Industrial architecture is the design and construction of buildings with an industrial function.
The demarcation of fields between architecture and engineering is an unresolved issue, so it is common to consider that this activity is part of industrial engineering (which is more properly the design and construction of machinery), civil engineering (which is more properly the design and construction of transport and communications infrastructure)) or mining engineering (in the field of mining).
In the pre-industrial era there were some buildings with an industrial function, notably mills and other agro-industrial storage and processing buildings (wineries, breweries, oil mills, silos, warehouses, etc.) and the naval industry (ancient - facilities of large ports, such as Ostia, Alexandria or Caesarea Maritima - and medieval - Royal Shipyards of Barcelona, Arsenal of Venice -). The royal manufactures typical of the Colbertian phase of mercantilism required the construction of certain industrial facilities, which in some cases were made with criteria of monumentality (Gobelins of Paris, Augarten Porcelain, Royal Tobacco Factory of Seville) that reached extremes of visionary architecture (Salinas Reales de Arc-et-Senans, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, 1775).
With the Industrial Revolution, industrial buildings (workshops, factories and industrial warehouses, chimneys, lead towers),[5] steelworks, refineries, power plants"), railway stations, warehouses and port facilities, hangars, etc.) gained great prominence, and were characterized by the application of new technologies (iron and railway architecture), in principle the architecture immediately related to the industry (factories, railway stations, exhibitions, etc.) moved away from its expressive or symbolic nature and took it to the limits of the narrowest utilitarianism,[6] which is why in many cases they are pioneers of constructive, conceptual and even aesthetic innovations in contemporary architecture. In Paris, the rue des Immeubles-Industriels real estate project (1973) was one of the first examples of a new type of industrial building (called Immeuble industriel in French) that housed both industrial workshops and apartments.[7] The Eiffel Tower is a notable example of monumental industrial architecture. The Bauhaus and the Modern Movement were applied to all types of industrial buildings from the second third of the century.
The constructions of cities were affected by three factors: technological, social and economic changes. This process of change generates a difference in the thinking of the population. The industrial revolution is the beginning of change within the urban area, where it was thought to design a city more for the working society, and urbanism itself, with approaches that ranged from repression () to Manchester liberalism, utopianism, industrial paternalism or Soviet communism. Later urban and industrial planning criteria led to the design of industrial estates. In this way the city begins to take another shape and begins to make use of new construction materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass.
Modern industrial heritage
Introduction
Industrial architecture is the design and construction of buildings with an industrial function.
The demarcation of fields between architecture and engineering is an unresolved issue, so it is common to consider that this activity is part of industrial engineering (which is more properly the design and construction of machinery), civil engineering (which is more properly the design and construction of transport and communications infrastructure)) or mining engineering (in the field of mining).
In the pre-industrial era there were some buildings with an industrial function, notably mills and other agro-industrial storage and processing buildings (wineries, breweries, oil mills, silos, warehouses, etc.) and the naval industry (ancient - facilities of large ports, such as Ostia, Alexandria or Caesarea Maritima - and medieval - Royal Shipyards of Barcelona, Arsenal of Venice -). The royal manufactures typical of the Colbertian phase of mercantilism required the construction of certain industrial facilities, which in some cases were made with criteria of monumentality (Gobelins of Paris, Augarten Porcelain, Royal Tobacco Factory of Seville) that reached extremes of visionary architecture (Salinas Reales de Arc-et-Senans, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, 1775).
With the Industrial Revolution, industrial buildings (workshops, factories and industrial warehouses, chimneys, lead towers),[5] steelworks, refineries, power plants"), railway stations, warehouses and port facilities, hangars, etc.) gained great prominence, and were characterized by the application of new technologies (iron and railway architecture), in principle the architecture immediately related to the industry (factories, railway stations, exhibitions, etc.) moved away from its expressive or symbolic nature and took it to the limits of the narrowest utilitarianism,[6] which is why in many cases they are pioneers of constructive, conceptual and even aesthetic innovations in contemporary architecture. In Paris, the rue des Immeubles-Industriels real estate project (1973) was one of the first examples of a new type of industrial building (called Immeuble industriel in French) that housed both industrial workshops and apartments.[7] The Eiffel Tower is a notable example of monumental industrial architecture. The and the Modern Movement were applied to all types of industrial buildings from the second third of the century.
workhouses
Since the end of the century, the technological revolution, outsourcing and relocation, which decisively affected the mature industries of developed countries (deindustrialization), were causing the "industrial" identity of both industrial regions and industrial architecture to be lost, currently indistinguishable from commercial or educational and research buildings (technological campuses), [8] Silicon Valley).
The abandonment of many industrial facilities has caused the decline of some cities (Detroit)[9] or provided the opportunity to renew large urban areas (Bilbao).[10] From the intellectual point of view, it has generated a relatively recent field of study, industrial archaeology, which is also an opportunity for the enhancement, conservation and recovery of industrial heritage, and with it an important part of the historical memory of the communities in which these facilities were developed.
• - Hook Norton Brewery"),[11] Victorian-era brewery (founded in 1849), of the tower brewerie type ("tower brewery", where all phases of the process occur systematically from top to bottom).
• - Filature Levavasseur")[12] in Pont-Saint-Pierre (Eure, France), a spinning factory built in the "Victorian" style, 1860.
• - AEG, Berlin, Peter Behrens 1909.
• - Fagus Factory, Walter Gropius, 1910.
• - Grands moulins, Marquette-lez-Lille, 1922, historicist architecture.
• - FIAT, Turin, Giacomo Mattè Trucco"), 1922.
• - Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine (Wisconsin), Frank Lloyd Wright 1936.
• - Church of Sainte-Barbe de Crusnes")[13] (Lorraine), porticos in steel and sheet metal, 1939, prototype of the Société de Wendel for export.
• - Battersea Power Station, London, 1929-1955 (despite extensions, the original design is preserved).
• - Maison tropicale assemblée, by Jean Prouvé, steel, aluminum and wood, 1951.
• - Factory built in 2009. The industrial architecture aspect comes from the bardage") (covering of the exterior wall),[14] very present since the 1960s.
• - Prefabricated modular habitat, London, 2005. Typology widely used since the 1970s.
• - Shopping center Tiergarten Potsdamer Platz"), Berlin, Richard Rogers, 1998.
References by country
Spain
• - History of science and technology in Spain.
• - Industrial revolution in Spain.
• - Ceramics from Sargadelos.
• - Vapor Bonaplata") or Fábrica Bonaplata[16].
• - Industrial Spain.
• - The Land and Maritime Machinist.
• - La Felguera Factory.
• - Barcelona Traction.
• - Batlló Factory")[17].
• - The Colony of Santa Eulalia.
• - Colonia Güell.
• - Ter Industrial Museum.
• - Museum of Science and Technology of Catalonia.
• - Asturias Mining Museum.
• - Cartagena-La Unión mining mountain range#Mining industrial heritage.
• - Mining Interpretation Center (Barruelo de Santullán) "Mining Interpretation Center (Barruelo de Santullán)").
• - Pegasus City.
France
• - History of science and technology in France")[18].
• - Eiffel Tower.
Germany
• - Industrial revolution in Germany").
• - History of science and technology in Germany")[20].
Former Austro-Hungarian Empire
• - Industrial revolution in the Austro-Hungarian Empire")[21].
Italy
• - Industrial revolution in Italy").
• - History of science and technology in Italy")[22].
• - Edoardo Agnelli marine colony")[23].
Belgium
• - Industrial revolution in Belgium").
• - History of science and technology in Belgium")[24].
Netherlands
• - Industrial revolution in the Netherlands") (Industrial revolution in Holland")).
• - History of science and technology in the Netherlands") (History of science and technology in the Netherlands")).
• - Philips in Eindhoven.
Sweden
• - Industrial revolution in Sweden")[25].
• - History of science and technology in Sweden").
Swiss
• - Swiss Industrial Revolution")[26].
• - History of science and technology in Switzerland").
United Kingdom
• - Industrial revolution in the United Kingdom"), Industrial revolution in England"), Industrial revolution in Scotland"),[27] Industrial revolution in Wales")[28].
• - Architecture in Scotland during the Industrial Revolution")[29].
• - Textile industry in the English Industrial Revolution")[30].
• - History of science and technology in the United Kingdom.
• - Factories of the Derwent Valley.
• - Tate Modern (London).
• - London Docks") (London Docks"))[31].
• - Industrial revolution in Manchester")[32].
• - Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester) (not yet written)")[33].
• - Manchester Warehouses") -Canada House, Watts Warehouse"), Asia House"), India House") and Churchgate House").[34].
• - Glasgow#Trade and the Industrial Revolution.
USA
• - Technological and industrial history of the United States.
• - Statue of Liberty.
• - San Francisco Bridge.
Russia and the former Soviet Union
• - Industrial revolution in Russia").
• - Science and technology in Russia").
• - Russian military-industrial complex.[35].
• - Science and technology in the Soviet Union.
Japan
• - Industrial revolution in Japan").
• - Meiji Revolution.
• - History of science and technology in Japan")[37].
• - Tokyo Tower.
Australia
• - Industrial revolution in Australia").
• - History of science and technology in China.
• - Joseph Moir")[38].
Chili
• - Science and technology in Chile.
• - History of saltpeter.
• - Humberstone and Santa Laura nitrate offices (UNESCO).
• - Paris Pavilion.
• - Quinta Normal Greenhouse.
• - Edwards Commercial Building.
• - Santiago Central Station.
• - Central Market of Santiago.
• - Valparaíso Elevators.
• - Los Carros pedestrian bridge.
• - Malleco Viaduct.
• - Purísima Bridge.
• - Vicente Bridge Huidobro !
Paris Pavilion, Santiago, Chile, (Rearmed in 1894).
• - Bradley, Betsy Hunter. The Works: The Industrial Architecture of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
• - Winter, John. Industrial Architecture: A Survey of Factory Building. London: Studio Vista, 1970.
• - Industrial architecture in Arte de Madrid.
• - Inmaculada Aguilar, Industrial architecture, testimony of the era of industrialization.
• - Industrial architecture in Andalusia.
• - Subject Construction and Industrial Architecture at UNED.
References
[1] ↑ Site officiel. Fuente citada en Familistère de Guise.
[2] ↑ Architectural Review article on Jules Saulnier work at Noisiel. Fuente citada en Jules Saulnier.
[3] ↑ "Boston Manufacturing Company". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Fuente citada en Boston Manufacturing Company.
[4] ↑ Chaim M. Rosenberg (2010). The Life and Times of Francis Cabot Lowell, 1775-1817. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-4683-1. Fuente citada en Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman).
[5] ↑ La tour à plomb de Couëron, base Mérimée, ministère français de la Culture. Fuente citada en Tour à plomb.
[6] ↑ Iglesias, Rafael E. J. Arquitectura historicista en el siglo XIX.
[7] ↑ A&C Black, ed. (1997). «Enterprises and urban spaces in France». Cities Enterprise and Society (en inglés). pp. 120-121. Consultado el 14 de junio de 2016.: https://books.google.fr/books?id=qZG8FPVvgC8C
[12] ↑ Jean-François Belhoste, « La filature Levavasseur à Fontaine Guérard : un monument du patrimoine industriel en quête d'avenir », dans Études normandes, n°2, 2009. Fuente citada en Filature Levavasseur.
[13] ↑ base Mérimée, ministère français de la Culture. Fuente citada en Église Sainte-Barbe de Crusnes.
[14] ↑ J.M.Morisot. Tableaux détaillés des prix de tous les ouvrages du bâtiment. Carilian 1814. Fuente citada en Bardage.
[15] ↑ Anton Tautscher: Die Capitulation der Innerberger Hauptgewerkschaft und die erste Fusion der alpinen Eisenwirtschaft 1625. Akademische Druck– und Verlagsanstalt, Graz, 1973, ISBN 3-201-00861-3. Fuente citada en Innerberger Hauptgewerkschaft.
[16] ↑ Nadal Oller, Jordi. Josep Bonaplata: capdavanter del primer "vapor" barceloní. Barcelona: Institut de Cultura de l'Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1997. Fuente citada en Fàbrica Bonaplata.
[17] ↑ Cabana, Francesc. Fabricants i empresaris. Els protagonistes de la revolució industrial a Catalunya.. Vol.2. Barcelona: Enciclopèdia Catalana, 1992, fuente citada en Can Batlló (la Bordeta).
[25] ↑ * Luc Courtois et Jean Pirotte (directeur), De fer et de feu, l'émigration wallonne vers la Suède, Fondation wallonne, Louvain, 2003.
[26] ↑ * Georges Andrey, François de Capitani, Pierre Ducrey, Peter Gilg, Peter Hablützel, Ulrich Im Hof, Hans-Ulrich Jost, Martin Körner, Guy P. Marchal, Nicolas Morard, Roland Ruffieux, Nouvelle histoire de la Suisse et des Suisses, 1983, (Tome III) Payot Lausanne, Helbing & Lichtenhaan, Giampiero Casagrande
[27] ↑ Henry Hamilton, An Economic History of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century, fuente citada en Scotland in the modern era#Industrial Revolution.
[28] ↑ The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales, fuente citada en Wales. Glanmorgan, Lower Swansea valley.
[29] ↑ I. Maxwell, A History of Scotland’s Masonry Construction in P. Wilson, ed., Building with Scottish Stone (Edinburgh: Arcamedia, 2005), ISBN 1-904320-02-3, p. 27. M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie, A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), ISBN 978-0-7486-0849-2, p. 73. Fuente citada en en:Architecture of Scotland in the Industrial Revolution.
[30] ↑ * Copeland, Melvin Thomas. The cotton manufacturing industry of the United States (Harvard University Press, 1912) online
[31] ↑ Ben Weinreb & Christopher Hibbert (1995). The London Encyclopaedia. Macmillan. p. 486. ISBN 0-333-57688-8.
[32] ↑ McNeil, Robina; Michael Nevell (2000). A Guide to the Industrial Archaeology of Greater Manchester. Fuente citada en Manchester#Industrial Revolution.
[33] ↑ Official Website, fuente citada en Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester).
[34] ↑ English Heritage, fuente citada en Canada House, Manchester.
[35] ↑ Le complexe militaro-industriel russe. Entre survie, reconversion et mondialisation, Cyrille Gloaguen, octubre 2002. Fuente citada en Complexe militaro-industriel de la Russie.
[36] ↑ Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan Andrew Gordon. Fuente citada en Koishikawa arsenal.
[37] ↑ Sunami, Atsushi; Tomoko Hamachi, Shigeru Kitaba (March 14, 2013). "The Rise of Science and Technology Diplomacy in Japan". Science & Diplomacy 2. Fuente citada en Science and technology in Japan.
[38] ↑ Richard Lord, J. C. S. Bowler. The Shot Tower and its builder, Joseph Moir, Hobart 1870: being a description of the only circular stone shot tower in the southern hemisphere. Taroona: Richard Lord & Partners, 1980. pp. 91 pp. ISBN 978-0-9597473-2-4.
[39] ↑ Tamura, Eileen. [1998] (1998). China: Understanding its Past. Fuente citada en Thirteen Factories.
Bauhaus
The constructions of cities were affected by three factors: technological, social and economic changes. This process of change generates a difference in the thinking of the population. The industrial revolution is the beginning of change within the urban area, where it was thought to design a city more for the working society, and urbanism itself, with approaches that ranged from repression (workhouses) to Manchester liberalism, utopianism, industrial paternalism or Soviet communism. Later urban and industrial planning criteria led to the design of industrial estates. In this way the city begins to take another shape and begins to make use of new construction materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass.
Since the end of the century, the technological revolution, outsourcing and relocation, which decisively affected the mature industries of developed countries (deindustrialization), were causing the "industrial" identity of both industrial regions and industrial architecture to be lost, currently indistinguishable from commercial or educational and research buildings (technological campuses), [8] Silicon Valley).
The abandonment of many industrial facilities has caused the decline of some cities (Detroit)[9] or provided the opportunity to renew large urban areas (Bilbao).[10] From the intellectual point of view, it has generated a relatively recent field of study, industrial archaeology, which is also an opportunity for the enhancement, conservation and recovery of industrial heritage, and with it an important part of the historical memory of the communities in which these facilities were developed.
• - Hook Norton Brewery"),[11] Victorian-era brewery (founded in 1849), of the tower brewerie type ("tower brewery", where all phases of the process occur systematically from top to bottom).
• - Filature Levavasseur")[12] in Pont-Saint-Pierre (Eure, France), a spinning factory built in the "Victorian" style, 1860.
• - AEG, Berlin, Peter Behrens 1909.
• - Fagus Factory, Walter Gropius, 1910.
• - Grands moulins, Marquette-lez-Lille, 1922, historicist architecture.
• - FIAT, Turin, Giacomo Mattè Trucco"), 1922.
• - Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine (Wisconsin), Frank Lloyd Wright 1936.
• - Church of Sainte-Barbe de Crusnes")[13] (Lorraine), porticos in steel and sheet metal, 1939, prototype of the Société de Wendel for export.
• - Battersea Power Station, London, 1929-1955 (despite extensions, the original design is preserved).
• - Maison tropicale assemblée, by Jean Prouvé, steel, aluminum and wood, 1951.
• - Factory built in 2009. The industrial architecture aspect comes from the bardage") (covering of the exterior wall),[14] very present since the 1960s.
• - Prefabricated modular habitat, London, 2005. Typology widely used since the 1970s.
• - Shopping center Tiergarten Potsdamer Platz"), Berlin, Richard Rogers, 1998.
References by country
Spain
• - History of science and technology in Spain.
• - Industrial revolution in Spain.
• - Ceramics from Sargadelos.
• - Vapor Bonaplata") or Fábrica Bonaplata[16].
• - Industrial Spain.
• - The Land and Maritime Machinist.
• - La Felguera Factory.
• - Barcelona Traction.
• - Batlló Factory")[17].
• - The Colony of Santa Eulalia.
• - Colonia Güell.
• - Ter Industrial Museum.
• - Museum of Science and Technology of Catalonia.
• - Asturias Mining Museum.
• - Cartagena-La Unión mining mountain range#Mining industrial heritage.
• - Mining Interpretation Center (Barruelo de Santullán) "Mining Interpretation Center (Barruelo de Santullán)").
• - Pegasus City.
France
• - History of science and technology in France")[18].
• - Eiffel Tower.
Germany
• - Industrial revolution in Germany").
• - History of science and technology in Germany")[20].
Former Austro-Hungarian Empire
• - Industrial revolution in the Austro-Hungarian Empire")[21].
Italy
• - Industrial revolution in Italy").
• - History of science and technology in Italy")[22].
• - Edoardo Agnelli marine colony")[23].
Belgium
• - Industrial revolution in Belgium").
• - History of science and technology in Belgium")[24].
Netherlands
• - Industrial revolution in the Netherlands") (Industrial revolution in Holland")).
• - History of science and technology in the Netherlands") (History of science and technology in the Netherlands")).
• - Philips in Eindhoven.
Sweden
• - Industrial revolution in Sweden")[25].
• - History of science and technology in Sweden").
Swiss
• - Swiss Industrial Revolution")[26].
• - History of science and technology in Switzerland").
United Kingdom
• - Industrial revolution in the United Kingdom"), Industrial revolution in England"), Industrial revolution in Scotland"),[27] Industrial revolution in Wales")[28].
• - Architecture in Scotland during the Industrial Revolution")[29].
• - Textile industry in the English Industrial Revolution")[30].
• - History of science and technology in the United Kingdom.
• - Factories of the Derwent Valley.
• - Tate Modern (London).
• - London Docks") (London Docks"))[31].
• - Industrial revolution in Manchester")[32].
• - Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester) (not yet written)")[33].
• - Manchester Warehouses") -Canada House, Watts Warehouse"), Asia House"), India House") and Churchgate House").[34].
• - Glasgow#Trade and the Industrial Revolution.
USA
• - Technological and industrial history of the United States.
• - Statue of Liberty.
• - San Francisco Bridge.
Russia and the former Soviet Union
• - Industrial revolution in Russia").
• - Science and technology in Russia").
• - Russian military-industrial complex.[35].
• - Science and technology in the Soviet Union.
Japan
• - Industrial revolution in Japan").
• - Meiji Revolution.
• - History of science and technology in Japan")[37].
• - Tokyo Tower.
Australia
• - Industrial revolution in Australia").
• - History of science and technology in China.
• - Joseph Moir")[38].
Chili
• - Science and technology in Chile.
• - History of saltpeter.
• - Humberstone and Santa Laura nitrate offices (UNESCO).
• - Paris Pavilion.
• - Quinta Normal Greenhouse.
• - Edwards Commercial Building.
• - Santiago Central Station.
• - Central Market of Santiago.
• - Valparaíso Elevators.
• - Los Carros pedestrian bridge.
• - Malleco Viaduct.
• - Purísima Bridge.
• - Vicente Bridge Huidobro !
Paris Pavilion, Santiago, Chile, (Rearmed in 1894).
• - Bradley, Betsy Hunter. The Works: The Industrial Architecture of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
• - Winter, John. Industrial Architecture: A Survey of Factory Building. London: Studio Vista, 1970.
• - Industrial architecture in Arte de Madrid.
• - Inmaculada Aguilar, Industrial architecture, testimony of the era of industrialization.
• - Industrial architecture in Andalusia.
• - Subject Construction and Industrial Architecture at UNED.
References
[1] ↑ Site officiel. Fuente citada en Familistère de Guise.
[2] ↑ Architectural Review article on Jules Saulnier work at Noisiel. Fuente citada en Jules Saulnier.
[3] ↑ "Boston Manufacturing Company". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Fuente citada en Boston Manufacturing Company.
[4] ↑ Chaim M. Rosenberg (2010). The Life and Times of Francis Cabot Lowell, 1775-1817. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-4683-1. Fuente citada en Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman).
[5] ↑ La tour à plomb de Couëron, base Mérimée, ministère français de la Culture. Fuente citada en Tour à plomb.
[6] ↑ Iglesias, Rafael E. J. Arquitectura historicista en el siglo XIX.
[7] ↑ A&C Black, ed. (1997). «Enterprises and urban spaces in France». Cities Enterprise and Society (en inglés). pp. 120-121. Consultado el 14 de junio de 2016.: https://books.google.fr/books?id=qZG8FPVvgC8C
[12] ↑ Jean-François Belhoste, « La filature Levavasseur à Fontaine Guérard : un monument du patrimoine industriel en quête d'avenir », dans Études normandes, n°2, 2009. Fuente citada en Filature Levavasseur.
[13] ↑ base Mérimée, ministère français de la Culture. Fuente citada en Église Sainte-Barbe de Crusnes.
[14] ↑ J.M.Morisot. Tableaux détaillés des prix de tous les ouvrages du bâtiment. Carilian 1814. Fuente citada en Bardage.
[15] ↑ Anton Tautscher: Die Capitulation der Innerberger Hauptgewerkschaft und die erste Fusion der alpinen Eisenwirtschaft 1625. Akademische Druck– und Verlagsanstalt, Graz, 1973, ISBN 3-201-00861-3. Fuente citada en Innerberger Hauptgewerkschaft.
[16] ↑ Nadal Oller, Jordi. Josep Bonaplata: capdavanter del primer "vapor" barceloní. Barcelona: Institut de Cultura de l'Ajuntament de Barcelona, 1997. Fuente citada en Fàbrica Bonaplata.
[17] ↑ Cabana, Francesc. Fabricants i empresaris. Els protagonistes de la revolució industrial a Catalunya.. Vol.2. Barcelona: Enciclopèdia Catalana, 1992, fuente citada en Can Batlló (la Bordeta).
[25] ↑ * Luc Courtois et Jean Pirotte (directeur), De fer et de feu, l'émigration wallonne vers la Suède, Fondation wallonne, Louvain, 2003.
[26] ↑ * Georges Andrey, François de Capitani, Pierre Ducrey, Peter Gilg, Peter Hablützel, Ulrich Im Hof, Hans-Ulrich Jost, Martin Körner, Guy P. Marchal, Nicolas Morard, Roland Ruffieux, Nouvelle histoire de la Suisse et des Suisses, 1983, (Tome III) Payot Lausanne, Helbing & Lichtenhaan, Giampiero Casagrande
[27] ↑ Henry Hamilton, An Economic History of Scotland in the Eighteenth Century, fuente citada en Scotland in the modern era#Industrial Revolution.
[28] ↑ The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales, fuente citada en Wales. Glanmorgan, Lower Swansea valley.
[29] ↑ I. Maxwell, A History of Scotland’s Masonry Construction in P. Wilson, ed., Building with Scottish Stone (Edinburgh: Arcamedia, 2005), ISBN 1-904320-02-3, p. 27. M. Glendinning, R. MacInnes and A. MacKechnie, A History of Scottish Architecture: from the Renaissance to the Present Day (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002), ISBN 978-0-7486-0849-2, p. 73. Fuente citada en en:Architecture of Scotland in the Industrial Revolution.
[30] ↑ * Copeland, Melvin Thomas. The cotton manufacturing industry of the United States (Harvard University Press, 1912) online
[31] ↑ Ben Weinreb & Christopher Hibbert (1995). The London Encyclopaedia. Macmillan. p. 486. ISBN 0-333-57688-8.
[32] ↑ McNeil, Robina; Michael Nevell (2000). A Guide to the Industrial Archaeology of Greater Manchester. Fuente citada en Manchester#Industrial Revolution.
[33] ↑ Official Website, fuente citada en Museum of Science and Industry (Manchester).
[34] ↑ English Heritage, fuente citada en Canada House, Manchester.
[35] ↑ Le complexe militaro-industriel russe. Entre survie, reconversion et mondialisation, Cyrille Gloaguen, octubre 2002. Fuente citada en Complexe militaro-industriel de la Russie.
[36] ↑ Labor and Imperial Democracy in Prewar Japan Andrew Gordon. Fuente citada en Koishikawa arsenal.
[37] ↑ Sunami, Atsushi; Tomoko Hamachi, Shigeru Kitaba (March 14, 2013). "The Rise of Science and Technology Diplomacy in Japan". Science & Diplomacy 2. Fuente citada en Science and technology in Japan.
[38] ↑ Richard Lord, J. C. S. Bowler. The Shot Tower and its builder, Joseph Moir, Hobart 1870: being a description of the only circular stone shot tower in the southern hemisphere. Taroona: Richard Lord & Partners, 1980. pp. 91 pp. ISBN 978-0-9597473-2-4.
[39] ↑ Tamura, Eileen. [1998] (1998). China: Understanding its Past. Fuente citada en Thirteen Factories.