and the pioneer and most important figure of the golden age of Mexican cinema, Sara García, Pedro Armendáriz, Pedro Infante, Ignacio López Tarso, Lilia Prado, Silvia Pinal, María Félix, Katy Jurado, Jorge Negrete, Fernando Soler, Ninón Sevilla, the silent actors Ramón Novarro or Lupe Vélez and the comedians Joaquín Pardavé, Cantinflas and Tin Tan. The films from the Golden Age of Mexican cinema make up the majority of the 100 best films of Mexican cinema, a list prepared by the magazine Somos in 1994, with the participation of the most renowned critics of national cinema, such as the writer Carlos Monsiváis and the photographer Gabriel Figueroa.
It is worth mentioning the Spanish nationalized Mexican director, Luis Buñuel and his contributions to surrealist cinema: Un Chien Andalou and L'age D'Or "The Golden Age (film)"), both co-produced with Salvador Dalí and which he made in France; Later, in Mexico, he made Los Olvidados "The Forgotten (film)") (declared Memory of the World by UNESCO in 2003), which earned him its revaluation at the Cannes Festival, as well as Subida al cielo, Nazarín "Nazarín (film)") and Simon of the Desert, which also obtained worldwide recognition through Cannes. In Spain he would make Viridiana with which he won the Palme d'Or, and he would return to France to film, among others, Le charme discret de la burgeoisie with which he won the Oscar for best foreign film.
Contemporary Mexican cinema includes notable figures such as directors Arturo Ripstein, Felipe Cazals, while internationally Alejandro González Iñarritu, Guillermo del Toro and Alfonso Cuarón among others stand out, as well as the photographer Emmanuel Lubezki.
Photograph
The first Mexican daguerreotypist was called José María Díaz González, he was a student at the Academy of San Carlos, and in 1844 he opened a studio on Santo Domingo Street, Mexico City, where he made oil miniatures and daguerreotypes. Later, when the daguerreotype technique was surpassed, there are reports of the use of paper in photography in Mexico since 1851. Prices drop, the private sphere is no longer its exclusive space. Photography is also used as political promotion. Following the death of President Benito Juárez, "the company Cruces y Campa sells an edition of 20,000 copies of his portrait in business card format." At the beginning of the 20th century, Jesús Hermenegildo Abitia was a studio and outdoor photographer, and a cameraman for documentary and fiction films. Agustín Víctor Casasola was a photographer who managed to establish himself as the quintessential portraitist of the ruling class: Porfirio Díaz, Francisco Villa, Huerta, among others. The photographs of Manuel Álvarez Bravo emerge in the corners, managing to scrutinize what others cannot detect, while the photographer Nacho López was able to transfer his scripts and stories to his photographs.[470].
Gastronomy
In 2005, Mexico presented the candidacy of its gastronomy for a UNESCO World Heritage Site, being the first time that a country had presented its gastronomic tradition for this purpose.[472] However, in the first instance the result was negative, as the committee did not place adequate emphasis on the importance of corn in Mexican cuisine.[473] Finally, on November 16, 2010, Mexican gastronomy was recognized as Intangible Cultural Heritage of the UNESCO. Humanity.[474].
The origin of current Mexican cuisine is established during Spanish colonization, being a mixture of the foods of Spain and the native Indians.[475] Of indigenous origin are corn, chili (known in almost the entire Spanish-speaking world as "ají"), beans, pumpkins, avocados, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, cocoa, turkey and many other fruits and condiments. Likewise, some cooking techniques used today are inherited from pre-Hispanic peoples, such as the nixtamalization of corn, cooking food in ground-level ovens, and grinding in molcajete and metate. With the Spanish came pork, beef and chicken; pepper, sugar, milk and all its derivatives, wheat and rice, citrus fruits and another constellation of ingredients that are part of the daily diet of Mexicans.
From that meeting of two culinary traditions that are millennia old, pozole, mole, barbecue "Barbacoa (Mexico)") and tamales in their current forms, chocolate, a varied range of breads, tacos, and the wide repertoire of Mexican appetizers were born. Drinks such as atole, champurrado, milk chocolate and fresh waters were born; desserts such as citron (biznaga) and the entire range of crystallized sweets, eggnog, cajeta, jericaya and the wide repertoire of delicacies created in nuns' convents in all parts of the country.
Some Mexican drinks have crossed their borders and are consumed daily in Central America, the United States, Canada, Spain and the Philippines; such is the case of Jamaica water, rice horchata, root water"), margaritas "Margarita (cocktail)") and tequila itself.
The history of the country and its links with other peoples allowed the incorporation of other cuisines into Mexican cuisine. The Nao de China, which was actually a Manila galleon, brought from the East a range of various spices and, above all, rice. A good poblano mole is unthinkable without Mexican-style rice. Arab cuisine came to Mexico indirectly through the conquering Spanish. The relationship with Latin American countries also left its mark on popular cuisine, perhaps the best-known cases are the ceviches and the Moros con Cristianos "Moors and Christians (gastronomy)") indebted to Cuban gastronomy, which have been assimilated and reworked with ingredients from Mexico.
The invasions left their mark on all of Mexican culture, and cuisine is no exception. The taste for ground beef arrived with Charlotte's Belgian army. Box bread was, according to legend, an invention of the American troops who came to Mexico in 1847. The arrival of immigrants from other latitudes throughout the century also participated in the construction of Mexican gastronomy. As an example, the Italian cheeses and polenta that are manufactured today in Chipilo, Puebla; or the French from Orizaba just like their bread and the Germans (Mennonites) from Chihuahua. The English miners of Mexico laid the foundations for paste, a puff pastry that today is filled with cheese and potatoes as well as green mole of pumpkin seeds.
Mexican Nobel Prize winners
To date, three Mexicans have received the Nobel Prize:
• - 1982 Peace: Alfonso García Robles.[477].
• - 1990 Literature: Octavio Paz.[478].
• - 1997 Chemistry: Mario Molina "Mario Molina (chemist)").[479].
Cultural heritage
In Mexico, according to information from the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), in October 2023, 49,347 archaeological sites were registered. They are those where evidence of previous human occupation has been found, and do not necessarily correspond to pre-Hispanic sites, (of which 193 are recorded in total), although most of them are. For example, in Monterrey, Nuevo León, there is a museum on industrial archeology. In Mexico City, material remains have been rescued from a colonial convent that was located on the same site where the Palace of Fine Arts "Palacio de Bellas Artes (Mexico City)" is currently located. As has been said, there are numerous sites belonging to pre-Hispanic peoples, thousands of them, although not all of them are open to the public. The area that concentrates most of these sites is the Mayan area, followed by Central Mexico and the valleys of Oaxaca.[480][481].
El deporte en México se enmarca principalmente en cinco características distintivas: la práctica masiva en forma lúdica de deportes de conjunto, especialmente fútbol y baloncesto; la inclusión de la educación física en los planes de estudio de todos los niveles; una cultura de activación física aun en vías de desarrollo frente a problemas de salud pública; la preponderante presencia del fútbol en la mayor parte del país, en términos de simpatizantes, infraestructura, impacto económico de todo tipo, profesionalización y deporte formativo; y el poco impacto de sistemas públicos o privados que generen deportistas de alto rendimiento (que limita la presencia del país como potencia regional o mundial en la mayoría de las disciplinas).[486][487].
El deporte más extendido y popular es el fútbol, tanto en su difusión, como en su práctica de conjunto; este goza de gran aceptación y popularidad en todo el país. Sin embargo, en el noroeste del territorio nacional tienen mayor presencia el baloncesto (comúnmente llamado basquetbol), el béisbol y el softbol, estos dos últimos también con muy buena aceptación en el sur del país. Es precisamente el béisbol el que ocupa el segundo lugar en número de aficionados; le sigue el boxeo, en el cual México destaca como potencia mundial; la lucha libre y el taekwondo completan la lista de deportes más seguidos.
En términos de ejercer la disciplina deportiva, se debe distinguir entre el deporte organizado (de alta competencia y federado) y el deporte aficionado (primordialmente individual y con fines de cultura física). En el primer caso, el segundo deporte (después del fútbol) más practicado a nivel nacional es el taekwondo, siguiéndole el baloncesto y el béisbol.[488] Para el segundo caso, las disciplinas de acondicionamiento físico como caminata, correr, natación o aquellas vinculadas a los gimnasios son las más practicadas.[489].
Organization
In Mexico, sports practice is recognized as a human right protected by the state, this in article 4 (paragraph XV) of the Constitution.[490] Organized sport is regulated by the General Law of Physical Culture and Sports.
The institution in charge of the promotion, administration and regulation, in terms of public policies, linked to the physical activation of the general population, and the regulation of organized sports, both amateur and professional, is the National Commission of Physical Culture and Sports (CONADE), attached to the Ministry of Public Education "Secretaría de Educación Pública (Mexico)").[491].
Traditional sports
Charrería is often called the national sport of Mexicans.[493] This sport is derived from the work of caporales on cattle ranches.[494] Its origin dates back to colonial times,[495] and the creation of the charro suit in its definitive form is attributed to Emperor Maximilian I.[496].
Some sports have an origin in the pre-Hispanic cultures of Mesoamerica. Such is the case of the Tarascan pelota"),[497] the Purépecha pelota, the Mixteca pelota of Oaxaca and the ulama "Ulama (game)") of Sinaloa, all of these linked to the ancient ball game played by the Mesoamerican peoples.[498] This ball game dramatized the movement of the stars in the sky, and in theory its current descendants do as well; of course, now the defeated teams do not They are sacrificed to the gods.
In Chihuahua, the Tarahumara perform ritual races called rarajípara") and ariweta"). The first is for men, and is played in teams that take turns to complete a journey of several kilometers through the mountains by kicking a small ball. The second is for women, and they must make the journey pushing a hoop.
Professional sports
The most popular and widely spread sport in the country is soccer or, as it is written and pronounced in the country itself, futbol.[500] The Mexican league is made up of four divisions, these are the Liga MX, the Liga de Expansión MX, the second division, and the third division; in addition to a Women's League.[501].
The Mexican team has participated in seventeen editions of the Soccer World Cup, where it has obtained notable results in the competitions it played as host in 1970 and 1986, where it reached the quarterfinals and finished in sixth place in both tournaments. Its greatest achievement at the international level has been the title of the 1999 FIFA Confederations Cup, a tournament in which it hosted. This trophy makes it the only senior team, of those not affiliated with Conmebol or UEFA, to win a tournament organized directly by FIFA. Other notable performances are the runners-up of the Copa América in Ecuador 1993 and Colombia 2001, a competition in which he participated as a guest, precisely from the 1993 edition to 2016, returning in 2024.
In short, he has thirteen Concacaf Championships, one Concacaf Cup "Concacaf Cup (FIFA Confederations Cup Qualification)"), one FIFA Confederations Cup and one Concacaf Nations League. In addition, it has two regional titles in the NAFC Cup (predecessor of Concacaf) and the 1991 North American Nations Cup, being the most successful team in those competitions.
The official stadium for their host games is the Azteca stadium, home of one of the nationally recognized soccer teams: Club América; which holds the largest number of international titles with ten in total: seven in the Concacaf Champions Cup, one in the Concacaf Giants Cup and two in the Inter-American Cup.[502] At the same time, it ranks 9th in the world in terms of most international titles won.[503][504][505].
The Olympic team won the gold medal at the London 2012 Olympic Games and the bronze medal at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, while the under-17 soccer team was crowned twice in the U-17 Soccer World Cup in Peru 2005,[506] and Mexico 2011.[507] The under-20 team was runner-up at the World Championship in Tunisia. 1977,[508] and third place in Colombia 2011.[509] On the part of the women's representatives, the under-17 team was runner-up in the world in Uruguay 2018. The beach soccer team was second place in the 2007 World Cup.[510].
Another sport with a great professional tradition is baseball (written and pronounced beisbol, locally), which according to the latest surveys is the third most popular sport in Mexico.[511] Baseball is the most popular sport in the northern and southeastern regions. Mexico has several professional leagues, among which the Mexican Baseball League (LMB) and the Mexican Pacific League (LMP) stand out. The popularity of the LMB is due to the fact that the teams it has are distributed throughout almost the entire country; It is the one with the greatest tradition, as it was founded in 1925;[512] and has provided the majority of Mexican players who reach the Major Leagues, it is affiliated with the Minor Leagues of the United States under the 'AAA' classification and has its own talent development academy located in El Carmen "El Carmen (Nuevo León)"), Nuevo León; It is currently made up of 18 teams divided into two zones (North Zone "North Zone (LMB)") and South Zone "South Zone (LMB)").
Mexico's participation in the world
Despite not having an established Olympic committee, Mexico participated for the first time in the Olympic Games in Paris 1900. Three brothers: Manuel, Pablo and Eustaquio Escandón y Barrón (accompanied by William Hayden Wright) participated in the Polo Tournament "Polo (sport)") obtaining third place in "The Grand Prix of the Exhibition". This victory is officially considered Mexico's first Olympic medal.[549].
Mexico was the first country in Latin America and the Spanish-speaking world to host the Summer Olympic Games in 1968. The opening ceremony was held on October 12, in commemoration of the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the so-called "New World." Among the novelties presented by the Organizing Committee is the fact that the so-called "Olympic flame" was lit for the first time by a woman; Enriqueta Basilio, the Baja California gazelle, track athlete. In the Olympic Games, his best participation was precisely on this occasion, when he won nine medals, three of each metal. Perhaps the most remembered of them are those of Felipe "El Tibio" Muñoz, gold in swimming; and that of Sergeant José Pedraza, who won silver in walking in a disputed race against the Soviets Vladimir Golubnichy and Nikolav Smaga.
Some of the memorable figures of Mexican Olympics are:
• - Joaquín Capilla (diver "Jumping (swimming)"), the top Mexican Olympic medalist with four (one gold in the 10 m platform in Melbourne 1956, one silver in the 10 m platform in Helsinki 1952 and two bronze medals in the 10 m platform and 3 m springboard in London 1948 and Melbourne 1956, respectively), and the first to win a medal in three editions of the summer event.
• - Humberto Mariles Cortés in horse riding, who is the only Mexican winner of two gold medals, in the individual jumping and team jumping events in London 1948 (together with Rubén Uriza Castro and Alberto Valdés Ramos), in addition to the bronze medal in the three-day team event, making him the only Mexican to have won three medals in the same Olympic event.
• - Ernesto Canto, who by winning the gold medal in the world athletics championship in Helsinki 1983 and the gold medal in Los Angeles 1984, became the first Mexican athlete to be an Olympic and world champion, in addition to being the only winner of all the official competitions of the so-called Olympic cycle (Central American Games, Pan American Games, World Championships and the Olympic Games), by winning gold in Havana 1982 and Caracas 1983.
• - María del Rosario Espinoza would be the second to win the double crown with the world championship in Beijing 2007 and the Olympic championship in Beijing 2008, and the second to win all official competitions, with gold in Mayagüez 2010 and Guadalajara 2011, although unlike Canto, she did not do so in the same Olympic cycle. She is also the second Mexican athlete (after Joaquín Capilla) to obtain a medal in three Olympic Games.
• - Portal:Mexico. Content related to Mexico.
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category about Mexico.
• - Wikinews has news related to Mexico.
• - Wikiquote hosts famous phrases from or about Mexico.
• - Wikisource contains original works from or about Mexico.
• - Wikiviajes hosts travel guides from or about Mexico.
• - Official site of the Presidency of the Republic.
• - Official site of the Senate of the Republic.
• - Official site of the Chamber of Deputies.
• - Official site of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation.
• - Official site of the National Institute of Statistics and Geography.
• - Official site of «Data México» of the Ministry of Economy.
• - Site of the Official Gazette of the Federation.
• - Digital library of federal laws on the official site of the Chamber of Deputies.
References
[1] ↑ Real Academia Española. «mexicano». Diccionario de la lengua española (23.ª edición).: https://dle.rae.es/mexicano
[11] ↑ a b c Cámara de Diputados. «Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas». Consultado el 18 de febrero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma publicada el 18 de octubre de 2023».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGDLPI.pdf
[13] ↑ Real Academia Española y Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española (2023). «México». Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (2.ª edición, versión provisional).: https://www.rae.es/dpd/M%C3%A9xico
[14] ↑ «Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma (no es necesario actualizar el enlace, pues este lo hace automáticamente cuando se presente una nueva reforma).».: http://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf_mov/Constitucion_Politica.pdf
[18] ↑ «Artículo 44 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «La reforma a este artículo en 2016, así como al 43 y 122 de la misma constitución, y el texto vigente del artículo 1.º de la Constitución local, afirman su carácter de entidad federativa, mas no de estado, en virtud de su condición de capital de la república.».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/2020-06/CPEUM-044.pdf
[48] ↑ G. Monzón, Luis (et. al.). «¿República Mexicana o Estados Unidos Mexicanos?» (PDF). Ciudad de México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Consultado el 6 de julio de 2018. Frecuentemente, en términos populares e incluso oficiales, el término se utiliza indistintamente del marcado por la Constitución. Sin embargo, el uso de este es históricamente polémico y a la vez, culturalmente válido y correcto.: https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/7/3448/6.pdf
[52] ↑ «U ALMEJEN NOJ AꞋALMAJTꞋAANIL U MÚUCHꞋ PÉETLUꞋUMILOꞋOB MÉXICO | U Noj Aꞌalmajtꞌaanil México ichil a tꞌaan». inali.gob.mx. Consultado el 29 de noviembre de 2022.: https://www.inali.gob.mx/bicen/pdf/CPEUM_maya.pdf
[53] ↑ Por ejemplo, Francisco Xavier Clavijero comienza su Historia antigua de México y de su conquista hablando del país del Anáhuac en el primer capítulo, pero a lo largo de él se referirá indistintamente al territorio mexicano o reino de los mexicanos a una amplia porción de Nueva España que incluía no solo los dominios de los mexicas, sino también territorios mayas y purépechas.
[54] ↑ Márquez Morfín y Hernández Espinoza, 2005: 14.
[55] ↑ Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Los orígenes mexicanos — México en la etapa lítica (José Luis Lorenzo)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 104-123. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[61] ↑ Pedro Tomé (junio de 2010). «Redescubriendo la Gran Chichimeca: Revalorización regional y antropología social en la recuperación de una pluralidad étnica mexicana». Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/63201/1/Gran_Chichimeca.pdf
[66] ↑ Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Formación y desarrollo de Mesoamérica — El mundo olmeca (Ignacio Bernal)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 129-136. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[67] ↑ a b c Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Formación y desarrollo de Mesoamérica — La época clásica (Ignacio Bernal)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 137-147. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[71] ↑ a b Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1977). «Formación y desarrollo de Mesoamérica — La época mexicana (Ignacio Bernal)». En Centro de Estudios Históricos, ed. Historia General de México I (Segunda edición). México: El Colegio de México. pp. 147-150. ISBN 9786076283295. Consultado el 17 de febrero de 2025.: https://repositorio.colmex.mx/concern/books/2z10wq882?locale=es
[74] ↑ «La historia de la migración de ese grupo indígena que salió de Aztlán —lugar de lo blanco— para fundar México-Tenochtitlán, ha sido contada de diversas formas, tanto por los mismos protagonistas como por los conquistadores y, en épocas actuales, por historiadores mexicanos y extranjeros; por ello no existe un consenso para determinar la fecha exacta de cuando este pueblo se estableció en medio del lago de Tetzcoco. Se ha determinado 1325; sin embargo, esto no es seguro por dos causas: primero, porque las fuentes documentales nos dan varias fechas y, segundo, porque aún existe polémica sobre el cómputo del tiempo utilizado por los mexicas en su calendario. Entre las excepciones más serias descalificando ese año, refirió, está la de Nigel Davies, quien basándose en cómputos hechos por los historiadores Wigberto Jiménez Moreno y Paul Kirchhoff, establece como fecha 1345», en «En nuestro país se exalta el pasado mexica y se discrimina a los indígenas actuales», Boletín UNAM-DGCS-553, México, 16 de julio de 2003, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
[75] ↑ Ricky, Donald (1 de enero de 2009). Native Peoples A to Z: A Reference Guide to Native Peoples of the Western Hemisphere (en inglés). Native American Book Publishers. ISBN 9781878592736. Consultado el 4 de mayo de 2017.: https://books.google.com.mx/books?id=Hx98AgAAQBAJ&lpg=PA1465
[80] ↑ Para un estudio sobre este cálculo véase De Rojas, José Luis. "Cuantificaciones referentes a la ciudad de Tenochtitlán en 1519", en Historia Mexicana, El Colegio de México, vol. 66, n.º 4 (264). México, El Colegio de México.: http://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/index.php/RHM/article/view/1946
[98] ↑ Gerhard, Peter (1986). Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas e Instituto de Geografía, ed. Geografía Histórica de la Nueva España 1519-1821 (Primera edición). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-0293-2.
[99] ↑ Gerhard, Peter (1996). Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, ed. La frontera norte de la Nueva España (Primera edición). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-2255-0.
[100] ↑ Gerhard, Peter (1991). Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas e Instituto de Geografía, ed. La frontera sureste de la Nueva España (Primera edición). México: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ISBN 968-36-1784-0.
[120] ↑ Archivo del Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM. «Leyes Mexicanas — Año 1821 (Decreto del 17 de noviembre de 1821. Sobre convocatoria á Cortes.)» (PDF). Consultado el 10 de septiembre de 2022. «Página 14 del archivo.».: https://archivos.juridicas.unam.mx/www/bjv/libros/2/616/16.pdf
[133] ↑ Vázquez, Josefina Zoraida (1998). Colegio de México y Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores, ed. México al tiempo de su guerra con Estados Unidos (1846-1848) (Segunda edición). México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. ISBN 968-16-5693-8. Consultado el 27 de noviembre de 2024.: https://muse.jhu.edu/book/74393/pdf
[141] ↑ «Las doce riendas». Porfirio Díaz: Místico de la autoridad. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. 1987. pp. 31-54. ISBN 9789681627805. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[156] ↑ Instituto Nacional Electoral (2018). «Resultados del cómputo a nivel distrito y entidad del Proceso Electoral Federal 2017-2018. Presidencia». Consultado el 29 de noviembre de 2018.: https://www.ine.mx/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/Presidente.zip
[157] ↑ BBC Mundo (2 de julio de 2018). «López Obrador gana en México: ¿por qué es histórico el triunfo de AMLO en la elección presidencial mexicana?». Consultado el 9 de febrero de 2019.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-44678613
[158] ↑ Alejandro Páez Varela, Álvaro Delgado, Héctor Alejandro Quintanar y Fabrizio Mejía Madrid (23 de septiembre de 2024). «AMLO: avances, pendientes: ¿Salud, seguridad, educación? ¿Qué deja el sexenio y qué queda a deber?». Sin Embargo. Consultado el 1 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.sinembargo.mx/23-09-2024/4553733
[160] ↑ Daniel Pardo (30 de septiembre de 2024). «3 asignaturas pendientes que deja AMLO al abandonar la presidencia de México (y qué propone Sheinbaum para solucionarlas)». BBC Mundo. Consultado el 1 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cv22e6g3x59o
[167] ↑ «Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma publicada el 16 de julio de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOAPF.pdf
[168] ↑ a b c «Ley Orgánica del Ejército y Fuerza Aérea Mexicanos». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 20 de agosto de 2025. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 16 de julio de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOEFAM.pdf
[169] ↑ a b c «Ley Orgánica de la Armada de México». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 5 de enero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 1.º de diciembre de 2023».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOAM.pdf
[170] ↑ Myers Gallardo, Alfonso (2017). «Reelección en México ¿dónde estamos? ¿a dónde vamos?». En Lugo, Alberto y Cienfuegos, David, ed. Cien años de evolución constitucional. Retos y dilemas de la Constitución mexicana. México, Cámara de Diputados: Tirant lo Blanch. p. 259-278. ISBN 978-84-9143-935-6.: http://biblioteca.diputados.gob.mx/janium/bv/lxiii/ciena_evo_cons.pdf
[181] ↑ a b c «Artículo 94 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto original, historial de reformas y texto vigente.».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/CPEUM-094.pdf
[182] ↑ «Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial de la Federación». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 3 de diciembre de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 28 de noviembre de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOPJF.pdf
[183] ↑ «Artículos del 2 al 20 de la Ley Orgánica del Poder Judicial de la Federación». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de enero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la publicación de la nueva ley el 20 de diciembre de 2024».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOPJF.pdf
[195] ↑ «Iniciativa con Proyecto de Decreto por el que se reforman, adicionan y derogan diversas disposiciones de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, en materia de reforma al Poder Judicial». Sistema de Información Legislativa de la Secretaría de Gobernación. 5 de febrero de 2024. Consultado el 6 de enero de 2025.: http://sil.gobernacion.gob.mx/Archivos/Documentos/2024/02/asun_4696973_20240205_1707785928.pdf
[196] ↑ «DECRETO por el que se reforman, adicionan y derogan diversas disposiciones de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos, en materia de reforma del Poder Judicial.». Cámara de Diputados. 15 de septiembre de 2024. Consultado el 6 de enero de 2025.: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/ref/dof/CPEUM_ref_258_15sep24.pdf
[198] ↑ «Artículo 94 de la Ley General de Partidos Políticos». Consultado el 5 de enero de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 24 de noviembre de 2023».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGPP.pdf
[202] ↑ «Párrafo X del Artículo 89 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto original, historial de reformas y texto vigente.».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/CPEUM-089_2.pdf
[205] ↑ Mendoza Sánchez, Juan Carlos (2014). Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de las Revoluciones en México, ed. Cien años de política exterior mexicana (Segunda edición). México: Grupo Editorial Cenzontle. ISBN 978-607-9093-17-4. Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2025.: https://www.inehrm.gob.mx/recursos/Libros/Cien_Interiores_Final.pdf
[206] ↑ Historia de las relaciones internacionales de México, 1821-2010. México: Dirección General de Acervo Histórico - Secretaría de Relaciones Exteriores. 2011. ISBN 978-607-446-024-7. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[211] ↑ Las relaciones diplomáticas de México. México: Plaza y Valdés Editores. 2001. ISBN 968-36-8090-9. |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[212] ↑ Alicia Frohmann. «De Contadora al Grupo de los Ocho: El reaprendizaje de la concertación política regional». JSTOR. Consultado el 12 de abril de 2025.: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/41391311.pdf
[218] ↑ «Ley de Seguridad Nacional». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 5 denero de 2025. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 20 de mayo de 2021».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LSN.pdf
[222] ↑ «Artículos 29 y 30 de la Ley Orgánica de la Administración Pública Federal». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma publicada el 16 de julio de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LOAPF.pdf
[223] ↑ «Presupuesto de Egresos de la Federación para el Ejercicio Fiscal 2025 (página 32)». Cámara de Diputados. 1 de enero de 2025. Consultado el 2 de enero de 2025. «Sumatoria del gasto programable para los ramos de Defensa Nacional y Marina».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/PEF_2025.pdf
[224] ↑ a b «Presupuestos de Egresos de la Federación 2025: Analítico de Plazas y Remuneraciones: Ramo 07 Defensa Nacional». México: Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público. 1 de enero de 2025. Consultado el 3 de enero de 2025. «De acuerdo con la clave de nivel de las series EM0200 a EM2000, los elementos registrados son considerados personal militar del Ejército Mexicano (275 443); de la serie EM2200 a EM2400 es considerado personal militar de la Fuerza Aérea Mexicana (30 516 plazas); y los niveles que no comienzan con la serie EM (8968 en total) son considerados civiles que laboran tanto en la Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional, como en el Instituto de Seguridad Social para las Fuerzas Armadas, en el Aeropuerto Felipe Ángeles, el Tren Maya y el Corredor Interoceánico; que en total dan a todo el ramo de Defensa Nacional 314 927 plazas».: https://www.ppef.hacienda.gob.mx/work/models/GYPPF25Q/PPEF2025/lurbgnma/docs/07/r07_appcd.pdf
[225] ↑ «Presupuestos de Egresos de la Federación 2025: Analítico de Plazas y Remuneraciones: Ramo 13 Marina». México: Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público. 1 de enero de 2025. Consultado el 3 de enero de 2025. «De acuerdo con la clave de nivel de las series AM0200 a AM0800, los elementos registrados son considerados personal militar de la Armada de México (92 043); y los niveles que no comienzan con la serie AM son considerados civiles que laboran en la Secretaría de Marina (3507); que en total dan a todo el ramo de Marina 95 550 plazas».: https://www.ppef.hacienda.gob.mx/work/models/GYPPF25Q/PPEF2025/lurbgnma/docs/13/r13_appcd.pdf
[228] ↑ Oficina del Alto Comisionado para los Derechos Humanos (lista actualizada). «Lista de todos los Estados Miembros de las Naciones Unidas que son parte o signatarios en los diversos instrumentos de derechos humanos de las Naciones Unidas» (web) (en inglés).: https://indicators.ohchr.org/
[229] ↑ Pacto Internacional de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales, vigilado por el Comité de Derechos Económicos, Sociales y Culturales.
[230] ↑ Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Políticos, vigilado por el Comité de Derechos Humanos.
[231] ↑ Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación Racial, vigilada por el Comité para la Eliminación de Discriminación Racial.
[232] ↑ Convención Internacional para la protección de todas las personas contra las desapariciones forzadas.
[233] ↑ Convención Internacional sobre la Eliminación de todas las Formas de Discriminación contra la Mujer, vigilada por el Comité para la Eliminación de Discriminación contra la Mujer.
[234] ↑ Convención contra la tortura y otros tratos o penas crueles, inhumanos o degradantes, vigilada por el Comité contra la tortura.
[235] ↑ Convención sobre los Derechos del Niño, vigilada por el Comité de los Derechos del Niño.
[236] ↑ Convención internacional sobre la protección de los derechos de todos los trabajadores migratorios y de sus familiares. La convención entrará en vigor cuando sea ratificada por veinte estados.
[237] ↑ Convención sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad, vigilado por el Comité sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad.
[269] ↑ Cecilia Barría (19 de mayo de 2023). «Por qué el "superpeso" mexicano es la moneda más líquida de América Latina y qué tiene que ver esto en su fortaleza frente al dólar». BBC Mundo. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2023.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-65640818
[272] ↑ Redacción (24 de febrero de 2023). «EL DINAMISMO DE LOS MOTORES ECONÓMICOS DE MÉXICO». IMCO. Consultado el 13 de septiembre de 2023. - [https://imco.org.mx/el-dinamismo-de-los-motores-economicos-de-mexico/#:~:text=En%202022%2C%20la%20econom%C3%ADa%20mexicana,de%20(%2D)8.5%25%20en%202020.](https://imco.org.mx/el-dinamismo-de-los-motores-economicos-de-mexico/#:~:text=En%202022%2C%20la%20econom%C3%ADa%20mexicana,de%20(%2D)8.5%25%20en%202020.)
[296] ↑ «Principales indicadores del sector forestal en México». Comisión Nacional Forestal. 2021. Consultado el 15 de octubre de 2023.: https://databosques.cnf.gob.mx/inicio/
[299] ↑ «Madera, Carbón Vegetal y Manufacturas de Madera». Secretaría de Economía. 2021. Consultado el 15 de octubre de 2023. - [https://www.economia.gob.mx/datamexico/es/profile/product/wood-charcoal-wood#:~:text=Los%20principales%20or%C3%ADgenes%20comerciales%20de,Canad%C3%A1%20(US%24128M).](https://www.economia.gob.mx/datamexico/es/profile/product/wood-charcoal-wood#:~:text=Los%20principales%20or%C3%ADgenes%20comerciales%20de,Canad%C3%A1%20(US%24128M).)
[313] ↑ «Producción industrial de México creció un 3.3 % en 2022». Forbes. 10 de febrero de 2023. Consultado el 15 de octubre de 2023. - [https://www.forbes.com.mx/produccion-industrial-de-mexico-crecio-un-3-3-en-2022/#:~:text=EFE.,Estad%C3%ADstica%20y%20Geograf%C3%ADa%20(Inegi).](https://www.forbes.com.mx/produccion-industrial-de-mexico-crecio-un-3-3-en-2022/#:~:text=EFE.,Estad%C3%ADstica%20y%20Geograf%C3%ADa%20(Inegi).)
[329] ↑ «Human Development Reports» (en inglés). United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Consultado el 16 de julio de 2018.: http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/IHDI
[332] ↑ «HIGH ALTITUDE WATER CHERENKOV / EL OBSERVATORIO DE RAYOS GAMMA HAWC». www.inaoep.mx. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2021.: https://www.inaoep.mx/~hawc/sitio/gtm.php
[334] ↑ «Fracción V del artículo 3 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos». Suprema Corte de Justicia de la Nación. Consultado el 5 de abril de 2025. «Texto original, historial de reformas y texto vigente».: https://www.scjn.gob.mx/sites/default/files/cpeum/documento/CPEUM-003_2.pdf
[339] ↑ Organización Mundial de la Propiedad Intelectual (2024). «Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship». www.wipo.int (en inglés). p. 18. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. Consultado el 6 de octubre de 2024.: https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/
[342] ↑ «México, estancado en porcentaje del PIB que destina a investigación y desarrollo». IBERO. 28 de noviembre de 2017. Consultado el 14 de noviembre de 2021.: https://ibero.mx/prensa/href
[344] ↑ C.V, DEMOS, Desarrollo de Medios, S. A. de (10 de mayo de 2009). «La Jornada: México destina sólo 0.4 % del PIB a la investigación científica». www.jornada.com.mx. Consultado el 14 de noviembre de 2021.: https://www.jornada.com.mx/2009/05/10/economia/028n1eco
[351] ↑ Papanicolaou, George N. (1933-05). «The sexual cycle in the human female as revealed by vaginal smears». American Journal of Anatomy (en inglés) 52 (S1): 519-637. ISSN 0002-9106. doi:10.1002/aja.1000520402. Consultado el 8 de enero de 2023. «A preliminary report on the same subject was published by [Ramirez] in 1922, but unfortunately I have been unable to obtain the article. […] Ramirez arrived at the same conclusion that I had in 1925, that pregnancy may be diagnosed through the cytological characteristics of vaginal smears.».: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aja.1000520402
[380] ↑ «Contenidos de Radio y Televisión». Dirección General de Radio, Televisión y Cinematografía. Consultado el 16 de octubre de 2023.: https://dgrtc.segob.gob.mx/es/DGRTC/Contenidos
[399] ↑ Manrique, Linnete (2016). «Dreaming of a cosmic race: José Vasconcelos and the politics of race in Mexico, 1920s-1930s». Cogent Arts & Humanities (en inglés). Londres. Consultado el 16 de abril de 2018.: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23311983.2016.1218316
[400] ↑ a b Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas. «CATÁLOGO DE LAS LENGUAS INDÍGENAS NACIONALES». Consultado el 20 de octubre de 2023.: https://www.inali.gob.mx/clin-inali/
[419] ↑ Suárez, Hugo José (2008). «Peregrinación barrial de la Virgen de San Juan de los Lagos en Guanajuato». Archives de sciences sociales des religions (142): 87-111. Consultado el 26 de agosto. «La imagen venerada de la Virgen de San Juan de los Lagos se encuentra en el santuario que se ubica en la cabecera municipal de San Juan de los Lagos, en Jalisco. Anualmente en enero y febrero se congregan millones de visitantes que acuden desde todos los rincones del país en peregrinaciones multitudinarias. La tradición tiene más de 390 años. Después de la Virgen de Guadalupe en la Ciudad de México, es el segundo culto de mayor confluencia en México. (Nota al pie 9, p. 92).».: https://assr.revues.org/pdf/14173
[420] ↑ Pilgrimage: from the Ganges to Graceland : an encyclopedia, Volume 1 by Linda Kay Davidson, David Martin Gitlitz 2002 ISBN 1-57607-004-2 page 571.
[428] ↑ «Chipilo, el pueblo italiano de México donde sobrevive "una forma de hablar única en el mundo"». BBC Mundo. 14 de septiembre de 2023. Consultado el 20 de octubre de 2023.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cn0e8jy291vo
[430] ↑ «Pangloss Collection | Romani_(Northern_Vlax,_Mexico) corpus». pangloss.cnrs.fr. Consultado el 23 de marzo de 2025. - [https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Romani_(Northern_Vlax,_Mexico)?lang=en&mode=normal&seeMore=true](https://pangloss.cnrs.fr/corpus/Romani_(Northern_Vlax,_Mexico)?lang=en&mode=normal&seeMore=true)
[437] ↑ «Asociación de Intérpretes y Traductores de Lengua de Señas de Baja California». Consultado el 21 de agosto de 2012. .: http://interpretesbc.blogspot.com/
[452] ↑ Vasconcelos, José (1997). La Raza Cósmica (The Cosmic Race). Didier T. Jaén (translator). The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-8018-5655-6. (requiere registro).: https://archive.org/details/cosmicracebiling00vasc/page/160
[453] ↑ Phelan, John Leddy (1 de agosto de 1956). «México y lo Mexicano». Hispanic American Historical Review (en inglés) 36 (3): 309-318. JSTOR 2509215. doi:10.1215/00182168-36.3.309.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.jstor.org/stable/2509215
[454] ↑ «Ley sobre el Escudo, la Bandera y el Himno Nacionales». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Texto vigente a la última reforma del 1 de abril de 2024».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LEBHN.pdf
[460] ↑ Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes (13 de noviembre de 2010). «José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi prefiguró en su obra el México Independiente». Consultado el 13 de enero de 2014.: http://www.conaculta.gob.mx/detalle-nota/?id=9386#.UtRqvY7LWb4
[481] ↑ «Red de zonas arqueológicas del INAH». Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. Consultado el 20 de octubre de 2023.: https://inah.gob.mx/zonas-arqueologicas
[484] ↑ «Artículo 74 de la Ley Federal del Trabajo». Cámara de Diputados. Consultado el 6 de agosto de 2025. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 21 de febrero de 2025».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LFT.pdf
[491] ↑ «Ley General de Cultura Física y Deporte». 7 de junio de 2013. Consultado el 28 de diciembre de 2022. «Edición actualizada con las reformas vigentes publicadas al 20 de diciembre de 2022».: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LGCFD.pdf
[501] ↑ «Estatuto Social de la Federación Mexicana de Futbol». FMF.mx. 15 de julio de 2021. Archivado desde el original el 12 de diciembre de 2022. Consultado el 11 de diciembre de 2022. «Artículo 10: Los afiliados del sector profesional se integran por Liga MX, Ascenso MX, Liga Premier y Liga TDP».: https://web.archive.org/web/20221212030618/https://fmf.mx/docs/Reglamentos/Estatutos_FMF_2021.pdf
[502] ↑ Raúl Torre (2007). Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF), ed. «The Best Clubs of Central and North America» (en inglés). Consultado el 16 de mayo de 2008.: http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/torre-cam-best.html
[505] ↑ Oscar Guevara (26 de septiembre de 2024). «América ha ganado 40 títulos oficiales en 8 diferentes torneos». Liga MX. Consultado el 29 de noviembre de 2024.: https://ligamx.net/cancha/detallenoticia/44922
[523] ↑ «Historia del Voleibol en México - Panorama del Voleibol en México y en el mundo». Consultado el 17 de septiembre de 2018.: http://www.voleibol.mx/historia.html
[552] ↑ El término Presidenta, está oficializado en dos documentos de mandato constitucional; el Dictamen de la resolución final del Tribunal Electoral, respecto a la declaratoria de «Presidenta electa», para la candidata ganadora de las elecciones de 2024; y el Bando solemne que emite la Cámara de Diputados para divulgar la declaratoria de «Presidenta electa». Además está debidamente validado en las normas del idioma español por la RAE y el DPD.: https://www.te.gob.mx/EE/SUP/2024/EEP/1/SUP_2024_EEP_1-1498426.pdf
[553] ↑ No aplica a nivel federal, si no únicamente a nivel estatal, específicamente en estados de la República situados al norte del país (a excepción de Sonora) y cuyos municipios más meridionales poseen frontera con los Estados Unidos o lo son cercanos a ella, siendo el UTC-07:00 en todo el estado de Baja California; UTC-06:00 en los municipios de Manuel Benavides, Ojinaga y Coyame del Sotol (en el oeste de Chihuahua); UTC-05:00 en los municipios de Guadalupe, Praxedis G. Guerrero, Juárez, Ascensión y Janos (en el oriente de Chihuahua), Acuña, Allende, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Jiménez, Morelos, Nava, Ocampo, Piedras Negras, Villa Unión y Zaragoza (en Coahuila), Anáhuac (en Nuevo León), y Camargo, Guerrero, Gustavo Díaz Ordaz, Matamoros, Mier, Miguel Alemán, Nuevo Laredo, Reynosa, Río Bravo y Valle Hermoso (en Tamaulipas).
[554] ↑ En el español de España se utiliza también la grafía Méjico. Según el Diccionario panhispánico de dudas de la Real Academia Española, aunque también es correcta la forma con j, se recomienda la grafía con x, por ser la usada en el propio país y, mayoritariamente, en el resto de Hispanoamérica.[13].
[555] ↑ A la letra, Clavijero dice:[36]
[556] ↑ Esto incluyó lo que actualmente es México, más los actuales estados estadounidenses de California, Nevada, Colorado, Utah, Nuevo México, Arizona, Texas, Oregón, Washington, Florida y partes de Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Kansas, Oklahoma y Luisiana; así como la parte suroeste de la Columbia Británica del actual Canadá; más la capitanía general de Guatemala (que incluía el estado de Chiapas, los actuales países de Guatemala, Belice, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua); más la Capitanía General de Cuba (actuales Cuba, República Dominicana, Puerto Rico, Trinidad y Tobago y Guadalupe); la provincia de Venezuela, la actual provincia de Bocas del Toro en Panamá y así como, finalmente, la Capitanía General de Filipinas (comprendiendo las Filipinas, las islas Carolinas y las islas Marianas, en el océano Pacífico, en Asia y Oceanía). Además de 1626 hasta 1642 los españoles se establecieron en el norte de la isla de Taiwán (llamada por los portugueses Formosa; «Hermosa» en castellano) y su administración recayó en la Nueva España.
[557] ↑ Los territorios correspondientes a los siguientes condados: Colorado →Moffat, Routt, Río Blanco, Garfield, Eagle, Mesa, Pitkin, Delta, Gunnison, Montrose, Ouray, Hinsdale, San Miguel, Dolores, San Juan, Montezuma, La Plata, Mineral, Archuleta, Río Grande, Conejos, Huérfano, Costilla, Las Ánimas y Baca; Kansas → Morton, Stevens, Meade y Seward; Oklahoma → Cimarrón, Texas y Beaver; Wyoming → Lincoln, Uinta, Sweetwater y Carbón.
[558] ↑ Ortiz Rubio, Rodríguez, Cárdenas, Ávila Camacho, Alemán Valdés, Ruiz Cortines, López Mateos, Díaz Ordaz, Echeverría, López Portillo, de la Madrid, Salinas y Zedillo.
[559] ↑ Este artículo versa sobre los contenidos de la fuente principal, la Constitución mexicana; sin embargo, de acuerdo al artículo tercero transitorio del Decreto de reforma constitucional al Poder Judicial de la Federación, los ministros que resulten electos en los comicios extraordinarios de 2025, de manera excepcional durarán ocho y once años, por lo que vencerá el año 2033 y 2036 para cuatro y cinco de ellos, respectivamente. Los periodos que correspondan a cada cargo se determinarán en función del número de votos que obtenga cada candidatura, correspondiendo un periodo mayor a quienes alcancen mayor votación. Salvo en el caso de las ministras en funciones que fueron electas en dicho proceso, que solo cumpliran el periodo para el que fueron designadas originalmente (15 años), con una prórroga de su mandato hasta la siguiente elección judicial.: https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/ref/dof/CPEUM_ref_258_15sep24.pdf
[560] ↑ Para las entidades erigidas en 1823 y 1824, las fechas de creación corresponden a las de la instalación de los congresos locales y las consecuentes ratificaciones del Acta Constitutiva de la Federación Mexicana. No obstante, todos los estados federados y los territorios de administración federal ya habían sido constituidos como provincias del Imperio Mexicano, tal y como se menciona en la primera división política oficial, producto de la adhesión al decreto del 17 de noviembre de 1821 para formar las Cortes.
[561] ↑ Iztapalapa no es un municipio, sino una demarcación política de la Ciudad de México, subdivisiones homólogas al municipio en el territorio capitalino, aunque con atribuciones jurídicas y políticas más acotadas; caso similar al de la Ciudad de México, que posee un estatuto político distinto al de los estados federados en la Unión. El INEGI lo cuenta en la lista de los municipios más poblados.
[562] ↑ Incluye: Anabautista/Menonita, Anglicano/Episcopal, Bautista, Luterana, Metodista, Presbiteriana; Otras protestantes como Amistad Cristiana, Asambleas de Dios, Iglesia Apostólica de la Fe en Cristo Jesús, Iglesia de Dios, Iglesia de Dios de la Profecía, Iglesia de Dios en México del Evangelio, Completo Príncipe de Paz; Otras asociaciones pentecostales como Iglesia Cristiana Interdenominacional, Iglesia del Dios Vivo, Columna y Apoyo de la Verdad, la Luz del Mundo, Iglesia de Cristo, Iglesia del Nazareno, Movimientos Sincréticos Judaicos Neoisraelitas; y otras cristianas evangélicas como Adventistas del Séptimo Día, Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días (Mormones), Testigos de Jehová, Cristianas Evangélicas y Pentecostales
The basis of the New Spain economy was mining. The discovery of deposits, notably in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, gradually allowed New Spain to occupy a privileged position. Mining allowed the development of other associated activities, especially workshops and agriculture, which turned the regions of Bajío "Bajío (Mexico)") and the valleys of Mexico and Puebla into prosperous agricultural regions and incipient industrial activity.[103] Minerals were minted exclusively at the Royal Mint of Mexico; The 8 Real became, due to its amount, high grade and quality, the currency preferably used in the international transactions of the Empire.[104].
In the agricultural sector, the socioeconomic organization started from a system that replaced the slavery of the subject peoples, with a semi-feudal method of encomiendas, through which the explorers received the concession of the conquered lands in the name of the king, to exploit and inhabit them, with the guarantee of employing the indigenous peoples in it, if their evangelization was assured as a condition; This servitude allowed them, unlike African slaves, to access services in the cities and organize communities in the peripheries; The few towns that managed to allocate lands for exploitation deposited them in a system of communal property, whose owner most of the time was the nearest ecclesiastical authority.[105][106].
The viceroyalty's trade was carried out through two ports: Veracruz (Gulf of Mexico) and Acapulco (Pacific Ocean). The Nao de China arrived at the latter, transporting products from the Philippines to New Spain and from there they were transported by land, arriving at Puebla, where the oriental influence is notable in its crafts and in its traditions such as that of the "china poblana", to Mexico City and Veracruz from where it was sent to Spain or to the ports of the Atlantic. Trade contributed to the flourishing of these ports, Mexico City and the intermediate regions. It should be noted that until the end of the century, with the introduction of the Bourbon reforms, trade between the Spanish viceroyalties was not permitted.[107] In general the level of prosperity was the highest in America, especially the residents of Mexico City, Puebla de los Ángeles, Villa Rica de la Veracruz, Acapulco, Zacatecas "Zacatecas (Zacatecas)") and Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)").[108].
The viceroyalty was the basis of the cultural and racial mosaic of current Mexico. Within it, indigenous and European cultures merged over the course of 300 years. Various cultural elements such as languages, cult rites, artistic expressions, traditions, uses, customs, cuisines, festivities, commercial practices, worldviews, values and clothing experienced complex processes of syncretism, which even varied from region to region. Likewise, there was a large amount of racial mixtures.[105][106] Figures such as Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Juan Ruiz de Alarcón stand out as their most notable contributors to New Spain literature, as well as Manuel Tolsá in architecture. Regarding financial institutions, Pedro Romero de Terreros stood out, founder of the Sacro y Real Monte de Piedad de Ánimas, predecessor of the National Monte de Piedad (also called Monte Pío), the genesis of microcredit worldwide. Also noteworthy are the chemical discoveries of Andrés Manuel del Río, discoverer of erythronium, later renamed vanadium, in the periodic table of chemical elements.[109] During the colonial period, many of the traditions and institutions were developed that have evolved, in accordance with the character of the Mexican people, into many of the Mexican characteristics of today.
As a major element of social cohesion, the population of New Spain professed the Catholic religion for the most part, the Holy Inquisition - which sought the suppression of heresy and apostasy - had established its offices in the territory. "neophytes" in the faith.[111].
New Spanish society was governed by a caste system, which established a social stratification, delimiting educational or hospital institutions, urban or rural areas to inhabit, public and ecclesiastical positions, as well as the professions and trades that each ethnic group could access; In this pyramidal organization the head was the peninsular Spaniards, followed, in that order, by the Creoles, mestizos, indigenous people, Afro-descendants and lastly the rest of the castes that emerged from the mixture of the first groups. Despite the fact that as a general rule an integration policy was proposed, the political reality that imposed the granting of important positions to the Spanish bureaucracy (especially since the arrival of the Bourbons, who advocated the French model of colonization, against which the criollos or children of Spaniards born in Mexico began to resent). In addition, divisions as serious as castes were created in Yucatán.[105][106].
On August 19, 1811, the first deliberative body that sought to regulate the insurgent movement and establish an autonomous government was established, the Supreme Governmental Board of America in Zitácuaro, directed by Ignacio López Rayón, and which published the first insurgent document; This institution names José María Morelos y Pavón as the new leader of the insurgency; He had already begun his participation since he was entrusted by Hidalgo to begin the uprising in the south, emphasizing the Pacific coast, especially in the capture of Acapulco, the main New Spain port. The insurgent movement was strengthened in the center of New Spain under the command of Morelos, who stood out for his ability as a military strategist; supported by Hermenegildo Galeana, Mariano Matamoros and Nicolás Bravo, he achieved important triumphs such as the Siege of Cuautla, the taking of Oaxaca "Toma de Oaxaca (1812)") and the siege of Acapulco "Siege of Acapulco (1813)"). The war became widespread in the center and south of the viceroyalty, attracting sectors of the Creole population that actively collaborated with the movement, such as Leona Vicario and Andrés Quintana Roo. The deepening and radicalization of the insurgent movement led to the call, by Morelos (after the disappearance of the Zitácuaro Junta) of a national assembly to achieve absolute independence. On September 13, 1813, the Congress of Anáhuac, meeting in Chilpancingo, promulgated the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America and gave the country its first constitution, promulgated in Apatzingán in 1814. However, the end of the war in Europe allowed the viceregal authorities to reinforce themselves to counteract the insurgent advances, before which Morelos was captured and shot in 1815.[114][114].
Starting in 1815, the independentistas entered into a defensive and fragmented war.[115] The campaign of Pedro Moreno "Pedro Moreno (leader)") and Francisco Xavier Mina in 1817 advanced rapidly from Tamaulipas towards central New Spain, but was ultimately defeated. The main sources of popular resistance are led by Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. The pardon offered by Viceroy Apodaca encouraged the desertion of many insurgents. The rehabilitation of the Constitution of Cádiz in 1820 affected the New Spain elite, who organized in the La Profesa Conspiracy began a process to separate from Spain, however they considered that to do so it was necessary to defeat the popular independence revolts, so they appointed the royalist military man Agustín de Iturbide in charge of defeating the last insurgents. However, Iturbide, who in addition to being aware of the difficulty of defeating the rebels in his territory, intends to turn around the claims of La Profesa to create his own project, decides to agree with the insurgents on the independence of the viceroyalty. On February 10, 1821, after agreeing to the union of both movements with Vicente Guerrero, they promulgated the Plan of Iguala on February 24, 1821 to define the details of the end of the struggle; The advance of the so-called Trigarante Army could not be contained by the diminished royalist forces.[116] When Juan O'Donojú - the last ruler appointed by the metropolis - arrived in New Spain, he signed the Treaties of Córdoba on August 24 of the same year, recognizing the independence of the new country. On September 27, 1821, the tri-garant army entered Mexico City and the next day in the old Viceregal Palace "Palacio Nacional (Mexico)") the Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire was signed.[117][118][119].
The questioned election of 1988 produced the arrival of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988-1994) to the government; In this six-year term, Mexico experienced an economic rebound based on the privatization of state companies and the opening to foreign investment. In 1994, when NAFTA came into force, the Zapatista uprising and the assassinations of the official candidate for the presidency of the republic Luis Donaldo Colosio and that of Senator José Francisco Ruiz Massieu shook the political scene in Mexico. The economy entered a recession known as the "December error", considered the first crisis of globalization.[150].
The Zapatista Army of National Liberation came to light in the state of Chiapas on January 1, 1994, when a group of armed indigenous people occupied several municipal seats on the same day that the North American Free Trade Agreement came into force, destabilizing the Mexican political system and questioning its promises of modernity. Their goal was the overthrow of the elected president and the establishment of a participatory democracy. After the military repression of which his revolution was subjected, he decided to undertake political activity while maintaining a radical leftist character. Its command is called the Clandestine Revolutionary Indigenous Committee-General Command (CCRI-CG) of the EZLN.[151] On December 22, 1997, 45 Tsotsile indigenous people were murdered while praying in a church in the community of Acteal, in the state of Chiapas. Those directly responsible for the massacre were paramilitary groups opposed to the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN).
They are also empowered to coordinate their organization with those municipalities with which it constitutes, according to the INEGI categorization, a metropolitan area.
The country has 80 embassies, 67 consulates, 7 Permanent Missions to international organizations in the world and 3 Liaison Offices. Mexico maintains a significant global presence with more than 150 diplomatic representations, including 50 consulates in the United States (no other country in the world has a similar number in a single host nation). Meanwhile, in the national territory, there are 87 embassies, 7 representative offices and 66 consulates. Furthermore, both in the country and abroad there are representations from countries that do not have an embassy in Mexico and vice versa.[214][215][216][217].
• - Mexican Air Force: 30,516 elements (2025).[224] It is the air branch in the Mexican Armed Forces and depends on the Secretariat of National Defense "Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Mexico)"). It is responsible for the defense of airspace, independence and national sovereignty, guaranteeing internal security, implementing the DN-III-E Plan in the event of disasters and carrying out civic actions and social works that tend to progress the country.
Only on two occasions in history have any of the branches of the Mexican Armed Forces participated in war actions outside national territory in an external conflict. The navy in the Battle of Mariel on February 10, 1828, when a squadron of three brigs, the Hermon, the Bravo and the Guerrero, tried to occupy the aforementioned port of Cuba, in the context of the Spanish reconquest attempts; The operation had the objective of avoiding the use of the then general captaincy as a Spanish base to attack Mexico.[226] And the air force, when Squadron 201 was established as the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force, and acted in combat during the Battle of Luzon, within the framework of the Second World War.[227].
The average temperature for the country is about 19 °C. However, Mexico City presents its extreme averages in the months of January (12 °C) and July (16.1 °C). In contrast to Ciudad Juárez, Mexicali, Culiacán, San Luis Potosí "San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí)"), Hermosillo, Chihuahua, Torreón "Torreón (Coahuila de Zaragoza)"), Saltillo and Monterrey where the temperatures are really extreme.[4].
• - Bioclimatic landscapes of Mexico.
• - Tropical jungle,
Lacandona Jungle, Chiapas.
• - Dry jungle,
Tamasopo, San Luis Potosí.
• - Tropical savanna,
Bacalar, Quintana Roo.
• - Wetland,
Centla Swamps, Tabasco.
• - Oasis,
Mulegé "Mulegé (Baja California Sur)"), Baja California Sur.
• - Thicket,
Sierra de Órganos, Zacatecas.
• - Desert without rain,
Cataviñá, Baja California.
• - Desert with dunes,
Samalayuca, Chihuahua.
• - Desert with dunes,
Great Altar Desert, Sonora.
• - Coniferous forest,
Mexiquillo, Durango.
• - Subtropical forest,
Miahuatlán, Oaxaca.
• - Sub-humid plateau,
Apan, Hidalgo.
• - Boreal forest,
Sierra de Juárez "Sierra de Juárez (Baja California)"), Baja California.
• - Alpine,
Nevado de Toluca, State of Mexico.
• - Caves,
Cacahuamilpa, Guerrero.
Avocado (avocado)
• - Christmas Eve.
• - Cempasuchil.
• - Dahlia.
• - Prickly pear.
• - Golden barrel.
• - Cardón.
• - Saguaro.
• - Candel.
• - Peyote.
• - Tejocote.
• - Tule (ahuehuete, sabino).
• - Ceiba.
• - Mahogany.
• - Ponderosa pine.
• - Mesquite.
• - Tomato (tomato).
• - Chicle (sapodilla).
• - Corn.
• - Agave.
• - Cocoa.
• - Chili.
• - Monterrey
New León.
• - Puerto Vallarta
Jalisco.
• - Acapulco
Warrior.
• - Nuevo Vallarta
Nayarit.
• - Mazatlán
Sinaloa.
• - Puebla
Puebla.
• - *Santiago de Querétaro
Querétaro*.
• - Mérida "Mérida (Yucatán)")
Yucatan.
• - Veracruz
Veracruz.
• - Ixtapa
Warrior.
• - San Luis Potosí "San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí)")
San Luis Potosí.
• - Ciudad Juárez
Chihuahua.
• - León "León (Mexico)")
Guanajuato.
• - Tijuana
Baja California.
• - Aguascalientes "Aguascalientes (Mexico)")
Aguascalientes.
• - Oaxaca de Juárez
Oaxaca.
• - Huatulco
Oaxaca.
• - Cozumel
Quintana Roo.
• - Villahermosa "Villahermosa (Tabasco)")
Tabasco.
• - Manzanillo "Manzanillo (Colima)")
Colima.
• - Chihuahua "Chihuahua (Chihuahua)")
Chihuahua.
• - Morelia
Michoacán.
• - Zacatecas "Zacatecas (Zacatecas)")
Zacatecas.
• - Toluca de Lerdo
State of Mexico.
• - Tuxtla Gutiérrez
Chiapas.
• - Hermosillo
Sound.
• - Mexicali
Baja California.
• - La Paz "La Paz (Baja California Sur)")
Baja California Sur.
• - City of Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)")
Guanajuato.
• - San Cristóbal de Las Casas
Chiapas.
In the current decade, the return of passenger trains has been proposed, a means of transportation and communication that has been present in the country since the time of the Porfiriato and that fell into disuse since their privatization during the government of Ernesto Zedillo. The plan would consist of the use of existing tracks and their expansion to create eleven lines: Pacific Train, with an extension of 4,700 kilometers (from Chiapas to Baja California); El Chepe (673 kilometers, from Sinaloa to Chihuahua); Western Train (2250 kilometers, from Guerrero to Chihuahua); Eastern Train (2000 kilometers, from Guerrero to Coahuila and Nuevo León); Transversal Train (1200 kilometers, from Sinaloa to Tamaulipas); Gulf Train (1650 kilometers, from Tabasco to Tamaulipas); Tren del Bajío (1500 kilometers, from Veracruz to Jalisco covering the west of the country); Train of the Center (1300 kilometers, from Veracruz to Jalisco, covering the center of the country); Tehuantepec Isthmus Train (300 kilometers); Oaxaca Train (750 kilometers) and as the project began, the 1800 kilometer Mayan Train. The plan projected for the year 2050 began with works to adapt or modernize existing roads, especially in suburban areas.[366].
Like the rest of the transportation systems, airports and seaports were also privatized during the six-year term of Carlos Salinas de Gortari. In 2022, it was the third country with the most landing strips worldwide, only after the United States and Brazil, having 1,714 of these structures.[367] Among the airports, the most important due to the level of people who use them and air traffic, are the Mexico City International Airport and the Cancún International Airport. The first of them is going through serious saturation problems, and the construction of the New International Airport of Mexico City in the federal zone of Lake Texcoco was proposed in 2016. However, in 2018 after a 10% progress in the work and a failed national consultation, in addition to political and environmental issues, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador canceled the work and moved the project to the Santa Lucía air base in Zumpango, State of Mexico five days after being sworn in as president of Mexico. The construction of the Felipe Ángeles International Airport (AIFA) began on October 17, 2019. President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced a year before that construction would be in charge of the Secretariat of National Defense. The new commercial airport would serve the metropolitan area of the Valley of Mexico. It was inaugurated on March 21, 2022 by the president, and named in honor of the hero of the Mexican Revolution.[368][369][370][371].
Like railways, most marine traffic is freight. Mexico has 108 ports, fifty-four in the Gulf and the same number in the Pacific. The most important are Veracruz, on the Atlantic coast, and Manzanillo "Manzanillo (Colima)"), in the state of Colima on the Pacific coast.
Regarding the use of new communication technologies (Internet), the number of users in Mexico is estimated at 98,800,000 (ninety-eight million, eight hundred thousand) users in 2022, around 76% of the population. In order to guarantee free internet access, the Federal Electricity Commission created a division in charge of building the fiber optic infrastructure necessary to support said plan. In the recent five years, 10,979 antennas were installed to provide network access to schools, parks, health centers and other public places.[372][373][374].
• - **«a+» is a network of stations with a local focus and programming from TV Azteca. However, by sharing common programming and identity, it is considered a national network.
• - ***Televisa operates a network of local stations known as Televisa Regional, which includes some stations from the “NU9VE” network.
• - Even though the majority of these channels are retransmitted by the SPR network of stations, they do not achieve national coverage; however, they are considered national as they are produced by federal organizations, and their retransmission by pay TV systems is mandatory.[383].
There are 1,017 amplitude modulated radio stations in Mexico, 814 frequency modulated radio stations and 10 shortwave radio stations.[372][373] The states with the most stations are: Sonora and Oaxaca (they have up to 100 stations throughout the state). The state with the fewest radio stations is Tlaxcala (only six).
In some cities in Mexico there are radio groups that occupy all the frequencies for their stations, such as in Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey. The three cities of Baja California (Ensenada, Mexicali and Tijuana) also have their respective stations that are on all frequencies.
Radio in Mexico is diverse in content, but it has been documented that this industry is dominated by approximately seven families that operate radio groups. Which are:[384][385].
• - ACIR Group: which has a news format called "Information that serves", a romantic format called "Amor" and a format that transmits music in English called "Mix", among others.
• - Grupo Radiorama: is a group that has more than 300 radio stations in Mexico in which it made alliances with Grupo Formula, Televisa Radio and Radio S.A. to link their chains to the entire republic.
• - Radiopolis Group "Radiopolis (Mexico)"): previously known as Televisa Radio, XEW stands out, its motto is: «the voice of Latin America». It is the concessionaire of Ke Buena, Los 40 Principales México and W Radio.
• - MVS Radio: is the concessionaire of a channel that has coverage of up to 50 cities in Mexico, the channel is "Exa FM" (Formerly FM Globo) and it also has another format that has existed over the years. This network was known as "Stereorey", but in 2002 it was already known as "Best FM" and in 2004, several stations already had another format called "La Mejor FM". They are currently in 23 cities in Mexico, but they have had bad results with the "La mejor" chain.
• - Grupo Formula: has two formats that transmit news throughout Mexico and the United States, its announcers are those who work on television.
• - Grupo Radio Centro: this radio group is the concessionaire of 11 radio stations in Mexico City, but links to 130 stations throughout Mexico to transmit the newscast that they broadcast at 1 in the afternoon, among others.
• - Mexican Radio Institute: it is the concessionaire of the first Mexican radio station, which was
In Mexico, five mobile telephone operators operate, with their respective customer service centers, among which are:
• - Telcel: With the company name Radio Móvil DIPSA, it is a company founded in June 1926 as a distributor of telephone directories. It changed its industry by operating mobile telephony in 1977. It is owned by América Móvil, in turn belonging to Grupo Carso.
• - AT&T Mexico: It was founded in 1987 as Iusacell, originally belonging to Grupo IUSA. Due to the December error that devalued the Mexican peso, Iusacell suffered a huge debt for its postpaid system. It was purchased in 2001 by Vodafone and its subsidiary Verizon Communications. It was owned by Grupo Salinas until 2014 when it was sold to the American company AT&T.
• - Unefón: Company founded in 1998 by Ricardo Salinas Pliego that operated independently until 2006, belonging to Grupo Saba. In 2007, it began to use the Iusacell network. Thanks to this, they share the same network and have intercompatible telephone devices. In essence, Iusacell and Unefón were the same company. After the transition of the former to become AT&T México, Unefón continues to operate as the prepaid brand of the American firm.
• - Movistar México: Company founded in 2000, after being formed through the merger of Cedetel, BajaCel, Norcel, Movitel and Pegaso PCS. It belongs to Grupo Telefónica. Its facilities are located in Monterrey, Nuevo León.
• - Virgin Mobile México: It is a virtual mobile operator that offers mobile telephone services under the Virgin Mobile brand in Mexico. It is part of the Virgin Group conglomerate, owned by British tycoon Sir Richard Branson. It began operations in June 2014.
In Mexico there are also 2,576,213 Afro-descendants (2 out of every 100 inhabitants) according to the 2020 Population and Housing Census of the INEGI, the majority in communities on the Costa Chica of Guerrero "Costa Chica (Guerrero)") and Oaxaca "Costa Chica (Oaxaca)").[397].
A study by the National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity indicated that up to a third of the people sampled from the state of Guerrero had significantly more Asian ancestry than the majority of Mexicans, mainly Filipinos or Indonesians.[401].
In certain regions, the profession of a faith other than Catholic is seen as a threat to community unity. It is argued that the Catholic religion is part of the ethnic identity, and that Protestants are not willing to participate in traditional uses and customs (tequio or community work, participation in patron saint festivities and similar issues). The Protestants' refusal is due to the fact that their religious beliefs do not allow them to participate in the worship of images. In extreme cases, tension between Catholics and Protestants has led to the expulsion or even murder of Protestants in several towns. The best-known cases are those of San Juan Chamula, in Chiapas,[421][422] and San Nicolás, in Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo.[423].
A similar argument was presented by a committee of anthropologists to request the government of the Republic to expel the Summer Linguistics Institute (ILV), in 1979, which was accused of promoting the division of indigenous peoples by translating the Bible into vernacular languages and evangelizing in a Protestant creed that threatened the integrity of popular cultures. The Mexican government heeded the call of the anthropologists and canceled the agreement it had signed with the SIL. Conflicts have also occurred in other areas of social life. For example, since Jehovah's Witnesses are prohibited from honoring national symbols (something that is done every Monday in public schools in Mexico), children who have been educated in that religion were expelled from public schools. These types of problems are only resolved with the intervention of the National Human Rights Commission, and not always with favorable results for children.
There are some religious minorities such as practitioners of the Muslim faith with constant growth, estimated at around 8,000 believers from countries such as Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Morocco, Chile and Spain.[397] The first mosque in Mexico was built in the city of Torreón, Coahuila, under the sponsorship of a Lebanese businessman.[424].
A strong qualitative rather than quantitative presence of believers of the Jewish religion is also recognized, with an estimated population of 58,876 individuals, especially in the capital and its metropolitan area (in Polanco "Polanco (Mexico)"), Tecamachalco "Tecamachalco (State of Mexico)"), Interlomas, Santa Fe "Santa Fe (Mexico City)"), Satélite "Ciudad Satélite (Mexico)") and in the center historical), in large urban centers such as Guadalajara, Monterrey and in some coastal port areas such as Veracruz and Cancún.[397].
In the north of the Republic there are somewhat hermetic Mormon communities in states such as Chihuahua and Puebla; There is also a strong presence of Mennonites, whose greatest concentration is in Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua "Ciudad Cuauhtémoc (Chihuahua)"), although there are also important communities in other cities in the north and southeast of the Republic, as well as in the country's capital.
In many parts of the country but more frequently in cities, there are practitioners of religious denominations other than the traditional variants of Christianity, such as Buddhism (Zen and Tibetan), Hinduism, Sikhism, Sufi Islam, Hare Krishna, Unitarian Universalism, Rastafarianism, pranic healing movements, etc.
The impact of the Catholic religion in Mexico has also caused a fusion of elements. Beyond churches and religious denominations, a phenomenon persists in Mexico that some anthropologists and sociologists call popular religion, that is, religion as it is practiced and understood by the people. In Mexico, one of the religious components of everyday life is the Catholic religion, to which elements of other beliefs have been adhered to, whether of pre-Hispanic, African or Asian origin. In general, “popular religiosity” is viewed negatively by institutionally structured religions. One of the most exemplary cases of popular religiosity is the cult of Santa Muerte. The Catholic hierarchy insists on classifying it as a "satanic cult", however, most of the people who profess this cult declare themselves Catholic believers, and consider that there is no contradiction between the tributes they pay to the White Girl and the adoration of God. Other examples are the representations of the Passion of Christ and the celebration of the Day of the Dead, which are carried out within the framework of the Catholic Christian imagination, but under a very particular reinterpretation of its protagonists.
There is a significant presence of bilingual Spaniards in Mexican territory, this occurred in the context of the Spanish civil war and the consequent republican exile under the government of former president Lázaro Cárdenas del Río; The linguistic legacy of this and migrations after the reestablishment of relations in 1979, allowed the settlement of groups with languages of the historical communities of the Spanish people, highlighting Catalan, Basque and Galician.[432][433].
The number of Arabic speakers is estimated to be more than ten thousand, almost all of them from Lebanon and the majority bilingual. There are also Syrian, Moroccan, Egyptian, Algerian, Palestinian and Iraqi minorities. There is also a high number of Hebrew, Yiddish and Sephardic speakers since the Jewish community has a large presence in the country and whose total population is estimated at more than 50,000 individuals.[434] They are also bilingual.
There are also numerous colonies of Chinese "China (region)"), in Mexico City, Mexicali, Tijuana, Ensenada "Ensenada (Baja California)"), Rosarito "Rosarito (Baja California)"), Tecate "Tecate (Baja California)"), San Felipe "San Felipe (Baja California)") and San Quintín "San Quintín (Baja California)"); of Japanese, Koreans and Filipinos, mainly in the capital; where the language of origin and Spanish are spoken.
Except for Spanish, no other European language is considered a national language, even if its number of speakers is greater than that of any indigenous language. Therefore, they are not considered in matters such as public education, nor in the administration of justice.
It is estimated that there are between 87,000 to 100,000 people who practice Mexican Sign Language,[435] between 400~500 Yucatecan Mayan Sign Language;[436] 13 from Tijuana Sign Language.[437] and 11 from Chatina Sign Language.[438].
To date, there is no estimate of the number of people using American Sign Language, used by American and Canadian residents, as well as by children of Mexican immigrants. There are also no figures for Spanish immigrants who use Spanish sign language; nor of Guatemalan immigrants who use Guatemalan sign language.
In 2020, there were a total of 2,688,252 people with a degree of visual disability (43.5% of the total number of disabled people nationwide)[397] so it is believed that only 10% of these people read the Spanish Braille alphabet, that is, approximately 270,000. The number of English Braille readers residing in the country is unknown.
The School of Jalisco") was a proposal of those sociopolitical movements that the country demanded. Luis Barragán managed to combine the shape of the space with forms of the vernacular rural architecture of Mexico and Mediterranean countries (Spain-Morocco), integrating an impressive color that manages light and shadow in different tones and opens a look at international minimalism.
Mexican architecture is a cultural phenomenon that was born from the ideology of nationalist governments of the 20th century, which shaped the image of identity due to its color and variety of ornamental elements inherited from ancestral cultures, classical, monumental forms and, later, the incorporation of modernism and avant-garde trends of an international nature.
The cakes are sandwiches made with bread called telera "Bolillo (bread)") and, like the tacos, various foods such as ham with cheese, carne al pastor, cochinita pibil, chicken meat. It is said that they originated during the Reform War when it was necessary to find a way to distribute food among the Mexican troops.
There are many drinks typical of Mexican cuisine: fresh waters, atoles, chocolate, mezcal, tequila, wine, tepache "Tepache (alcoholic drink)"), charanda, tejuino, beer.
Antonio López de Santa Anna met with Thomas Adams to sell him a shipment of chewing gum to make tires and boots. When Adams remembered that Santa Anna loved to chew it, he added sugar and thus created the chicle empire in 1876.[476]
• - El Tepozteco.
• - Xochicalco.
• - Chalcatzingo.
• - Veryil.
• - Sayil.
• - Cave paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco.
• - Mitla.
• - Yagul.
• - Lambityeco.
• - San José Mogote.
• - Zaachila.
• - Cantona.
• - Tzintzuntzan.
• - Tamtoc.
• - Paquimé.
• - Huápoca.
• - Las Labradas "Las Labradas (Sinaloa)").
Mexican law considers historical monuments to be those built between the centuries and , that is, from the arrival of the Spanish to the century before last. Both the archaeological zones and the historical monuments are considered heritage of the Mexican nation, and are guarded by the INAH and the National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA). The original centers of several important towns in the country are part of the complex of historical monuments, such as Mexico City, Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)"), Puebla de Zaragoza, Oaxaca de Juárez and San Francisco de Campeche, all of them also recognized as Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. In addition to these large agglomerations, there are numerous buildings scattered throughout the country that are part of the INAH catalogue.[482][483].
The LMP is played in winter, so its season is shorter and it receives some of the players (Mexican and foreign) who are playing in the Major Leagues in the summer; It is made up of ten teams from Baja California, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Sinaloa and Sonora, it has importance at the national level, because the champion team represents Mexico in the largest baseball event in the region, the Caribbean Series, in which the champions of the leagues of Colombia, Panama, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Panama and Cuba also play. This tournament has been won nine times by Mexican teams.
Other recognized leagues in Mexico are the Veracruzan Winter League (LIV), whose champion team represented Mexico in the Latin American Series,[513][514] the Nayarita Winter Baseball League (LIBN), the Northern League of Mexico (LNM), the Northern League of Sonora (LNS), the La Laguna Major Baseball League (LMBL), the Chihuahua State Baseball League (LEB), the Northern League of Coahuila (LNC), the Mexican Winter League (LIM), the Peninsular Baseball League (LPB), the Merida Winter League (LMI), the Veracruzana State Baseball League (LVEB), whose champion team currently represents Mexico in the Latin American Series,[515] and the Tabasqueña Baseball League") (LTB); which are of a lower level, because the majority of their players are veterans or young people in development who in The future will come to the LMB and the LMP.
In the 2006 World Baseball Classic, the Mexican team gave the pleasant surprise by advancing first in its group, only to be eliminated in the next round by losing to Japan and South Korea, but not before eliminating the United States, the host of the event. In the 2009 edition, Mexico hosted Foro Sol in the preliminary round. In the 2017 edition, Mexico once again had the opportunity to host the preliminary round, with the Pan American Stadium "Estadio Panamericano (Guadalajara)") in Zapopan being the stage that hosted the games belonging to Group D, made up of the national teams of Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and Italy. However, his best performance was third place in the 2023 World Baseball Classic.[516].
In the Baseball World Cup, Mexico has 4 silver medals and one bronze, it hosted the event in the 1951 edition.
Around 129 Mexican players have played in Major League Baseball, notable among them Roberto Ávila (1954 American League batting champion), Fernando Valenzuela (1981 Cy Young Award in the National League), Aurelio Rodríguez, Vinicio Castilla and Adrián González "Adrián González (baseball player)").[517][518].
The second most practiced team sport in the country is basketball,[519] (written and pronounced basketball, in the country itself); However, it is the fourth most popular, after football, boxing and baseball.[511].
Currently the most important league in the country in this sport is the National Professional Basketball League (LNBP),[520] and in the women's branch the Mexican Women's Professional Basketball League (LMBPF); in addition to some regional leagues such as the Pacific Coast Basketball Circuit (CIBACOPA) and the Pacific Basketball Circuit (CIBAPAC), which, as their names indicate, are made up of teams from that area, as well as the Southeast Basketball League (LBS), which includes teams from that part of the country, the Northeast Basketball Circuit (CIBANE), which, as its name indicates, is made up of teams from that region, the Premier Basketball League (LPB) and the Chihuahua State Basketball League (LBE), both based in the state of Chihuahua. These regional leagues participate in the rest months of the LNBP which, by the way, will once again have competition before the imminent return of the Mexican Basketball Circuit (CIMEBA), which was, for a long time, the main professional basketball league in Mexico.
The greatest international success for this sport in Mexico was the bronze medal of the national team in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Tournament.
Six Mexicans have played in the NBA: Horacio Llamas, Eduardo Nájera, Gustavo Ayón, Jorge Gutiérrez "Jorge Gutiérrez (basketball player)"), Juan Toscano-Anderson and Jaime Jáquez Jr..[521].
In 2013, the Mexican Volleyball League (LMV) was formed with the endorsement of the Mexican Volleyball Federation (FMVB), which came into force in 2014 in both branches, giving rise to the Mexican Men's Volleyball League (LMVV) and the Mexican Women's Volleyball League (LMVF). This was with the aim of both circuits being the basis for integrating the national teams for the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic cycle, since teams were formed from various parts of the country in order to observe them. However, this was not the first attempt at a professional volleyball league in Mexico, since previously the Premier Volleyball League (LPV) was also developed in both branches.[522] The greatest successes of Mexican volleyball were the gold and silver medals in the women's and men's branches respectively at the 1955 Pan American Games.[523].
In 2016, the Professional American Football League (LFA) was formed, with the support of the Mexican American Football Federation (FMFA), which came into force in February of that year with 4 teams, 3 from Mexico City and 1 from the State of Mexico, with its headquarters at the Jesús Martínez "Palillo" Stadium in the Ciudad Deportiva de La Magdalena Mixiuhca.[524][525] Currently it is made up of ten teams, two of them from Mexico City, two from Chihuahua, and one from the State of Mexico, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Puebla, Jalisco and Querétaro.[526][527][528] In addition, in 2018 the Mexican American Football League (FAM) was founded, which is currently made up of five teams from the entities of Chihuahua, Mexico City, State of Mexico, Querétaro.[529].
In parallel, there is the National American Football Student Organization, which since 1930 and under different names has organized national championships of this sport.
Fourteen Mexicans have played in the NFL.[530].
The Mexican Elite Hockey League (LMEH) was inaugurated on October 2, 2010 with the objective of establishing Mexican ice hockey at a high international level. This was achieved with the joint participation of private investment and the professional hockey teams already existing in the country.[531] The league was made up of four teams, all of them from Mexico City, however it has not been resumed after the break due to the covid-19 pandemic.[532].
Basque pelota in Mexico has been practiced since approximately 1895, and is represented by the Mexican Frontón Federation, A.C. It is currently made up of 17 specialties with international participation, and 26 are practiced in the country in total.
Suffice it to say that in Mexico, in 1916, a new specialty emerged within the ball, frontenis. Since its inception, Mexican representations have won in all editions of the 19 World Championships that have been held to date, except Havana 1990.
Currently there is a development whose structure has at its base two children's and three youth categories, made up of athletes between 8 and 21 years old. A National Championship is held for each specialty and category that is divided into three phases, thus achieving a total of 120 annual events, which also contemplates the development of the first force, in some second and third forces, in addition to the veterans, there is a classification system by score which is firmly supported to form the national selections and preselections.
The Mexican Federation of Fronton, A. C. contemplates two modalities: doubles and singles for the specialties of basket punta (men), Cuban fronton (men), hand fronton with hard ball on three walls and in ratchet (men), short paddle (men), paddle with leather ball in three walls and in ratchet (men), paddle with rubber ball in three walls (men) and in ratchet (women and men); as well as frontenis (women's and men's).
Mexico City has the most fields for playing Basque pelota in the world.[533].
It is the sporting discipline that has awarded the most medals and titles in world championships (1952-2022) to Mexican sport with a total of 133 medals (53 gold, 44 silver and 36 bronze), half of the gold metals come from the discipline created in Mexico: frontenis. of the specialty. It was an exhibition discipline at the 1968 Mexico Olympic Games and the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games. On those occasions Mexico won 2 gold and 3 bronze medals in 1968, as well as 3 gold, 2 silver and 2 bronze medals in 1992.
Mexico has a long tradition in combat sports. Both Tarahumara fighting and Chupa Porrazo are two of the most popular martial arts of national origin.
Mixed martial arts –or MMA for its acronym in English– has grown the most in the country in recent years, with numerous fighters in different organizations. Three Mexicans became world champions in the largest MMA company, Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC): Brandon Moreno,[535] Alexa Grasso[536] and Yair Rodríguez as interim monarch.[537] Other fighters born on Mexican soil who have been champions in minor promotions were Jessica Aguilar in WSOF[538] and Irwin Rivera in Titan Fighting Championship.[539] Today, Mexico is the country Spanish speaker with the largest number of representatives in the UFC.[540].
Boxing, historically, has been the combat sport that has enjoyed the most good reputation and popularity in the Republic. Several Mexican boxers have been world champions" and Olympic medalists, such as Salvador «Sal» Sánchez "Salvador Sánchez (boxer)"), Julio César Chávez, José Luis Ramírez"), Carlos Zárate, Rubén Olivares, Lauro Salas, Érik «el Terrible» Morales, among others. Today in boxing there are boxers such as Saúl "El Canelo" Álvarez, Julio César Chávez Jr. or Isaac "Pitbull" Cruz.[541].
Professional wrestling has a large following, even forming part of national popular culture. Its history is full of great myths such as El Santo, Blue Demon or Mil Máscaras, the so-called "Big Three" of Mexican wrestling;[542][543][544] and more recently Sin Cara "Místico (wrestler)") and Alberto Del Rio, the latter even becoming WWE world champion on four occasions. Although lately the main wrestling companies have left aside the sporting aspect to turn it into a spectacle, hence its non-consideration as a real "combat sport" given its staged nature, it is no less attractive to the public.[545].
Taekwondo, as mentioned before, is the second most practiced sport in Mexico and the first in terms of combat. Being one of the greatest exponents at the international level, Mexicans have had important participations internationally in the Olympic Games with 7 medals (two gold, two silver and three bronze), of which three were won by María del Rosario Espinoza. In the case of the Pan American Games, up to 31 medals have been achieved; seventeen of gold, ten of silver and fourteen of bronze.[546].
To a lesser extent, judo, karate and kickboxing have been gaining strength among Mexican society.
Among the sports that are practiced professionally in Mexico are motorsports whose main stage is the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. Likewise, in recent years, official dates have been held within the official calendar of the World Rally Championship, which is the most important automobile competition in the Rally category in the world and has the approval of the FIA (International Automobile Federation by its French acronym), and takes place in the cities of León de los Aldamas, Silao de la Victoria and Guanajuato, in the state of Guanajuato. This competition each year has managed to attract more fans of the category from the country and the world in addition to generating important economic benefits for the state.
Since 2015, the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez has hosted a Formula 1 race. Six Mexican drivers have competed in this category: Ricardo Rodríguez de la Vega, Pedro Rodríguez de la Vega, Moisés Solana Arciniega, Héctor Rebaque, Sergio Pérez and Esteban Gutiérrez "Esteban Gutiérrez (pilot)"); Sergio Pérez stands out mainly, who finished as runner-up in the top category in the 2023 season.[547].
Bullfighting is also very popular, especially in the center of the country, with the most important plaza being: The Monumental Plaza de Toros de México, known as Plaza México.
Other sports practiced in Mexico include horse racing, which takes place at the Hipódromo de las Américas in Mexico City as its main venue, and greyhound racing "Lebreles (cynology)", at the Agua Caliente Galgódromo in Tijuana and in Ciudad Juárez).
Mexico had its first participation in Olympic skiing at the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympic Games, participating with the German-born Mexican Hubertus Von Hohenlohe, in the alpine skiing category.[548] The few Mexicans who have competed in the Winter Olympic Games have never won a medal. Skiing in Mexico is considered an elite sport, very few Mexicans practice winter sports due to the lack of diffusion and facilities within the territory of that country. Ice hockey and ice skating have begun to be spread throughout the national territory, the first schools and facilities have been forming, at the moment there are only temporary demonstrations with quite young Mexican athletes who venture into these sports.
Mexico has hosted the World Paddle Championship in 2002, in Mexico City and in 2010, in Cancun. Mexico also hosted the VIII World Polo Championship 2008.
The rest of the Mexican Olympic champions complete it: Ricardo Delgado Nogales, Antonio Roldán (both in boxing in Mexico 1968), Felipe Muñoz (swimming in 1968), Daniel Bautista (walking in Montreal 1976), Raúl González (walking in Los Angeles 1984), Soraya Jiménez (weightlifting in Sydney 2000), Guillermo Pérez (taekwondo in Beijing 2008) and the under-23 football team (London 2012).
Also worth noting are the other eight multi-Olympic medalists (along with Mariles, Capilla and Espinoza): Rubén Uriza, Raúl González, Germán Sánchez "Germán Sánchez (diver)"), Paola Espinosa, Osmar Olvera, Alejandra Orozco Loza, Joaquín Pérez de las Heras and Alejandra Valencia, all with two medals.
In the rest of the international scene, two significant data stand out: first, the eighteen sports disciplines where at least one Mexican competitor won the world championship; highlighting by number the world boxing champions") and Basque pelota. And second, the twelve occasions in which a Mexican athlete established a world record, especially in race walking.
On the other hand, Mexico has hosted the 1970 Soccer World Cup and also the 1986 Soccer World Cup. The latter had been awarded to Colombia, which could not fulfill the commitment. In the first, the representative of Brazil was crowned champion, who won the Jules Rimet Cup; In 1986, the champion was Argentina. The country will host the tournament again, this time shared with the United States and Canada, at the 2026 Soccer World Cup. Mexico has also hosted the Pan American Games on three occasions: 1955 and 1975 in Mexico City and in 2011 in Guadalajara; of the Central American and Caribbean Games, in four events: 1926, 1954 and 1990 in Mexico City and in 2014 in Veracruz; and the 1979 Universiade"), also in the country's capital; fulfilling notable participations in all of them. To all of the above are added another forty-seven international competitions received throughout history, including multi-sport events or final competitions of a discipline.
Mexico was the first country to organize the Olympic Games (1968) and a World Football Championship (1970) in a period of two years (Later, Germany would do so: the 1972 Olympic Games and the 1974 World Cup; the United States: the 1994 World Cup and the 1996 Olympic Games; and Brazil: the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games).
The Winter Olympic editions where Mexico has been present are St. Moritz 1928, Sarajevo 1984, Calgary 1988, Albertville 1992, Lillehammer 1994, Salt Lake City 2002, and in all since 2010; this in the disciplines of Alpine Skiing, Bobsleigh, Cross-Country Skiing, Figure Skating on Ice and Skeleton.
Mexico has been present in the summer Paralympic Games since the Heidelberg 1972 edition; and in winter in Turin 2006 and Vancouver 2010. In the summer versions it has a balance of 328 medals (107 gold, 98 silver and 123 bronze). He has attended other sports events such as the Youth Olympic Games, in all summer editions since Singapore 2010 and winter editions in Innsbruck 2012, resulting in 33 medals (4 gold, 11 silver and 18 bronze). He has also attended several editions of the Chess Olympics.
In the Pan American Games, Mexican delegations have participated in the 19 editions held and have accumulated a total of 1,148 medals: 258 gold, 325 silver and 565 bronze. After Santiago 2023, it is in sixth place in the history of the medal table of 42 participating committees, only below the United States, Cuba, Canada, Brazil and Argentina.[550].
In the Central American and Caribbean Games, Mexican delegations have participated in the 24 editions held and accumulate a total of 4,212 medals: 1,509 gold, 1,443 silver and 1,279 bronze. After San Salvador 2023, it is in second historical place in the medal table of 37 participating committees, only below Cuba.[551].
• - Portal:Mexico. Content related to Mexico.
The basis of the New Spain economy was mining. The discovery of deposits, notably in Zacatecas and Guanajuato, gradually allowed New Spain to occupy a privileged position. Mining allowed the development of other associated activities, especially workshops and agriculture, which turned the regions of Bajío "Bajío (Mexico)") and the valleys of Mexico and Puebla into prosperous agricultural regions and incipient industrial activity.[103] Minerals were minted exclusively at the Royal Mint of Mexico; The 8 Real became, due to its amount, high grade and quality, the currency preferably used in the international transactions of the Empire.[104].
In the agricultural sector, the socioeconomic organization started from a system that replaced the slavery of the subject peoples, with a semi-feudal method of encomiendas, through which the explorers received the concession of the conquered lands in the name of the king, to exploit and inhabit them, with the guarantee of employing the indigenous peoples in it, if their evangelization was assured as a condition; This servitude allowed them, unlike African slaves, to access services in the cities and organize communities in the peripheries; The few towns that managed to allocate lands for exploitation deposited them in a system of communal property, whose owner most of the time was the nearest ecclesiastical authority.[105][106].
The viceroyalty's trade was carried out through two ports: Veracruz (Gulf of Mexico) and Acapulco (Pacific Ocean). The Nao de China arrived at the latter, transporting products from the Philippines to New Spain and from there they were transported by land, arriving at Puebla, where the oriental influence is notable in its crafts and in its traditions such as that of the "china poblana", to Mexico City and Veracruz from where it was sent to Spain or to the ports of the Atlantic. Trade contributed to the flourishing of these ports, Mexico City and the intermediate regions. It should be noted that until the end of the century, with the introduction of the Bourbon reforms, trade between the Spanish viceroyalties was not permitted.[107] In general the level of prosperity was the highest in America, especially the residents of Mexico City, Puebla de los Ángeles, Villa Rica de la Veracruz, Acapulco, Zacatecas "Zacatecas (Zacatecas)") and Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)").[108].
The viceroyalty was the basis of the cultural and racial mosaic of current Mexico. Within it, indigenous and European cultures merged over the course of 300 years. Various cultural elements such as languages, cult rites, artistic expressions, traditions, uses, customs, cuisines, festivities, commercial practices, worldviews, values and clothing experienced complex processes of syncretism, which even varied from region to region. Likewise, there was a large amount of racial mixtures.[105][106] Figures such as Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Juan Ruiz de Alarcón stand out as their most notable contributors to New Spain literature, as well as Manuel Tolsá in architecture. Regarding financial institutions, Pedro Romero de Terreros stood out, founder of the Sacro y Real Monte de Piedad de Ánimas, predecessor of the National Monte de Piedad (also called Monte Pío), the genesis of microcredit worldwide. Also noteworthy are the chemical discoveries of Andrés Manuel del Río, discoverer of erythronium, later renamed vanadium, in the periodic table of chemical elements.[109] During the colonial period, many of the traditions and institutions were developed that have evolved, in accordance with the character of the Mexican people, into many of the Mexican characteristics of today.
As a major element of social cohesion, the population of New Spain professed the Catholic religion for the most part, the Holy Inquisition - which sought the suppression of heresy and apostasy - had established its offices in the territory. "neophytes" in the faith.[111].
New Spanish society was governed by a caste system, which established a social stratification, delimiting educational or hospital institutions, urban or rural areas to inhabit, public and ecclesiastical positions, as well as the professions and trades that each ethnic group could access; In this pyramidal organization the head was the peninsular Spaniards, followed, in that order, by the Creoles, mestizos, indigenous people, Afro-descendants and lastly the rest of the castes that emerged from the mixture of the first groups. Despite the fact that as a general rule an integration policy was proposed, the political reality that imposed the granting of important positions to the Spanish bureaucracy (especially since the arrival of the Bourbons, who advocated the French model of colonization, against which the criollos or children of Spaniards born in Mexico began to resent). In addition, divisions as serious as castes were created in Yucatán.[105][106].
On August 19, 1811, the first deliberative body that sought to regulate the insurgent movement and establish an autonomous government was established, the Supreme Governmental Board of America in Zitácuaro, directed by Ignacio López Rayón, and which published the first insurgent document; This institution names José María Morelos y Pavón as the new leader of the insurgency; He had already begun his participation since he was entrusted by Hidalgo to begin the uprising in the south, emphasizing the Pacific coast, especially in the capture of Acapulco, the main New Spain port. The insurgent movement was strengthened in the center of New Spain under the command of Morelos, who stood out for his ability as a military strategist; supported by Hermenegildo Galeana, Mariano Matamoros and Nicolás Bravo, he achieved important triumphs such as the Siege of Cuautla, the taking of Oaxaca "Toma de Oaxaca (1812)") and the siege of Acapulco "Siege of Acapulco (1813)"). The war became widespread in the center and south of the viceroyalty, attracting sectors of the Creole population that actively collaborated with the movement, such as Leona Vicario and Andrés Quintana Roo. The deepening and radicalization of the insurgent movement led to the call, by Morelos (after the disappearance of the Zitácuaro Junta) of a national assembly to achieve absolute independence. On September 13, 1813, the Congress of Anáhuac, meeting in Chilpancingo, promulgated the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America and gave the country its first constitution, promulgated in Apatzingán in 1814. However, the end of the war in Europe allowed the viceregal authorities to reinforce themselves to counteract the insurgent advances, before which Morelos was captured and shot in 1815.[114][114].
Starting in 1815, the independentistas entered into a defensive and fragmented war.[115] The campaign of Pedro Moreno "Pedro Moreno (leader)") and Francisco Xavier Mina in 1817 advanced rapidly from Tamaulipas towards central New Spain, but was ultimately defeated. The main sources of popular resistance are led by Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria. The pardon offered by Viceroy Apodaca encouraged the desertion of many insurgents. The rehabilitation of the Constitution of Cádiz in 1820 affected the New Spain elite, who organized in the La Profesa Conspiracy began a process to separate from Spain, however they considered that to do so it was necessary to defeat the popular independence revolts, so they appointed the royalist military man Agustín de Iturbide in charge of defeating the last insurgents. However, Iturbide, who in addition to being aware of the difficulty of defeating the rebels in his territory, intends to turn around the claims of La Profesa to create his own project, decides to agree with the insurgents on the independence of the viceroyalty. On February 10, 1821, after agreeing to the union of both movements with Vicente Guerrero, they promulgated the Plan of Iguala on February 24, 1821 to define the details of the end of the struggle; The advance of the so-called Trigarante Army could not be contained by the diminished royalist forces.[116] When Juan O'Donojú - the last ruler appointed by the metropolis - arrived in New Spain, he signed the Treaties of Córdoba on August 24 of the same year, recognizing the independence of the new country. On September 27, 1821, the tri-garant army entered Mexico City and the next day in the old Viceregal Palace "Palacio Nacional (Mexico)") the Act of Independence of the Mexican Empire was signed.[117][118][119].
The questioned election of 1988 produced the arrival of Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988-1994) to the government; In this six-year term, Mexico experienced an economic rebound based on the privatization of state companies and the opening to foreign investment. In 1994, when NAFTA came into force, the Zapatista uprising and the assassinations of the official candidate for the presidency of the republic Luis Donaldo Colosio and that of Senator José Francisco Ruiz Massieu shook the political scene in Mexico. The economy entered a recession known as the "December error", considered the first crisis of globalization.[150].
The Zapatista Army of National Liberation came to light in the state of Chiapas on January 1, 1994, when a group of armed indigenous people occupied several municipal seats on the same day that the North American Free Trade Agreement came into force, destabilizing the Mexican political system and questioning its promises of modernity. Their goal was the overthrow of the elected president and the establishment of a participatory democracy. After the military repression of which his revolution was subjected, he decided to undertake political activity while maintaining a radical leftist character. Its command is called the Clandestine Revolutionary Indigenous Committee-General Command (CCRI-CG) of the EZLN.[151] On December 22, 1997, 45 Tsotsile indigenous people were murdered while praying in a church in the community of Acteal, in the state of Chiapas. Those directly responsible for the massacre were paramilitary groups opposed to the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN).
They are also empowered to coordinate their organization with those municipalities with which it constitutes, according to the INEGI categorization, a metropolitan area.
The country has 80 embassies, 67 consulates, 7 Permanent Missions to international organizations in the world and 3 Liaison Offices. Mexico maintains a significant global presence with more than 150 diplomatic representations, including 50 consulates in the United States (no other country in the world has a similar number in a single host nation). Meanwhile, in the national territory, there are 87 embassies, 7 representative offices and 66 consulates. Furthermore, both in the country and abroad there are representations from countries that do not have an embassy in Mexico and vice versa.[214][215][216][217].
• - Mexican Air Force: 30,516 elements (2025).[224] It is the air branch in the Mexican Armed Forces and depends on the Secretariat of National Defense "Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional (Mexico)"). It is responsible for the defense of airspace, independence and national sovereignty, guaranteeing internal security, implementing the DN-III-E Plan in the event of disasters and carrying out civic actions and social works that tend to progress the country.
Only on two occasions in history have any of the branches of the Mexican Armed Forces participated in war actions outside national territory in an external conflict. The navy in the Battle of Mariel on February 10, 1828, when a squadron of three brigs, the Hermon, the Bravo and the Guerrero, tried to occupy the aforementioned port of Cuba, in the context of the Spanish reconquest attempts; The operation had the objective of avoiding the use of the then general captaincy as a Spanish base to attack Mexico.[226] And the air force, when Squadron 201 was established as the Mexican Expeditionary Air Force, and acted in combat during the Battle of Luzon, within the framework of the Second World War.[227].
The average temperature for the country is about 19 °C. However, Mexico City presents its extreme averages in the months of January (12 °C) and July (16.1 °C). In contrast to Ciudad Juárez, Mexicali, Culiacán, San Luis Potosí "San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí)"), Hermosillo, Chihuahua, Torreón "Torreón (Coahuila de Zaragoza)"), Saltillo and Monterrey where the temperatures are really extreme.[4].
• - Bioclimatic landscapes of Mexico.
• - Tropical jungle,
Lacandona Jungle, Chiapas.
• - Dry jungle,
Tamasopo, San Luis Potosí.
• - Tropical savanna,
Bacalar, Quintana Roo.
• - Wetland,
Centla Swamps, Tabasco.
• - Oasis,
Mulegé "Mulegé (Baja California Sur)"), Baja California Sur.
• - Thicket,
Sierra de Órganos, Zacatecas.
• - Desert without rain,
Cataviñá, Baja California.
• - Desert with dunes,
Samalayuca, Chihuahua.
• - Desert with dunes,
Great Altar Desert, Sonora.
• - Coniferous forest,
Mexiquillo, Durango.
• - Subtropical forest,
Miahuatlán, Oaxaca.
• - Sub-humid plateau,
Apan, Hidalgo.
• - Boreal forest,
Sierra de Juárez "Sierra de Juárez (Baja California)"), Baja California.
• - Alpine,
Nevado de Toluca, State of Mexico.
• - Caves,
Cacahuamilpa, Guerrero.
Avocado (avocado)
• - Christmas Eve.
• - Cempasuchil.
• - Dahlia.
• - Prickly pear.
• - Golden barrel.
• - Cardón.
• - Saguaro.
• - Candel.
• - Peyote.
• - Tejocote.
• - Tule (ahuehuete, sabino).
• - Ceiba.
• - Mahogany.
• - Ponderosa pine.
• - Mesquite.
• - Tomato (tomato).
• - Chicle (sapodilla).
• - Corn.
• - Agave.
• - Cocoa.
• - Chili.
• - Monterrey
New León.
• - Puerto Vallarta
Jalisco.
• - Acapulco
Warrior.
• - Nuevo Vallarta
Nayarit.
• - Mazatlán
Sinaloa.
• - Puebla
Puebla.
• - *Santiago de Querétaro
Querétaro*.
• - Mérida "Mérida (Yucatán)")
Yucatan.
• - Veracruz
Veracruz.
• - Ixtapa
Warrior.
• - San Luis Potosí "San Luis Potosí (San Luis Potosí)")
San Luis Potosí.
• - Ciudad Juárez
Chihuahua.
• - León "León (Mexico)")
Guanajuato.
• - Tijuana
Baja California.
• - Aguascalientes "Aguascalientes (Mexico)")
Aguascalientes.
• - Oaxaca de Juárez
Oaxaca.
• - Huatulco
Oaxaca.
• - Cozumel
Quintana Roo.
• - Villahermosa "Villahermosa (Tabasco)")
Tabasco.
• - Manzanillo "Manzanillo (Colima)")
Colima.
• - Chihuahua "Chihuahua (Chihuahua)")
Chihuahua.
• - Morelia
Michoacán.
• - Zacatecas "Zacatecas (Zacatecas)")
Zacatecas.
• - Toluca de Lerdo
State of Mexico.
• - Tuxtla Gutiérrez
Chiapas.
• - Hermosillo
Sound.
• - Mexicali
Baja California.
• - La Paz "La Paz (Baja California Sur)")
Baja California Sur.
• - City of Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)")
Guanajuato.
• - San Cristóbal de Las Casas
Chiapas.
In the current decade, the return of passenger trains has been proposed, a means of transportation and communication that has been present in the country since the time of the Porfiriato and that fell into disuse since their privatization during the government of Ernesto Zedillo. The plan would consist of the use of existing tracks and their expansion to create eleven lines: Pacific Train, with an extension of 4,700 kilometers (from Chiapas to Baja California); El Chepe (673 kilometers, from Sinaloa to Chihuahua); Western Train (2250 kilometers, from Guerrero to Chihuahua); Eastern Train (2000 kilometers, from Guerrero to Coahuila and Nuevo León); Transversal Train (1200 kilometers, from Sinaloa to Tamaulipas); Gulf Train (1650 kilometers, from Tabasco to Tamaulipas); Tren del Bajío (1500 kilometers, from Veracruz to Jalisco covering the west of the country); Train of the Center (1300 kilometers, from Veracruz to Jalisco, covering the center of the country); Tehuantepec Isthmus Train (300 kilometers); Oaxaca Train (750 kilometers) and as the project began, the 1800 kilometer Mayan Train. The plan projected for the year 2050 began with works to adapt or modernize existing roads, especially in suburban areas.[366].
Like the rest of the transportation systems, airports and seaports were also privatized during the six-year term of Carlos Salinas de Gortari. In 2022, it was the third country with the most landing strips worldwide, only after the United States and Brazil, having 1,714 of these structures.[367] Among the airports, the most important due to the level of people who use them and air traffic, are the Mexico City International Airport and the Cancún International Airport. The first of them is going through serious saturation problems, and the construction of the New International Airport of Mexico City in the federal zone of Lake Texcoco was proposed in 2016. However, in 2018 after a 10% progress in the work and a failed national consultation, in addition to political and environmental issues, President Andrés Manuel López Obrador canceled the work and moved the project to the Santa Lucía air base in Zumpango, State of Mexico five days after being sworn in as president of Mexico. The construction of the Felipe Ángeles International Airport (AIFA) began on October 17, 2019. President Andrés Manuel López Obrador announced a year before that construction would be in charge of the Secretariat of National Defense. The new commercial airport would serve the metropolitan area of the Valley of Mexico. It was inaugurated on March 21, 2022 by the president, and named in honor of the hero of the Mexican Revolution.[368][369][370][371].
Like railways, most marine traffic is freight. Mexico has 108 ports, fifty-four in the Gulf and the same number in the Pacific. The most important are Veracruz, on the Atlantic coast, and Manzanillo "Manzanillo (Colima)"), in the state of Colima on the Pacific coast.
Regarding the use of new communication technologies (Internet), the number of users in Mexico is estimated at 98,800,000 (ninety-eight million, eight hundred thousand) users in 2022, around 76% of the population. In order to guarantee free internet access, the Federal Electricity Commission created a division in charge of building the fiber optic infrastructure necessary to support said plan. In the recent five years, 10,979 antennas were installed to provide network access to schools, parks, health centers and other public places.[372][373][374].
• - **«a+» is a network of stations with a local focus and programming from TV Azteca. However, by sharing common programming and identity, it is considered a national network.
• - ***Televisa operates a network of local stations known as Televisa Regional, which includes some stations from the “NU9VE” network.
• - Even though the majority of these channels are retransmitted by the SPR network of stations, they do not achieve national coverage; however, they are considered national as they are produced by federal organizations, and their retransmission by pay TV systems is mandatory.[383].
There are 1,017 amplitude modulated radio stations in Mexico, 814 frequency modulated radio stations and 10 shortwave radio stations.[372][373] The states with the most stations are: Sonora and Oaxaca (they have up to 100 stations throughout the state). The state with the fewest radio stations is Tlaxcala (only six).
In some cities in Mexico there are radio groups that occupy all the frequencies for their stations, such as in Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey. The three cities of Baja California (Ensenada, Mexicali and Tijuana) also have their respective stations that are on all frequencies.
Radio in Mexico is diverse in content, but it has been documented that this industry is dominated by approximately seven families that operate radio groups. Which are:[384][385].
• - ACIR Group: which has a news format called "Information that serves", a romantic format called "Amor" and a format that transmits music in English called "Mix", among others.
• - Grupo Radiorama: is a group that has more than 300 radio stations in Mexico in which it made alliances with Grupo Formula, Televisa Radio and Radio S.A. to link their chains to the entire republic.
• - Radiopolis Group "Radiopolis (Mexico)"): previously known as Televisa Radio, XEW stands out, its motto is: «the voice of Latin America». It is the concessionaire of Ke Buena, Los 40 Principales México and W Radio.
• - MVS Radio: is the concessionaire of a channel that has coverage of up to 50 cities in Mexico, the channel is "Exa FM" (Formerly FM Globo) and it also has another format that has existed over the years. This network was known as "Stereorey", but in 2002 it was already known as "Best FM" and in 2004, several stations already had another format called "La Mejor FM". They are currently in 23 cities in Mexico, but they have had bad results with the "La mejor" chain.
• - Grupo Formula: has two formats that transmit news throughout Mexico and the United States, its announcers are those who work on television.
• - Grupo Radio Centro: this radio group is the concessionaire of 11 radio stations in Mexico City, but links to 130 stations throughout Mexico to transmit the newscast that they broadcast at 1 in the afternoon, among others.
• - Mexican Radio Institute: it is the concessionaire of the first Mexican radio station, which was
In Mexico, five mobile telephone operators operate, with their respective customer service centers, among which are:
• - Telcel: With the company name Radio Móvil DIPSA, it is a company founded in June 1926 as a distributor of telephone directories. It changed its industry by operating mobile telephony in 1977. It is owned by América Móvil, in turn belonging to Grupo Carso.
• - AT&T Mexico: It was founded in 1987 as Iusacell, originally belonging to Grupo IUSA. Due to the December error that devalued the Mexican peso, Iusacell suffered a huge debt for its postpaid system. It was purchased in 2001 by Vodafone and its subsidiary Verizon Communications. It was owned by Grupo Salinas until 2014 when it was sold to the American company AT&T.
• - Unefón: Company founded in 1998 by Ricardo Salinas Pliego that operated independently until 2006, belonging to Grupo Saba. In 2007, it began to use the Iusacell network. Thanks to this, they share the same network and have intercompatible telephone devices. In essence, Iusacell and Unefón were the same company. After the transition of the former to become AT&T México, Unefón continues to operate as the prepaid brand of the American firm.
• - Movistar México: Company founded in 2000, after being formed through the merger of Cedetel, BajaCel, Norcel, Movitel and Pegaso PCS. It belongs to Grupo Telefónica. Its facilities are located in Monterrey, Nuevo León.
• - Virgin Mobile México: It is a virtual mobile operator that offers mobile telephone services under the Virgin Mobile brand in Mexico. It is part of the Virgin Group conglomerate, owned by British tycoon Sir Richard Branson. It began operations in June 2014.
In Mexico there are also 2,576,213 Afro-descendants (2 out of every 100 inhabitants) according to the 2020 Population and Housing Census of the INEGI, the majority in communities on the Costa Chica of Guerrero "Costa Chica (Guerrero)") and Oaxaca "Costa Chica (Oaxaca)").[397].
A study by the National Laboratory of Genomics for Biodiversity indicated that up to a third of the people sampled from the state of Guerrero had significantly more Asian ancestry than the majority of Mexicans, mainly Filipinos or Indonesians.[401].
In certain regions, the profession of a faith other than Catholic is seen as a threat to community unity. It is argued that the Catholic religion is part of the ethnic identity, and that Protestants are not willing to participate in traditional uses and customs (tequio or community work, participation in patron saint festivities and similar issues). The Protestants' refusal is due to the fact that their religious beliefs do not allow them to participate in the worship of images. In extreme cases, tension between Catholics and Protestants has led to the expulsion or even murder of Protestants in several towns. The best-known cases are those of San Juan Chamula, in Chiapas,[421][422] and San Nicolás, in Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo.[423].
A similar argument was presented by a committee of anthropologists to request the government of the Republic to expel the Summer Linguistics Institute (ILV), in 1979, which was accused of promoting the division of indigenous peoples by translating the Bible into vernacular languages and evangelizing in a Protestant creed that threatened the integrity of popular cultures. The Mexican government heeded the call of the anthropologists and canceled the agreement it had signed with the SIL. Conflicts have also occurred in other areas of social life. For example, since Jehovah's Witnesses are prohibited from honoring national symbols (something that is done every Monday in public schools in Mexico), children who have been educated in that religion were expelled from public schools. These types of problems are only resolved with the intervention of the National Human Rights Commission, and not always with favorable results for children.
There are some religious minorities such as practitioners of the Muslim faith with constant growth, estimated at around 8,000 believers from countries such as Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Morocco, Chile and Spain.[397] The first mosque in Mexico was built in the city of Torreón, Coahuila, under the sponsorship of a Lebanese businessman.[424].
A strong qualitative rather than quantitative presence of believers of the Jewish religion is also recognized, with an estimated population of 58,876 individuals, especially in the capital and its metropolitan area (in Polanco "Polanco (Mexico)"), Tecamachalco "Tecamachalco (State of Mexico)"), Interlomas, Santa Fe "Santa Fe (Mexico City)"), Satélite "Ciudad Satélite (Mexico)") and in the center historical), in large urban centers such as Guadalajara, Monterrey and in some coastal port areas such as Veracruz and Cancún.[397].
In the north of the Republic there are somewhat hermetic Mormon communities in states such as Chihuahua and Puebla; There is also a strong presence of Mennonites, whose greatest concentration is in Ciudad Cuauhtémoc, Chihuahua "Ciudad Cuauhtémoc (Chihuahua)"), although there are also important communities in other cities in the north and southeast of the Republic, as well as in the country's capital.
In many parts of the country but more frequently in cities, there are practitioners of religious denominations other than the traditional variants of Christianity, such as Buddhism (Zen and Tibetan), Hinduism, Sikhism, Sufi Islam, Hare Krishna, Unitarian Universalism, Rastafarianism, pranic healing movements, etc.
The impact of the Catholic religion in Mexico has also caused a fusion of elements. Beyond churches and religious denominations, a phenomenon persists in Mexico that some anthropologists and sociologists call popular religion, that is, religion as it is practiced and understood by the people. In Mexico, one of the religious components of everyday life is the Catholic religion, to which elements of other beliefs have been adhered to, whether of pre-Hispanic, African or Asian origin. In general, “popular religiosity” is viewed negatively by institutionally structured religions. One of the most exemplary cases of popular religiosity is the cult of Santa Muerte. The Catholic hierarchy insists on classifying it as a "satanic cult", however, most of the people who profess this cult declare themselves Catholic believers, and consider that there is no contradiction between the tributes they pay to the White Girl and the adoration of God. Other examples are the representations of the Passion of Christ and the celebration of the Day of the Dead, which are carried out within the framework of the Catholic Christian imagination, but under a very particular reinterpretation of its protagonists.
There is a significant presence of bilingual Spaniards in Mexican territory, this occurred in the context of the Spanish civil war and the consequent republican exile under the government of former president Lázaro Cárdenas del Río; The linguistic legacy of this and migrations after the reestablishment of relations in 1979, allowed the settlement of groups with languages of the historical communities of the Spanish people, highlighting Catalan, Basque and Galician.[432][433].
The number of Arabic speakers is estimated to be more than ten thousand, almost all of them from Lebanon and the majority bilingual. There are also Syrian, Moroccan, Egyptian, Algerian, Palestinian and Iraqi minorities. There is also a high number of Hebrew, Yiddish and Sephardic speakers since the Jewish community has a large presence in the country and whose total population is estimated at more than 50,000 individuals.[434] They are also bilingual.
There are also numerous colonies of Chinese "China (region)"), in Mexico City, Mexicali, Tijuana, Ensenada "Ensenada (Baja California)"), Rosarito "Rosarito (Baja California)"), Tecate "Tecate (Baja California)"), San Felipe "San Felipe (Baja California)") and San Quintín "San Quintín (Baja California)"); of Japanese, Koreans and Filipinos, mainly in the capital; where the language of origin and Spanish are spoken.
Except for Spanish, no other European language is considered a national language, even if its number of speakers is greater than that of any indigenous language. Therefore, they are not considered in matters such as public education, nor in the administration of justice.
It is estimated that there are between 87,000 to 100,000 people who practice Mexican Sign Language,[435] between 400~500 Yucatecan Mayan Sign Language;[436] 13 from Tijuana Sign Language.[437] and 11 from Chatina Sign Language.[438].
To date, there is no estimate of the number of people using American Sign Language, used by American and Canadian residents, as well as by children of Mexican immigrants. There are also no figures for Spanish immigrants who use Spanish sign language; nor of Guatemalan immigrants who use Guatemalan sign language.
In 2020, there were a total of 2,688,252 people with a degree of visual disability (43.5% of the total number of disabled people nationwide)[397] so it is believed that only 10% of these people read the Spanish Braille alphabet, that is, approximately 270,000. The number of English Braille readers residing in the country is unknown.
The School of Jalisco") was a proposal of those sociopolitical movements that the country demanded. Luis Barragán managed to combine the shape of the space with forms of the vernacular rural architecture of Mexico and Mediterranean countries (Spain-Morocco), integrating an impressive color that manages light and shadow in different tones and opens a look at international minimalism.
Mexican architecture is a cultural phenomenon that was born from the ideology of nationalist governments of the 20th century, which shaped the image of identity due to its color and variety of ornamental elements inherited from ancestral cultures, classical, monumental forms and, later, the incorporation of modernism and avant-garde trends of an international nature.
The cakes are sandwiches made with bread called telera "Bolillo (bread)") and, like the tacos, various foods such as ham with cheese, carne al pastor, cochinita pibil, chicken meat. It is said that they originated during the Reform War when it was necessary to find a way to distribute food among the Mexican troops.
There are many drinks typical of Mexican cuisine: fresh waters, atoles, chocolate, mezcal, tequila, wine, tepache "Tepache (alcoholic drink)"), charanda, tejuino, beer.
Antonio López de Santa Anna met with Thomas Adams to sell him a shipment of chewing gum to make tires and boots. When Adams remembered that Santa Anna loved to chew it, he added sugar and thus created the chicle empire in 1876.[476]
• - El Tepozteco.
• - Xochicalco.
• - Chalcatzingo.
• - Veryil.
• - Sayil.
• - Cave paintings of the Sierra de San Francisco.
• - Mitla.
• - Yagul.
• - Lambityeco.
• - San José Mogote.
• - Zaachila.
• - Cantona.
• - Tzintzuntzan.
• - Tamtoc.
• - Paquimé.
• - Huápoca.
• - Las Labradas "Las Labradas (Sinaloa)").
Mexican law considers historical monuments to be those built between the centuries and , that is, from the arrival of the Spanish to the century before last. Both the archaeological zones and the historical monuments are considered heritage of the Mexican nation, and are guarded by the INAH and the National Institute of Fine Arts (INBA). The original centers of several important towns in the country are part of the complex of historical monuments, such as Mexico City, Guanajuato "Guanajuato (Guanajuato)"), Puebla de Zaragoza, Oaxaca de Juárez and San Francisco de Campeche, all of them also recognized as Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. In addition to these large agglomerations, there are numerous buildings scattered throughout the country that are part of the INAH catalogue.[482][483].
The LMP is played in winter, so its season is shorter and it receives some of the players (Mexican and foreign) who are playing in the Major Leagues in the summer; It is made up of ten teams from Baja California, Jalisco, Nuevo León, Sinaloa and Sonora, it has importance at the national level, because the champion team represents Mexico in the largest baseball event in the region, the Caribbean Series, in which the champions of the leagues of Colombia, Panama, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Venezuela, Panama and Cuba also play. This tournament has been won nine times by Mexican teams.
Other recognized leagues in Mexico are the Veracruzan Winter League (LIV), whose champion team represented Mexico in the Latin American Series,[513][514] the Nayarita Winter Baseball League (LIBN), the Northern League of Mexico (LNM), the Northern League of Sonora (LNS), the La Laguna Major Baseball League (LMBL), the Chihuahua State Baseball League (LEB), the Northern League of Coahuila (LNC), the Mexican Winter League (LIM), the Peninsular Baseball League (LPB), the Merida Winter League (LMI), the Veracruzana State Baseball League (LVEB), whose champion team currently represents Mexico in the Latin American Series,[515] and the Tabasqueña Baseball League") (LTB); which are of a lower level, because the majority of their players are veterans or young people in development who in The future will come to the LMB and the LMP.
In the 2006 World Baseball Classic, the Mexican team gave the pleasant surprise by advancing first in its group, only to be eliminated in the next round by losing to Japan and South Korea, but not before eliminating the United States, the host of the event. In the 2009 edition, Mexico hosted Foro Sol in the preliminary round. In the 2017 edition, Mexico once again had the opportunity to host the preliminary round, with the Pan American Stadium "Estadio Panamericano (Guadalajara)") in Zapopan being the stage that hosted the games belonging to Group D, made up of the national teams of Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, and Italy. However, his best performance was third place in the 2023 World Baseball Classic.[516].
In the Baseball World Cup, Mexico has 4 silver medals and one bronze, it hosted the event in the 1951 edition.
Around 129 Mexican players have played in Major League Baseball, notable among them Roberto Ávila (1954 American League batting champion), Fernando Valenzuela (1981 Cy Young Award in the National League), Aurelio Rodríguez, Vinicio Castilla and Adrián González "Adrián González (baseball player)").[517][518].
The second most practiced team sport in the country is basketball,[519] (written and pronounced basketball, in the country itself); However, it is the fourth most popular, after football, boxing and baseball.[511].
Currently the most important league in the country in this sport is the National Professional Basketball League (LNBP),[520] and in the women's branch the Mexican Women's Professional Basketball League (LMBPF); in addition to some regional leagues such as the Pacific Coast Basketball Circuit (CIBACOPA) and the Pacific Basketball Circuit (CIBAPAC), which, as their names indicate, are made up of teams from that area, as well as the Southeast Basketball League (LBS), which includes teams from that part of the country, the Northeast Basketball Circuit (CIBANE), which, as its name indicates, is made up of teams from that region, the Premier Basketball League (LPB) and the Chihuahua State Basketball League (LBE), both based in the state of Chihuahua. These regional leagues participate in the rest months of the LNBP which, by the way, will once again have competition before the imminent return of the Mexican Basketball Circuit (CIMEBA), which was, for a long time, the main professional basketball league in Mexico.
The greatest international success for this sport in Mexico was the bronze medal of the national team in the 1936 Berlin Olympic Tournament.
Six Mexicans have played in the NBA: Horacio Llamas, Eduardo Nájera, Gustavo Ayón, Jorge Gutiérrez "Jorge Gutiérrez (basketball player)"), Juan Toscano-Anderson and Jaime Jáquez Jr..[521].
In 2013, the Mexican Volleyball League (LMV) was formed with the endorsement of the Mexican Volleyball Federation (FMVB), which came into force in 2014 in both branches, giving rise to the Mexican Men's Volleyball League (LMVV) and the Mexican Women's Volleyball League (LMVF). This was with the aim of both circuits being the basis for integrating the national teams for the Rio de Janeiro 2016 Olympic cycle, since teams were formed from various parts of the country in order to observe them. However, this was not the first attempt at a professional volleyball league in Mexico, since previously the Premier Volleyball League (LPV) was also developed in both branches.[522] The greatest successes of Mexican volleyball were the gold and silver medals in the women's and men's branches respectively at the 1955 Pan American Games.[523].
In 2016, the Professional American Football League (LFA) was formed, with the support of the Mexican American Football Federation (FMFA), which came into force in February of that year with 4 teams, 3 from Mexico City and 1 from the State of Mexico, with its headquarters at the Jesús Martínez "Palillo" Stadium in the Ciudad Deportiva de La Magdalena Mixiuhca.[524][525] Currently it is made up of ten teams, two of them from Mexico City, two from Chihuahua, and one from the State of Mexico, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Puebla, Jalisco and Querétaro.[526][527][528] In addition, in 2018 the Mexican American Football League (FAM) was founded, which is currently made up of five teams from the entities of Chihuahua, Mexico City, State of Mexico, Querétaro.[529].
In parallel, there is the National American Football Student Organization, which since 1930 and under different names has organized national championships of this sport.
Fourteen Mexicans have played in the NFL.[530].
The Mexican Elite Hockey League (LMEH) was inaugurated on October 2, 2010 with the objective of establishing Mexican ice hockey at a high international level. This was achieved with the joint participation of private investment and the professional hockey teams already existing in the country.[531] The league was made up of four teams, all of them from Mexico City, however it has not been resumed after the break due to the covid-19 pandemic.[532].
Basque pelota in Mexico has been practiced since approximately 1895, and is represented by the Mexican Frontón Federation, A.C. It is currently made up of 17 specialties with international participation, and 26 are practiced in the country in total.
Suffice it to say that in Mexico, in 1916, a new specialty emerged within the ball, frontenis. Since its inception, Mexican representations have won in all editions of the 19 World Championships that have been held to date, except Havana 1990.
Currently there is a development whose structure has at its base two children's and three youth categories, made up of athletes between 8 and 21 years old. A National Championship is held for each specialty and category that is divided into three phases, thus achieving a total of 120 annual events, which also contemplates the development of the first force, in some second and third forces, in addition to the veterans, there is a classification system by score which is firmly supported to form the national selections and preselections.
The Mexican Federation of Fronton, A. C. contemplates two modalities: doubles and singles for the specialties of basket punta (men), Cuban fronton (men), hand fronton with hard ball on three walls and in ratchet (men), short paddle (men), paddle with leather ball in three walls and in ratchet (men), paddle with rubber ball in three walls (men) and in ratchet (women and men); as well as frontenis (women's and men's).
Mexico City has the most fields for playing Basque pelota in the world.[533].
It is the sporting discipline that has awarded the most medals and titles in world championships (1952-2022) to Mexican sport with a total of 133 medals (53 gold, 44 silver and 36 bronze), half of the gold metals come from the discipline created in Mexico: frontenis. of the specialty. It was an exhibition discipline at the 1968 Mexico Olympic Games and the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games. On those occasions Mexico won 2 gold and 3 bronze medals in 1968, as well as 3 gold, 2 silver and 2 bronze medals in 1992.
Mexico has a long tradition in combat sports. Both Tarahumara fighting and Chupa Porrazo are two of the most popular martial arts of national origin.
Mixed martial arts –or MMA for its acronym in English– has grown the most in the country in recent years, with numerous fighters in different organizations. Three Mexicans became world champions in the largest MMA company, Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC): Brandon Moreno,[535] Alexa Grasso[536] and Yair Rodríguez as interim monarch.[537] Other fighters born on Mexican soil who have been champions in minor promotions were Jessica Aguilar in WSOF[538] and Irwin Rivera in Titan Fighting Championship.[539] Today, Mexico is the country Spanish speaker with the largest number of representatives in the UFC.[540].
Boxing, historically, has been the combat sport that has enjoyed the most good reputation and popularity in the Republic. Several Mexican boxers have been world champions" and Olympic medalists, such as Salvador «Sal» Sánchez "Salvador Sánchez (boxer)"), Julio César Chávez, José Luis Ramírez"), Carlos Zárate, Rubén Olivares, Lauro Salas, Érik «el Terrible» Morales, among others. Today in boxing there are boxers such as Saúl "El Canelo" Álvarez, Julio César Chávez Jr. or Isaac "Pitbull" Cruz.[541].
Professional wrestling has a large following, even forming part of national popular culture. Its history is full of great myths such as El Santo, Blue Demon or Mil Máscaras, the so-called "Big Three" of Mexican wrestling;[542][543][544] and more recently Sin Cara "Místico (wrestler)") and Alberto Del Rio, the latter even becoming WWE world champion on four occasions. Although lately the main wrestling companies have left aside the sporting aspect to turn it into a spectacle, hence its non-consideration as a real "combat sport" given its staged nature, it is no less attractive to the public.[545].
Taekwondo, as mentioned before, is the second most practiced sport in Mexico and the first in terms of combat. Being one of the greatest exponents at the international level, Mexicans have had important participations internationally in the Olympic Games with 7 medals (two gold, two silver and three bronze), of which three were won by María del Rosario Espinoza. In the case of the Pan American Games, up to 31 medals have been achieved; seventeen of gold, ten of silver and fourteen of bronze.[546].
To a lesser extent, judo, karate and kickboxing have been gaining strength among Mexican society.
Among the sports that are practiced professionally in Mexico are motorsports whose main stage is the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez. Likewise, in recent years, official dates have been held within the official calendar of the World Rally Championship, which is the most important automobile competition in the Rally category in the world and has the approval of the FIA (International Automobile Federation by its French acronym), and takes place in the cities of León de los Aldamas, Silao de la Victoria and Guanajuato, in the state of Guanajuato. This competition each year has managed to attract more fans of the category from the country and the world in addition to generating important economic benefits for the state.
Since 2015, the Autódromo Hermanos Rodríguez has hosted a Formula 1 race. Six Mexican drivers have competed in this category: Ricardo Rodríguez de la Vega, Pedro Rodríguez de la Vega, Moisés Solana Arciniega, Héctor Rebaque, Sergio Pérez and Esteban Gutiérrez "Esteban Gutiérrez (pilot)"); Sergio Pérez stands out mainly, who finished as runner-up in the top category in the 2023 season.[547].
Bullfighting is also very popular, especially in the center of the country, with the most important plaza being: The Monumental Plaza de Toros de México, known as Plaza México.
Other sports practiced in Mexico include horse racing, which takes place at the Hipódromo de las Américas in Mexico City as its main venue, and greyhound racing "Lebreles (cynology)", at the Agua Caliente Galgódromo in Tijuana and in Ciudad Juárez).
Mexico had its first participation in Olympic skiing at the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympic Games, participating with the German-born Mexican Hubertus Von Hohenlohe, in the alpine skiing category.[548] The few Mexicans who have competed in the Winter Olympic Games have never won a medal. Skiing in Mexico is considered an elite sport, very few Mexicans practice winter sports due to the lack of diffusion and facilities within the territory of that country. Ice hockey and ice skating have begun to be spread throughout the national territory, the first schools and facilities have been forming, at the moment there are only temporary demonstrations with quite young Mexican athletes who venture into these sports.
Mexico has hosted the World Paddle Championship in 2002, in Mexico City and in 2010, in Cancun. Mexico also hosted the VIII World Polo Championship 2008.
The rest of the Mexican Olympic champions complete it: Ricardo Delgado Nogales, Antonio Roldán (both in boxing in Mexico 1968), Felipe Muñoz (swimming in 1968), Daniel Bautista (walking in Montreal 1976), Raúl González (walking in Los Angeles 1984), Soraya Jiménez (weightlifting in Sydney 2000), Guillermo Pérez (taekwondo in Beijing 2008) and the under-23 football team (London 2012).
Also worth noting are the other eight multi-Olympic medalists (along with Mariles, Capilla and Espinoza): Rubén Uriza, Raúl González, Germán Sánchez "Germán Sánchez (diver)"), Paola Espinosa, Osmar Olvera, Alejandra Orozco Loza, Joaquín Pérez de las Heras and Alejandra Valencia, all with two medals.
In the rest of the international scene, two significant data stand out: first, the eighteen sports disciplines where at least one Mexican competitor won the world championship; highlighting by number the world boxing champions") and Basque pelota. And second, the twelve occasions in which a Mexican athlete established a world record, especially in race walking.
On the other hand, Mexico has hosted the 1970 Soccer World Cup and also the 1986 Soccer World Cup. The latter had been awarded to Colombia, which could not fulfill the commitment. In the first, the representative of Brazil was crowned champion, who won the Jules Rimet Cup; In 1986, the champion was Argentina. The country will host the tournament again, this time shared with the United States and Canada, at the 2026 Soccer World Cup. Mexico has also hosted the Pan American Games on three occasions: 1955 and 1975 in Mexico City and in 2011 in Guadalajara; of the Central American and Caribbean Games, in four events: 1926, 1954 and 1990 in Mexico City and in 2014 in Veracruz; and the 1979 Universiade"), also in the country's capital; fulfilling notable participations in all of them. To all of the above are added another forty-seven international competitions received throughout history, including multi-sport events or final competitions of a discipline.
Mexico was the first country to organize the Olympic Games (1968) and a World Football Championship (1970) in a period of two years (Later, Germany would do so: the 1972 Olympic Games and the 1974 World Cup; the United States: the 1994 World Cup and the 1996 Olympic Games; and Brazil: the 2014 World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games).
The Winter Olympic editions where Mexico has been present are St. Moritz 1928, Sarajevo 1984, Calgary 1988, Albertville 1992, Lillehammer 1994, Salt Lake City 2002, and in all since 2010; this in the disciplines of Alpine Skiing, Bobsleigh, Cross-Country Skiing, Figure Skating on Ice and Skeleton.
Mexico has been present in the summer Paralympic Games since the Heidelberg 1972 edition; and in winter in Turin 2006 and Vancouver 2010. In the summer versions it has a balance of 328 medals (107 gold, 98 silver and 123 bronze). He has attended other sports events such as the Youth Olympic Games, in all summer editions since Singapore 2010 and winter editions in Innsbruck 2012, resulting in 33 medals (4 gold, 11 silver and 18 bronze). He has also attended several editions of the Chess Olympics.
In the Pan American Games, Mexican delegations have participated in the 19 editions held and have accumulated a total of 1,148 medals: 258 gold, 325 silver and 565 bronze. After Santiago 2023, it is in sixth place in the history of the medal table of 42 participating committees, only below the United States, Cuba, Canada, Brazil and Argentina.[550].
In the Central American and Caribbean Games, Mexican delegations have participated in the 24 editions held and accumulate a total of 4,212 medals: 1,509 gold, 1,443 silver and 1,279 bronze. After San Salvador 2023, it is in second historical place in the medal table of 37 participating committees, only below Cuba.[551].