Contenido

El estudio de los climas contemporáneos incorpora datos meteorológicos acumulados a lo largo de muchos años, como registros de precipitaciones, temperatura y composición atmosférica. El conocimiento de la atmósfera y su dinámica también se plasma en modelos&action=edit&redlink=1 "Modelo (abstracto) (aún no redactado)"), ya sea estadístico o matemático, que ayudan a integrar diferentes observaciones y a comprobar cómo encajan. La modelización se utiliza para comprender los climas pasados, presentes y futuros.

La investigación sobre el clima se ve dificultada por la gran escala, los largos periodos de tiempo y los complejos procesos que lo rigen. El clima se rige por leyes físicas que pueden expresarse como ecuaciones diferenciales. Estas ecuaciones están acopladas y no son lineales, por lo que las soluciones aproximadas se obtienen utilizando métodos numéricos para crear modelos climáticos globales"). El clima se modela a veces como un proceso estocástico, pero esto se acepta generalmente como una aproximación a procesos que, de otro modo, son demasiado complicados de analizar.

Climate data

The collection of long records of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. Climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorology has collected.[11]​ Scientists use direct and indirect observations of climate, from Earth observation satellites and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of thermometers, to prehistoric ice extracted from glaciers.[12]​ As measurement technology changes over time, data records cannot be directly compared. As cities tend to be warmer than surrounding areas, urbanization has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this urban heat island effect.[13]​.

Models

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice. They are used for various purposes, from the study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or nearly so, the incoming energy in the form of shortwave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with the outgoing energy in the form of longwave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any imbalance causes a change in the Earth's average temperature. Most climate models include the radiative effects of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. These models predict an increasing trend in surface temperatures, as well as a more rapid rise in temperature at higher latitudes.

Models can range from relatively simple to complex:.

In addition, they are available in different resolutions ranging from >100 to 1 km. The high resolutions of global climate models are computationally very demanding and only a few global data sets exist. Some examples are ICON[14]​ or technically reduced data such as CHELSA (High Resolution Climatologies for Earth's Surface Areas).[15]​[16]​.

Los temas que estudian los climatólogos se dividen a grandes rasgos en tres categorías: variabilidad del clima"), mecanismos de cambio climático y cambio climático moderno.[17]​.

Climatological processes

Several factors influence the average state of the atmosphere at a given location. For example, mid-latitudes will have a pronounced seasonality in temperature while tropical latitudes show little variation in temperature throughout the year.[18] Another important control on climate is continentality: the distance to large bodies of water such as oceans. Oceans act as a moderating factor, so lands near them typically have mild winters and moderate summers.[19] The atmosphere interacts with other spheres of the climate system, with winds generating currents. oceanic structures that transport heat throughout the planet.[20]​.

Climate classification

Classification is an important aspect of many sciences as a tool for simplifying complicated processes. Different climate classifications have been developed over the centuries, with the first being in Ancient Greece. The way climates are classified depends on their application. A wind energy producer will require different information (wind) in the classification than someone interested in agriculture, for whom precipitation and temperature are more important.[21] The most widely used classification, the Köppen climate classification, was developed at the end of the century and is based on vegetation. It uses monthly temperature and precipitation data.[22]​

Climate variability

There are different modes of variability: recurring temperature patterns or other climatic variables. They are quantified with different indices. In the same way that the Dow Jones Industrial Average, based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent fluctuations in the stock market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are typically designed with the dual goals of simplicity and completeness, and each index typically represents the situation and timing of the climate factor it represents. By their very nature, indices are simple and combine many details into a generalized description of the atmosphere or ocean that can be used to characterize the factors influencing the global climate system.

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean responsible for most of the global temperature variability,[20]​ and has a cycle of between two and seven years.[23]​ The North Atlantic Oscillation is a mode of variability that is primarily limited to the lower atmosphere, the troposphere. The upper atmosphere layer, the stratosphere, is also capable of creating its own variability, most notably in the Madden-Juliana Oscillation" (MJO), which has a cycle of approximately 30-60 days. The Pacific Interdecadal Oscillation" can create changes in the Pacific Ocean and lower atmosphere on decadal time scales.

Climate change

Climate change occurs when changes in the Earth's climate system give rise to new weather patterns that persist over a long period of time. This period of time can be as short as a few decades or as long as millions of years. The climate system receives almost all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also emits energy into outer space. The balance between incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of energy through the climate system, determines the Earth's energy budget.

"Modern climate change" is driven by human greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels that increase global average surface temperature. However, rising temperatures are only one aspect of modern climate change, as changes in precipitation, storm tracks, and cloud cover have also been observed. Warmer temperatures are driving other changes in the climate system, such as widespread melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, and changes in flora and fauna.[25]​

Unlike meteorology, which focuses on short-term weather systems that last up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather phenomena over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists study both the nature of climates - local, regional or global - and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology takes into account the past and can help predict future climate change.

Phenomena of climatological interest include the atmospheric boundary layer, circulation patterns, heat transfer (radiative, convective and latent), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and the land surface (particularly vegetation, land use and topography), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere.

The Greeks began the formal study of climate; In fact, the word climate derives from the Greek word klima, which means "slope", referring to the slope or inclination of the Earth's axis. Arguably the most influential classical text on climate was On Air, Water and Places[5]​ written by Hippocrates around 400 BC. C. This work commented on the effect of climate on human health and the cultural differences between Asia and Europe.[5]​ This idea that climate controls which countries excel based on their climate, or climate determinism"), remained influential throughout history.[5]​ Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (1031-1095) deduced that climates changed naturally over a huge span of time, after observing petrified bamboo found underground nearby. from Yanzhou (present-day Yan'an, Shaanxi province), an area with a dry climate unsuitable for the growth of bamboo.[6]​.

The invention of the thermometer and barometer during the Scientific Revolution allowed for systematic recording, which began as early as 1640-1642 in England.[5] Early climate researchers included Edmund Halley, who published a map of the trade winds in 1686 after a trip to the southern hemisphere. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) first charted the course of the Gulf Stream for use in sending mail from the United States to Europe. Francis Galton (1822-1911) invented the term anticyclone.[7] Helmut Landsberg") (1906-1985) encouraged the use of statistical analysis in climatology, which led to its evolution into a physical science.

At the beginning of the century, climatology focused mainly on the description of regional climates. This descriptive climatology was primarily an applied science, providing farmers and more interested people with statistics on what the normal weather was and how extreme events were likely to occur. To do this, climatologists had to define a "climate normality"), or an average of weather and climate extremes over a period usually 30 years.

In the middle of the century, many assumptions of meteorology and climatology considered that the climate was more or less constant. Although scientists were aware of past climate changes, such as the ice age, the concept of unchanging climate was useful in developing a general theory of what determines climate. This began to change in the following decades, and although the history of climate change science began earlier, climate change did not become one of the most important topics of study for climatologists until the 1970s.[10]​.

Contenido

El estudio de los climas contemporáneos incorpora datos meteorológicos acumulados a lo largo de muchos años, como registros de precipitaciones, temperatura y composición atmosférica. El conocimiento de la atmósfera y su dinámica también se plasma en modelos&action=edit&redlink=1 "Modelo (abstracto) (aún no redactado)"), ya sea estadístico o matemático, que ayudan a integrar diferentes observaciones y a comprobar cómo encajan. La modelización se utiliza para comprender los climas pasados, presentes y futuros.

La investigación sobre el clima se ve dificultada por la gran escala, los largos periodos de tiempo y los complejos procesos que lo rigen. El clima se rige por leyes físicas que pueden expresarse como ecuaciones diferenciales. Estas ecuaciones están acopladas y no son lineales, por lo que las soluciones aproximadas se obtienen utilizando métodos numéricos para crear modelos climáticos globales"). El clima se modela a veces como un proceso estocástico, pero esto se acepta generalmente como una aproximación a procesos que, de otro modo, son demasiado complicados de analizar.

Climate data

The collection of long records of climate variables is essential for the study of climate. Climatology deals with the aggregate data that meteorology has collected.[11]​ Scientists use direct and indirect observations of climate, from Earth observation satellites and scientific instrumentation such as a global network of thermometers, to prehistoric ice extracted from glaciers.[12]​ As measurement technology changes over time, data records cannot be directly compared. As cities tend to be warmer than surrounding areas, urbanization has made it necessary to constantly correct data for this urban heat island effect.[13]​.

Models

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice. They are used for various purposes, from the study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or nearly so, the incoming energy in the form of shortwave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with the outgoing energy in the form of longwave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the Earth. Any imbalance causes a change in the Earth's average temperature. Most climate models include the radiative effects of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. These models predict an increasing trend in surface temperatures, as well as a more rapid rise in temperature at higher latitudes.

Models can range from relatively simple to complex:.

In addition, they are available in different resolutions ranging from >100 to 1 km. The high resolutions of global climate models are computationally very demanding and only a few global data sets exist. Some examples are ICON[14]​ or technically reduced data such as CHELSA (High Resolution Climatologies for Earth's Surface Areas).[15]​[16]​.

Los temas que estudian los climatólogos se dividen a grandes rasgos en tres categorías: variabilidad del clima"), mecanismos de cambio climático y cambio climático moderno.[17]​.

Climatological processes

Several factors influence the average state of the atmosphere at a given location. For example, mid-latitudes will have a pronounced seasonality in temperature while tropical latitudes show little variation in temperature throughout the year.[18] Another important control on climate is continentality: the distance to large bodies of water such as oceans. Oceans act as a moderating factor, so lands near them typically have mild winters and moderate summers.[19] The atmosphere interacts with other spheres of the climate system, with winds generating currents. oceanic structures that transport heat throughout the planet.[20]​.

Climate classification

Classification is an important aspect of many sciences as a tool for simplifying complicated processes. Different climate classifications have been developed over the centuries, with the first being in Ancient Greece. The way climates are classified depends on their application. A wind energy producer will require different information (wind) in the classification than someone interested in agriculture, for whom precipitation and temperature are more important.[21] The most widely used classification, the Köppen climate classification, was developed at the end of the century and is based on vegetation. It uses monthly temperature and precipitation data.[22]​

Climate variability

There are different modes of variability: recurring temperature patterns or other climatic variables. They are quantified with different indices. In the same way that the Dow Jones Industrial Average, based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent fluctuations in the stock market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are typically designed with the dual goals of simplicity and completeness, and each index typically represents the situation and timing of the climate factor it represents. By their very nature, indices are simple and combine many details into a generalized description of the atmosphere or ocean that can be used to characterize the factors influencing the global climate system.

The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean responsible for most of the global temperature variability,[20]​ and has a cycle of between two and seven years.[23]​ The North Atlantic Oscillation is a mode of variability that is primarily limited to the lower atmosphere, the troposphere. The upper atmosphere layer, the stratosphere, is also capable of creating its own variability, most notably in the Madden-Juliana Oscillation" (MJO), which has a cycle of approximately 30-60 days. The Pacific Interdecadal Oscillation" can create changes in the Pacific Ocean and lower atmosphere on decadal time scales.

Climate change

Climate change occurs when changes in the Earth's climate system give rise to new weather patterns that persist over a long period of time. This period of time can be as short as a few decades or as long as millions of years. The climate system receives almost all of its energy from the sun. The climate system also emits energy into outer space. The balance between incoming and outgoing energy, and the passage of energy through the climate system, determines the Earth's energy budget.

"Modern climate change" is driven by human greenhouse gas emissions from the burning of fossil fuels that increase global average surface temperature. However, rising temperatures are only one aspect of modern climate change, as changes in precipitation, storm tracks, and cloud cover have also been observed. Warmer temperatures are driving other changes in the climate system, such as widespread melting of glaciers, rising sea levels, and changes in flora and fauna.[25]​

Unlike meteorology, which focuses on short-term weather systems that last up to a few weeks, climatology studies the frequency and trends of those systems. It studies the periodicity of weather phenomena over years to millennia, as well as changes in long-term average weather patterns, in relation to atmospheric conditions. Climatologists study both the nature of climates - local, regional or global - and the natural or human-induced factors that cause climates to change. Climatology takes into account the past and can help predict future climate change.

Phenomena of climatological interest include the atmospheric boundary layer, circulation patterns, heat transfer (radiative, convective and latent), interactions between the atmosphere and the oceans and the land surface (particularly vegetation, land use and topography), and the chemical and physical composition of the atmosphere.