From the point of view of the arts, the concept of marble is established according to its appearance, referring to limestone stones that are susceptible to fine polishing, achieved thanks to the compactness of the formation of its agglomerated materials. The concept of marble is even accepted and extended to rocks that have a finished appearance similar in appearance to marble, despite the fact that in their composition, the presence of calcium carbonate is little or none. This is why, from time to time, as marble was a favorite material in Ancient Greece, it was generally called "stone" (in Greek, λίθος, lýthos), in some inscriptions, with the expression λευκός λίθος (white stone).[8]​.

Marble was highly appreciated in ancient times and became the favorite material of Greek and Roman sculptors and architects, becoming a symbol of power. It is also a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Marble was originally used in Archaic Greece to make decorative sculptures due to its rigidity and resistance.[8]​.

In the past, marble was extracted by exploiting chasms with poles and using wooden wedges made to swell with water. Only later were iron wedges used.

Marble has been mined in Europe for a long time. On the Greek island of Paros from approximately the century BC. C. and in Carrara since the century BC. C. Extracted marble. Little changed in the technique of marble extraction until the Renaissance. From the Renaissance until the 1960s, explosive charges placed in wells were sometimes used. When explosives were used, a large accumulation of rock debris occurred and, in some cases, the rock was severely damaged by the explosive effect.

Large-scale technical innovations in marble processing came from Carrara in Italy. Around 1815 Italian worker Giuseppe Perugi invented the first multi-saw for natural stone, with multiple saw blades driven by high-speed water wheels. The Swiss Carlo Müller continued to perfect this technique until, in 1831, the Frenchman Nerier introduced stone saws with up to eight saw blades, which made it possible to produce several large-format marble slabs one centimeter thick; The procedure was awarded in 1867 at the world exhibition in Paris.[9]​ By 1870 there were already 40 sawmills using this technique in Carrara, 15 in Massa and 26 in Seravezza.[10]​ In 1895, in Carrara, Italy, spiral wire powered by diesel engines was used for the first time to saw stone blocks. Not only was water used to cool the wire, but the steel cables were hundreds of meters long and were guided through the quarries behind the slot exit on deflection rollers so that they could be cooled in between. Diesel engines were later replaced by electric motors. Nowadays marble is no longer cut with the aforementioned long wire saws, but with short wire saws that only carry the so-called "diamond wires" several tens of meters long, or with shears.

Depending on requirements, wire saws guide long steel cables coated with thick carbide beads through the marble layers in the quarry or through the raw blocks in factories. There are industrial diamonds in the carbide beads. A constant flow of water cools the saw wire.

In Italy shears with saw blades usually cut loose joints of a length of 4 to 5 m in the marble rock layers, which reach a working depth of about 2-2.50 m. Schrämen are large mobile chainsaws that operate without water cooling. Additionally, the rough blocks are further formatted with jackhammers and stone splitting tools as necessary.

So-called loosening pockets made of sheet steel are inserted into the loosening joints created by wire saws and shears, which are filled with water or pressurized air. In this work process the blocks are pushed out of the stone wall for later transportation. In the quarry, loose blocks are moved with powerful wheel loaders and then loaded onto trucks for transport, as long as they are not processed directly on site.

The rough marble blocks are cut into slabs with multi-saws that have between 80 and 120 saw blades, then the visible sides are ground and polished if necessary. Stone marbles are cut to the desired size with stone saws.

Since the industrial era, the process of polishing marble and other natural stones has been increasingly carried out by mechanical means, with manual technologies and fully automated machines. This applies in particular to surface polishing, which has been fully automated in European processing centers since around 1975. For the polishing of three-dimensional objects with small irregularly curved areas, as in the work of a sculptor, small machine tools as well as manually operated processing means are required.[11]​ The actual polishing process is very similar to the necessary and previous polishing processes. A generally rotary sanding disc carries standardized, industrially manufactured sanding bodies that contain abrasive components with defined grain sizes in a soft bonding compound. These abrasives can be in the form of rings or cuboids. The plate with the attached grinding wheels, which is applied to the marble surface with the required pressure and rotation speed, eliminates the slightest irregularity from the already very finely ground marble surface. The finer and smoother this process is, the brighter the treated surface will be. The polishing zone is cooled with water (in the case of individual rocks also other coolants) so that the development of heat does not cause microcracks in the rock crystals, which would reduce the result, but would also entrain the resulting grinding sludge. Nowadays, aluminum oxide (corundum), silicon carbide, tin oxide or a mixture of magnesium oxide and magnesium chloride are commonly used as abrasive materials in grinding wheels. Polishing agents used in historical craft techniques, suitable earth (e.g. tripel), clover salt or substances produced in factories (e.g. polishing red) are only used in special cases today; as well as diamond dust. In addition, the abrasives contain thermosetting plastics, which have a beneficial effect on the final result during the polishing process. In the final treatment (finishing) of the polishing process, dissolved resins or waxes can be applied with rotating felt discs if required. The use of auxiliary and polishing agents as well as technological conditions depend on the respective rock type during the entire course of surface treatment, i.e. they are coordinated and used through testing and user experience.[12]​[13]​[14]​.

Due to its shiny appearance after polishing, its root would come from the Sanskrit word mar, which meant the movement of water waves, and which would have been used as a metaphor for the light incidents on the surface of the marble, exaggerating the "movement" of light with the word mar-mar, which indicated a stronger agitation of the waves. From this root, it would pass into Greek as the verb μαρμαιρω (marmairō, "to shine"), indicating such movement of the lights. Finally, the term became μάρμαρος (mármaros), which would derive from the Latin marmor.[8]​.

The word marble derives from the ancient Greek (mármaron),[15]​ from (mámaros), 'crystalline rock, shining stone',[16][17]​ perhaps from the verb (marmaírō), 'to flash, sparkle, shine';[18] R. S. P. Beekes") has suggested that a "pre-Greek" origin) is probable".[19]

This theme "Theme (linguistic morphology)") is also the ancestor of the English word marmoreal, which means 'marble-like',[20]​ while the English term marble resembles the French marbre. Most other European languages ​​(with words like marmoreal) are closer to the original ancient Greek.[21]​.

Acid degradation

The acids react with the calcium carbonate in the marble, producing carbonic acid (which quickly decomposes forming CO and HO) and other soluble salts:[2]​.

Outdoor displayed marble statues, grave markers, or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain through carbonation, sulfation, or the formation of "black scab" (accumulation of calcium sulfate particles, nitrates, and carbon).[2]​ The use of vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided when cleaning marble products.

Crystallization

Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a more durable glossy finish to a marble (CaCO) floor. It involves polishing the surface with an acid solution and a steel wool pad in a flooring machine. The following chemical reaction shows a typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), occurring:

The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF) is bonded to the marble surface. This is harder, glossier and stain resistant compared to the original surface.

The other frequently used marble finishing method is polishing with oxalic acid (HCO), an organic acid. The resulting reaction is the following.

In this case, the calcium oxalate (CaCO) formed in the reaction is washed away with the suspension, leaving a surface that has not been chemically modified.[3]​.

Degradation by microbes

The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacteria Methylophaga murata") was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin.[4]​ Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four marble samples from Milan Cathedral; black Cladosporium attacked the dried acrylic resin[5]​ using melanin.[6]​.

From the point of view of the arts, the concept of marble is established according to its appearance, referring to limestone stones that are susceptible to fine polishing, achieved thanks to the compactness of the formation of its agglomerated materials. The concept of marble is even accepted and extended to rocks that have a finished appearance similar in appearance to marble, despite the fact that in their composition, the presence of calcium carbonate is little or none. This is why, from time to time, as marble was a favorite material in Ancient Greece, it was generally called "stone" (in Greek, λίθος, lýthos), in some inscriptions, with the expression λευκός λίθος (white stone).[8]​.

Marble was highly appreciated in ancient times and became the favorite material of Greek and Roman sculptors and architects, becoming a symbol of power. It is also a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Marble was originally used in Archaic Greece to make decorative sculptures due to its rigidity and resistance.[8]​.

In the past, marble was extracted by exploiting chasms with poles and using wooden wedges made to swell with water. Only later were iron wedges used.

Marble has been mined in Europe for a long time. On the Greek island of Paros from approximately the century BC. C. and in Carrara since the century BC. C. Extracted marble. Little changed in the technique of marble extraction until the Renaissance. From the Renaissance until the 1960s, explosive charges placed in wells were sometimes used. When explosives were used, a large accumulation of rock debris occurred and, in some cases, the rock was severely damaged by the explosive effect.

Large-scale technical innovations in marble processing came from Carrara in Italy. Around 1815 Italian worker Giuseppe Perugi invented the first multi-saw for natural stone, with multiple saw blades driven by high-speed water wheels. The Swiss Carlo Müller continued to perfect this technique until, in 1831, the Frenchman Nerier introduced stone saws with up to eight saw blades, which made it possible to produce several large-format marble slabs one centimeter thick; The procedure was awarded in 1867 at the world exhibition in Paris.[9]​ By 1870 there were already 40 sawmills using this technique in Carrara, 15 in Massa and 26 in Seravezza.[10]​ In 1895, in Carrara, Italy, spiral wire powered by diesel engines was used for the first time to saw stone blocks. Not only was water used to cool the wire, but the steel cables were hundreds of meters long and were guided through the quarries behind the slot exit on deflection rollers so that they could be cooled in between. Diesel engines were later replaced by electric motors. Nowadays marble is no longer cut with the aforementioned long wire saws, but with short wire saws that only carry the so-called "diamond wires" several tens of meters long, or with shears.

Depending on requirements, wire saws guide long steel cables coated with thick carbide beads through the marble layers in the quarry or through the raw blocks in factories. There are industrial diamonds in the carbide beads. A constant flow of water cools the saw wire.

In Italy shears with saw blades usually cut loose joints of a length of 4 to 5 m in the marble rock layers, which reach a working depth of about 2-2.50 m. Schrämen are large mobile chainsaws that operate without water cooling. Additionally, the rough blocks are further formatted with jackhammers and stone splitting tools as necessary.

So-called loosening pockets made of sheet steel are inserted into the loosening joints created by wire saws and shears, which are filled with water or pressurized air. In this work process the blocks are pushed out of the stone wall for later transportation. In the quarry, loose blocks are moved with powerful wheel loaders and then loaded onto trucks for transport, as long as they are not processed directly on site.

The rough marble blocks are cut into slabs with multi-saws that have between 80 and 120 saw blades, then the visible sides are ground and polished if necessary. Stone marbles are cut to the desired size with stone saws.

Since the industrial era, the process of polishing marble and other natural stones has been increasingly carried out by mechanical means, with manual technologies and fully automated machines. This applies in particular to surface polishing, which has been fully automated in European processing centers since around 1975. For the polishing of three-dimensional objects with small irregularly curved areas, as in the work of a sculptor, small machine tools as well as manually operated processing means are required.[11]​ The actual polishing process is very similar to the necessary and previous polishing processes. A generally rotary sanding disc carries standardized, industrially manufactured sanding bodies that contain abrasive components with defined grain sizes in a soft bonding compound. These abrasives can be in the form of rings or cuboids. The plate with the attached grinding wheels, which is applied to the marble surface with the required pressure and rotation speed, eliminates the slightest irregularity from the already very finely ground marble surface. The finer and smoother this process is, the brighter the treated surface will be. The polishing zone is cooled with water (in the case of individual rocks also other coolants) so that the development of heat does not cause microcracks in the rock crystals, which would reduce the result, but would also entrain the resulting grinding sludge. Nowadays, aluminum oxide (corundum), silicon carbide, tin oxide or a mixture of magnesium oxide and magnesium chloride are commonly used as abrasive materials in grinding wheels. Polishing agents used in historical craft techniques, suitable earth (e.g. tripel), clover salt or substances produced in factories (e.g. polishing red) are only used in special cases today; as well as diamond dust. In addition, the abrasives contain thermosetting plastics, which have a beneficial effect on the final result during the polishing process. In the final treatment (finishing) of the polishing process, dissolved resins or waxes can be applied with rotating felt discs if required. The use of auxiliary and polishing agents as well as technological conditions depend on the respective rock type during the entire course of surface treatment, i.e. they are coordinated and used through testing and user experience.[12]​[13]​[14]​.

Due to its shiny appearance after polishing, its root would come from the Sanskrit word mar, which meant the movement of water waves, and which would have been used as a metaphor for the light incidents on the surface of the marble, exaggerating the "movement" of light with the word mar-mar, which indicated a stronger agitation of the waves. From this root, it would pass into Greek as the verb μαρμαιρω (marmairō, "to shine"), indicating such movement of the lights. Finally, the term became μάρμαρος (mármaros), which would derive from the Latin marmor.[8]​.

The word marble derives from the ancient Greek (mármaron),[15]​ from (mámaros), 'crystalline rock, shining stone',[16][17]​ perhaps from the verb (marmaírō), 'to flash, sparkle, shine';[18] R. S. P. Beekes") has suggested that a "pre-Greek" origin) is probable".[19]

This theme "Theme (linguistic morphology)") is also the ancestor of the English word marmoreal, which means 'marble-like',[20]​ while the English term marble resembles the French marbre. Most other European languages ​​(with words like marmoreal) are closer to the original ancient Greek.[21]​.