The Minoan civilization is the first culture of the Copper Age and the Bronze Age to appear on the island of Crete. Sometimes the terms "Cretan" or "Minoan" are used as synonyms for Minoan.[1] It is part of the Aegean civilizations, a term that encompasses a group of pre-Hellenic civilizations that developed in protohistory in the space around the Aegean Sea.
There is no information about the autonym by which they called themselves. Most historians point out that in Egyptian, Ugaritic and biblical sources the island of Crete is designated as Kaftor or Kaptaru in the Minoan period, and keftiu was the name of its inhabitants.[2].
In the Odyssey, composed several hundred years after the destruction of the Minoan civilization, Homer mentions among the inhabitants of Crete the Eteocretans ("true Cretans"),[3] who could perhaps be the descendants of the Minoans.
Location
The island of Crete is located southeast of Greece, south of the Aegean Sea, a sea that is part of the eastern Mediterranean, which is why it is located in the center of maritime communication between Africa, Asia and Europe; approximately equidistant from the coasts of North Africa, those of Anatolia and those of the Peloponnese.
The surface of Crete appears dominated by three large mountain ranges: that of Léfka Óri (the White Mountains) to the west; in the center the highest ones, Mount Ida "Mount Ida (Crete)") (Psiloriti), which reaches 2500 m.; and the Dikti mountains to the east, without counting other mountains of lower altitude. Located in a seismic zone, throughout history it has suffered earthquakes and currently continues to be under that threat.[4] The geological composition and seismic activity created numerous caves and cavities occupied by the first human beings for habitation or cult purposes.[5].
Currently, about two-thirds of the island's total surface area is rocky and arid. It is possible that deforestation began very early in Crete, particularly due to shipbuilding. It seems that in the Bronze Age there was a primitive cypress forest along the entire western area of Mount Ida, the state of which could still be noted in Venetian times.[5].
The island did not have any navigable river. However, it appears that there was more fresh water in the Bronze Age than today, and climate changes are probably a consequence of deforestation.[6].
Minoan architecture
Introduction
The Minoan civilization is the first culture of the Copper Age and the Bronze Age to appear on the island of Crete. Sometimes the terms "Cretan" or "Minoan" are used as synonyms for Minoan.[1] It is part of the Aegean civilizations, a term that encompasses a group of pre-Hellenic civilizations that developed in protohistory in the space around the Aegean Sea.
There is no information about the autonym by which they called themselves. Most historians point out that in Egyptian, Ugaritic and biblical sources the island of Crete is designated as Kaftor or Kaptaru in the Minoan period, and keftiu was the name of its inhabitants.[2].
In the Odyssey, composed several hundred years after the destruction of the Minoan civilization, Homer mentions among the inhabitants of Crete the Eteocretans ("true Cretans"),[3] who could perhaps be the descendants of the Minoans.
Location
The island of Crete is located southeast of Greece, south of the Aegean Sea, a sea that is part of the eastern Mediterranean, which is why it is located in the center of maritime communication between Africa, Asia and Europe; approximately equidistant from the coasts of North Africa, those of Anatolia and those of the Peloponnese.
The surface of Crete appears dominated by three large mountain ranges: that of Léfka Óri (the White Mountains) to the west; in the center the highest ones, Mount Ida "Mount Ida (Crete)") (Psiloriti), which reaches 2500 m.; and the Dikti mountains to the east, without counting other mountains of lower altitude. Located in a seismic zone, throughout history it has suffered earthquakes and currently continues to be under that threat.[4] The geological composition and seismic activity created numerous caves and cavities occupied by the first human beings for habitation or cult purposes.[5].
Currently, about two-thirds of the island's total surface area is rocky and arid. It is possible that deforestation began very early in Crete, particularly due to shipbuilding. It seems that in the Bronze Age there was a primitive cypress forest along the entire western area of Mount Ida, the state of which could still be noted in Venetian times.[5].
The Cretan coastline "Littoral (geography)") has more than 1000 kilometers and its width from north to south ranges between 12 and 60 km. and in it many, innumerable men, and ninety cities. There several languages are heard mixed, since the Achaeans, the magnanimous indigenous Cretans, the Cydonians "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), the Dorians, who are divided into three tribes, and the divine Pelasgians live in that country.
Considering that the sea level on the coast of northern Crete was at least one meter lower in Roman times compared to today, it can be assumed that many Minoan archaeological remains are below the water surface. Minoan ports were often located under the shelter of promontories. Port facilities were used depending on the direction of the wind. The Mojlos promontory was one of the typical shelters, with a port on each side of the isthmus, until the rise in water level transformed it into an island.[10].
Another change in the configuration of the island's coasts was due to the gradual elevation of the entire western coast. This phenomenon, highlighted by Spratt in 1850, would have begun in medieval times, perhaps in the 2nd century, just after the conquest of the Saracens, who created the Emirate of Crete. Between Paleochora and the ancient city of Liso "Liso (Crete)"), the elevation has been estimated at 8 meters. Therefore, at Phalasarna, the ancient Greek city had an inland port, connected to the sea by a channel cut into the rock. This channel is now several meters above sea level.[10].
History
Contenido
Se han encontrado vestigios de la presencia humana en Creta desde el Paleolítico.[11][12]
En el Neolítico, llegaron grupos que se asentaron en Creta probablemente desde Anatolia en torno al 7000 a. C. Crearon diferentes asentamientos en la isla, uno de ellos en Cnosos. Estos primeros habitantes vivían en cuevas o chozas de madera, aunque con el paso del tiempo cambiarán de material a ladrillos de adobe y techumbres de madera. Fabricaban herramientas con diversos materiales como hueso y piedras duras e hicieron figuras de terracota de representaciones femeninas y masculinas, lo que indica que ya tenían cierto sentido religioso.
El arqueólogo británico Arthur Evans, que descubrió y excavó el Palacio de Cnosos, asignó a cada estrato de dicho palacio una duración temporal basada en el análisis comparativo de las cerámicas y los demás objetos que encontró en ellos. El estrato más profundo y antiguo que tenía seis metros de espesor era la base neolítica de aquella civilización. Este periodo abarcaría desde aproximadamente el 7000 hasta el 3400 a. C. A partir de ahí, Evans articuló una cronología de la civilización minoica en tres grandes periodos: Minoico Antiguo, al que asignó el periodo comprendido entre el 3400 y el 2100 a. C.; Minoico Medio, del 2100 al 1580 a. C.; y Minoico Reciente, del 1580 al 1200 a. C. Estas subdivisiones fueron inicialmente concebidas para los estratos del Palacio de Cnosos, pero se aplicaron a esta civilización. Estudios posteriores han modificado las fechas apuntadas por Evans. Los cambios más sustanciales fueron consecuencia, sobre todo, de hallazgos en las islas del Egeo, especialmente en Santorini, y en la Grecia continental. En la actualidad la cronología de las civilizaciones minoica, cicládica y heládica ofrece muchos puntos oscuros, por lo que las dataciones que se indican son aproximadas y susceptibles de revisión. Por otra parte, John Pendleburg, que trabajó varios años con Evans en Cnosos, observó que los distintos periodos no eran totalmente estancos, sino que con frecuencia se solapaban en parte.[13].
Se ofrece a continuación la cronología propuesta por Sturt Manning") (2010), una de las más aceptadas por la comunidad científica en la actualidad:[14].
Por otra parte, para la división de esta civilización también suele usarse el modelo propuesto por Nikolaos Platón, basado en los «palacios» como ejes centrales de los diferentes periodos.[15].
Ancient Minoan or Prepalatial
The first phase of Minoan history is known as Old Minoan or Prepalatial (AM). Traditionally its beginning is placed around 3000 BC. C., although some authors have placed it around 3500 and others prefer to lower the date to 2600.[16].
Relatively little is known about the state of civilization before 2700 BC. C. From that date on, Crete began to boom, as a result of the introduction of the wheel in pottery and bronze metallurgy, to which was added a demographic increase, especially in the central-eastern area.[17] The main archaeological sites of the oldest part of the prepalatial period are those of Knossos, Mojlos, Melidoni, Debla&action=edit&redlink=1 "Debla (Crete) (not yet redacted)")), Festus and Palekastro, and as the period progressed, those of Jamezi, Vasilikí, Malia and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)") stand out.[16].
During this time the Minoan civilization stood out for its communal organization. The prepalatial settlements are little known. From the Ancient Minoan I, few vestiges of houses remain, which were rectangular structures arranged irregularly. As the Ancient Minoan progresses, a progression is seen in the structure, technique and size of the houses.[18] There is evidence that the houses were built of stone and adobe, with patios paved with slabs and, occasionally, with stuccoed walls. The most characteristic homes have been found in Vasilikí and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)").[19].
Its water resources were quite limited. Wheat cultivation and livestock were already present in the Neolithic and it was in the Ancient Minoan when vine and olive crops were introduced. Activities such as hunting, forestry and quarrying were practiced. Craftsmanship was also important. Ceramics, clay and stone figurines, textiles, jewelry and weapons were produced. The glyptic is also present. Some steatite, ivory and bone seals found in Krasi"), Lebén or the Trapeza cave belong to the initial phase of the Ancient Minoan and glyptic continued to develop and diversify, with a variety of shapes, materials and representations.[20][16] Ceramics, in particular, present a wide variety of forms and in the initial phase a certain similarity with Cycladic and sometimes Anatolian ceramics can be seen. Styles are differentiated. ceramics such as that of Agios Nikolaos "Agios Nikolaos (Crete)") and the Kumasa style, among others. From the Early Minoan II, the Vasilikí style is also characteristic in some places.[21].
Religious activity during this period is present in funerary contexts. Figurines, offering tables and rooms used for rituals have been found on the outside of some tombs and also inside them. In this period, no sanctuaries are attested inside settlements, with the exception of one found in Mirtos.[22].
Burials were carried out in caves, rock shelters - such as in Mojlos - and in funerary enclosures, some simple and others monumental - such as in Nea Rúmata. In the Mesará plain, in the south of the island, circular burials have been found.[16] One of the largest necropolises from this period is that of Agia Fotiá "Agia Fotiá (Crete)"). Other necropolises have been found in Arjanes, Chrysólakos and Palekastro.[19] Some burials were used successively by several generations, which may be indicative of social stability. At the end of the ancient Minoan, burials in jars and small sarcophagi appeared. The trousseau consisted of stone figurines, glasses and obsidian blades and sometimes a tool or a dagger. Gold jewelry and ornaments are scarce at the beginning of the period but increase in the final part (for example in Mojlos). A strong Cycladic influence is observed in Agia Fotiá. In addition to Agia Fotiá, in places such as Katalimata, the acropolis of Gortyn, Trapeza and Psira the population may be of foreign origin.[23].
Commercial exchanges with the outside of the island were numerous. It went from a purely agricultural economy to a more evolved organization, the result of maritime trade with the other regions of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean.[17] The metals could have come from Egypt - according to Evans - but it is considered more likely that they came from Anatolia and the Aegean Islands. The Minoan presence on the island of Cythera began around the Early Minoan II, although it is disputed whether it was a permanent occupation or only during certain times of the year. Especially abundant were the exchanges with the Cyclades islands, from where obsidian and metals were imported. However, it is estimated that, during most of the period, the Cycladic people had a more advanced shipbuilding technology but the Minoan world gradually acquired greater dynamism in all aspects and at the end of the period was when Crete achieved commercial hegemony in the Aegean Sea.[16].
Perhaps due to some type of internal conflict, at the end of the Ancient Minoan II some settlements were abandoned and destroyed, but in others the population increased and new settlements also emerged in some places near the old ones. Thus, the Ancient Minoan III, which is attributed to a relatively short duration, is a period of isolation in which contacts with the outside world were reduced and ceramic styles were regionalized. This turbulent period coincides with what is observed in other areas such as Anatolia, Egypt and Syria.[24].
Period of the First Palaces
The stage called Protopalatial or the First Palaces covers approximately the period between 2000 and 1700 BC. C. The three main characteristics of that period are: the construction of the palaces, the development of Kamarés ceramics and the appearance of writing.[25].
Technological improvements and internal advances in political, economic and social organization, as well as intellectual advances and the rise of maritime trade are the triggers for the beginning of the new cultural period.[26][17] This development caused the appearance of surplus production, and a greater social hierarchy, which, together with other aspects related to the geographical environment of Crete, facilitated the consolidation of state systems in this period.[27].
There were certain reciprocal influences between Crete and Anatolia, and there may have been infiltrations of Anatolian elements on the island, but the revolution of palatial Crete is explained by an internal evolution, without there being any need to resort to the hypothesis of a massive invasion of new populations.[25].
In the beginning, a demographic increase is noted through the appearance of new settlements and the increase in the size of existing ones.[28] In this period, large buildings that have been called "palaces" are built in Phaistos, Malia, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)") and, the best known and most important of all, Knossos. One of the hypotheses is that the first palaces arose at strategic crossroads that were already important economic and population centers before the palaces were built.[26][29].
The appearance of the palaces contrasts with the apparent decline of Cycladic civilization and continental Greece, and is surprising on an island that had neither the artistic development of the Cyclades nor the level of economic organization of certain places in the Peloponnese, such as Lerna.[30].
Each of the palaces excavated to date has its own peculiarities, but they also share some characteristics between them that differentiate them from other architectural structures. Common characteristics are its layout around a central patio, whose floors were connected by small stairs, the facades built with porous stones and with monumental entrances, the abundance of warehouses, the existence of rooms intended for worship,[19] others for housing and others for craft workshops. It is striking that much of the space in them was intended for storage, which indicates a function of redistribution of products.[31] Most of the palatial settlements lacked a defensive system but there are some exceptions in which the presence of walls is denoted, such as Petra "Petra (Crete)") and Malia - in the latter at least in the Early Minoan III and Middle Minoan I periods.[32] The destructions observed in This period is estimated to be due to natural causes. The fleet, apparently, was so large that it could control any potential enemy, even pirate attacks.[26].
Second Palaces Period
This phase, also called Neopalatial, which includes the Middle Minoan III and Late Minoan I and II phases, belongs almost exclusively to the structures of the Palace of Knossos brought to light by Arthur Evans.[17] It is the phase in which Crete reaches its peak.[34]
Around 1700 BC. C. major catastrophes occurred on the island that have been attributed to seismic movements. This theory is supported by the discovery of the temple of Anemospilia by the archaeologist Sakelarakis, in which the bodies of three people who were surprised by the collapse of the temple appear.[35] Some theories postulate that at that time people from Anatolia were able to arrive on the island.[36] The palaces were destroyed but it did not take long to be recovered and rebuilt, even with greater complexity and ornamentation.[35]
New cities were founded and new, more majestic palaces were built on the ruins of the old ones. The palace centers controlled extensive territories, the result of the improvement and development of land and sea communications, through the construction of paved roads and ports.[34] In the area around Festus, the remains of the port of Kommós are important.[35].
The new palaces, labyrinthine in shape, consisted of several floors, with large patios and porticos, with wide stairs and corridors, as well as monumental propylaea. The royal quarters, equipped with rooms with thrones, bathrooms and ventilation shafts, could be accessed through several doors. In these palaces there were reception, banquet and ritual rooms. Warehouses, crypts, auxiliary facilities and workshops of various kinds were also provided. Hydraulic and drainage systems were enabled. The walls were decorated with polychrome frescoes and the pavements were covered with shiny aljez slabs.[34].
Regarding the social system, probably theocratic, the king of each palace was the official and religious supreme head. Perhaps there was a hierarchy among the kings, with the king of Knossos at the head.[34].
The construction of smaller palaces and mansions also grew, especially in the center and east of the island. Some of those that have left remains from this period are the palaces of Arjanes, Plati "Plati (Crete)") and Gurniá; the mansions of Tilissus, Palekastro, Sklavókampos, Hagia Triada and Amnissus; the agricultural villages of Vatípetro, Ano Zakro, Kania, Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)"). The population of cities like Knossos must have been important. Eastern cities, in particular, show highly organized urban planning and paved streets. In addition to houses, workshops, shops, port facilities in places such as Palekastro or Gurniá, water pipes, roads and bridges have been found.[34][35].
The writing system that became widespread at this time is linear A, although it coexisted for a time with the Cretan hieroglyph. It was probably not exclusive to palaces.[35].
Monopalatial Period
After the catastrophe suffered at the end of the previous period, only the palace of Knossos was rebuilt to be the residence of an Achaean dynasty from the Peloponnese.[34] The Mycenaean palaces that the Achaeans built in other places are unknown.[43].
The timing of the Greeks' arrival in Crete is a matter of controversy. There are historians who believe that they were able to take over the island taking advantage of the destruction generated shortly before. Other authors suggest that what occurred was a dynastic union.[44].
In any case, in addition to the palace of Knossos, the Mycenaean presence is recognized in many of the settlements that developed in this period in Crete: Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), Polirrenia, Gortina, Festo, Hagia Triada or Tiliso. Some of them survived into the archaic and classical Greek eras. The new civilization of Minoan roots, but with a Mycenaean spirit, had a marked tendency towards schematization and stylization. The same motifs are repeated, although simpler, in the decoration of the wall paintings, with the loss of the previous freedom and vitality.[43].
The administration and politics became Mycenaean, but it is possible that this Mycenaean presence in Crete was limited to Cydonia, Knossos - in these two places tablets have been found in linear B, which was their writing system - and perhaps to other places in the central Cretan area, while the rest of the island, especially the eastern sector, followed the Minoan customs and continued using linear A.[44] Other visible Mycenaean customs are the funerary, as Mycenaean tholos-type tombs and chamber tombs appear, with funerary goods in which the objects are often of a warrior theme, but next to them there are types of burial in larnaques - in places such as Armeni, Pigi") and Mesi") - or pitoi already known in Crete. A new style of ceramics that mixes Mycenaean and Minoan elements spread throughout the island. Objects related to cooking and textile crafts show continuity with Minoan customs.[45].
The dating of the linear B tablets that Evans found in Knossos is also discussed and that, since linear B is Greek, it would mean that the Greeks already dominated the island. Some authors, among whom is Evans, place them around 1400 BC. C. and others, such as Leonard Robert Palmer, around 1200 BC. C.[44] On the other hand, a study by Jan Driessen identifies different levels of destruction related to the tablets.[46].
It is believed that the transition between the 14th and 13th centuries BC. C. was another period of population movements. New buildings of significant size were built in places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)"), Malia or Kato Guves; the latter was a ceramic producing center. Commercial and cultural contacts with the Mycenaean centers of the continent multiplied. An intense export of Cretan stirrup jugs with olive oil to the continent is attested; On the other hand, Mycenaean art was largely nourished by iconography of Minoan origin.[45].
Postpalatial Period
At the end of the century and during the BC. C. there are extensive population movements in which coastal places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)") that seemed prosperous and also other flat places are suddenly abandoned, and settlements located at altitude that dominated places where they could have fertile agriculture are occupied. The cause of these population movements is unknown, which perhaps sought to protect themselves from threats from the sea. Some authors have related them to the thesis of the climate of terror produced by the so-called Sea Peoples, but others have pointed out the absence of traces of violent destruction and estimate that the movements must have occurred due to a combination of various factors.[45] On the other hand, this era is usually related to the tradition of the Dorian migrations.[43].
Influencing their conquerors from mainland Greece, the Minoan cultural tradition continued in some places, especially in the mountainous centers of eastern Crete and in the center of the island, such as Vrókastro, Praso "Praso (Crete)"), Karfí and other places.[43]
In this period, the use of iron and the cremation of the dead became widespread, attested by the discovery of cinerary urns in Fortetsa"), in the territory of Knossos.[43].
Political organization
There are several predominant views about the mode of political organization of Minoan Crete. One of them estimates that the island would be unified under a central power located in Knossos. This idea is supported by the larger size of Knossos, the absence of defensive walls, and the spread of the Knossos architectural style throughout the island. Another, however, supports the idea that this civilization was divided into several independent political units whose headquarters would be located in the various settlements in which a large monumental building has been found.[47] This series of monumental buildings with courtyards have been given the name "palaces", although it has not been conclusively demonstrated that they served as residences of kings.[48] The main ones are found in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Gurniá, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Galatás, Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)"), Protoria, Arjanes and Makrí Gialós.[47].
The organization of the territories could evolve over the centuries: the importance of Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), to the west, as an administrative center was elevated in a more recent phase (in the 1st centuries BC). On the other hand, in other places smaller palatial buildings (Niru Jani) and important rural "villas" (Hagia Triada) have been found, which has given rise to the hypothesis that there were governments dependent on other larger size.[47].
Minoan art
Minoan art, along with other aspects of their cultural activity (especially the evolution of ceramic styles) have allowed archaeologists to define the three phases of Minoan culture.
Among the most important of Minoan art are its ceramics. The early Minoan was characterized by the polychrome decoration of white and red motifs, and drawings of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, figures of marine animals, etc. Later, in the recent period, more colors were added, often adopting spherical shapes and decorated with more naturalistic and figurative scenes, for example octopuses that occupy the entire belly of the vessels.
But without a doubt the most characteristic of this rich culture are its frescoes. The scenes represented life on the island, using themes such as processions, sacrifices, dances, ritual fights with bulls, etc. They have a geometric style and are commonly monochromatic.
They also developed human and god figurines, usually female and with little accentuated sexual features. Also notable is the development of jewelry, gold vessels and precious stones, products for which they became known outside the island.
When it came to clothing, Minoan men typically wore loincloths and short skirts. Women, on the other hand, had bodices that reached the navel and long flared skirts. The patterns on the fabrics, like the rest of the art, gave emphasis to geometric figures.
The main collections of Minoan art are located in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, the Archaeological Museum of Chania, the Archaeological Museum of Sitia, the Museum of Prehistory of Thera, the Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos and the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno.
Minoan language and writing
The Minoan language is an isolated pre-Indo-European language that has not yet been deciphered.
His writing was, between the years 1900 BC. C. and 1700 BC. C., in a hieroglyphic form. Later this writing system "Writing (linguistic)") evolved into a syllabic phonetic writing, called Linear A (1700 BC - 1450 BC), which would later be adapted by the Mycenaean Greeks to write their language. This Mycenaean writing system adopted from Linear A is called Linear B and will end up being imposed both on the continent and on the island of Crete to keep track of the palaces, as shown by the vestiges found.
Minoan religion
The Minoans seem to have always given a predominant role to goddesses, so their religion has sometimes been described as "matriarchal".[50] Although there is evidence for the existence of male gods, representations of goddesses are by far the most frequent. While it is speculated that some of these representations of women correspond to faithful and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies, other times it seems that the image represents the same deity in different forms: as Mother Goddess of fertility, Lady of Animals, protector of cities, the home, the harvest, the underworld, etc. Some[51] have claimed that these were different aspects of a single Great Goddess. In this sense, the various figurines of women with bare breasts and flared dresses that usually appear clutching snakes stand out, which has been interpreted together with bare breasts as a symbol of fertility. Another possibility that has been suggested is that the main divinities of the Minoans were, as in other kingdoms of the Eastern Mediterranean, a goddess of the Sun and a god of the storm, who would be her son. Many experts suggest that these goddesses could be the evolution of the primitive Neolithic mother-goddesses and even the ancestors of the Greek goddesses Demeter and Persephone. All of them usually appear represented accompanied by snakes, birds, poppies and some type of barely recognizable animal on their heads.
The quintessential example of a great festive celebration is the famous athletic competition of bull jumping, depicted many times in the Knossos frescoes[53] and inscribed on seals.[54]
Arthur Evans believed that the horns of the bull were also present in one of the most recurrent Minoan symbols, which has the shape of a "u" and called it "horns of consecration", although other authors consider that the symbol is the representation of mountains.[55] It appears in many manifestations of Minoan art, and also in temples of Cyprus.[56].
Other sacred symbols of the Minoans were the labrys (double-edged axes), the columns, the snake, the sun disk and the tree. However, recent studies propose a radically different interpretation than the religious one for these symbols, suggesting that they refer to beekeeping.[57].
There are indications that the Minoans were able to carry out human sacrifices in several places: Anemospilia, in a building from the MMII (Protopalatial period 1800-1700 BC) interpreted as a temple, in Knossos, in a building known as the "North House", from the LMIB (Neopalatial period 1480-1425 BC)[58] and in Cidonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), in a burial dated between the 14th and 12th centuries BC. C. where animal bones appeared mixed with those of a young woman,[59] although the last two cases probably belong to the Cretan Mycenaean era.
As is usual in Bronze Age sites, it is the burials that provide most of the archaeological material for this period. Towards the end of the Minoan Neopalatial Period, two types of burial were practiced: with circular tombs or Tholoi, located in southern Crete; and the cist tombs (four side slabs and one on top) located in the north and east. Of course, there are different patterns within Minoan mortuary practices that do not completely conform to the two described, although it seems clear that inhumation, and not cremation, was the most popular form of burial in Bronze Age Crete.[60] Although in this period there is a tendency towards individual burial, there are exceptions, such as the controversial Chrysólakos complex, in Malia, a group of buildings that can be interpreted either as a center of burial rituals, or as the crypt of a noble family.
Hundreds of votive offerings have been discovered in the caves of various mountains, highlighting those of Mount Ida "Mount Ida (Crete)"), which suggests requests for help from the gods and that they are remains of certain rituals that could be carried out in these caves.
Genetic studies
A 2013 archaeogenetics study compared mitochondrial DNA from ancient Minoan skeletons buried in a cave on the Lasithi Plateau between 3,700 and 4,400 years ago, with that of 135 modern-day samples from Greece, Anatolia, Western and Northern Europe, North Africa, and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans, and especially to modern-day Cretans, particularly those from the Lasithi Plateau. They were also genetically similar to Neolithic Europeans, but distinct from Egyptian or Libyan populations. "We now know that the founders of the first advanced European civilization were Europeans," said study co-author George Stamatoyannopoulos, a geneticist at the University of Washington. "They were very similar to Neolithic Europeans and very similar to today's Cretans."
A 2017 archaeogenetic study on mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms from Minoan remains published in the journal Nature concluded that the Mycenaean Greeks were genetically related to the Minoans and that both are closely related, but not identical, to modern Greek populations. The same study also indicated that at least three-quarters of the DNA of the Minoans and Mycenaeans came from the early farmers of the Neolithic era who lived in western Anatolia and the Aegean Sea.
However, the Mycenaeans of Greece, but not the Minoans of Crete, also had an important difference: they possessed between 4% and 16% of DNA from ancestors who came from the north, from eastern Europe or Siberia (Indo-Europeans).[61]
References
[1] ↑ Oliva, P. / Borecky,B: Historia de los Griegos(1982), Editorial Cartago, México 22, D.F., p. 22.
[2] ↑ Nanno Marinatos, La Diosa del sol y la realeza en la Antigua Creta, p.20, Madrid: Machado (2019), ISBN 978-84-7774-331-6. En una nota complementaria se indica que, sin embargo, en ocasiones se designa también a Siria como Kaftor.
[3] ↑ Homero, Odisea XIX, 176.
[4] ↑ VV. AA: (1990). «Los grandes descubrimientos de la arqueología, tomo IV». Barcelona: Planeta-De Agostini. p. 44. ISBN 978-84-395-0690-2.
[5] ↑ a b Willets, 1992, p. 26.
[6] ↑ Willets, 1992, p. 28.
[7] ↑ Fernández Uriel, p. 37.
[8] ↑ Homero, Odisea XIX,172 (Traducción de Luis Segalá y Estalella).
[13] ↑ VV. AA: (1990). «Los grandes descubrimientos de la arqueología, tomo VII». Barcelona: Planeta-De Agostini. pp. 44-45. ISBN 978-84-395-0690-2.
[14] ↑ Sandra Lozano Rubio, Las actividades de mantenimiento en Creta durante la Edad del Bronce: La influencia de la elaboración textil y la preparación de alimentos en el sistema sexo-género minoico (tesis doctoral), p.11.: http://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/145504/tslr.pdf
[15] ↑ Sandra Lozano Rubio, Las actividades de mantenimiento en Creta durante la Edad del Bronce: La influencia de la elaboración textil y la preparación de alimentos en el sistema sexo-género minoico, p.10.
[16] ↑ a b c d e Luis García Iglesias, Los orígenes del pueblo griego, pp. 40-44.
[17] ↑ a b c d VV. AA: (1990). «Los grandes descubrimientos de la arqueología, tomo VII». Barcelona: Planeta-De Agostini. p. 47. ISBN 978-84-395-0690-2.
[18] ↑ María Soledad Milán Quiñones de León, El nacimiento del estado en la isla de Creta y el periodo Protopalacial en Malia, pp.108,121.
[19] ↑ a b c d Sosso Logiadou Platonos, La civilización minoica (trad. Juan Francisco Robisco), I. Matthioulakis & Co, Atenas, 1986, pp. 11-12.
[20] ↑ María Soledad Milán Quiñones de León, El nacimiento del estado en la isla de Creta y el periodo Protopalacial en Malia, pp.107,116.
[21] ↑ María Soledad Milán Quiñones de León, El nacimiento del estado en la isla de Creta y el periodo Protopalacial en Malia, pp.113-124.
[22] ↑ Fernández Monterrubio, Marina. Testimonios de divinidades no griegas en las inscripciones micénicas, p.9. Trabajo fin de grado. Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona (2014).: https://ddd.uab.cat/record/123212
[42] ↑ Charlotte Langohr, Des Etéocrétois à l’Âge du Bronze dans la péninsule de Sitia? Etude régionale et archéologique comparative de la Crète aux Minoen Récent II-Minoen Récent IIIB, pp.27-30, tesis doctoral, 2008.
[43] ↑ a b c d e Sosso Logiadou Platonos, op. cit., p. 29.
[44] ↑ a b c Luis García Iglesias, Los orígenes del pueblo griego pp.62-64.
[45] ↑ a b c Charlotte Langohr (2018). «El periodo micénico en Creta». Arqueología e historia (Madrid: Desperta Ferro Ediciones) (17): 53,54. ISSN 2387-1237.
[46] ↑ Luis García Iglesias, Los orígenes del pueblo griego p.92.
[47] ↑ a b c Ilse Schoep, Los minoicos de arriba abajo. Política, economía y sociedad en la Creta de la Edad del Bronce, en revista Arqueología e Historia, nº 17, febrero-marzo 2018, pp. 22-23, ISSN 2387-1237.
[48] ↑ Ilse Schoep, Los minoicos de arriba abajo. Política, economía y sociedad en la Creta de la Edad del Bronce, en revista Arqueología e Historia, nº 17, febrero-marzo 2018, p. 18, ISSN 2387-1237.
[50] ↑ Ver Castleden, Rodney (1993). Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04070-1. 041508833X.; Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, 1998, Beyond the Great Mother: The Sacred World of the Minoans, in Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, eds., Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence, London: British Museum Press, pp. 113–132; Marinatos, Nanno, 1993. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image, and Symbol. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
[51] ↑ Robert Graves; Los mitos griegos, La diosa blanca.
[52] ↑ Nanno Marinatos, La Diosa del sol y la realeza en la Antigua Creta, pp.250,275, Madrid: Machado (2019), ISBN 978-84-7774-331-6.
[53] ↑ En una pequeña sala del ala Este del palacio.
[54] ↑ Una figura de marfil fue reproducida por Spyridon Marinatos and Max Hirmer, Crete and Mycenae (New York) 1960, fig. 97, también muestra el movimiento de la danza del toro.
[55] ↑ Nanno Marinatos, La Diosa del sol y la realeza en la Antigua Creta, pp.173-174, Madrid: Machado (2019), ISBN 978-84-7774-331-6.
[57] ↑ Haralampos V. Harissis, Anastasios V. Harissis. Apiculture in the Prehistoric Aegean.Minoan and Mycenaean Symbols Revisited British Archaeological Reports S1958, 2009 ISBN 978-1-4073-0454-0.
[58] ↑ Dickinson, Oliver (2000), La edad del bronce Egea, p.320 Ediciones AKAL. ISBN 8446011999.
The island did not have any navigable river. However, it appears that there was more fresh water in the Bronze Age than today, and climate changes are probably a consequence of deforestation.[6].
The Cretan coastline "Littoral (geography)") has more than 1000 kilometers and its width from north to south ranges between 12 and 60 km. and in it many, innumerable men, and ninety cities. There several languages are heard mixed, since the Achaeans, the magnanimous indigenous Cretans, the Cydonians "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), the Dorians, who are divided into three tribes, and the divine Pelasgians live in that country.
Considering that the sea level on the coast of northern Crete was at least one meter lower in Roman times compared to today, it can be assumed that many Minoan archaeological remains are below the water surface. Minoan ports were often located under the shelter of promontories. Port facilities were used depending on the direction of the wind. The Mojlos promontory was one of the typical shelters, with a port on each side of the isthmus, until the rise in water level transformed it into an island.[10].
Another change in the configuration of the island's coasts was due to the gradual elevation of the entire western coast. This phenomenon, highlighted by Spratt in 1850, would have begun in medieval times, perhaps in the 2nd century, just after the conquest of the Saracens, who created the Emirate of Crete. Between Paleochora and the ancient city of Liso "Liso (Crete)"), the elevation has been estimated at 8 meters. Therefore, at Phalasarna, the ancient Greek city had an inland port, connected to the sea by a channel cut into the rock. This channel is now several meters above sea level.[10].
History
Contenido
Se han encontrado vestigios de la presencia humana en Creta desde el Paleolítico.[11][12]
En el Neolítico, llegaron grupos que se asentaron en Creta probablemente desde Anatolia en torno al 7000 a. C. Crearon diferentes asentamientos en la isla, uno de ellos en Cnosos. Estos primeros habitantes vivían en cuevas o chozas de madera, aunque con el paso del tiempo cambiarán de material a ladrillos de adobe y techumbres de madera. Fabricaban herramientas con diversos materiales como hueso y piedras duras e hicieron figuras de terracota de representaciones femeninas y masculinas, lo que indica que ya tenían cierto sentido religioso.
El arqueólogo británico Arthur Evans, que descubrió y excavó el Palacio de Cnosos, asignó a cada estrato de dicho palacio una duración temporal basada en el análisis comparativo de las cerámicas y los demás objetos que encontró en ellos. El estrato más profundo y antiguo que tenía seis metros de espesor era la base neolítica de aquella civilización. Este periodo abarcaría desde aproximadamente el 7000 hasta el 3400 a. C. A partir de ahí, Evans articuló una cronología de la civilización minoica en tres grandes periodos: Minoico Antiguo, al que asignó el periodo comprendido entre el 3400 y el 2100 a. C.; Minoico Medio, del 2100 al 1580 a. C.; y Minoico Reciente, del 1580 al 1200 a. C. Estas subdivisiones fueron inicialmente concebidas para los estratos del Palacio de Cnosos, pero se aplicaron a esta civilización. Estudios posteriores han modificado las fechas apuntadas por Evans. Los cambios más sustanciales fueron consecuencia, sobre todo, de hallazgos en las islas del Egeo, especialmente en Santorini, y en la Grecia continental. En la actualidad la cronología de las civilizaciones minoica, cicládica y heládica ofrece muchos puntos oscuros, por lo que las dataciones que se indican son aproximadas y susceptibles de revisión. Por otra parte, John Pendleburg, que trabajó varios años con Evans en Cnosos, observó que los distintos periodos no eran totalmente estancos, sino que con frecuencia se solapaban en parte.[13].
Se ofrece a continuación la cronología propuesta por Sturt Manning") (2010), una de las más aceptadas por la comunidad científica en la actualidad:[14].
Por otra parte, para la división de esta civilización también suele usarse el modelo propuesto por Nikolaos Platón, basado en los «palacios» como ejes centrales de los diferentes periodos.[15].
Ancient Minoan or Prepalatial
The first phase of Minoan history is known as Old Minoan or Prepalatial (AM). Traditionally its beginning is placed around 3000 BC. C., although some authors have placed it around 3500 and others prefer to lower the date to 2600.[16].
Relatively little is known about the state of civilization before 2700 BC. C. From that date on, Crete began to boom, as a result of the introduction of the wheel in pottery and bronze metallurgy, to which was added a demographic increase, especially in the central-eastern area.[17] The main archaeological sites of the oldest part of the prepalatial period are those of Knossos, Mojlos, Melidoni, Debla&action=edit&redlink=1 "Debla (Crete) (not yet redacted)")), Festus and Palekastro, and as the period progressed, those of Jamezi, Vasilikí, Malia and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)") stand out.[16].
During this time the Minoan civilization stood out for its communal organization. The prepalatial settlements are little known. From the Ancient Minoan I, few vestiges of houses remain, which were rectangular structures arranged irregularly. As the Ancient Minoan progresses, a progression is seen in the structure, technique and size of the houses.[18] There is evidence that the houses were built of stone and adobe, with patios paved with slabs and, occasionally, with stuccoed walls. The most characteristic homes have been found in Vasilikí and Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)").[19].
Its water resources were quite limited. Wheat cultivation and livestock were already present in the Neolithic and it was in the Ancient Minoan when vine and olive crops were introduced. Activities such as hunting, forestry and quarrying were practiced. Craftsmanship was also important. Ceramics, clay and stone figurines, textiles, jewelry and weapons were produced. The glyptic is also present. Some steatite, ivory and bone seals found in Krasi"), Lebén or the Trapeza cave belong to the initial phase of the Ancient Minoan and glyptic continued to develop and diversify, with a variety of shapes, materials and representations.[20][16] Ceramics, in particular, present a wide variety of forms and in the initial phase a certain similarity with Cycladic and sometimes Anatolian ceramics can be seen. Styles are differentiated. ceramics such as that of Agios Nikolaos "Agios Nikolaos (Crete)") and the Kumasa style, among others. From the Early Minoan II, the Vasilikí style is also characteristic in some places.[21].
Religious activity during this period is present in funerary contexts. Figurines, offering tables and rooms used for rituals have been found on the outside of some tombs and also inside them. In this period, no sanctuaries are attested inside settlements, with the exception of one found in Mirtos.[22].
Burials were carried out in caves, rock shelters - such as in Mojlos - and in funerary enclosures, some simple and others monumental - such as in Nea Rúmata. In the Mesará plain, in the south of the island, circular burials have been found.[16] One of the largest necropolises from this period is that of Agia Fotiá "Agia Fotiá (Crete)"). Other necropolises have been found in Arjanes, Chrysólakos and Palekastro.[19] Some burials were used successively by several generations, which may be indicative of social stability. At the end of the ancient Minoan, burials in jars and small sarcophagi appeared. The trousseau consisted of stone figurines, glasses and obsidian blades and sometimes a tool or a dagger. Gold jewelry and ornaments are scarce at the beginning of the period but increase in the final part (for example in Mojlos). A strong Cycladic influence is observed in Agia Fotiá. In addition to Agia Fotiá, in places such as Katalimata, the acropolis of Gortyn, Trapeza and Psira the population may be of foreign origin.[23].
Commercial exchanges with the outside of the island were numerous. It went from a purely agricultural economy to a more evolved organization, the result of maritime trade with the other regions of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean.[17] The metals could have come from Egypt - according to Evans - but it is considered more likely that they came from Anatolia and the Aegean Islands. The Minoan presence on the island of Cythera began around the Early Minoan II, although it is disputed whether it was a permanent occupation or only during certain times of the year. Especially abundant were the exchanges with the Cyclades islands, from where obsidian and metals were imported. However, it is estimated that, during most of the period, the Cycladic people had a more advanced shipbuilding technology but the Minoan world gradually acquired greater dynamism in all aspects and at the end of the period was when Crete achieved commercial hegemony in the Aegean Sea.[16].
Perhaps due to some type of internal conflict, at the end of the Ancient Minoan II some settlements were abandoned and destroyed, but in others the population increased and new settlements also emerged in some places near the old ones. Thus, the Ancient Minoan III, which is attributed to a relatively short duration, is a period of isolation in which contacts with the outside world were reduced and ceramic styles were regionalized. This turbulent period coincides with what is observed in other areas such as Anatolia, Egypt and Syria.[24].
Period of the First Palaces
The stage called Protopalatial or the First Palaces covers approximately the period between 2000 and 1700 BC. C. The three main characteristics of that period are: the construction of the palaces, the development of Kamarés ceramics and the appearance of writing.[25].
Technological improvements and internal advances in political, economic and social organization, as well as intellectual advances and the rise of maritime trade are the triggers for the beginning of the new cultural period.[26][17] This development caused the appearance of surplus production, and a greater social hierarchy, which, together with other aspects related to the geographical environment of Crete, facilitated the consolidation of state systems in this period.[27].
There were certain reciprocal influences between Crete and Anatolia, and there may have been infiltrations of Anatolian elements on the island, but the revolution of palatial Crete is explained by an internal evolution, without there being any need to resort to the hypothesis of a massive invasion of new populations.[25].
In the beginning, a demographic increase is noted through the appearance of new settlements and the increase in the size of existing ones.[28] In this period, large buildings that have been called "palaces" are built in Phaistos, Malia, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)") and, the best known and most important of all, Knossos. One of the hypotheses is that the first palaces arose at strategic crossroads that were already important economic and population centers before the palaces were built.[26][29].
The appearance of the palaces contrasts with the apparent decline of Cycladic civilization and continental Greece, and is surprising on an island that had neither the artistic development of the Cyclades nor the level of economic organization of certain places in the Peloponnese, such as Lerna.[30].
Each of the palaces excavated to date has its own peculiarities, but they also share some characteristics between them that differentiate them from other architectural structures. Common characteristics are its layout around a central patio, whose floors were connected by small stairs, the facades built with porous stones and with monumental entrances, the abundance of warehouses, the existence of rooms intended for worship,[19] others for housing and others for craft workshops. It is striking that much of the space in them was intended for storage, which indicates a function of redistribution of products.[31] Most of the palatial settlements lacked a defensive system but there are some exceptions in which the presence of walls is denoted, such as Petra "Petra (Crete)") and Malia - in the latter at least in the Early Minoan III and Middle Minoan I periods.[32] The destructions observed in This period is estimated to be due to natural causes. The fleet, apparently, was so large that it could control any potential enemy, even pirate attacks.[26].
Second Palaces Period
This phase, also called Neopalatial, which includes the Middle Minoan III and Late Minoan I and II phases, belongs almost exclusively to the structures of the Palace of Knossos brought to light by Arthur Evans.[17] It is the phase in which Crete reaches its peak.[34]
Around 1700 BC. C. major catastrophes occurred on the island that have been attributed to seismic movements. This theory is supported by the discovery of the temple of Anemospilia by the archaeologist Sakelarakis, in which the bodies of three people who were surprised by the collapse of the temple appear.[35] Some theories postulate that at that time people from Anatolia were able to arrive on the island.[36] The palaces were destroyed but it did not take long to be recovered and rebuilt, even with greater complexity and ornamentation.[35]
New cities were founded and new, more majestic palaces were built on the ruins of the old ones. The palace centers controlled extensive territories, the result of the improvement and development of land and sea communications, through the construction of paved roads and ports.[34] In the area around Festus, the remains of the port of Kommós are important.[35].
The new palaces, labyrinthine in shape, consisted of several floors, with large patios and porticos, with wide stairs and corridors, as well as monumental propylaea. The royal quarters, equipped with rooms with thrones, bathrooms and ventilation shafts, could be accessed through several doors. In these palaces there were reception, banquet and ritual rooms. Warehouses, crypts, auxiliary facilities and workshops of various kinds were also provided. Hydraulic and drainage systems were enabled. The walls were decorated with polychrome frescoes and the pavements were covered with shiny aljez slabs.[34].
Regarding the social system, probably theocratic, the king of each palace was the official and religious supreme head. Perhaps there was a hierarchy among the kings, with the king of Knossos at the head.[34].
The construction of smaller palaces and mansions also grew, especially in the center and east of the island. Some of those that have left remains from this period are the palaces of Arjanes, Plati "Plati (Crete)") and Gurniá; the mansions of Tilissus, Palekastro, Sklavókampos, Hagia Triada and Amnissus; the agricultural villages of Vatípetro, Ano Zakro, Kania, Mirtos "Pirgos (Crete)"). The population of cities like Knossos must have been important. Eastern cities, in particular, show highly organized urban planning and paved streets. In addition to houses, workshops, shops, port facilities in places such as Palekastro or Gurniá, water pipes, roads and bridges have been found.[34][35].
The writing system that became widespread at this time is linear A, although it coexisted for a time with the Cretan hieroglyph. It was probably not exclusive to palaces.[35].
Monopalatial Period
After the catastrophe suffered at the end of the previous period, only the palace of Knossos was rebuilt to be the residence of an Achaean dynasty from the Peloponnese.[34] The Mycenaean palaces that the Achaeans built in other places are unknown.[43].
The timing of the Greeks' arrival in Crete is a matter of controversy. There are historians who believe that they were able to take over the island taking advantage of the destruction generated shortly before. Other authors suggest that what occurred was a dynastic union.[44].
In any case, in addition to the palace of Knossos, the Mycenaean presence is recognized in many of the settlements that developed in this period in Crete: Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), Polirrenia, Gortina, Festo, Hagia Triada or Tiliso. Some of them survived into the archaic and classical Greek eras. The new civilization of Minoan roots, but with a Mycenaean spirit, had a marked tendency towards schematization and stylization. The same motifs are repeated, although simpler, in the decoration of the wall paintings, with the loss of the previous freedom and vitality.[43].
The administration and politics became Mycenaean, but it is possible that this Mycenaean presence in Crete was limited to Cydonia, Knossos - in these two places tablets have been found in linear B, which was their writing system - and perhaps to other places in the central Cretan area, while the rest of the island, especially the eastern sector, followed the Minoan customs and continued using linear A.[44] Other visible Mycenaean customs are the funerary, as Mycenaean tholos-type tombs and chamber tombs appear, with funerary goods in which the objects are often of a warrior theme, but next to them there are types of burial in larnaques - in places such as Armeni, Pigi") and Mesi") - or pitoi already known in Crete. A new style of ceramics that mixes Mycenaean and Minoan elements spread throughout the island. Objects related to cooking and textile crafts show continuity with Minoan customs.[45].
The dating of the linear B tablets that Evans found in Knossos is also discussed and that, since linear B is Greek, it would mean that the Greeks already dominated the island. Some authors, among whom is Evans, place them around 1400 BC. C. and others, such as Leonard Robert Palmer, around 1200 BC. C.[44] On the other hand, a study by Jan Driessen identifies different levels of destruction related to the tablets.[46].
It is believed that the transition between the 14th and 13th centuries BC. C. was another period of population movements. New buildings of significant size were built in places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)"), Malia or Kato Guves; the latter was a ceramic producing center. Commercial and cultural contacts with the Mycenaean centers of the continent multiplied. An intense export of Cretan stirrup jugs with olive oil to the continent is attested; On the other hand, Mycenaean art was largely nourished by iconography of Minoan origin.[45].
Postpalatial Period
At the end of the century and during the BC. C. there are extensive population movements in which coastal places such as Sisi "Sisi (Crete)") that seemed prosperous and also other flat places are suddenly abandoned, and settlements located at altitude that dominated places where they could have fertile agriculture are occupied. The cause of these population movements is unknown, which perhaps sought to protect themselves from threats from the sea. Some authors have related them to the thesis of the climate of terror produced by the so-called Sea Peoples, but others have pointed out the absence of traces of violent destruction and estimate that the movements must have occurred due to a combination of various factors.[45] On the other hand, this era is usually related to the tradition of the Dorian migrations.[43].
Influencing their conquerors from mainland Greece, the Minoan cultural tradition continued in some places, especially in the mountainous centers of eastern Crete and in the center of the island, such as Vrókastro, Praso "Praso (Crete)"), Karfí and other places.[43]
In this period, the use of iron and the cremation of the dead became widespread, attested by the discovery of cinerary urns in Fortetsa"), in the territory of Knossos.[43].
Political organization
There are several predominant views about the mode of political organization of Minoan Crete. One of them estimates that the island would be unified under a central power located in Knossos. This idea is supported by the larger size of Knossos, the absence of defensive walls, and the spread of the Knossos architectural style throughout the island. Another, however, supports the idea that this civilization was divided into several independent political units whose headquarters would be located in the various settlements in which a large monumental building has been found.[47] This series of monumental buildings with courtyards have been given the name "palaces", although it has not been conclusively demonstrated that they served as residences of kings.[48] The main ones are found in Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros, Gurniá, Petra "Petra (Crete)"), Galatás, Monastiraki "Monastiraki (Rethymno)"), Protoria, Arjanes and Makrí Gialós.[47].
The organization of the territories could evolve over the centuries: the importance of Cydonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), to the west, as an administrative center was elevated in a more recent phase (in the 1st centuries BC). On the other hand, in other places smaller palatial buildings (Niru Jani) and important rural "villas" (Hagia Triada) have been found, which has given rise to the hypothesis that there were governments dependent on other larger size.[47].
Minoan art
Minoan art, along with other aspects of their cultural activity (especially the evolution of ceramic styles) have allowed archaeologists to define the three phases of Minoan culture.
Among the most important of Minoan art are its ceramics. The early Minoan was characterized by the polychrome decoration of white and red motifs, and drawings of spirals, triangles, curved lines, crosses, figures of marine animals, etc. Later, in the recent period, more colors were added, often adopting spherical shapes and decorated with more naturalistic and figurative scenes, for example octopuses that occupy the entire belly of the vessels.
But without a doubt the most characteristic of this rich culture are its frescoes. The scenes represented life on the island, using themes such as processions, sacrifices, dances, ritual fights with bulls, etc. They have a geometric style and are commonly monochromatic.
They also developed human and god figurines, usually female and with little accentuated sexual features. Also notable is the development of jewelry, gold vessels and precious stones, products for which they became known outside the island.
When it came to clothing, Minoan men typically wore loincloths and short skirts. Women, on the other hand, had bodices that reached the navel and long flared skirts. The patterns on the fabrics, like the rest of the art, gave emphasis to geometric figures.
The main collections of Minoan art are located in the Archaeological Museum of Heraklion, the Archaeological Museum of Chania, the Archaeological Museum of Sitia, the Museum of Prehistory of Thera, the Archaeological Museum of Agios Nikolaos and the Archaeological Museum of Rethymno.
Minoan language and writing
The Minoan language is an isolated pre-Indo-European language that has not yet been deciphered.
His writing was, between the years 1900 BC. C. and 1700 BC. C., in a hieroglyphic form. Later this writing system "Writing (linguistic)") evolved into a syllabic phonetic writing, called Linear A (1700 BC - 1450 BC), which would later be adapted by the Mycenaean Greeks to write their language. This Mycenaean writing system adopted from Linear A is called Linear B and will end up being imposed both on the continent and on the island of Crete to keep track of the palaces, as shown by the vestiges found.
Minoan religion
The Minoans seem to have always given a predominant role to goddesses, so their religion has sometimes been described as "matriarchal".[50] Although there is evidence for the existence of male gods, representations of goddesses are by far the most frequent. While it is speculated that some of these representations of women correspond to faithful and priestesses officiating at religious ceremonies, other times it seems that the image represents the same deity in different forms: as Mother Goddess of fertility, Lady of Animals, protector of cities, the home, the harvest, the underworld, etc. Some[51] have claimed that these were different aspects of a single Great Goddess. In this sense, the various figurines of women with bare breasts and flared dresses that usually appear clutching snakes stand out, which has been interpreted together with bare breasts as a symbol of fertility. Another possibility that has been suggested is that the main divinities of the Minoans were, as in other kingdoms of the Eastern Mediterranean, a goddess of the Sun and a god of the storm, who would be her son. Many experts suggest that these goddesses could be the evolution of the primitive Neolithic mother-goddesses and even the ancestors of the Greek goddesses Demeter and Persephone. All of them usually appear represented accompanied by snakes, birds, poppies and some type of barely recognizable animal on their heads.
The quintessential example of a great festive celebration is the famous athletic competition of bull jumping, depicted many times in the Knossos frescoes[53] and inscribed on seals.[54]
Arthur Evans believed that the horns of the bull were also present in one of the most recurrent Minoan symbols, which has the shape of a "u" and called it "horns of consecration", although other authors consider that the symbol is the representation of mountains.[55] It appears in many manifestations of Minoan art, and also in temples of Cyprus.[56].
Other sacred symbols of the Minoans were the labrys (double-edged axes), the columns, the snake, the sun disk and the tree. However, recent studies propose a radically different interpretation than the religious one for these symbols, suggesting that they refer to beekeeping.[57].
There are indications that the Minoans were able to carry out human sacrifices in several places: Anemospilia, in a building from the MMII (Protopalatial period 1800-1700 BC) interpreted as a temple, in Knossos, in a building known as the "North House", from the LMIB (Neopalatial period 1480-1425 BC)[58] and in Cidonia "Cidonia (Ancient Greece)"), in a burial dated between the 14th and 12th centuries BC. C. where animal bones appeared mixed with those of a young woman,[59] although the last two cases probably belong to the Cretan Mycenaean era.
As is usual in Bronze Age sites, it is the burials that provide most of the archaeological material for this period. Towards the end of the Minoan Neopalatial Period, two types of burial were practiced: with circular tombs or Tholoi, located in southern Crete; and the cist tombs (four side slabs and one on top) located in the north and east. Of course, there are different patterns within Minoan mortuary practices that do not completely conform to the two described, although it seems clear that inhumation, and not cremation, was the most popular form of burial in Bronze Age Crete.[60] Although in this period there is a tendency towards individual burial, there are exceptions, such as the controversial Chrysólakos complex, in Malia, a group of buildings that can be interpreted either as a center of burial rituals, or as the crypt of a noble family.
Hundreds of votive offerings have been discovered in the caves of various mountains, highlighting those of Mount Ida "Mount Ida (Crete)"), which suggests requests for help from the gods and that they are remains of certain rituals that could be carried out in these caves.
Genetic studies
A 2013 archaeogenetics study compared mitochondrial DNA from ancient Minoan skeletons buried in a cave on the Lasithi Plateau between 3,700 and 4,400 years ago, with that of 135 modern-day samples from Greece, Anatolia, Western and Northern Europe, North Africa, and Egypt. The researchers found that the Minoan skeletons were genetically very similar to modern-day Europeans, and especially to modern-day Cretans, particularly those from the Lasithi Plateau. They were also genetically similar to Neolithic Europeans, but distinct from Egyptian or Libyan populations. "We now know that the founders of the first advanced European civilization were Europeans," said study co-author George Stamatoyannopoulos, a geneticist at the University of Washington. "They were very similar to Neolithic Europeans and very similar to today's Cretans."
A 2017 archaeogenetic study on mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms from Minoan remains published in the journal Nature concluded that the Mycenaean Greeks were genetically related to the Minoans and that both are closely related, but not identical, to modern Greek populations. The same study also indicated that at least three-quarters of the DNA of the Minoans and Mycenaeans came from the early farmers of the Neolithic era who lived in western Anatolia and the Aegean Sea.
However, the Mycenaeans of Greece, but not the Minoans of Crete, also had an important difference: they possessed between 4% and 16% of DNA from ancestors who came from the north, from eastern Europe or Siberia (Indo-Europeans).[61]
References
[1] ↑ Oliva, P. / Borecky,B: Historia de los Griegos(1982), Editorial Cartago, México 22, D.F., p. 22.
[2] ↑ Nanno Marinatos, La Diosa del sol y la realeza en la Antigua Creta, p.20, Madrid: Machado (2019), ISBN 978-84-7774-331-6. En una nota complementaria se indica que, sin embargo, en ocasiones se designa también a Siria como Kaftor.
[3] ↑ Homero, Odisea XIX, 176.
[4] ↑ VV. AA: (1990). «Los grandes descubrimientos de la arqueología, tomo IV». Barcelona: Planeta-De Agostini. p. 44. ISBN 978-84-395-0690-2.
[5] ↑ a b Willets, 1992, p. 26.
[6] ↑ Willets, 1992, p. 28.
[7] ↑ Fernández Uriel, p. 37.
[8] ↑ Homero, Odisea XIX,172 (Traducción de Luis Segalá y Estalella).
[13] ↑ VV. AA: (1990). «Los grandes descubrimientos de la arqueología, tomo VII». Barcelona: Planeta-De Agostini. pp. 44-45. ISBN 978-84-395-0690-2.
[14] ↑ Sandra Lozano Rubio, Las actividades de mantenimiento en Creta durante la Edad del Bronce: La influencia de la elaboración textil y la preparación de alimentos en el sistema sexo-género minoico (tesis doctoral), p.11.: http://www.tdx.cat/bitstream/handle/10803/145504/tslr.pdf
[15] ↑ Sandra Lozano Rubio, Las actividades de mantenimiento en Creta durante la Edad del Bronce: La influencia de la elaboración textil y la preparación de alimentos en el sistema sexo-género minoico, p.10.
[16] ↑ a b c d e Luis García Iglesias, Los orígenes del pueblo griego, pp. 40-44.
[17] ↑ a b c d VV. AA: (1990). «Los grandes descubrimientos de la arqueología, tomo VII». Barcelona: Planeta-De Agostini. p. 47. ISBN 978-84-395-0690-2.
[18] ↑ María Soledad Milán Quiñones de León, El nacimiento del estado en la isla de Creta y el periodo Protopalacial en Malia, pp.108,121.
[19] ↑ a b c d Sosso Logiadou Platonos, La civilización minoica (trad. Juan Francisco Robisco), I. Matthioulakis & Co, Atenas, 1986, pp. 11-12.
[20] ↑ María Soledad Milán Quiñones de León, El nacimiento del estado en la isla de Creta y el periodo Protopalacial en Malia, pp.107,116.
[21] ↑ María Soledad Milán Quiñones de León, El nacimiento del estado en la isla de Creta y el periodo Protopalacial en Malia, pp.113-124.
[22] ↑ Fernández Monterrubio, Marina. Testimonios de divinidades no griegas en las inscripciones micénicas, p.9. Trabajo fin de grado. Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona (2014).: https://ddd.uab.cat/record/123212
[42] ↑ Charlotte Langohr, Des Etéocrétois à l’Âge du Bronze dans la péninsule de Sitia? Etude régionale et archéologique comparative de la Crète aux Minoen Récent II-Minoen Récent IIIB, pp.27-30, tesis doctoral, 2008.
[43] ↑ a b c d e Sosso Logiadou Platonos, op. cit., p. 29.
[44] ↑ a b c Luis García Iglesias, Los orígenes del pueblo griego pp.62-64.
[45] ↑ a b c Charlotte Langohr (2018). «El periodo micénico en Creta». Arqueología e historia (Madrid: Desperta Ferro Ediciones) (17): 53,54. ISSN 2387-1237.
[46] ↑ Luis García Iglesias, Los orígenes del pueblo griego p.92.
[47] ↑ a b c Ilse Schoep, Los minoicos de arriba abajo. Política, economía y sociedad en la Creta de la Edad del Bronce, en revista Arqueología e Historia, nº 17, febrero-marzo 2018, pp. 22-23, ISSN 2387-1237.
[48] ↑ Ilse Schoep, Los minoicos de arriba abajo. Política, economía y sociedad en la Creta de la Edad del Bronce, en revista Arqueología e Historia, nº 17, febrero-marzo 2018, p. 18, ISSN 2387-1237.
[50] ↑ Ver Castleden, Rodney (1993). Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-04070-1. 041508833X.; Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, 1998, Beyond the Great Mother: The Sacred World of the Minoans, in Goodison, Lucy, and Christine Morris, eds., Ancient Goddesses: The Myths and the Evidence, London: British Museum Press, pp. 113–132; Marinatos, Nanno, 1993. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Image, and Symbol. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press.
[51] ↑ Robert Graves; Los mitos griegos, La diosa blanca.
[52] ↑ Nanno Marinatos, La Diosa del sol y la realeza en la Antigua Creta, pp.250,275, Madrid: Machado (2019), ISBN 978-84-7774-331-6.
[53] ↑ En una pequeña sala del ala Este del palacio.
[54] ↑ Una figura de marfil fue reproducida por Spyridon Marinatos and Max Hirmer, Crete and Mycenae (New York) 1960, fig. 97, también muestra el movimiento de la danza del toro.
[55] ↑ Nanno Marinatos, La Diosa del sol y la realeza en la Antigua Creta, pp.173-174, Madrid: Machado (2019), ISBN 978-84-7774-331-6.
[57] ↑ Haralampos V. Harissis, Anastasios V. Harissis. Apiculture in the Prehistoric Aegean.Minoan and Mycenaean Symbols Revisited British Archaeological Reports S1958, 2009 ISBN 978-1-4073-0454-0.
[58] ↑ Dickinson, Oliver (2000), La edad del bronce Egea, p.320 Ediciones AKAL. ISBN 8446011999.
It is believed that the control of most of the productive and commercial activities corresponded to the palaces. Some of these activities were metallurgy, construction, goldsmithing, glyptic, wood production, hunting, textile production, fishing and seafaring.[26] Agriculture and livestock continued to develop, along with commercial activities. All of this resulted in a rich economy, which kept this society safe from social revolts.
In addition, other mansions of great luxury emerged, which could be called palaces; Constructions with more than one floor are not uncommon and even the most humble houses boast architectural solidity. Society was probably stratified so that royalty and a number of aristocratic families were at the top. An administrative-economic development is also observed through warehouses and factories, among other aspects.[26].
Another novelty is the appearance of the first writing systems: the Cretan hieroglyph and, before the end of the Middle Minoan, also the linear A.[26].
Religious power was, as in other eastern societies, exercised by royalty. In addition to the enclosures for worship that were inside the palaces, religious dynamism is observed throughout the island, through sanctuaries in caves or in mountains. Of note is the palace complex of Zóminthos, at 1,200 meters above sea level, at the foot of Mount Ida, which is estimated to have been not only religious in nature but also a political and economic center.[33] In all the sanctuaries, a large number of votive offerings, sacrificial tables have been recovered, and symbolic elements such as the double ax appear. Among the cults practiced, some were probably related to the funerary sphere. The possibility that they practiced ritual human sacrifice is a matter of controversy.[26].
In this period, rich burials are found in tholos - for example, in the necropolis of Plátanos "Plátanos (Heraklion)") - and quadrangular monumental enclosures, others in sarcophagi and also poorer burials, in vessels and with other coverings.[26].
In foreign policy the hegemony of Crete was imposed over the Cyclades. Metals were imported, such as those necessary for the production of bronze. Ceramics from Kamarés and other manufactured objects were exported; possibly also some agricultural and livestock products, and wood to Egypt. Exchanges took place with the islands, with the Greek mainland, with Cyprus, with Egypt and with the Middle East. In Ialyssos, on the island of Rhodes, the existence of a Minoan settlement is attested from this period.[26].
The decorative ceramic style called Kamarés, after the name of the homonymous town, in whose caves numerous specimens were found, was born in the royal workshops.[19] It is a simple but polychrome style of ceramics—red and white on the gray of the clay.
In this period, metallurgical and artistic production reached its maximum development, particularly goldsmithing, glyptic work and sculpture of small figures, as well as ceramics. Fresco painting is also very prominent and touches on a variety of themes, both in Crete and in other places such as the island of Tera.[35].
It is believed that the social hierarchy observed at the time of the first palaces was accentuated in this period. It was also a very diversified society based on different jobs and functions. There are rich, normal and poor houses. The presence of slaves in this period has not been proven, but there are authors who do not rule it out either. Possibly initiation and passage rites were performed. The burials that have been found also indicate different levels of social hierarchy.[35].
The representation of divinities increased, in particular a goddess accompanied by animals, a male god accompanying her, and religious emblems such as bull heads, double axes, and horns of consecration. Sanctuaries were abundant, including some on other islands outside Crete, particularly mountain sanctuaries. Rituals established by a series of rules were carried out, with priests and priestesses.[35].
Naval activity developed greatly in this period; The size of the ships grew and made possible the commercial expansion of the Minoans, which spanned from the central Mediterranean to the Near East, North Africa and even reached the northern part of the Aegean (such as the island of Samothrace). It is possible that the Minoans had stable settlements in the Cyclades, particularly in Thera. Relations with Egypt were extensive, particularly with the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty. In Egyptian sources the name "keftiu" appears in reference to the Cretans and the Minoan influence is notable in the paintings at Tell el-Daba. The relationship with Egypt ceased shortly before 1400 BC. C. Cyprus, Mari "Mari (city)"), Ugarit, Byblos and Anatolia were other places that had a relationship with Crete.[35].
Cretan exports included agricultural products, wood and manufactures (especially ceramics). Oriental manufactures, metals and ivory were imported.[35].
In this period, the violent eruption of the Santorini volcano occurred,[34] known as Minoan eruption, in the period between 1639 and 1616 BC. C., dated by means of radiocarbon dating;[37] in 1628 BC. C. dendrochronologically;[38] and in 1530-1500 BC. C. archaeologically.[39] This event has been considered one of the largest eruptions on the planet, but the short-term impact it had on Crete is disputed. Some authors have estimated that it did not have a significant effect, but others have pointed out that, in addition to the inevitable destruction of a good part of the fleet, it would have caused a large-scale crisis that would have led, in the long term, to the disappearance of the palaces.[40].
This era is related to the myth of Minos, to whom the thalassocracy throughout the Aegean and expeditions even to Sicily were attributed. But what should be interpreted as historical about these traditions is doubtful. In fact the predominant position is that the only relations between the Minoans and the continental Greeks, before the arrival of the Greeks to Crete, were commercial, and not that Crete had political control of the continent, as Evans believed, although the issue is far from clear. Another account of the myth indicated that every 9 years Minos retired from Knossos to the sacred cave of Zeus (or that he retired there for 9 years) to receive instructions from the god, which It has been related to the archaeological complex of Zóminthos and the cave of Mount Ida.[41].
At the end of this period, around 1450 BC. C. new destructions occurred that caused the decline of the Minoan civilization. The cause of these destructions is the subject of debate but archaeological data clearly point to human causes. It has been observed that these focused on the most prominent buildings that served as centers of power while other buildings of a domestic or artisanal nature were respected and some valuable objects have also been found that were buried or deliberately hidden, suggesting that the Cretans were aware of the presence of an imminent danger. The hypotheses that have been suggested are mainly two: that the destructions would have been caused by an invasion from the Greek continental area or that they would have been caused by internal struggles in which the center of power of Knossos would have imposed itself on the other palatial centers of the island.[42].
It is believed that the control of most of the productive and commercial activities corresponded to the palaces. Some of these activities were metallurgy, construction, goldsmithing, glyptic, wood production, hunting, textile production, fishing and seafaring.[26] Agriculture and livestock continued to develop, along with commercial activities. All of this resulted in a rich economy, which kept this society safe from social revolts.
In addition, other mansions of great luxury emerged, which could be called palaces; Constructions with more than one floor are not uncommon and even the most humble houses boast architectural solidity. Society was probably stratified so that royalty and a number of aristocratic families were at the top. An administrative-economic development is also observed through warehouses and factories, among other aspects.[26].
Another novelty is the appearance of the first writing systems: the Cretan hieroglyph and, before the end of the Middle Minoan, also the linear A.[26].
Religious power was, as in other eastern societies, exercised by royalty. In addition to the enclosures for worship that were inside the palaces, religious dynamism is observed throughout the island, through sanctuaries in caves or in mountains. Of note is the palace complex of Zóminthos, at 1,200 meters above sea level, at the foot of Mount Ida, which is estimated to have been not only religious in nature but also a political and economic center.[33] In all the sanctuaries, a large number of votive offerings, sacrificial tables have been recovered, and symbolic elements such as the double ax appear. Among the cults practiced, some were probably related to the funerary sphere. The possibility that they practiced ritual human sacrifice is a matter of controversy.[26].
In this period, rich burials are found in tholos - for example, in the necropolis of Plátanos "Plátanos (Heraklion)") - and quadrangular monumental enclosures, others in sarcophagi and also poorer burials, in vessels and with other coverings.[26].
In foreign policy the hegemony of Crete was imposed over the Cyclades. Metals were imported, such as those necessary for the production of bronze. Ceramics from Kamarés and other manufactured objects were exported; possibly also some agricultural and livestock products, and wood to Egypt. Exchanges took place with the islands, with the Greek mainland, with Cyprus, with Egypt and with the Middle East. In Ialyssos, on the island of Rhodes, the existence of a Minoan settlement is attested from this period.[26].
The decorative ceramic style called Kamarés, after the name of the homonymous town, in whose caves numerous specimens were found, was born in the royal workshops.[19] It is a simple but polychrome style of ceramics—red and white on the gray of the clay.
In this period, metallurgical and artistic production reached its maximum development, particularly goldsmithing, glyptic work and sculpture of small figures, as well as ceramics. Fresco painting is also very prominent and touches on a variety of themes, both in Crete and in other places such as the island of Tera.[35].
It is believed that the social hierarchy observed at the time of the first palaces was accentuated in this period. It was also a very diversified society based on different jobs and functions. There are rich, normal and poor houses. The presence of slaves in this period has not been proven, but there are authors who do not rule it out either. Possibly initiation and passage rites were performed. The burials that have been found also indicate different levels of social hierarchy.[35].
The representation of divinities increased, in particular a goddess accompanied by animals, a male god accompanying her, and religious emblems such as bull heads, double axes, and horns of consecration. Sanctuaries were abundant, including some on other islands outside Crete, particularly mountain sanctuaries. Rituals established by a series of rules were carried out, with priests and priestesses.[35].
Naval activity developed greatly in this period; The size of the ships grew and made possible the commercial expansion of the Minoans, which spanned from the central Mediterranean to the Near East, North Africa and even reached the northern part of the Aegean (such as the island of Samothrace). It is possible that the Minoans had stable settlements in the Cyclades, particularly in Thera. Relations with Egypt were extensive, particularly with the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty. In Egyptian sources the name "keftiu" appears in reference to the Cretans and the Minoan influence is notable in the paintings at Tell el-Daba. The relationship with Egypt ceased shortly before 1400 BC. C. Cyprus, Mari "Mari (city)"), Ugarit, Byblos and Anatolia were other places that had a relationship with Crete.[35].
Cretan exports included agricultural products, wood and manufactures (especially ceramics). Oriental manufactures, metals and ivory were imported.[35].
In this period, the violent eruption of the Santorini volcano occurred,[34] known as Minoan eruption, in the period between 1639 and 1616 BC. C., dated by means of radiocarbon dating;[37] in 1628 BC. C. dendrochronologically;[38] and in 1530-1500 BC. C. archaeologically.[39] This event has been considered one of the largest eruptions on the planet, but the short-term impact it had on Crete is disputed. Some authors have estimated that it did not have a significant effect, but others have pointed out that, in addition to the inevitable destruction of a good part of the fleet, it would have caused a large-scale crisis that would have led, in the long term, to the disappearance of the palaces.[40].
This era is related to the myth of Minos, to whom the thalassocracy throughout the Aegean and expeditions even to Sicily were attributed. But what should be interpreted as historical about these traditions is doubtful. In fact the predominant position is that the only relations between the Minoans and the continental Greeks, before the arrival of the Greeks to Crete, were commercial, and not that Crete had political control of the continent, as Evans believed, although the issue is far from clear. Another account of the myth indicated that every 9 years Minos retired from Knossos to the sacred cave of Zeus (or that he retired there for 9 years) to receive instructions from the god, which It has been related to the archaeological complex of Zóminthos and the cave of Mount Ida.[41].
At the end of this period, around 1450 BC. C. new destructions occurred that caused the decline of the Minoan civilization. The cause of these destructions is the subject of debate but archaeological data clearly point to human causes. It has been observed that these focused on the most prominent buildings that served as centers of power while other buildings of a domestic or artisanal nature were respected and some valuable objects have also been found that were buried or deliberately hidden, suggesting that the Cretans were aware of the presence of an imminent danger. The hypotheses that have been suggested are mainly two: that the destructions would have been caused by an invasion from the Greek continental area or that they would have been caused by internal struggles in which the center of power of Knossos would have imposed itself on the other palatial centers of the island.[42].