Contenido

Se han encontrado vestigios de la presencia humana en Creta desde el Paleolítico.[11]​[12]​

En el Neolítico, llegaron grupos que se asentaron en Creta probablemente desde Anatolia en torno al 7000 a. C. Crearon diferentes asentamientos en la isla, uno de ellos en Cnosos. Estos primeros habitantes vivían en cuevas o chozas de madera, aunque con el paso del tiempo cambiarán de material a ladrillos de adobe y techumbres de madera. Fabricaban herramientas con diversos materiales como hueso y piedras duras e hicieron figuras de terracota de representaciones femeninas y masculinas, lo que indica que ya tenían cierto sentido religioso.

El arqueólogo británico Arthur Evans, que descubrió y excavó el Palacio de Cnosos, asignó a cada estrato de dicho palacio una duración temporal basada en el análisis comparativo de las cerámicas y los demás objetos que encontró en ellos. El estrato más profundo y antiguo que tenía seis metros de espesor era la base neolítica de aquella civilización. Este periodo abarcaría desde aproximadamente el 7000 hasta el 3400 a. C. A partir de ahí, Evans articuló una cronología de la civilización minoica en tres grandes periodos: Minoico Antiguo, al que asignó el periodo comprendido entre el 3400 y el 2100 a. C.; Minoico Medio, del 2100 al 1580 a. C.; y Minoico Reciente, del 1580 al 1200 a. C. Estas subdivisiones fueron inicialmente concebidas para los estratos del Palacio de Cnosos, pero se aplicaron a esta civilización. Estudios posteriores han modificado las fechas apuntadas por Evans. Los cambios más sustanciales fueron consecuencia, sobre todo, de hallazgos en las islas del Egeo, especialmente en Santorini, y en la Grecia continental. En la actualidad la cronología de las civilizaciones minoica, cicládica y heládica ofrece muchos puntos oscuros, por lo que las dataciones que se indican son aproximadas y susceptibles de revisión. Por otra parte, John Pendleburg, que trabajó varios años con Evans en Cnosos, observó que los distintos periodos no eran totalmente estancos, sino que con frecuencia se solapaban en parte.[13]​.

Se ofrece a continuación la cronología propuesta por Sturt Manning") (2010), una de las más aceptadas por la comunidad científica en la actualidad:[14]​.

Por otra parte, para la división de esta civilización también suele usarse el modelo propuesto por Nikolaos Platón, basado en los «palacios» como ejes centrales de los diferentes periodos.[15]​.

Ancient Minoan or Prepalatial

The first phase of Minoan history is known as Old Minoan or Prepalatial (AM). Traditionally its beginning is placed around 3000 BC. C., although some authors have placed it around 3500 and others prefer to lower the date to 2600.[16]​.

Relatively little is known about the state of civilization before 2700 BC. C. From that date on, Crete began to boom, as a result of the introduction of the wheel in pottery and bronze metallurgy, to which was added a demographic increase, especially in the central-eastern area.[17] The main archaeological sites of the oldest part of the prepalatial period are those of Knossos, Mojlos, Melidoni, Debla&action=edit&redlink=1 "Debla (Crete) (not yet redacted)")), Festus and Palekastro, and as the period progressed, those of Jamezi, Vasilikí, Malia and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)") stand out.[16]​.

During this time the Minoan civilization stood out for its communal organization. The prepalatial settlements are little known. From the Ancient Minoan I, few vestiges of houses remain, which were rectangular structures arranged irregularly. As the Ancient Minoan progresses, a progression is seen in the structure, technique and size of the houses.[18] There is evidence that the houses were built of stone and adobe, with patios paved with slabs and, occasionally, with stuccoed walls. The most characteristic homes have been found in Vasilikí and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)").[19]​.

Its water resources were quite limited. Wheat cultivation and livestock were already present in the Neolithic and it was in the Ancient Minoan when vine and olive crops were introduced. Activities such as hunting, forestry and quarrying were practiced. Craftsmanship was also important. Ceramics, clay and stone figurines, textiles, jewelry and weapons were produced. The glyptic is also present. Some steatite, ivory and bone seals found in Krasi"), Lebén or the Trapeza cave belong to the initial phase of the Ancient Minoan and glyptic continued to develop and diversify, with a variety of shapes, materials and representations.[20]​[16]​ Ceramics, in particular, present a wide variety of forms and in the initial phase a certain similarity with Cycladic and sometimes Anatolian ceramics can be seen. Styles are differentiated. ceramics such as that of Agios Nikolaos "Agios Nikolaos (Crete)") and the Kumasa style, among others. From the Early Minoan II, the Vasilikí style is also characteristic in some places.[21]​.

Religious activity during this period is present in funerary contexts. Figurines, offering tables and rooms used for rituals have been found on the outside of some tombs and also inside them. In this period, no sanctuaries are attested inside settlements, with the exception of one found in Mirtos.[22]​.

Burials were carried out in caves, rock shelters - such as in Mojlos - and in funerary enclosures, some simple and others monumental - such as in Nea Rúmata. In the Mesará plain, in the south of the island, circular burials have been found.[16] One of the largest necropolises from this period is that of Agia Fotiá "Agia Fotiá (Crete)"). Other necropolises have been found in Arjanes, Chrysólakos and Palekastro.[19] Some burials were used successively by several generations, which may be indicative of social stability. At the end of the ancient Minoan, burials in jars and small sarcophagi appeared. The trousseau consisted of stone figurines, glasses and obsidian blades and sometimes a tool or a dagger. Gold jewelry and ornaments are scarce at the beginning of the period but increase in the final part (for example in Mojlos). A strong Cycladic influence is observed in Agia Fotiá. In addition to Agia Fotiá, in places such as Katalimata, the acropolis of Gortyn, Trapeza and Psira the population may be of foreign origin.[23]​.

Commercial exchanges with the outside of the island were numerous. It went from a purely agricultural economy to a more evolved organization, the result of maritime trade with the other regions of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean.[17] The metals could have come from Egypt - according to Evans - but it is considered more likely that they came from Anatolia and the Aegean Islands. The Minoan presence on the island of Cythera began around the Early Minoan II, although it is disputed whether it was a permanent occupation or only during certain times of the year. Especially abundant were the exchanges with the Cyclades islands, from where obsidian and metals were imported. However, it is estimated that, during most of the period, the Cycladic people had a more advanced shipbuilding technology but the Minoan world gradually acquired greater dynamism in all aspects and at the end of the period was when Crete achieved commercial hegemony in the Aegean Sea.[16]​.

Perhaps due to some type of internal conflict, at the end of the Ancient Minoan II some settlements were abandoned and destroyed, but in others the population increased and new settlements also emerged in some places near the old ones. Thus, the Ancient Minoan III, which is attributed to a relatively short duration, is a period of isolation in which contacts with the outside world were reduced and ceramic styles were regionalized. This turbulent period coincides with what is observed in other areas such as Anatolia, Egypt and Syria.[24]​.

Period of the First Palaces

The stage called Protopalatial or the First Palaces covers approximately the period between 2000 and 1700 BC. C. The three main characteristics of that period are: the construction of the palaces, the development of Kamarés ceramics and the appearance of writing.[25]​.

Technological improvements and internal advances in political, economic and social organization, as well as intellectual advances and the rise of maritime trade are the triggers for the beginning of the new cultural period.[26]​[17]​ This development caused the appearance of surplus production, and a greater social hierarchy, which, together with other aspects related to the geographical environment of Crete, facilitated the consolidation of state systems in this period.[27]​.

There were certain reciprocal influences between Crete and Anatolia, and there may have been infiltrations of Anatolian elements on the island, but the revolution of palatial Crete is explained by an internal evolution, without there being any need to resort to the hypothesis of a massive invasion of new populations.[25]​.

In the beginning, a demographic increase is noted through the appearance of new settlements and the increase in the size of existing ones.[28] In this period, large buildings that have been called "palaces" are built in Phaistos, Malia, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)") and, the best known and most important of all, Knossos. One of the hypotheses is that the first palaces arose at strategic crossroads that were already important economic and population centers before the palaces were built.[26][29]​.

The appearance of the palaces contrasts with the apparent decline of Cycladic civilization and continental Greece, and is surprising on an island that had neither the artistic development of the Cyclades nor the level of economic organization of certain places in the Peloponnese, such as Lerna.[30]​.

Each of the palaces excavated to date has its own peculiarities, but they also share some characteristics between them that differentiate them from other architectural structures. Common characteristics are its layout around a central patio, whose floors were connected by small stairs, the facades built with porous stones and with monumental entrances, the abundance of warehouses, the existence of rooms intended for worship,[19]​ others for housing and others for craft workshops. It is striking that much of the space in them was intended for storage, which indicates a function of redistribution of products.[31]​ Most of the palatial settlements lacked a defensive system but there are some exceptions in which the presence of walls is denoted, such as Petra "Petra (Crete)") and Malia - in the latter at least in the Early Minoan III and Middle Minoan I periods.[32]​ The destructions observed in This period is estimated to be due to natural causes. The fleet, apparently, was so large that it could control any potential enemy, even pirate attacks.[26]​.

Second Palaces Period

This phase, also called Neopalatial, which includes the Middle Minoan III and Late Minoan I and II phases, belongs almost exclusively to the structures of the Palace of Knossos brought to light by Arthur Evans.[17]​ It is the phase in which Crete reaches its peak.[34]​

Around 1700 BC. C. major catastrophes occurred on the island that have been attributed to seismic movements. This theory is supported by the discovery of the temple of Anemospilia by the archaeologist Sakelarakis, in which the bodies of three people who were surprised by the collapse of the temple appear.[35] Some theories postulate that at that time people from Anatolia were able to arrive on the island.[36] The palaces were destroyed but it did not take long to be recovered and rebuilt, even with greater complexity and ornamentation.[35]

New cities were founded and new, more majestic palaces were built on the ruins of the old ones. The palace centers controlled extensive territories, the result of the improvement and development of land and sea communications, through the construction of paved roads and ports.[34]​ In the area around Festus, the remains of the port of Kommós are important.[35]​.

The new palaces, labyrinthine in shape, consisted of several floors, with large patios and porticos, with wide stairs and corridors, as well as monumental propylaea. The royal quarters, equipped with rooms with thrones, bathrooms and ventilation shafts, could be accessed through several doors. In these palaces there were reception, banquet and ritual rooms. Warehouses, crypts, auxiliary facilities and workshops of various kinds were also provided. Hydraulic and drainage systems were enabled. The walls were decorated with polychrome frescoes and the pavements were covered with shiny aljez slabs.[34]​.

Regarding the social system, probably theocratic, the king of each palace was the official and religious supreme head. Perhaps there was a hierarchy among the kings, with the king of Knossos at the head.[34]​.

The construction of smaller palaces and mansions also grew, especially in the center and east of the island. Some of those that have left remains from this period are the palaces of Arjanes, Plati "Plati (Crete)") and Gurniá; the mansions of Tilissus, Palekastro, Sklavókampos, Hagia Triada and Amnissus; the agricultural villages of Vatípetro, Ano Zakro, Kania, Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)"). The population of cities like Knossos must have been important. Eastern cities, in particular, show highly organized urban planning and paved streets. In addition to houses, workshops, shops, port facilities in places such as Palekastro or Gurniá, water pipes, roads and bridges have been found.[34]​[35]​.

The writing system that became widespread at this time is linear A, although it coexisted for a time with the Cretan hieroglyph. It was probably not exclusive to palaces.[35]​.

Monopalatial Period

After the catastrophe suffered at the end of the previous period, only the palace of Knossos was rebuilt to be the residence of an Achaean dynasty from the Peloponnese.[34]​ The Mycenaean palaces that the Achaeans built in other places are unknown.[43]​.

The timing of the Greeks' arrival in Crete is a matter of controversy. There are historians who believe that they were able to take over the island taking advantage of the destruction generated shortly before. Other authors suggest that what occurred was a dynastic union.[44]​.

In any case, in addition to the palace of Knossos, the Mycenaean presence is recognized in many of the settlements that developed in this period in Crete: Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), Polirrenia, Gortina, Festo, Hagia Triada or Tiliso. Some of them survived into the archaic and classical Greek eras. The new civilization of Minoan roots, but with a Mycenaean spirit, had a marked tendency towards schematization and stylization. The same motifs are repeated, although simpler, in the decoration of the wall paintings, with the loss of the previous freedom and vitality.[43]​.

The administration and politics became Mycenaean, but it is possible that this Mycenaean presence in Crete was limited to Cydonia, Knossos - in these two places tablets have been found in linear B, which was their writing system - and perhaps to other places in the central Cretan area, while the rest of the island, especially the eastern sector, followed the Minoan customs and continued using linear A.[44] Other visible Mycenaean customs are the funerary, as Mycenaean tholos-type tombs and chamber tombs appear, with funerary goods in which the objects are often of a warrior theme, but next to them there are types of burial in larnaques - in places such as Armeni, Pigi") and Mesi") - or pitoi already known in Crete. A new style of ceramics that mixes Mycenaean and Minoan elements spread throughout the island. Objects related to cooking and textile crafts show continuity with Minoan customs.[45]​.

The dating of the linear B tablets that Evans found in Knossos is also discussed and that, since linear B is Greek, it would mean that the Greeks already dominated the island. Some authors, among whom is Evans, place them around 1400 BC. C. and others, such as Leonard Robert Palmer, around 1200 BC. C.[44]​ On the other hand, a study by Jan Driessen identifies different levels of destruction related to the tablets.[46]​.

It is believed that the transition between the 14th and 13th centuries BC. C. was another period of population movements. New buildings of significant size were built in places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)"), Malia or Kato Guves; the latter was a ceramic producing center. Commercial and cultural contacts with the Mycenaean centers of the continent multiplied. An intense export of Cretan stirrup jugs with olive oil to the continent is attested; On the other hand, Mycenaean art was largely nourished by iconography of Minoan origin.[45]​.

Postpalatial Period

At the end of the century and during the BC. C. there are extensive population movements in which coastal places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)") that seemed prosperous and also other flat places are suddenly abandoned, and settlements located at altitude that dominated places where they could have fertile agriculture are occupied. The cause of these population movements is unknown, which perhaps sought to protect themselves from threats from the sea. Some authors have related them to the thesis of the climate of terror produced by the so-called Sea Peoples, but others have pointed out the absence of traces of violent destruction and estimate that the movements must have occurred due to a combination of various factors.[45]​ On the other hand, this era is usually related to the tradition of the Dorian migrations.[43]​.

Influencing their conquerors from mainland Greece, the Minoan cultural tradition continued in some places, especially in the mountainous centers of eastern Crete and in the center of the island, such as Vrókastro, Praso "Praso (Crete)"), Karfí and other places.[43]

In this period, the use of iron and the cremation of the dead became widespread, attested by the discovery of cinerary urns in Fortetsa"), in the territory of Knossos.[43]​.

There are several predominant views about the mode of political organization of Minoan Crete. One of them estimates that the island would be unified under a central power located in Knossos. This idea is supported by the larger size of Knossos, the absence of defensive walls, and the spread of the Knossos architectural style throughout the island. Another, however, supports the idea that this civilization was divided into several independent political units whose headquarters would be located in the various settlements in which a large monumental building has been found.[47] This series of monumental buildings with courtyards have been given the name "palaces", although it has not been conclusively demonstrated that they served as residences of kings.[48] The main ones are found in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Gurniá, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Galatás, Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)"), Protoria, Arjanes and Makrí Gialós.[47]​.

The organization of the territories could evolve over the centuries: the importance of Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), to the west, as an administrative center was elevated in a more recent phase (in the 1st centuries BC). On the other hand, in other places smaller palatial buildings (Niru Jani) and important rural "villas" (Hagia Triada) have been found, which has given rise to the hypothesis that there were governments dependent on other larger size.[47]​.

Minoan art, along with other aspects of their cultural activity (especially the evolution of ceramic styles) have allowed archaeologists to define the three phases of Minoan culture.

Among the most important of Minoan art are its ceramics. The early Minoan was characterized by the polychrome decoration of white and red motifs, and drawings of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, figures of marine animals, etc. Later, in the recent period, more colors were added, often adopting spherical shapes and decorated with more naturalistic and figurative scenes, for example octopuses that occupy the entire belly of the vessels.

But without a doubt the most characteristic of this rich culture are its frescoes. The scenes represented life on the island, using themes such as processions, sacrifices, dances, ritual fights with bulls, etc. They have a geometric style and are commonly monochromatic.

They also developed human and god figurines, usually female and with little accentuated sexual features. Also notable is the development of jewelry, gold vessels and precious stones, products for which they became known outside the island.

When it came to clothing, Minoan men typically wore loincloths and short skirts. Women, on the other hand, had bodices that reached the navel and long flared skirts. The patterns on the fabrics, like the rest of the art, gave emphasis to geometric figures.

The main collections of Minoan art are located in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, the Archaeological Museum of Chania, the Archaeological Museum of Sitia, the Museum of Prehistory of Thera, the Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos and the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno.

The Minoan language is an isolated pre-Indo-European language that has not yet been deciphered.

His writing was, between the years 1900 BC. C. and 1700 BC. C., in a hieroglyphic form. Later this writing system "Writing (linguistic)") evolved into a syllabic phonetic writing, called Linear A (1700 BC - 1450 BC), which would later be adapted by the Mycenaean Greeks to write their language. This Mycenaean writing system adopted from Linear A is called Linear B and will end up being imposed both on the continent and on the island of Crete to keep track of the palaces, as shown by the vestiges found.

The Minoans seem to have always given a predominant role to goddesses, so their religion has sometimes been described as "matriarchal".[50] Although there is evidence for the existence of male gods, representations of goddesses are by far the most frequent. While it is speculated that some of these representations of women correspond to faithful and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies, other times it seems that the image represents the same deity in different forms: as Mother Goddess of fertility, Lady of Animals, protector of cities, the home, the harvest, the underworld, etc. Some[51]​ have claimed that these were different aspects of a single Great Goddess. In this sense, the various figurines of women with bare breasts and flared dresses that usually appear clutching snakes stand out, which has been interpreted together with bare breasts as a symbol of fertility. Another possibility that has been suggested is that the main divinities of the Minoans were, as in other kingdoms of the Eastern Mediterranean, a goddess of the Sun and a god of the storm, who would be her son. Many experts suggest that these goddesses could be the evolution of the primitive Neolithic mother-goddesses and even the ancestors of the Greek goddesses Demeter and Persephone. All of them usually appear represented accompanied by snakes, birds, poppies and some type of barely recognizable animal on their heads.

The quintessential example of a great festive celebration is the famous athletic competition of bull jumping, depicted many times in the Knossos frescoes[53]​ and inscribed on seals.[54]​

Arthur Evans believed that the horns of the bull were also present in one of the most recurrent Minoan symbols, which has the shape of a "u" and called it "horns of consecration", although other authors consider that the symbol is the representation of mountains.[55] It appears in many manifestations of Minoan art, and also in temples of Cyprus.[56]​.

Other sacred symbols of the Minoans were the labrys (double-edged axes), the columns, the snake, the sun disk and the tree. However, recent studies propose a radically different interpretation than the religious one for these symbols, suggesting that they refer to beekeeping.[57]​.

There are indications that the Minoans were able to carry out human sacrifices in several places: Anemospilia, in a building from the MMII (Protopalatial period 1800-1700 BC) interpreted as a temple, in Knossos, in a building known as the "North House", from the LMIB (Neopalatial period 1480-1425 BC)[58]​ and in Cidonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), in a burial dated between the 14th and 12th centuries BC. C. where animal bones appeared mixed with those of a young woman,[59]​ although the last two cases probably belong to the Cretan Mycenaean era.

As is usual in Bronze Age sites, it is the burials that provide most of the archaeological material for this period. Towards the end of the Minoan Neopalatial Period, two types of burial were practiced: with circular tombs or Tholoi, located in southern Crete; and the cist tombs (four side slabs and one on top) located in the north and east. Of course, there are different patterns within Minoan mortuary practices that do not completely conform to the two described, although it seems clear that inhumation, and not cremation, was the most popular form of burial in Bronze Age Crete.[60] Although in this period there is a tendency towards individual burial, there are exceptions, such as the controversial Chrysólakos complex, in Malia, a group of buildings that can be interpreted either as a center of burial rituals, or as the crypt of a noble family.

Hundreds of votive offerings have been discovered in the caves of various mountains, highlighting those of Mount Ida "Mount Ida (Crete)"), which suggests requests for help from the gods and that they are remains of certain rituals that could be carried out in these caves.

A 2013 archaeogenetics study compared mitochondrial DNA from ancient Minoan skeletons buried in a cave on the Lasithi Plateau between 3,700 and 4,400 years ago, with that of 135 modern-day samples from Greece, Anatolia, Western and Northern Europe, North Africa, and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans, and especially to modern-day Cretans, particularly those from the Lasithi Plateau. They were also genetically similar to Neolithic Europeans, but distinct from Egyptian or Libyan populations. "We now know that the founders of the first advanced European civilization were Europeans," said study co-author George Stamatoyannopoulos, a geneticist at the University of Washington. "They were very similar to Neolithic Europeans and very similar to today's Cretans."

A 2017 archaeogenetic study on mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms from Minoan remains published in the journal Nature concluded that the Mycenaean Greeks were genetically related to the Minoans and that both are closely related, but not identical, to modern Greek populations. The same study also indicated that at least three-quarters of the DNA of the Minoans and Mycenaeans came from the early farmers of the Neolithic era who lived in western Anatolia and the Aegean Sea.

However, the Mycenaeans of Greece, but not the Minoans of Crete, also had an important difference: they possessed between 4% and 16% of DNA from ancestors who came from the north, from eastern Europe or Siberia (Indo-Europeans).[61]

Contenido

Se han encontrado vestigios de la presencia humana en Creta desde el Paleolítico.[11]​[12]​

En el Neolítico, llegaron grupos que se asentaron en Creta probablemente desde Anatolia en torno al 7000 a. C. Crearon diferentes asentamientos en la isla, uno de ellos en Cnosos. Estos primeros habitantes vivían en cuevas o chozas de madera, aunque con el paso del tiempo cambiarán de material a ladrillos de adobe y techumbres de madera. Fabricaban herramientas con diversos materiales como hueso y piedras duras e hicieron figuras de terracota de representaciones femeninas y masculinas, lo que indica que ya tenían cierto sentido religioso.

El arqueólogo británico Arthur Evans, que descubrió y excavó el Palacio de Cnosos, asignó a cada estrato de dicho palacio una duración temporal basada en el análisis comparativo de las cerámicas y los demás objetos que encontró en ellos. El estrato más profundo y antiguo que tenía seis metros de espesor era la base neolítica de aquella civilización. Este periodo abarcaría desde aproximadamente el 7000 hasta el 3400 a. C. A partir de ahí, Evans articuló una cronología de la civilización minoica en tres grandes periodos: Minoico Antiguo, al que asignó el periodo comprendido entre el 3400 y el 2100 a. C.; Minoico Medio, del 2100 al 1580 a. C.; y Minoico Reciente, del 1580 al 1200 a. C. Estas subdivisiones fueron inicialmente concebidas para los estratos del Palacio de Cnosos, pero se aplicaron a esta civilización. Estudios posteriores han modificado las fechas apuntadas por Evans. Los cambios más sustanciales fueron consecuencia, sobre todo, de hallazgos en las islas del Egeo, especialmente en Santorini, y en la Grecia continental. En la actualidad la cronología de las civilizaciones minoica, cicládica y heládica ofrece muchos puntos oscuros, por lo que las dataciones que se indican son aproximadas y susceptibles de revisión. Por otra parte, John Pendleburg, que trabajó varios años con Evans en Cnosos, observó que los distintos periodos no eran totalmente estancos, sino que con frecuencia se solapaban en parte.[13]​.

Se ofrece a continuación la cronología propuesta por Sturt Manning") (2010), una de las más aceptadas por la comunidad científica en la actualidad:[14]​.

Por otra parte, para la división de esta civilización también suele usarse el modelo propuesto por Nikolaos Platón, basado en los «palacios» como ejes centrales de los diferentes periodos.[15]​.

Ancient Minoan or Prepalatial

The first phase of Minoan history is known as Old Minoan or Prepalatial (AM). Traditionally its beginning is placed around 3000 BC. C., although some authors have placed it around 3500 and others prefer to lower the date to 2600.[16]​.

Relatively little is known about the state of civilization before 2700 BC. C. From that date on, Crete began to boom, as a result of the introduction of the wheel in pottery and bronze metallurgy, to which was added a demographic increase, especially in the central-eastern area.[17] The main archaeological sites of the oldest part of the prepalatial period are those of Knossos, Mojlos, Melidoni, Debla&action=edit&redlink=1 "Debla (Crete) (not yet redacted)")), Festus and Palekastro, and as the period progressed, those of Jamezi, Vasilikí, Malia and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)") stand out.[16]​.

During this time the Minoan civilization stood out for its communal organization. The prepalatial settlements are little known. From the Ancient Minoan I, few vestiges of houses remain, which were rectangular structures arranged irregularly. As the Ancient Minoan progresses, a progression is seen in the structure, technique and size of the houses.[18] There is evidence that the houses were built of stone and adobe, with patios paved with slabs and, occasionally, with stuccoed walls. The most characteristic homes have been found in Vasilikí and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)").[19]​.

Its water resources were quite limited. Wheat cultivation and livestock were already present in the Neolithic and it was in the Ancient Minoan when vine and olive crops were introduced. Activities such as hunting, forestry and quarrying were practiced. Craftsmanship was also important. Ceramics, clay and stone figurines, textiles, jewelry and weapons were produced. The glyptic is also present. Some steatite, ivory and bone seals found in Krasi"), Lebén or the Trapeza cave belong to the initial phase of the Ancient Minoan and glyptic continued to develop and diversify, with a variety of shapes, materials and representations.[20]​[16]​ Ceramics, in particular, present a wide variety of forms and in the initial phase a certain similarity with Cycladic and sometimes Anatolian ceramics can be seen. Styles are differentiated. ceramics such as that of Agios Nikolaos "Agios Nikolaos (Crete)") and the Kumasa style, among others. From the Early Minoan II, the Vasilikí style is also characteristic in some places.[21]​.

Religious activity during this period is present in funerary contexts. Figurines, offering tables and rooms used for rituals have been found on the outside of some tombs and also inside them. In this period, no sanctuaries are attested inside settlements, with the exception of one found in Mirtos.[22]​.

Burials were carried out in caves, rock shelters - such as in Mojlos - and in funerary enclosures, some simple and others monumental - such as in Nea Rúmata. In the Mesará plain, in the south of the island, circular burials have been found.[16] One of the largest necropolises from this period is that of Agia Fotiá "Agia Fotiá (Crete)"). Other necropolises have been found in Arjanes, Chrysólakos and Palekastro.[19] Some burials were used successively by several generations, which may be indicative of social stability. At the end of the ancient Minoan, burials in jars and small sarcophagi appeared. The trousseau consisted of stone figurines, glasses and obsidian blades and sometimes a tool or a dagger. Gold jewelry and ornaments are scarce at the beginning of the period but increase in the final part (for example in Mojlos). A strong Cycladic influence is observed in Agia Fotiá. In addition to Agia Fotiá, in places such as Katalimata, the acropolis of Gortyn, Trapeza and Psira the population may be of foreign origin.[23]​.

Commercial exchanges with the outside of the island were numerous. It went from a purely agricultural economy to a more evolved organization, the result of maritime trade with the other regions of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean.[17] The metals could have come from Egypt - according to Evans - but it is considered more likely that they came from Anatolia and the Aegean Islands. The Minoan presence on the island of Cythera began around the Early Minoan II, although it is disputed whether it was a permanent occupation or only during certain times of the year. Especially abundant were the exchanges with the Cyclades islands, from where obsidian and metals were imported. However, it is estimated that, during most of the period, the Cycladic people had a more advanced shipbuilding technology but the Minoan world gradually acquired greater dynamism in all aspects and at the end of the period was when Crete achieved commercial hegemony in the Aegean Sea.[16]​.

Perhaps due to some type of internal conflict, at the end of the Ancient Minoan II some settlements were abandoned and destroyed, but in others the population increased and new settlements also emerged in some places near the old ones. Thus, the Ancient Minoan III, which is attributed to a relatively short duration, is a period of isolation in which contacts with the outside world were reduced and ceramic styles were regionalized. This turbulent period coincides with what is observed in other areas such as Anatolia, Egypt and Syria.[24]​.

Period of the First Palaces

The stage called Protopalatial or the First Palaces covers approximately the period between 2000 and 1700 BC. C. The three main characteristics of that period are: the construction of the palaces, the development of Kamarés ceramics and the appearance of writing.[25]​.

Technological improvements and internal advances in political, economic and social organization, as well as intellectual advances and the rise of maritime trade are the triggers for the beginning of the new cultural period.[26]​[17]​ This development caused the appearance of surplus production, and a greater social hierarchy, which, together with other aspects related to the geographical environment of Crete, facilitated the consolidation of state systems in this period.[27]​.

There were certain reciprocal influences between Crete and Anatolia, and there may have been infiltrations of Anatolian elements on the island, but the revolution of palatial Crete is explained by an internal evolution, without there being any need to resort to the hypothesis of a massive invasion of new populations.[25]​.

In the beginning, a demographic increase is noted through the appearance of new settlements and the increase in the size of existing ones.[28] In this period, large buildings that have been called "palaces" are built in Phaistos, Malia, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)") and, the best known and most important of all, Knossos. One of the hypotheses is that the first palaces arose at strategic crossroads that were already important economic and population centers before the palaces were built.[26][29]​.

The appearance of the palaces contrasts with the apparent decline of Cycladic civilization and continental Greece, and is surprising on an island that had neither the artistic development of the Cyclades nor the level of economic organization of certain places in the Peloponnese, such as Lerna.[30]​.

Each of the palaces excavated to date has its own peculiarities, but they also share some characteristics between them that differentiate them from other architectural structures. Common characteristics are its layout around a central patio, whose floors were connected by small stairs, the facades built with porous stones and with monumental entrances, the abundance of warehouses, the existence of rooms intended for worship,[19]​ others for housing and others for craft workshops. It is striking that much of the space in them was intended for storage, which indicates a function of redistribution of products.[31]​ Most of the palatial settlements lacked a defensive system but there are some exceptions in which the presence of walls is denoted, such as Petra "Petra (Crete)") and Malia - in the latter at least in the Early Minoan III and Middle Minoan I periods.[32]​ The destructions observed in This period is estimated to be due to natural causes. The fleet, apparently, was so large that it could control any potential enemy, even pirate attacks.[26]​.

Second Palaces Period

This phase, also called Neopalatial, which includes the Middle Minoan III and Late Minoan I and II phases, belongs almost exclusively to the structures of the Palace of Knossos brought to light by Arthur Evans.[17]​ It is the phase in which Crete reaches its peak.[34]​

Around 1700 BC. C. major catastrophes occurred on the island that have been attributed to seismic movements. This theory is supported by the discovery of the temple of Anemospilia by the archaeologist Sakelarakis, in which the bodies of three people who were surprised by the collapse of the temple appear.[35] Some theories postulate that at that time people from Anatolia were able to arrive on the island.[36] The palaces were destroyed but it did not take long to be recovered and rebuilt, even with greater complexity and ornamentation.[35]

New cities were founded and new, more majestic palaces were built on the ruins of the old ones. The palace centers controlled extensive territories, the result of the improvement and development of land and sea communications, through the construction of paved roads and ports.[34]​ In the area around Festus, the remains of the port of Kommós are important.[35]​.

The new palaces, labyrinthine in shape, consisted of several floors, with large patios and porticos, with wide stairs and corridors, as well as monumental propylaea. The royal quarters, equipped with rooms with thrones, bathrooms and ventilation shafts, could be accessed through several doors. In these palaces there were reception, banquet and ritual rooms. Warehouses, crypts, auxiliary facilities and workshops of various kinds were also provided. Hydraulic and drainage systems were enabled. The walls were decorated with polychrome frescoes and the pavements were covered with shiny aljez slabs.[34]​.

Regarding the social system, probably theocratic, the king of each palace was the official and religious supreme head. Perhaps there was a hierarchy among the kings, with the king of Knossos at the head.[34]​.

The construction of smaller palaces and mansions also grew, especially in the center and east of the island. Some of those that have left remains from this period are the palaces of Arjanes, Plati "Plati (Crete)") and Gurniá; the mansions of Tilissus, Palekastro, Sklavókampos, Hagia Triada and Amnissus; the agricultural villages of Vatípetro, Ano Zakro, Kania, Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)"). The population of cities like Knossos must have been important. Eastern cities, in particular, show highly organized urban planning and paved streets. In addition to houses, workshops, shops, port facilities in places such as Palekastro or Gurniá, water pipes, roads and bridges have been found.[34]​[35]​.

The writing system that became widespread at this time is linear A, although it coexisted for a time with the Cretan hieroglyph. It was probably not exclusive to palaces.[35]​.

Monopalatial Period

After the catastrophe suffered at the end of the previous period, only the palace of Knossos was rebuilt to be the residence of an Achaean dynasty from the Peloponnese.[34]​ The Mycenaean palaces that the Achaeans built in other places are unknown.[43]​.

The timing of the Greeks' arrival in Crete is a matter of controversy. There are historians who believe that they were able to take over the island taking advantage of the destruction generated shortly before. Other authors suggest that what occurred was a dynastic union.[44]​.

In any case, in addition to the palace of Knossos, the Mycenaean presence is recognized in many of the settlements that developed in this period in Crete: Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), Polirrenia, Gortina, Festo, Hagia Triada or Tiliso. Some of them survived into the archaic and classical Greek eras. The new civilization of Minoan roots, but with a Mycenaean spirit, had a marked tendency towards schematization and stylization. The same motifs are repeated, although simpler, in the decoration of the wall paintings, with the loss of the previous freedom and vitality.[43]​.

The administration and politics became Mycenaean, but it is possible that this Mycenaean presence in Crete was limited to Cydonia, Knossos - in these two places tablets have been found in linear B, which was their writing system - and perhaps to other places in the central Cretan area, while the rest of the island, especially the eastern sector, followed the Minoan customs and continued using linear A.[44] Other visible Mycenaean customs are the funerary, as Mycenaean tholos-type tombs and chamber tombs appear, with funerary goods in which the objects are often of a warrior theme, but next to them there are types of burial in larnaques - in places such as Armeni, Pigi") and Mesi") - or pitoi already known in Crete. A new style of ceramics that mixes Mycenaean and Minoan elements spread throughout the island. Objects related to cooking and textile crafts show continuity with Minoan customs.[45]​.

The dating of the linear B tablets that Evans found in Knossos is also discussed and that, since linear B is Greek, it would mean that the Greeks already dominated the island. Some authors, among whom is Evans, place them around 1400 BC. C. and others, such as Leonard Robert Palmer, around 1200 BC. C.[44]​ On the other hand, a study by Jan Driessen identifies different levels of destruction related to the tablets.[46]​.

It is believed that the transition between the 14th and 13th centuries BC. C. was another period of population movements. New buildings of significant size were built in places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)"), Malia or Kato Guves; the latter was a ceramic producing center. Commercial and cultural contacts with the Mycenaean centers of the continent multiplied. An intense export of Cretan stirrup jugs with olive oil to the continent is attested; On the other hand, Mycenaean art was largely nourished by iconography of Minoan origin.[45]​.

Postpalatial Period

At the end of the century and during the BC. C. there are extensive population movements in which coastal places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)") that seemed prosperous and also other flat places are suddenly abandoned, and settlements located at altitude that dominated places where they could have fertile agriculture are occupied. The cause of these population movements is unknown, which perhaps sought to protect themselves from threats from the sea. Some authors have related them to the thesis of the climate of terror produced by the so-called Sea Peoples, but others have pointed out the absence of traces of violent destruction and estimate that the movements must have occurred due to a combination of various factors.[45]​ On the other hand, this era is usually related to the tradition of the Dorian migrations.[43]​.

Influencing their conquerors from mainland Greece, the Minoan cultural tradition continued in some places, especially in the mountainous centers of eastern Crete and in the center of the island, such as Vrókastro, Praso "Praso (Crete)"), Karfí and other places.[43]

In this period, the use of iron and the cremation of the dead became widespread, attested by the discovery of cinerary urns in Fortetsa"), in the territory of Knossos.[43]​.

There are several predominant views about the mode of political organization of Minoan Crete. One of them estimates that the island would be unified under a central power located in Knossos. This idea is supported by the larger size of Knossos, the absence of defensive walls, and the spread of the Knossos architectural style throughout the island. Another, however, supports the idea that this civilization was divided into several independent political units whose headquarters would be located in the various settlements in which a large monumental building has been found.[47] This series of monumental buildings with courtyards have been given the name "palaces", although it has not been conclusively demonstrated that they served as residences of kings.[48] The main ones are found in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Gurniá, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Galatás, Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)"), Protoria, Arjanes and Makrí Gialós.[47]​.

The organization of the territories could evolve over the centuries: the importance of Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), to the west, as an administrative center was elevated in a more recent phase (in the 1st centuries BC). On the other hand, in other places smaller palatial buildings (Niru Jani) and important rural "villas" (Hagia Triada) have been found, which has given rise to the hypothesis that there were governments dependent on other larger size.[47]​.

Minoan art, along with other aspects of their cultural activity (especially the evolution of ceramic styles) have allowed archaeologists to define the three phases of Minoan culture.

Among the most important of Minoan art are its ceramics. The early Minoan was characterized by the polychrome decoration of white and red motifs, and drawings of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, figures of marine animals, etc. Later, in the recent period, more colors were added, often adopting spherical shapes and decorated with more naturalistic and figurative scenes, for example octopuses that occupy the entire belly of the vessels.

But without a doubt the most characteristic of this rich culture are its frescoes. The scenes represented life on the island, using themes such as processions, sacrifices, dances, ritual fights with bulls, etc. They have a geometric style and are commonly monochromatic.

They also developed human and god figurines, usually female and with little accentuated sexual features. Also notable is the development of jewelry, gold vessels and precious stones, products for which they became known outside the island.

When it came to clothing, Minoan men typically wore loincloths and short skirts. Women, on the other hand, had bodices that reached the navel and long flared skirts. The patterns on the fabrics, like the rest of the art, gave emphasis to geometric figures.

The main collections of Minoan art are located in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, the Archaeological Museum of Chania, the Archaeological Museum of Sitia, the Museum of Prehistory of Thera, the Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos and the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno.

The Minoan language is an isolated pre-Indo-European language that has not yet been deciphered.

His writing was, between the years 1900 BC. C. and 1700 BC. C., in a hieroglyphic form. Later this writing system "Writing (linguistic)") evolved into a syllabic phonetic writing, called Linear A (1700 BC - 1450 BC), which would later be adapted by the Mycenaean Greeks to write their language. This Mycenaean writing system adopted from Linear A is called Linear B and will end up being imposed both on the continent and on the island of Crete to keep track of the palaces, as shown by the vestiges found.

The Minoans seem to have always given a predominant role to goddesses, so their religion has sometimes been described as "matriarchal".[50] Although there is evidence for the existence of male gods, representations of goddesses are by far the most frequent. While it is speculated that some of these representations of women correspond to faithful and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies, other times it seems that the image represents the same deity in different forms: as Mother Goddess of fertility, Lady of Animals, protector of cities, the home, the harvest, the underworld, etc. Some[51]​ have claimed that these were different aspects of a single Great Goddess. In this sense, the various figurines of women with bare breasts and flared dresses that usually appear clutching snakes stand out, which has been interpreted together with bare breasts as a symbol of fertility. Another possibility that has been suggested is that the main divinities of the Minoans were, as in other kingdoms of the Eastern Mediterranean, a goddess of the Sun and a god of the storm, who would be her son. Many experts suggest that these goddesses could be the evolution of the primitive Neolithic mother-goddesses and even the ancestors of the Greek goddesses Demeter and Persephone. All of them usually appear represented accompanied by snakes, birds, poppies and some type of barely recognizable animal on their heads.

The quintessential example of a great festive celebration is the famous athletic competition of bull jumping, depicted many times in the Knossos frescoes[53]​ and inscribed on seals.[54]​

Arthur Evans believed that the horns of the bull were also present in one of the most recurrent Minoan symbols, which has the shape of a "u" and called it "horns of consecration", although other authors consider that the symbol is the representation of mountains.[55] It appears in many manifestations of Minoan art, and also in temples of Cyprus.[56]​.

Other sacred symbols of the Minoans were the labrys (double-edged axes), the columns, the snake, the sun disk and the tree. However, recent studies propose a radically different interpretation than the religious one for these symbols, suggesting that they refer to beekeeping.[57]​.

There are indications that the Minoans were able to carry out human sacrifices in several places: Anemospilia, in a building from the MMII (Protopalatial period 1800-1700 BC) interpreted as a temple, in Knossos, in a building known as the "North House", from the LMIB (Neopalatial period 1480-1425 BC)[58]​ and in Cidonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), in a burial dated between the 14th and 12th centuries BC. C. where animal bones appeared mixed with those of a young woman,[59]​ although the last two cases probably belong to the Cretan Mycenaean era.

As is usual in Bronze Age sites, it is the burials that provide most of the archaeological material for this period. Towards the end of the Minoan Neopalatial Period, two types of burial were practiced: with circular tombs or Tholoi, located in southern Crete; and the cist tombs (four side slabs and one on top) located in the north and east. Of course, there are different patterns within Minoan mortuary practices that do not completely conform to the two described, although it seems clear that inhumation, and not cremation, was the most popular form of burial in Bronze Age Crete.[60] Although in this period there is a tendency towards individual burial, there are exceptions, such as the controversial Chrysólakos complex, in Malia, a group of buildings that can be interpreted either as a center of burial rituals, or as the crypt of a noble family.

Hundreds of votive offerings have been discovered in the caves of various mountains, highlighting those of Mount Ida "Mount Ida (Crete)"), which suggests requests for help from the gods and that they are remains of certain rituals that could be carried out in these caves.

A 2013 archaeogenetics study compared mitochondrial DNA from ancient Minoan skeletons buried in a cave on the Lasithi Plateau between 3,700 and 4,400 years ago, with that of 135 modern-day samples from Greece, Anatolia, Western and Northern Europe, North Africa, and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans, and especially to modern-day Cretans, particularly those from the Lasithi Plateau. They were also genetically similar to Neolithic Europeans, but distinct from Egyptian or Libyan populations. "We now know that the founders of the first advanced European civilization were Europeans," said study co-author George Stamatoyannopoulos, a geneticist at the University of Washington. "They were very similar to Neolithic Europeans and very similar to today's Cretans."

A 2017 archaeogenetic study on mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms from Minoan remains published in the journal Nature concluded that the Mycenaean Greeks were genetically related to the Minoans and that both are closely related, but not identical, to modern Greek populations. The same study also indicated that at least three-quarters of the DNA of the Minoans and Mycenaeans came from the early farmers of the Neolithic era who lived in western Anatolia and the Aegean Sea.

However, the Mycenaeans of Greece, but not the Minoans of Crete, also had an important difference: they possessed between 4% and 16% of DNA from ancestors who came from the north, from eastern Europe or Siberia (Indo-Europeans).[61]