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Mapping of accessibility regulations
Introduction
The presidency of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was a period between December 10, 2007 and December 9, 2015, covering two consecutive terms as president of the Argentine Nation. His government was described as center-left.[2] Later, in 2019, he would return to power as vice president of the Nation until 2023.[3][4].
He officially launched his candidacy for the 2007 elections on July 19. He won on October 28 in the first round with 45.29% of the votes, succeeding Néstor Kirchner. During her first term (2007-2011), she was accompanied by Vice President Julio Cobos, former governor of Mendoza.
On June 21, 2011, he confirmed his candidacy for re-election, choosing as his running mate Amado Boudou, who was Minister of Economy and Public Finance "Ministerio de Hacienda (Argentina)") between 2009 and 2011.[5] In the 2011 elections, he obtained a second term (2011-2015) with 54.11% of the votes.
Choice
In 2007, the then senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (CFK) officially launched her presidential candidacy on July 19 for the Justicialista Party, for the 2007 Argentine presidential elections. On October 28, CFK won in the first round with 45.29% positive votes, achieving one of the widest margins of advantage in Argentine history, surpassing her immediate opponent by more than 22 points.[6][7] The Front for Victory candidate triumphed in 21 of the 23 provinces, with former Minister of Economy Roberto Lavagna winning in Córdoba and also Peronist Adolfo Rodríguez Saá in San Luis. In provinces like Santa Cruz, CFK obtained more than 77% of the votes.[8][9][10].
She took office on December 10, 2007, becoming the first Argentine woman elected president and the second to hold the position.
Previously, CFK had already been the winner of the first primary elections in Argentine history (PASO), exceeding 50% of votes validly cast and leading Ricardo Alfonsín of the Unión Cívica Radical by 38%.[11] Her candidacy received the support of dozens of American, European and Asian intellectuals, academics and economists.[12][13][3].
In October 2011, she was re-elected president with more than 54% of the votes, obtaining a difference of more than 37 points against the candidate of the Frente Amplio Progresista "Frente Amplio Progresista (Argentina)"), Hermes Binner. With this victory, she became the first woman re-elected in America and achieved the highest number and percentage of votes in an election since the return of democracy in 1983. In addition, she obtained the second largest historical advantage over second place, only 0.13% below Juan Domingo Perón's victory in 1973.
Mapping of accessibility regulations
Introduction
The presidency of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was a period between December 10, 2007 and December 9, 2015, covering two consecutive terms as president of the Argentine Nation. His government was described as center-left.[2] Later, in 2019, he would return to power as vice president of the Nation until 2023.[3][4].
He officially launched his candidacy for the 2007 elections on July 19. He won on October 28 in the first round with 45.29% of the votes, succeeding Néstor Kirchner. During her first term (2007-2011), she was accompanied by Vice President Julio Cobos, former governor of Mendoza.
On June 21, 2011, he confirmed his candidacy for re-election, choosing as his running mate Amado Boudou, who was Minister of Economy and Public Finance "Ministerio de Hacienda (Argentina)") between 2009 and 2011.[5] In the 2011 elections, he obtained a second term (2011-2015) with 54.11% of the votes.
Choice
In 2007, the then senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (CFK) officially launched her presidential candidacy on July 19 for the Justicialista Party, for the 2007 Argentine presidential elections. On October 28, CFK won in the first round with 45.29% positive votes, achieving one of the widest margins of advantage in Argentine history, surpassing her immediate opponent by more than 22 points.[6][7] The Front for Victory candidate triumphed in 21 of the 23 provinces, with former Minister of Economy Roberto Lavagna winning in Córdoba and also Peronist Adolfo Rodríguez Saá in San Luis. In provinces like Santa Cruz, CFK obtained more than 77% of the votes.[8][9][10].
She took office on December 10, 2007, becoming the first Argentine woman elected president and the second to hold the position.
Previously, CFK had already been the winner of the first primary elections in Argentine history (PASO), exceeding 50% of votes validly cast and leading Ricardo Alfonsín of the Unión Cívica Radical by 38%.[11] Her candidacy received the support of dozens of American, European and Asian intellectuals, academics and economists.[12][13][3].
Economic policy
Contenido
Las políticas macroeconómicas iniciadas en 2003 y continuadas bajo Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (CFK) favorecieron a los sectores productivos, impulsando el mercado interno, la capacidad instalada y un proceso de sustitución de importaciones en la industria nacional. El alza de precios de commodities y la recuperación industrial revirtieron la desmejora de indicadores sociales y laborales que existía desde fines de los setenta. [14].
Social and Economic Improvements
By 2011, poverty fell to 5.7% and indigence to 1.9% (according to ECLAC), positioning Argentina as the country with the least poverty in Latin America and the second with the least indigence. The middle class doubled in the decade (from 9.3 to 18.6 million people).[15][16] Independent calculations showed a decrease of 81% in poverty and 91% in extreme poverty. The country implemented one of the largest conditional cash transfer programs in Latin America, reducing unemployment by more than half and considerably reducing economic inequality, according to The New York Times.[17][18].
In 2015, Argentina was the second Ibero-American nation with the highest human development index (behind Spain).[19][20] That same year, the World Bank classified Argentina as a high-income economy, with a PPP per capita income of more than $16,000 (the second highest in Latin America).
Unemployment and Investment
Unemployment showed a constant decrease: from 17.3% in 2003 to 5.9% at the end of his second term (the lowest level in three decades).[21][22] The minimum rate in 20 years was in 2011 (6.7%). Added to this was an increase in registered work to a historical record and the growth of the real minimum wage by 1338% in ten years.
Average investment, which was 19% of GDP (1993-2001), rose to an average of 22.5% (2006-2011), with a peak of 24.5% in 2011.[23][24] Gross Domestic Fixed Investment reached a record of 25.1% of GDP in 2012. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) increased almost seven times, going from $1,652 million in 2003 to **$11,655 million\\ in 2015, being one of the three South American countries with the highest increase in FDI (ECLAC). The BCRA's international reserves grew steadily until reaching \\$31,490 million** as of December 2015. 2,000 M in April and without rate changes it aspired to $6,908 M |access date=June 11, 2014 |archive url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714204250/http://www.diariobae.com/notas/13096-bcra-compro-casi-us2-000-m-en-abril-y-sin-cambios-de-tasas-ayer-aspiro-6-908-m.html |archive date=July 14, 2014 }}</ref>.
Fiscal policy
During his administration, state collection was modernized with the introduction of electronic invoice, computer audit, Tax Code, Digital Signature and simplification of tax processes, seeking to reduce evasion and increase efficiency.[25].
In the economic sphere, in 2012 the Competition Defense Court and the Secretariats for the Investigation of Anticompetitive Conduct were created. In 2009, the Federal Solidarity Fund was established, sharing 30% of the income from soybean withholdings "Export Withholdings (Argentina)") with provinces and municipalities.[26][27][28][29] These funds were automatically allocated to the jurisdictions for infrastructure works and productive investment (health, educational, roads, etc.), prohibiting their use for expenses ordinary.[30][31].
Additionally, the Argentina Exporta program was created in 2009 to promote and monitor export policies. By decree, import tariffs were modified, bringing them to zero for inputs necessary in the production of key sectors (textile, steel, automotive, chemical, food, agriculture and hydrocarbons).
Monetary and banking policy
During CFK's first term, Martín Redrado presided over the Central Bank (BCRA) until his replacement by Miguel Ángel Pesce.[32][33][34].
In February 2010, Mercedes Marcó del Pont assumed the presidency of the BCRA. Under his management, the Organic Charter was reformed to restore the BCRA's role as a promoter of growth and employment.[35] In addition, a floor was set for interest rates on fixed-term deposits to encourage savings in pesos.[36][37] During this period, reserves reached a historical record of US$52,000 million.[38][39].
The Argentine financial system was consolidated: bank net worth improved solvency,[40] and stood out as one of the most developed in the region.[41] Deposits in pesos grew strongly, and in 2012 they increased 39.1% (loans 41.8%).[42] In 2013, deposits reached $618,617 million.
The BCRA also implemented regulations such as the "productive investment lines" (LIP), a 36-month financing quota in pesos for companies (especially SMEs), and a refund system to promote added value to raw materials.[43][44][45]
In November 2013, Juan Carlos Fábrega replaced Marcó del Pont, initiating a policy of monetary contraction and rate increases to reduce inflation.[46] Fábrega resigned in October 2014, being succeeded by Alejandro Vanoli.
The National Inclusive Banking Plan was launched to extend financial services to excluded sectors. As part of this plan, the opening of bank branches and ATMs in areas with low coverage was promoted, and free fund transfers (up to $50,000 per day) over the counter or electronic means were established.[47]
Measures were adopted to protect financial users and a financial education policy was implemented in agreement with the Ministry of Education.[48][49] The banking system was consolidated: net worth increased by $3,000 million in 2007, and it became one of the most developed in Latin America in asset management.[40][41].
In addition, the approval of Capital Market Law 26,831 was promoted,[50] which increased the oversight powers of the National Securities Commission (CNV) and the Central Bank, seeking to expand operations with federal criteria. Thanks to this law, Argentina's CNV was accepted into the IOSCO Multilateral Memorandum of Information Exchange in 2014.[51].
Driven by economic growth, bank deposits increased from $169,729 million in 2006 to more than **$618,617 million** in 2013.
Since 2013, financial inclusion programs focused on SMEs and neighborhood/family businesses were implemented, given that these companies generate 85% of employment in Argentina.[52].
In March 2013, the Minister of Economy, Axel Kicillof, and the CNV launched a package of measures for the financial inclusion of SMEs:
The issuance of shares by SMEs was regulated as a form of financing and to become open companies. The Deferred Payment Check instrument was improved, extending the auction period and establishing settlement in 24 hours. The Common Investment Funds were forced to direct at least 2.5% of their assets to finance private initiatives.
Tourism Promotion Policy
In 2007, the National Tourism Plan 2010/2015 was launched with two key objectives: democratize and massify domestic tourism (seeking to incorporate 65% of the population) and diversify inbound tourism.[57] The arrival of visitors from the United States, Canada, and Europe was encouraged, and new markets were opened, especially China and the Middle East, through trade missions.
With the creation of the Secretariat (later Ministry) of Tourism, comprehensive measures were implemented, including:[58].
• - VAT refund on accommodation for foreign tourists.
• - Lower VAT on domestic tourism and reduction of gross income from 5% to 1%.
• - Elimination of the reciprocity rate for priority markets and implementation of electronic visas.
• - VAT refund and reimbursement for social tourism and retirees (since 2008).
Inbound tourism deepened its growth and generated a record tourist surplus that exceeded 12 billion dollars.
Internal trade policy
During Axel Kicillof's management in the Ministry of Economy, programs were launched to stimulate consumption, such as Precios Cares and Ahora 12.
Food distribution programs at cost price were implemented, such as "Meat for all", "Dairy for all" and "Pork for all".[59][60][61].
The Now 12 program offered credit for the purchase of national products in 12 interest-free installments, seeking to promote consumption, employment and industry. In 18 months, it reached sales of $22,968 million, with more than 12 million operations and 166,169 participating businesses.[62].
In 2014, a Consumer Protection Law was launched along with a package of regulations to better inform consumers and streamline conflict resolution through a new Consumer Justice.[63] Careful Prices were also continued and neighborhood fairs were promoted to eliminate intermediaries.
To boost the textile industry, credit programs for SMEs and consumers and specific plans such as "Clothes for all" and "Jeans for all" were launched.[64][65].
Law 26,993 created a conflict resolution system in consumer relations, including the Prior Conciliation Service, the Audit and the National Justice in Consumer Relations.
Industrial policy
In 2011, the Industrial Strategic Plan 2020 was launched to increase productivity in key sectors.[66][67] This boosted the growth of industrial parks, exceeding 150 in seven years, especially in the province of Buenos Aires.[68][69].
Industrial incentives were promoted such as the Software Promotion Law,[70] the Law for the Promotion of the Integration of Auto Parts and programs for the development of suppliers and the competitive adaptation of SMEs. CFK was an active negotiator in Mercosur, ALADI and in bilateral agreements with China and India.
The mandate continued the line of diversifying the productive matrix with high added value:.
• - Pharmaceutical Industry: Increased production by more than 273% and exports by 193% since 2003 (mainly to Brazil, Colombia and Uruguay). Argentina began to produce and export oncological, cardiovascular and HIV-AIDS medications globally since 2010.[71].
• - Automotive Industry: Experienced exponential growth of almost 400% in the decade. Production reached an all-time high of 828,771 units in 2011 (an increase of 388% since 2003). Between 2008 and 2013, investments of $16.9 billion were recorded.[72] Law 26,393 (2008) strengthened the national auto parts sector by requiring a Minimum National Content of 30% for automobiles.[73].
• - Other Industrial Sectors: The textile industry grew by 16% in 2010.[74] Cement production tripled in 12 years.[75] Employment in construction grew from 70,000 to 380,000 registered employees (2002-2013).[76].
• - Agricultural Sector: Record harvests of soybeans (52 million tons, 2009/2010) and corn (25 million tons, 2012/2013) were recorded.[77].
• - Mining: Foreign Direct Investment grew at 47% annually (2007-2012). Jobs (direct and indirect) increased from 79,000 to 505,000 between 2003 and 2013.[78].
Additionally, the state company INVAP was consolidated, providing other countries with systems for nuclear reactors and aerospace technology (satellites).[79].
To strengthen competitiveness, in 2011 the Ministry of Industry launched the Access to Credit and Competitiveness Program (PACC), which finances studies, R&D, design, engineering, quality certification and software development, among others.[80].
The BCRA promoted the Investment Financing Line for Productive Activities for SMEs, granting $5,000 million. In addition, it established the Productive Investment Line (LCIP), a regulation that requires banks to allocate 7.5% of their deposits to productive loans, prioritizing micro, small and medium-sized companies.
This mandatory line mobilized almost **$35,000 million** in one year (2012-2013), with 56% of the amount allocated to SMEs.[81].
Foreign investment
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Argentina showed strong growth, going from an annual average of $5,350 million (2004-2007) to $9,726 million in 2008.[89].
In the first half of 2012, FDI was 42% higher than in 2011. In 2012, FDI reached a record of $12,551 million, an increase of 27% compared to 2011 (compared to 6.7% in the rest of Latin America), and it was positioned as the fifth Latin American country with the highest FDI reception.[90][91].
The policies promoted encouraged the reinvestment of profits in the domestic market, which in 2012 reached $7,984 million (more than double that of 2011).[92] In the last year of management, FDI inflows reached $11,655 million, an increase of 130% compared to 2014, according to ECLAC.[93].
Additionally, there was notable development in the electronic, electromechanical and lighting industry (with 70% exporting companies), with expectations of exporting $700 million in 2013 to more than 60 countries.[94] Since 2013, the country produces chips (semiconductors) with a capacity of 1,150 million per year, thanks to an investment of $1,200 millions.[95].
Through the state company INVAP, the country exports nuclear reactor systems and aerospace technology (design and operation of satellites).[96].
Comprehensive Fund for Regional Development
FONDER (Comprehensive Fund for Regional Development) is a program focused on strengthening local productive development in relegated areas with defined projects.[97].
FONDER facilitated a large amount of public works and energy investment ($80 billion), installing more than 8,700 megawatts, laying more than 4,000 km of high-tension lines, and expanding gas pipeline capacity.[98] Credit for productive financing increased significantly, from 7.7% of GDP in 2003 to 16.9% of GDP at the end 2013.[99].
The development of the electronic, electromechanical and software industry was promoted:
• - 70% of the companies in this sector are exporters, with $700 million exported in 2013 to more than sixty countries.[94].
• - Since 2013, the country has been producing chips (1,150 million semiconductors/year) with an investment of $1,200 million.[95][100].
• - The state company INVAP exports nuclear reactor systems and aerospace technology (design and operation of satellites).[96].
Mining
Following the signing of a federal mining agreement and boosting laws in 2010, large-scale metal mining experienced strong development and stability.
• - FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in mining grew at 47% annually between 2007 and 2012.
• - Employment (direct and indirect) increased from 79,000 positions in 2003 to 505,000 in 2013.
• - Mineral exports went from $2.9 billion in 2003 to **$23,059 million in 2013**.[101].
• - Mining activity maintained a net exchange surplus since January 2003.
• - Between 2003 and 2013, investment projects in execution grew from 18 to 614, and mineral production multiplied by ten.[102][103].
In 2014, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner inaugurated the Mining Services Center in San Juan, seeking to enhance growth and local value addition in a sustainable way.[104].
Debt relief policy
Regarding external debt, Argentina carried out a debt swap that achieved discounts of between 66% and 70% of the amount owed (led by Hernán Lorenzino and Amado Boudou). In 2010, the exchange for holdouts was reopened, achieving a debt reduction from 50% to 66.3%, with a final adhesion of more than 97% of creditors.[105][106].
In May 2014, the payment of $9.7 billion in default since 2001 was agreed with the Paris Club.[107].
According to the IMF, between 2003 and 2013, Argentina achieved a 73% reduction in its external debt relative to GDP, the highest level of debt relief in the world.[108] External debt as a percentage of GDP fell from 44.3% to 22.2% during the period 2011-2015.[109].
Science and technology policy
Se promovió fuertemente la ciencia, tecnología e industria, destacando la legalización de patentes por el INTA (semillas y leche maternizada) y la sanción de la Ley de Promoción de Software Nacional.[110].
Software and Technology Industry
The Software Promotion Law (Law 25,922, extended in 2011) exempted the sector from taxes for 10 years.
Between 2003 and 2013, the software sector grew significantly: sales +313%, exports +414% and employment +266%.[111]
The amount of human resources dedicated to science and technology grew by 66%.[112]
A scientific-technological hub was inaugurated in Buenos Aires and SINVICA (National Aerospace Surveillance and Control System) was created, commissioning INVAP to develop primary and secondary radars, installed in several provinces.[113][114].
Dozens of complex electronic product factories (cell phones, computers) were installed in Tierra del Fuego, protected by Law 19,640 and benefited by Decree 252/2009 (reduction of internal taxes).
After implementation, electronic production in the province multiplied by 7 in one year (2011). Investments reached $370 million.[115].
The President criticized the origin of the crisis, calling it the "Jazz Effect" and questioned the US economic model.
A Crisis Committee and a development plan were implemented that included: creation of the Ministry of Production, tax moratorium and money laundering for SMEs, credits to promote production and consumption ($13,200 million) and a Public Works Plan ($21,000 million) to double employment in the sector.[116][117].
Argentina, as a member of the G20, achieved the inclusion of the ILO in the 2009 summit and the exclusion of the mention of labor flexibility in the draft of the final London declaration.[118].
Despite the crisis, exports grew, reaching a historical record of $84,295 million in 2011 (+24% year-on-year).[119].
The nationalization of Correo Argentino, Aerolíneas Argentinas, YPF and the AFJP was completed.[120]
Recognition and Export.
Argentina received an award from the ITU (UN) for its contribution to the digital revolution, highlighting projects such as the fiber optic network, Open Digital TV and the Conectar Igualdad plan.
The state company exported medicines to 17 countries, generating new business worth $500 million since 2013.[121].
Policy in agriculture, livestock, fishing and food
Agriculture
Argentina's agricultural sector has experienced notable growth, with soybeans consolidated as its main crop. In a decade until October 2011, the planted area and soybean production increased by 122% and 152% respectively.
The soybean harvest reached a record of 52 million tons in 2009-2010 and 61.4 million tons in 2014-2015.[122] Corn production also grew, from 23.7 million tons (2010-2011) to 25 million (2012-2013). Minor crops such as rice and barley also showed growth, with productions close to two million and five million tons, respectively.[77] Strong modernization was observed, with a 97.3% increase in the sale of agricultural machinery in 2013 compared to the previous year.[123][124].
In 2009, the Agricultural Social Monotribute was established free of charge by Cristina Fernández,[125] so that small rural producers and agricultural workers (about 337,196 actively working people) could regularize their employment situation. This regime facilitated access to health, retirement contributions, and the possibility of billing, benefiting some 50,000 farmers.[126] The beneficiaries, who produced 60% of the food for domestic consumption, obtained social coverage (including the Mandatory Medical Plan and social work) for themselves and their families, reaching one hundred thousand beneficiaries in total, in addition to joining the formal economy without tax cost. national.[127][128][129].
The extra-pampa agricultural sector showed notable growth. In the Northwest, minor crops such as rice and barley tripled their production compared to the previous decade, reaching around 2 million tons and 5 million tons respectively in 2013.[77][130][131] By 2015, rice production doubled to 4.1 million tons, adding provinces such as Buenos Aires and Santa Fe.[132]
Irrigation increased significantly: irrigated hectares went from 1,355,000 in 2002 to 2,200,000 in 2008,[133] with the creation of the Rural Change Unit (UCRA) for irrigation works in arid or semi-arid areas.
The dairy industry, concentrated in the central region, grew from 8,305 million liters in 2007 to 13,557 million liters in 2015, with the launch of a plan to modernize 13 basins. The production of yogurts and fermented milks grew by an average annual 7.83% (2007-2014), and the sector recorded foreign sales of US$ 1,571 million.[134].
In 2015, the Small Dairy Producer Recomposition Regime was launched to grant tax credits to small producers (up to 6,000 liters per day).[135] That same year, the Small Grain Producer Stimulus Program (PEPP) was created, which benefited 56,355 producers with non-refundable contributions.
In the period 2001-2002 to 2012-2013, the total grain harvest reached a record (until then) of 105.8 million tons (an increase of 53%). During that decade, record increases were recorded in the production of barley (900%), peanuts (181%), cotton (149%), rice (120%), and corn (99%).[136]
Wine production received a strong boost since 2008. Foreign sales reached a historical record of USD$650 million in 2009 (17% increase compared to 2008). Production grew annually: 9.9% (2009), 10.3% (2010), 8.5% (2011) and 4.8% (2012).[137] In 2014, Argentina consolidated itself as the fifth largest producer in the world and the largest in the southern hemisphere, with 15.2 million hectoliters.[138].
A policy to support the sector was implemented, with the elimination and reduction of tax burdens and withholdings, including a 50% cut in charges and a reduction in withholdings in May 2009.[139] In 2011, the expansion of Bodegas Bianchi in San Rafael, Mendoza, was inaugurated, with an investment of 45 million.[140][141].
Finally, in 2015, soybean exports to China were a record, totaling 9,438,424 tons, an increase of 57.19% compared to 2014.[142].
On March 11, 2008, in a context of strong international rise in food prices and influenced by speculative movements in commodity markets in the United States prior to the economic crisis of 2008-2009, the Minister of Economy, Martín Lousteau, announced new moving values for soybean and sunflower exports, with reductions for corn and wheat.[143][144][145] The objective was to mitigate the price fluctuations, combat "soyization" and preserve the "high dollar policy." This caused a 129-day lockout with road blockades.
Organizations of small producers and peasants, such as the National Family Agriculture Forum (FONAF), the Missionary Agrarian Movement (MAM), and the National Indigenous Peasant Movement, rejected the lock out, accusing the four main agricultural entities of defending only their own interests.[144][146][147][148][149][150].
At the same time, the political group Unión por Todos (led by Patricia Bullrich) called on agricultural producers to commit crimes (such as tax evasion, smuggling, and grain hoarding) to "bring down the government."[151] Opposition leader Elisa Carrió accused Julio Cobos of coup plotting against President Fernández.[152].
During most of the first decade of the 21st century, Argentina was positioned as one of the five largest honey producers in the world, being at the same time the first exporter of bulk honey, increasing its production until it became the third world producer of honey and the first exporter of quality honey, with more than 28,000 bee producers and 4.5 million hives with a distribution that covers almost the entire national territory.[153][154].
In 2014, the policies implemented positioned Argentina as the third world producer of raw soybeans and the first producer of soybean oil.[155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162][162].
Incentives were announced for the dairy industry, a negotiating table for beef, and $1.5 billion pesos (USD 500 million) to compensate small and medium-sized businessmen, those who were further away from the ports, and to promote dairy and livestock production in the face of the expansion of soybeans.[163].
The growth extended to minor crops: rice and barley reached productions close to 2 million and 5 million tons, respectively.[77] In addition, strong modernization was observed; The sale of agricultural machinery increased by 97.3% in 2013 compared to the previous year.[123].
At the end of the first government period in 2011, agricultural exports exceeded the 2008 figures by USD 28.7 billion. Exports of the main crops (soybeans, wheat, corn and sunflower) reached the historical record of USD 29.6 billion in 2011, 34% more than in 2010. Argentina's total exports ended 2011 with a record of USD 80,600 million.[164] The soybean harvest grew to 55 million tons in 2014.[165][166].
In August 2009, the Federal Solidarity Fund was created, sharing 30% of the income from withholdings on soy exports with Provinces and Municipalities through a Decree of Necessity and Urgency.[28][26][27] At the end of 2009, the exemption from payment of internal taxes on sparkling wine was extended for two years.[167].
Total agricultural production grew by 41%, from 70.8 million tons (2002/3) to 100 million (2010), increasing the planted area and productivity by 25%. Beef production rose from 2.5 to 2.6 million tons.[168].
In the 2013-2014 campaign, the largest harvest in history was achieved with 105.8 million tons (an increase of 53% compared to the beginning of the decade). Record increases were recorded in the last decade for barley (900%), peanuts (181%), cotton (149%), rice (120%) and corn (99%).[169].
A strong modernization was observed: the sale of agricultural machinery increased by 97.3% in 2013 compared to the previous year.[123].
• - Incentives and Compensations: In 2010, withholdings were eliminated on 50 items exported from regional economies (including grapevines, olives, rice, dairy products and meats, among others).[170] In 2014, the Small Grain Producer Stimulus Program (PEPP) was launched with $2.5 billion for 48,000 producers of wheat, soybeans, corn and sunflower. $1.5 billion pesos (USD 500 million) were allocated to compensate small/medium producers and promote dairy and livestock farming.[163].
• - Irrigation: The UCRA Program (since 2012) promoted irrigation works. Irrigated hectares increased from 1,355,000 (2002) to 2,200,000 (2008).[133] Irrigation works were inaugurated with an investment of more than $530 million in Mendoza.[171].
• - Agrobiotechnology: INTA developed new transgenic varieties of cereals and legumes tolerant to agrochemicals or stress,[172] and tomatoes resistant to viruses.[173] In 2012, INTA tested the world's first bitransgenic bovine producer of formula milk.[174].
• - Dairy: Dairy production grew by 5.03% annually (2003-2013), reaching 14,311 million liters in 2014.[175][176] In 2015, exports of hard cheeses grew by 35% (8,701 tons), driven by sales to the US and Russia.[177][178].
• - Wine: Argentina is the largest wine producer in Latin America and the fifth in the world (with 15.2 million hectoliters in 2014).[138][179][180] Production grew continuously (9.9% in 2009; 10.3% in 2010),[137] and foreign sales reached a record of USD$650 million in 2010 (+17% compared to 2009). The production value in 2011 was $3.4 billion, 40% being exported.[179][181].
• - Biofuels: The biodiesel industry (started in 2007) grew due to the National Biofuels Program (2010). Production rose to a record of 2.5 million tons in 2011, generating 6,000 jobs (direct/indirect).[182] The reductions in export duties (2014) and the increase in the mandatory cut to 10% boosted production, consolidating Argentina as one of the largest global production hubs.[183] Investment was also made in bioethanol from sugar cane, which occupies 350 thousand hectares (2014).[184].
Macroeconomic indices
In October 2013, the development of a new national price index was announced in the INDEC.[187] This data capture model, developed with universities and international organizations, involved more than 500 surveyors, 200,000 monthly prices, in more than 100 locations and 320 cities.[187][188] Items such as castration of felines, trips to Cancún and domestic service, since, according to Vice President Amado Boudou, the latter "is clearly not part of the cost of living."[189].
According to independent calculations published by The New York Times, unemployment was reduced by more than half and economic inequality decreased considerably.[17][190]
The minimum, vital and mobile wage grew significantly: at the end of the administration, in 2015, it was US$587. Regarding Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), Argentina's minimum wage, of US$742.3 in December 2015, was ranked as the highest in Latin America, surpassing countries such as Paraguay (US$725.1) and Chile (US$ 523.2).[191].
Under the process initiated by Néstor Kirchner between 2003 and 2009, Argentina doubled its middle class, going from 9.3 million to 18.6 million people, according to the World Bank.[192][193] This constituted the greatest growth of this population segment in Latin America.
Poverty was reduced from 21% (2006) to 11.3% (2009).[194] It continued to decrease to 5.7% in 2011, ranking as the lowest in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Chile).[195][196] Destitution fell from 7.5% to 1.9%.[195][197][198]
The gap between rich and poor was significantly reduced, falling from 24.8 times (2009) to 14 times (2010), the lowest level since 1986, positioning Argentina as the most egalitarian country in Latin America.[199][200].
The increase in formal employment and social security programs, such as the Universal Child Allowance (AUH), lifted between 1.4 and 1.8 million people out of poverty.[199][201] This also increased access to food by 26% for poor households. Additionally, there was a 27% increase in children enrolled in school nationwide and an 11.5% reduction in teenage motherhood.[199][201][202].
Social policy
Durante su gestión, se mejoró la cobertura de medicamentos del PAMI del 40/50% al 70/80% del precio. La cobertura al 100% de medicación se extendió de 9 mil jubilados en 2004 a 1.102.450 en 2014.[203].
Social and Economic Impact
Independent calculations indicate a decrease of 81% in poverty and 91% in extreme poverty.[204] By 2011, ECLAC reported that poverty had fallen to 5.7% and indigence to 1.9%, making Argentina the country with the least poverty in Latin America. The middle class doubled in the last decade (from 9.3 to 18.6 million), the largest percentage increase in the region. Unemployment and economic inequality also decreased considerably.[204].
Changes in the Civil and Commercial Code
The new Code incorporated:
• - Cohabitation and ratification of equal marriage, with rights similar to marriage.
• - Divorce without a minimum period and at the request of a spouse.
• - Inclusion of prenuptial agreements on the distribution of assets.
• - Children can take the surname of the mother and/or father.
• - Acceleration of the adoption process to 90 days.[205].
• - The best interests of the child are prioritized, with their mandatory consent from the age of ten.[206].
• - Incorporation of Assisted Human Reproduction (2012) and legalization of motherhood by surrogacy.[207].
• - Recognition of the economic value of personal care tasks.
• - Changes in the inheritance law to allow leaving a larger portion to whomever is preferred.[208].
• - Recognition of very personal rights (dignity, privacy, etc.).
Policy towards children
In 2008, Law 26,390 was passed, which establishes the fundamental right of children not to work until they are 16 years old and penalizes the employment of minors under that age. By the third quarter of 2012, child labor was reduced by 66% (2.2% of children working, compared to 6.4% in 2004).[209].
In 2007, the First National Action Plan for the Rights of Girls, Boys and Adolescents was launched, a pioneer in Latin America, which included early childhood and the subsequent “Early Years” program. The Secretariat for Children, Adolescence and Family (Senaf) and Law 26061 were also created, which guarantees that resources for children are not lower than those of the previous period.[210].
Since 2014, compulsory schooling was established from the age of four to the completion of secondary school (18 years). Kindergarten enrollment expanded by 37% between 2006 and 2010. According to UNESCO (2014), the educational system became more egalitarian, with a reduction in illiteracy and the incorporation of children in classrooms from 3 to 5 years old rose from 48% (2001) to more than 87%.[211].
• - Health Plans: Plan Nacer (2004) and Plan Sumar (2012) were launched, which provided health coverage to pregnant women, children under 6 years of age, and later extended to children, adolescents and women up to 64 years of age without social work. This reduced infant mortality from 16.5‰ to 10.8‰ (reaching 9.7‰ in 2015, single digits for the first time in 25 years) and maternal and child mortality from 4.4‰ to 3.2‰.[212][213].
• - Results and Regional Gap: Between 2005 and 2010, infant mortality was reduced by 17% at the national level and by 24% in the North, halving the gap between the North and the national average.[214].
• - Coverage: Low birth weight was reduced by 63% (2007-2014) and the complete vaccination card in children under 12 years of age was raised from 71% (2008) to 98.7% (2015). The availability of hearing loss, osteoarticular and dermatological examinations was expanded.[215].
• - Qunita Plan (2014): Modeled in Finland, this program delivered kits (including bassinets, clothing and care items) to pregnant women. After its launch, deaths of babies under one year old were reduced by 27.5%.[216].
On October 28, 2009, President Fernández de Kirchner created the Universal Child Allowance (AUH) (Decree 1602/09), extending the family allowance per child to children under 18 years of age with unemployed parents, in the informal economy or social monotributists.[217] This measure was intended to cover the minimum needs of children below the poverty line, considered an extension of the social security system and a progressive policy in the distribution of income. A historical background of the idea was proposed by Eva Perón in The reason for my life.[218].
• - Scope: By mid-2013, more than 3.5 million children and adolescents were covered. Since May 2011, it was complemented with the Universal Pregnancy Allowance (AUE) for future mothers with 12 or more weeks of gestation.
• - Conditional Requirements: To receive the benefit, accreditation of the mandatory vaccination plan and compliance with mandatory education (from 5 to 18 years of age) are required, which increased schooling and decreased child deaths from preventable causes.[219].
• - Reduction of Poverty and Inequality: CONICET studies (2010) indicate that the AUH reduced total poverty from 26.0% to 19.6%, lifting between 1.6 and 1.8 million people out of poverty. Homelessness decreased from 9.5% to 3.4%. The gap between rich and poor fell to 14 times (2010), the lowest level since 1986, positioning Argentina as the most egalitarian country in Latin America.[220].
• - Health and Education: Health controls increased by 21% (2009/2010). There was an effective reintegration of 130,000 children into the educational system and an increase of 67% in the number of children enrolled in school nationwide. High school attendance rose from 84.9% to 88% in the first two years.[221].
In 2011, the adoption process was reformed to eliminate irregular practices and guardianship outside the official system.
International organizations recognized the policies:.
• - The ILO highlighted the expansion of social protection and maternity coverage.
• - Save the Children ranked Argentina as the second best country in Latin America to be a mother in 2012, rising to first position in 2015.[222][223].
• - The FAO highlighted that social inclusion policies, together with those of Chile and Venezuela, allowed Argentina to reach levels below 5% in the fight against hunger.[224].
Policy towards youth
The Fernández de Kirchner government implemented various programs and legal reforms to promote youth participation and expand their rights.
Programs were designed for youth and labor participation, such as the National Student Organization Program of Student Centers and the Youth with More and Better Work Program (PJMyMT), focused on unemployed young people aged 18 to 24 without complete compulsory schooling. The Federal Youth Council was created to develop citizenship policies.
Student participation in student centers multiplied, going from 60,233 in 2008 to 623,087 in 2011.[225] In addition, the Argentine Citizenship Law was enacted, which granted the optional vote to young people aged 16 and 17.
The new Civil and Commercial Code significantly expanded the legal status of young people:.
• - Body Autonomy and Health: Adolescents obtained the right to decide about their own body and reproductive health (including access to contraceptives) without parental permission.[226] From the age of 16, they have full power to make decisions about the care of their body (tattoos, piercings, blood donation, etc.).[227].
• - Legal and Labor Rights: The power of the young person over himself was increased from the age of 13. The right is established to have one's own lawyer, sue parents for support, practice one's profession without authorization and manage the assets acquired through one's work.
• - Adoptions: Procedures were simplified and the paradigm was changed by prioritizing "the right of the child to have a family." The spectrum of applicants was expanded, including couples in a cohabiting union and reducing the minimum age for admission from 30 to 25 years.[226].
The Federal Youth Council was created and Law 26,233-2007 on the Promotion and Regulation of Child Development Centers was enacted, which established quality and development standards for early childhood (0 to 4 years). The law required that at least half of the educators in these Child Development Centers (CDI) have a tertiary or university teaching degree and established a ratio of 1 adult for every 5 children or less in rooms up to 1 year old.[228].
Policy on the elderly
Pension and health coverage for older adults was consolidated.
Expansion of Coverage: Total retirements and pensions increased by 109.5% between 2003 and 2015, reaching 6,617,587 benefits and coverage of 97% of the retirement-age population, the highest in Latin America (universalization not seen since 1975).[229] Coverage for women increased from 48% to 91%.
Retirement Mobility: Law No. 26,417 (2008) established the automatic updating of salaries twice a year (March and September).
Minimum Asset: According to the World Bank, the minimum retirement asset, equivalent to $442 in 2015, was the highest in Latin America.
Sustainability Fund (FGS): After nationalization, the FGS was created, a sovereign fund that grew from $98,224 million (2008) to **$482,660 million** (October 2014), an increase of 392.1%.
Health (PAMI)
Free Medications: A free "essential" medication plan for retirees was launched (51 in 2007) and expanded to more than 200 in 2010, and to 310 in 2015.[229]
Infrastructure: The French Hospital passed into state hands in 2008, being renamed "Doctor César Milstein" Hospital.[230]
Laboratories: The number of laboratories for clinical analysis of PAMI members increased from 410 to 734 at the federal level.[231].
Policy towards people with disabilities
In May 2008, the Argentine Republic ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol (Law No. 26 378).[232].
• - Programs and Financing: 27 programs were launched for governments, NGOs and people with disabilities, delivering 1.2 million adapted transports. The amount allocated for disability became four times greater than that of the entire region, and tax benefits were granted.[233].
• - Accessibility Regulations: Progress was made in laws with accessible content, such as the Media Law and the Web Law (which obliges states to create accessible pages), in addition to the inclusion of disability in the Universal Child Allowance.[233].
• - Autism Law (Law 27,043): Passed in 2014, this law established a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach to Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). It obliges all health agents (social works, prepaid) to provide benefits, free diagnosis and medical-care services. The law includes the diagnosis in the Mandatory Medical Plan and requires the training of health professionals, the adaptation of primary care centers and the preparation of federal epidemiological studies.[234].
Policies towards indigenous peoples
The unification of the Civil and Commercial Code in Argentina included the recognition of indigenous community property (Art. 18), providing for a future titling law. Historically, communities lacked titles, which made evictions easier.
• - Lands: The State demarcated 6.6 million hectares corresponding to 653 indigenous communities in 21 provinces, through the INAI Territorial Survey Program (Law 26,160). In addition, 2.4 million hectares were regularized in Jujuy, Mendoza, Chaco and Salta through provincial programs.[235].
• - Census and Recognition: The 2010 Census incorporated a question about the identity of indigenous peoples.[236] In 2013, the INAI recognized the Iogys people as separate from the Wichí group.[237].
• - Participation: The Indigenous Participation Council (CPI) was created in 2004 (reformed in 2008), made up of representatives elected by town and province.[238].
• - Bilingual Education: New bilingual schools were created for children to learn their ancestral history and Aboriginal culinary traditions.[239].
• - Linguistic Census: A census of indigenous languages (2009) highlighted the existence of nine languages in recovery.[240].
• - Agricultural Recovery: National universities worked on the reintegration of sixty autochthonous breeds of native corn adapted to the NEA, seeking to improve the availability of food and the income of indigenous peoples.[241].
Social policy towards women
In 2013, within the Argentina Works program, the Ministry of Social Development created the “They Make” subprogram.[242].
This social employment program was aimed at 92,424 women with at least three children, a disabled child, or who were victims of gender violence.
• - Considerations: The beneficiaries had to complete training in trades, cooperativism, hygiene, violence prevention and promotion of rights.
• - Requirements: They were required to complete primary education and obtain a secondary degree, in addition to demonstrating compliance with health checks, vaccinations and school attendance of their children.[242].
• - Housing: The program included a section so that homeless women and victims of gender violence could build their own house and achieve economic independence.[243][244].
In 2014, the law was approved that eliminated the obligation to perform prenuptial medical examinations to get married, promoting autonomy and personal privacy.
Anti-discrimination Plan
During the Fernández administration, the participation of civil society was prioritized through the creation of Civil Society Forums by thematic axis and province, which served as training areas in anti-discrimination policies and co-management with organizations.
• - Federalization: The INADI (National Institute against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism) was reorganized, opening its own delegations in 21 provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires between 2006 and 2009. It also signed agreements with more than 200 municipalities.[245].
• - Public Recognition: Its recognition grew significantly, going from 15.8% to 41.9% at the national level and from 14.8% to 72.9% in the City of Buenos Aires in three years.[246].
• - Increase in Activity:
A free 24-hour telephone line (0800) was created, which increased its calls by 50% (more than 500 monthly).
Consultations to the Free Legal Guard increased almost 100%.
The total number of complaints and actions for discrimination almost quintupled, going from 440 to 1,911 in the last year of Lubertino's administration.[245]
INADI's opinions and technical reports went from 78 to 286 per year.[245].
Labor policy
La política laboral del Gobierno de Cristina Kirchner se centró en la profundización de la negociación colectiva y la formalización del empleo. La cantidad de trabajadores registrados alcanzó el nivel más alto en 38 años.[247].
Employment and Formalization
• - Unemployment and Informality: The unemployment rate decreased from 8.4% (2008) to 6.9% (fourth quarter of 2012), the lowest since 1992.[248] Unregistered employment (in black) was reduced from 50% (2002) to 34.6% (10 years later).[249].
• - Programs: The following were implemented:
Microcredits for entrepreneurs (320,000 until 2013).
Argentina Works Plan, which added more than 6,600 cooperatives.
Program for the regularization of SMEs (2010), benefiting 290,000 microemployers with tax benefits, including a 100% discount on employer contributions for companies with less than 15 employees.[250]
The Social Monotribute was streamlined, facilitating microentrepreneurs' access to social work, retirement and billing.[249].
• - Family Protection: The Employment Contract Law was modified to extend and equalize the rights for maternity, paternity and adoption.[251].
• - Workplace Accidents: The Law on Damages for Professional Accidents (2012) was passed, increasing compensation (eliminating the maximum limit) and incorporating frequent occupational diseases such as hernias, low back pain and varicose veins.[249].
• - Safety: The rate of work accidents was reduced by 26% and the death rate by 27%, thanks to a 600% increase in joint inspections by the Ministry of Labor and the Superintendence of Occupational Risks.[249].
• - **Social Works:**The collection of social works grew by 526% between 2003 and 2015 due to the increase in employment and the purchasing power of salaries. In 2008, the historic contribution to the Welfare Projects of bank staff was returned.[252].
Fight against informal work
Between 2002 and 2010, the number of registered workers grew by 66%, a significantly greater increase than in previous periods. This brought the number of registered workers to an all-time high in 38 years.
• - Formal Employment: Unregistered employment (in black) fell from 50% (2002) to 34.6% ten years later, and stood at 34.5% in 2012.[249].
• - Minimum Wage: The minimum wage grew by 1338% in 10 years, reaching double the best minimum wage in Latin America by the end of the government.[253].
• - **Collective Bargaining:**Collective bargaining was deepened, going from homologating 200 agreements (mainly company agreements) to registering nearly 2,000 activity and company agreements in 2014. More than 90% were by branch of activity.
• - Inspections and Safety: The National Work Regularization Plan was implemented (inspecting 900 thousand companies) and the number of joint inspections between the Ministry of Labor and the Superintendence of Occupational Risks increased by 600%.[249] This resulted in a decrease in the rate of work accidents by 26% and deaths due to work accidents by 27%.[249].
• - Risk Coverage: Coverage of insured employers increased by 100% (2003–2014), reaching a historical record of almost 9 million workers covered by the system.
• - Registered Labor Promotion Law (2014): This law was enacted to allocate $4.15 billion in benefits to small and medium-sized employers, encouraging registration, and provided for sanctions for employers who do not register their workers.[254].
• - Slave Labor: Law 26,364 created a tool against bonded labor (slave labor), with oversight in vulnerable sectors such as rural and textile sectors.[249].
Unionization
By the third quarter of 2008, the Ministry of Labor approved 890 collective agreements and agreements, which represented an increase of 24% compared to 2007 and 324% compared to 2004.[255][256].
• - Scope: More than 90% of the agreements were closed by branch or sub-branch of economic activity.
• - Clauses: Although salary clauses were the most common, an increase was observed in clauses on "regulation of labor relations" (20%) and "working conditions" (17%). These included the creation of "hygiene and safety committees" and non-discrimination clauses.[255].
• - Academic Impact: The greater union presence prompted universities to include more information on social dialogue and human resources techniques in their study plans.[257].
Job and training programs
In 2012, the EMPLEART.EC initiative was launched to promote employment in the software and technology sector at the national level, seeking competitiveness, social inclusion and reducing the digital divide.[258].
• - EMPLEART.EC: More than 65% of the 21,000 beneficiaries of the courses since 2006 found work or improved their employment situation.
• - They Make: In 2013, the work program "They Make" was launched, focused on single women with children or victims of gender violence. It provided a basic monthly stipend for training in home construction and future access to a home. The participants had to complete work days, training and finish compulsory education.[243].
Regimes for rural and domestic workers
Reforms were implemented to expand labor rights in historically neglected sectors and retirement mobility was established.
Statute of the Rural Worker (2011): The new Statute of the Rural Worker was approved, which expanded the labor rights of rural employees, a sector where more than 80% were informal.[259].
• - Day and Salary: It set the working day at 8 hours (44 hours per week), ending "work from dawn to dusk", recognized overtime and established that the minimum remuneration could not be less than the minimum, vital and mobile salary.[260].
• - Retirement and Leaves: Reduced the retirement age to 57 years (previously 65/60) and the years of contributions to 25, and incorporated a 30-day paternity leave.[259].
• - Regime for Private Houses (2013): The Special Regime for Employment Contracts for Private Houses was approved, which recognized domestic employees (close to a million workers) the same rights as the rest of the workers (paid vacations, licenses, severance pay), with a maximum working day of 48 hours per week.[261].
• - Law 26,417 (2008): The Retirement Mobility Law was passed, which established two automatic increases per year (March and September) for retirements, pensions, Family Allowances and AUH.[262] The minimum retirement increased its purchasing power by 30% between the first increase (March 2009) and the end of 2015.
Renationalization and Fund: The renationalization of the Pension System and the creation of the Guarantee and Sustainability Fund (FGS) were carried out.
Increase in compensation for work accidents
On November 5, 2009, President Fernández issued Decree 1694/2009 to correct the failures of the occupational risk system (Law 24,557) and the unconstitutionality of its regulations.
• - Ceiling and Floor: The decree eliminated the maximum limit of $180,000 pesos (approx. U$D 50,000) for periodic income and, on the contrary, established that sum as the minimum floor for total disability or the value of human life.[263].
• - Fixed Amounts: The fixed sum amounts for disabilities greater than 50% and for death were increased by more than 100%.[263].
• - Supervision and ARTs: The norm implemented a system of supervision of the medical services of the Occupational Risk Insurers (ART) and enabled the creation of non-profit ARTs.[263].
Decree 29/2014: In 2014, the scales for determining disabilities were modified and new diseases were incorporated into the work risk system. Workers affected by varicose veins, hernias or low back pain due to their tasks (standing work, lifting weights) can receive free treatments and compensation.[264].
Decree 1694/09 was supported by the two union centers (CGT and CTA), and by the Argentine Confederation of Medium Enterprises (CAME), although it was questioned by the UIA, the Rural Society and the Chamber of Commerce.[265][266].
Maternity and paternity leave
In 2010, the Reformulation of the maternity and paternity leave system was approved, significantly expanding labor rights.[267].
The reform included:
• - Extended Leaves: Extension of maternity and paternity leaves to 180 days, and extension of the paternity leave period.
• - High Risk Pregnancy: Granting of special permits in these cases.
• - Breastfeeding: Right to two daily breaks of one hour each during the breastfeeding period, extending up to two years after birth.
• - Protection against Dismissal: Right to aggravated compensation in the event of dismissal of the woman or her spouse for reasons of birth or adoption.
Policy for SMEs
In 2013, the figure of the sole proprietorship company (SAU) was created, which allows a portion of the assets to be allocated to a productive project.
Likewise, new forms of contracting were recognized and regulated in the Civil and Commercial Code, such as arbitration, agency, concession, franchise, supply, leasing and trust, among others.[268].
Infrastructure and transportation policy
El gobierno de Cristina Fernández continuó el Plan Vial Nacional iniciado en 2003, logrando un crecimiento del 130% de la red vial argentina hasta 2014.[269].
Infrastructure and Transportation
• - An average of 168 road works were tendered per year (7,840 km in total during the Kirchner administration).
• - The conversion of the dangerous National Route 14 (Mercosur Route) into a highway (Ceibas-Gualeguaychú, inaugurated in 2009) and the widening and works of General Paz Avenue (adding a fourth lane and new bridges, partially completed in 2014) stand out.
• - Routes such as 127 (Corrientes-Entre Ríos) were repaved and new road sections were inaugurated, such as Highway 19 and the new layout of National Route 150 in San Juan (Road Work of the Year).
• - Construction of the Presidente Perón Highway began (sections I, II and III).
• - Law 26,776 defined the physical integration of the continental territory with Tierra del Fuego as State policy.
• - Ports: The Port of La Plata and other ports were expanded and modernized.[270].
• - Air Transport: The most important measure was the renationalization of Aerolíneas Argentinas.[271].
• - Railway: In 2015, the Vagones Argentinos plant was inaugurated to produce wagons of its own design.[272].
• - National Agency: In 2008, the National Road Safety Agency was created.[273] Between 2008 and 2009, a reduction of more than 9% in fatal road accidents was achieved. In 2012, Argentina recorded a rate of 12.6 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, the lowest in South America (after Chile).[274].
• - Single License: The Single National Driving License was launched (2010) to unify evaluation criteria (previously dispersed in more than 1,800 centers), centralize the violation database (National Traffic Records Registry) and apply the scoring system.[275].
The permitted blood alcohol limit was reduced from 0.8 to 0.5 (2013), complemented by the zero alcohol regulation on national routes (2014).
It was agreed with manufacturers to implement mandatory safety elements in 0 km vehicles, such as double airbags and ABS brakes.[276].
Freight railways
After the state recovery of the Belgrano Cargas Railway in 2011, the most important comprehensive investment plan in decades began, seeking to modernize and enhance the service.
• - Investment: The plan involved an investment of $10.7 billion pesos to extend more than three thousand kilometers of new roads on the existing layout.[277][278].
• - Initial Achievements: By May 2013, 400 km of new tracks had been built and about 400 wagons had been repaired.[277].
• - Rolling Stock: The purchase of 3,500 freight cars from China was completed (including hoppers and coal carriers), with the arrival of the first 151 in October 2015.[277].
• - Load Capacity: The project aims to increase the transportation capacity of Belgrano Cargas from 1 million tons per year (after two decades of privatization with 3000 km of unused roads) to 10 million tons per year for cereals, mining production and hydrocarbons.[279].
• - New Connections:
In 2012, the Santa Fe Circunvalar was put out to tender.[280]
In May 2013, the state company Trenes Argentinos Cargas reopened key branches, including the section to La Rioja and international connections to Bolivia (Branch C15) and Chile (Branch C14).[281].
Public passenger transport
Significant modernization of transport infrastructure was carried out, especially in terminals, railways and urban public transport.
Mar del Plata Railway Automotive Terminal (2009): The modern "Eva Perón" Railway Automotive Terminal of 17,000 m² with 42 docks was built. In 2015, $1.3 billion were invested in the Constitución-Mar del Plata branch to change more than 400 km of tracks and incorporate Talgo IV trains.[282].
Bus Terminals: New terminals were inaugurated, highlighting:.
• - Santiago del Estero (2008): "Presidente Néstor Carlos Kirchner" Terminal with 35 platforms and an access viaduct.
• - Bahia Blanca (2008)..
• - Córdoba (2011): Bicentennial Terminal, which increased to 89 platforms.
• - Jujuy (2014)..
• - La Plata University Train (2013): The first stage of this service was inaugurated, connecting Paseo del Bosque with the Roca Line station.
• - Metrobús: In mid-2015, a loan of U$D 120 million was granted from the World Bank for the Metrobús in La Matanza (23 km, 11 exclusive lanes), with transfer centers connected to the Belgrano Sur and Sarmiento railways.[283].
• - SUBE (2011): The Single Electronic Ticket System (SUBE) was launched, which allows paying for public transportation (buses, subways, trains) with a single smart card, extending from the AMBA to multiple cities in the interior.[284].
• - Discounts of 40% on the rate were implemented for retirees, domestic workers and other groups.
In 2015, the SUBE Network was launched, which offers discounts for combining means of transport within a period of two hours (in AMBA and other cities).
• - Collective Regulations: Since October 2013, all new collective units under national jurisdiction were required to incorporate air conditioning and comply with the Euro 5 environmental standard.[285].
• - Fleet Replacement: A credit program was launched for the acquisition of 0 km vehicles for taxis and remises nationwide, promoting replacement and benefiting the automotive industry.
Under the continuity of the National Road Plan (started in 2003), the National Government made a significant investment in road infrastructure until 2015, achieving a 130% growth of the Argentine road network.[286].
Expansion and Maintenance: 1,300 km of new roads were built, 4,100 km of national routes were paved, and maintenance coverage was extended to the entire paved road network (previously it was 50%).[286].
• - National Route 81 of Salta and Formosa was modernized with an investment of $500 million, paving 405 km to recreate the natural bioceanic corridor of the north.[287].
Road works
Investment in the National Road Plan continued, focusing on Patagonia and the improvement of the national road network, resulting in notable growth.
Provincial Route 1 (2008): The last stretch of asphalt was inaugurated, connecting the provincial capital with the Magellanic penguin colony.[292]
Madryn-Trelew Double Highway (2012): The double carriageway that connects the port cities of Puerto Madryn (with airport) and Trelew was inaugurated, improving road safety and connecting industrial parks.[293]
Route 71 and Cholila (2012): National Route 71 and access to the town of Cholila were paved.[294].
Sustained investment in the National Road Plan allowed:
• - Build 1300 km of new roads.
• - Pave 4100 km of national routes.
• - Cover the entire national road network with maintenance (compared to 50% covered in 2003).
These works resulted in a 130% growth of the Argentine road network between 2003 and 2014.[295].
Railways
The government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner prioritized the modernization of railway infrastructure and rolling stock in Argentina.
• - Acquisition: Between 2013 and 2014, contracts were signed with the Chinese company CSR Sifang for the purchase of 709 zero kilometer cars with modern technology (ABS brakes, air conditioning, etc.) for the Miter (409), Sarmiento (409) and Roca (300) metropolitan lines, replacing fleets of more than 50 years.[296][297][298].
• - Miter Line: The total renewal of the service was completed (Tiger, J. L. Suárez, Mitre branches) and 55 km of third rail were replaced. The track was improved on the diesel branch to Capilla del Señor.[299][300].
• - San Martín Line: Incorporated 160 cars and 24 0 km locomotives (increasing capacity by 37%) and carried out platform elevation works. In 2014, the service was reestablished to Luján and Pilar, expanding the section closed since 1978.[301][302].
• - Roca Line: In 2014, the electrification of the branch to La Plata (52.6 km) began, including the elimination of the embankment in Ringuelet. The electrified section Constitución-Quilmes (work paralyzed for 42 years) and the City Bell station were inaugurated.[303][304].
• - Long Distance Corridor: 558 km of tracks were renewed in the Rosario-Retiro section and the Rosario Sur Station was inaugurated (2015).[305].
• - Belgrano Cargas: Some 400 wagons were repaired and 400 km of new tracks were built since 2013. 3,500 wagons were purchased from China and 900 km of tracks were renewed in northern provinces (Salta, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, Chaco, Santa Fe).[277].
• - Tafí Viejo Railway Workshops: The repair of 300 to 400 freight cars per year was promoted.
• - Regional Connections: The Argentina-Uruguay binational train was reopened (2011) and the Posadas-Encarnación Binational Train (Argentina-Paraguay) was inaugurated in 2014.
• - Terminal stations such as Once (with new systems, premises, and connection to Subway A) and Retiro Belgrano (restoration of masonry and dome) were restored and valued. The Retiro Miter Station had improvements in lighting, glass ceilings and entrances with turnstiles.
• - The new Mar del Plata train and bus terminal was inaugurated (2011).
• - The ADIF's total investment in 2015 for railway improvement was $9,000 million.[306].
Airports
The government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner prioritized the modernization and expansion of airports in Argentina.
• - Córdoba International Airport (2013-2015): Expanded its surface by $12,000 m², with the reconstruction of $2,200 m² of facilities, new boarding bridges, offices and reconfiguration of $5,800 m² of apron. It acquired capacity for 2.4 million passengers. The $300 million investment, financed by ORSNA and a trust, included state-of-the-art equipment, improvements to boarding gates, taxiways, sleeves and the ILS system. In October 2015, a new Control Tower and radar systems were inaugurated ($40 million investment), which generated an economic impact of more than $4,079 million and 11,939 jobs in 2013.[307][308][309].
• - Hub Córdoba (2015): It was founded as a flight distribution center that connects Córdoba directly with multiple national destinations (Mendoza, Salta, Bariloche, Ushuaia, etc.) and international destinations, without passing through Buenos Aires.
• - Aeroparque Jorge Newbery: In March 2010, its internationalization was completed, allowing flights to neighboring countries (Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay) with Aerolíneas Argentinas as the first operator.[310] In 2014, it was the first in Argentine airline history to exceed 10 million passengers (10,255,541). In 2013, it was listed by Skytrax as one of the most modern airports in South America.[311].
• - Bariloche: Completely remodeled in 2012 (modernization of signage, beacons, technology, central building and runway extension).[312] In 2012, $66 million were invested in the comprehensive reconstruction of its runway.[313].
• - Comodoro Rivadavia: The complete work of a new $7,000 m² airport was carried out (investment of $300 million), which included the demolition of the 1978 building and renovations to the runway.[314].
• - Mendoza: In 2014, a modernization began with an investment of $150 million and an additional **$12,000 m²** in the terminal.[315].
• - Ushuaia: In 2013, expansion works were inaugurated in service areas, check-in, arrivals, bathrooms and confectionery, in addition to the parking area.[316].
• - Esquel: Works were carried out with a budget of $22 million.[313].
• - Resistance: The taxiway, the hangar bay and the access to the Aeronautical Technical School were paved.[317].
• - Trelew: Remodeling and expansion of the Almirante Marcos A. Zar Airport, which was completed in 2010 and sought its international declaration.[318][319].
• - Mar del Plata: Work was carried out on the renovation and expansion of the passenger terminal.[320].
Ports and canals
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's management prioritized the modernization and expansion of the country's port and water infrastructure.
• - Port of La Plata (2014): It was expanded and modernized with an investment of $420 million dollars, considered the most outstanding port project in Argentina. It increased its operational capacity to 400,000 containers per year (later 800,000) and incorporated 13 state-of-the-art cranes, a terminal for two Super Post Panamax vessels, and a 600-meter dock with 15 hectares of stowage area. The work included dredging the entrance channel from 28 to 34 feet.[270][347][348][349][350].
• - Paraná-Paraguay Waterway: Investment in dredging and beaconing was promoted (2012 contract for $112 million) to enable the transit of larger vessels.[351].
• - Beaconing and Channeling: Beaconing and signaling work was carried out on the Santa Fe to Confluencia section ($1,238 km of the Paraná River) and progress was made on the channeling of the Paraguay River.[352].
• - Puerto de Posadas (2013): The construction of a new dock was completed, key for access to the Paraná-Paraguay Waterway.[353].
• - Port of Barranqueras (2013): The waterway signaling works were extended to Barranqueras (Chaco) with $382 million in investments. This allowed 24-hour navigability and turned the port into a technological center with a new container yard, increasing transport from 200,000 to 700,000 tons between 2008 and 2012.[354].
• - Mar del Plata (2009-2014): A $1,600 m² cruise terminal was built (2012, $7 million) and intensive dredging works were carried out (2009-2012 and 2014, $108 million) to recover draft in the main and secondary access channels, taking them to depths of $-11.60 m and $-10.60 m respectively.[355].
• - Puerto Rosales (2010): A new free zone was inaugurated with an investment of $5 million, enhancing the Coronel Rosales-Bahía Blanca logistics axis. [356].
• - Port of San Nicolás (Since 2013): The North Pier was extended by 250 meters with reinforced concrete pavement ($250 million investment), suitable for loading and unloading steel products, fertilizers and bulk.[357].
• - Puerto Quequén (Since 2014): Repowering began with the conversion of Route 88 into a highway and the construction of a new bridge over the Quequén Grande River. In 2015, the expansion of the Terminal began ($5 million investment) to increase the capacity of the property. 5 million in Puerto Quequén |publication=Diario Cuatro Vientos |date=October 15, 2015}}.
• - Port of Caleta Paula (Santa Cruz): The main dock was expanded to 680 meters and a shipyard with a dry dock was built capable of repairing ships up to 140 meters in length ($52 million cost), inaugurated in 2011.[358][359][360].
Housing plans
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's management focused on the construction of social housing and the expansion of electrical infrastructure.
Social Housing (PRO.CRE.AR).
• - Total Housing (2003-2011): As of September 2011, more than 630,000 housing solutions were completed, benefiting nearly 2.8 million people through programs such as the Federal Housing Construction Fund, the National Housing Fund and the Federal Better Living Program.
• - PRO.CRE.AR (2012): On June 12, 2012, the PRO.CRE.AR Bicentenario program (Argentine Bicentennial Credit Program for Single Family Housing) was launched for the massive delivery of mortgage loans (20 and 30 years with rates from 2% to 14%).
Objective: Financing the construction of 100,000 homes in four years.
Financing: Resources from the Sustainability Guarantee Fund (FGS), with Banco Hipotecario as trustee.
Urban Developments: From 2012 to 2015, 23,656 homes were started in urban developments, with an investment of more than $38,000 million in the national program.[365].
• - State Intervention: The president justified the creation of the program due to the "lack of mortgage policy of the private banks" and increased the state participation in the Mortgage Bank to 79.22% in 2012.
• - Water and Sanitation (AYSA): At the end of 2015, the state company AYSA had connected more than 5 million inhabitants to the networks (3 million to drinking water and 2 million to sewage).
• - Electrical System: The Federal Electrical Energy Transportation Plan was continued at 500 kV, converting the energy system from being Radial (directed to the Federal Capital) to an interconnected Federal Ring System.
National Interconnection: Between 2003 and 2015, ten provinces were incorporated into the Argentine Interconnection System (SADI).
Patagonia: The interconnection works with the rest of the country, started in 2004, concluded in 2014, integrating the federal network to the entire country.
Flood works
During the administration, important water works were carried out to prevent flooding and drinking water and sewage coverage was significantly expanded nationwide.
4,880 water works were executed for $122,387 million (more than $60 billion in the Province of Buenos Aires).[366].
Key Water Works
• - Río Salado (Province of Buenos Aires): The third stage of canalization was put out to tender (2013) with an investment of $1.6 billion to increase the conduction capacity along 118 km, benefiting 25% of agricultural production.[367][368].
• - La Plata (2013-2015): An infrastructure plan was initiated to prevent flooding by widening the El Gato stream (60 meters in total).[369].
• - Colorado River: The Salto Andersen dam was built to regulate the flow and prevent flooding, complemented by a hydroelectric plant (2010-2011).[370].
Expansion of Basic Services
Through state management, 2,358,244 people were incorporated into the water service and 2,070,791 into the sewage service in the AMBA between 2006 and 2015.[371][372]
The number of inhabitants with drinking water in Greater Buenos Aires increased from 6,093,516 in 2003 to 9,293,760 in 2015.
The number of inhabitants with sewers increased from 5,136,755 in 2003 to 7,207,546 in 2015.
According to the World Bank (2012), Argentina achieved coverage in urban areas of 98% in access to improved sources of drinking water and 92% in sanitation.[373].
Energy policy
Durante este periodo, el Estado argentino retomó la planificación energética nacional, incrementando la regulación y participación en el mercado energético. Un hito central fue la renacionalización de YPF en 2012, lo que le devolvió el control soberano sobre la exploración, explotación, industrialización y comercialización de hidrocarburos. Se creó también la empresa ENARSA.
Infrastructure Expansion
Between 2003 and 2015, the system added 11,300 megawatts (MW), a 51% increase in installed power.
The construction of the Yacyretá dam next to Paraguay was completed, reaching its final level of 83 m above sea level. n. m. in 2011, which allowed it to reach its design production of 3,200 MW (an additional contribution of 8,000 GWh/year) and generate 60% of the country's hydroelectricity. Previously, in 2008, a high-voltage transportation line from Yacyretá to the Litoral was inaugurated. [374][375][376][377]
The Atucha II nuclear power plant project was concluded and life extension works were carried out on Atucha I, recovering national nuclear and coal activity. [378]
Important thermoelectric plants were inaugurated: the General Belgrano (Campana, 823 MW), the San Martín Plant (Timbúes), the El Pilar Plant (Córdoba, 466 MW), a new Albanesi plant (Rosario), the San Nicolás Thermal Plant (with investment since 2007),[379][380][381][382] the Guillermo Brown (Bahía Blanca, 580 MW) [300] and the first coal turbine in Río Turbio (started in 2007).[383][384] The Costanera Sur Power Plant was also modernized and expanded. [385]
The incorporation of renewable energies (wind, biofuels) was promoted through Law 26,190 (end of 2006).[386].
5,500 km (or more than 4,000 km according to another source) of high voltage lines were built, connecting 10 provinces to the National Interconnected System (SIN) or SADI, and nearly 4,500 km of Extra High Voltage (LEAT) were laid. The total extension of the Extra High Voltage and Trunk Distribution network went from 17,331 km in 1993 to 31,527 km in September 2011.[387]</nowiki>[98][378][388][389]
The Patagonian System was integrated into the SADI and key interconnections were made such as the Yacyretá-Buenos Aires Third Section, the NEA-NOA Interconnection and the Comahue-Cuyo Interconnection, adding neglected regions.[388]
The capacity of the trunk gas pipelines was expanded and the Northeast Gas Pipeline was promoted to bring natural gas to the provinces of the NEA and the north of Salta and Santa Fe. [390] </nowiki>.
Between 2003 and 2011, installed power increased 42% and the record demand for power increased 53%.
The number of homes with electricity increased by 21.9% (2.15 million), and homes with access to gas through networks by 28.9% (1.65 million). [378]
Annual investment in distribution and transportation tripled, mostly with state funds.[391]
There was a change in the property matrix: the presence of the State in the energy matrix went from 7% to 45%, national private capital from 13% to 30%, while foreign companies reduced their participation from 80% to 25%.[392]
In terms of savings, the national replacement plan for incandescent lamps with low-consumption lamps was launched (with free delivery) and energy labeling of electrical appliances was implemented (IRAM 11900 standard).
Gas pipelines
In 2015, Dr. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner inaugurated the works of the Argentine Northwest Gasduct (GNOA), run by Enarsa. This project benefits 103 towns and 1.37 million inhabitants in Salta, Formosa, Chaco, Misiones, Corrientes, Santa Fe and Entre Ríos by extending the home gas network. [393][394][395][396]
In parallel, in 2008 the construction of the Juana Azurduy Integration Gas Pipeline (GJA) began, initially agreed upon in 2006 between Néstor Kirchner and Evo Morales. The GJA, inaugurated by both presidents in 2011, transports 27.7 million cubic meters of gas per day from Bolivia (through the Campo Durán Compressor Plant in Salta) to Argentina, improving the energy security of both countries. [397][398][399][400][401][402] One year after its inauguration, it was expanded to connect with the 1,500 km Gasoducto del Nordeste Argentino. Originally planned to import Bolivian gas in winter, the rise of Vaca Muerta has ensured self-sufficiency and has even made it possible to export gas to Brazil.[403].
Energy saving
Starting in 2008, the government implemented policies to reduce energy consumption, especially during peak hours, and promote efficiency.
• - National Plan for Energy Efficiency and Savings (2008): It sought the massive replacement of incandescent lamps with low-consumption lamps (LFC).
• - Public Buildings: Since 2009, the use of low consumption lamps was mandatory.
• - Prohibition of Incandescent Lamps: The plan culminated in Law 26,473 (2009), promoted by Greenpeace and supported by the Executive, which prohibits the import and marketing of incandescent lamps for residential use. [404][405][406][407][408] In 2011, a program was launched to distribute 25 million CFLs in homes.
• - Time Change: From December 30, 2007 to March 2008 (with the exception of the province of San Luis), the official time was moved back 60 minutes by law of Congress to reduce consumption during peak hours.
• - Energy Labeling (2008-2009): Efficiency labeling was implemented for refrigerators, freezers, motors and air conditioners. In December 2009, the IRAM 11900 standard was approved, which seeks to energy label buildings that request natural gas service through the network.
• - Renovate Program") (2012): Promoted the replacement of old refrigerators and washing machines for high-efficiency national models through discounts of 25% and financing in 12 interest-free installments, seeking to lower the electricity bill and promote responsible use. [409].
Renewable energies
At the end of 2007, the National Promotion Directorate (DNPROM) was established to promote renewable initiatives. Law 26,190 (2007) declared renewable electricity generation for public service of national interest, granted tax exemptions for 15 years and set a goal of 8% renewable consumption in 10 years. In addition, it created a trust to subsidize the electricity produced with these resources. [410] In 2015, the Guinle Law was enacted to increase that rate. [411].
• - Tender (2010): The tender carried out by ENARSA and the Ministry of Planning awarded a total of 895 MW in projects: 754 MW wind, 110.4 MW thermal with biofuels, 20 MW solar photovoltaic and 10.6 MW in small hydroelectric projects. [412].
• - Wind Cluster (2012): An industrial cluster was launched (with the participation of IMPSA and INVAP S.E.) together with INTA, which plans to generate 1000 MW of wind power of annual national production by 2020, replacing US$ 1,750 million in equipment. [413][414].
The Bio Plan (2012) was launched to convert used vegetable oil (more than 240,000 liters collected) into biofuel.
Withholdings on biofuels were reduced by 5 points [415] and the mandatory use of 5% Bioethanol mixed with gasoline was regulated.
Small-scale projects included the production of electricity with biomass (Aceitera General Deheza) [416] and generation with methane at the North landfill. [417].
• - Rural Access (PERMER): By 2015, the Renewable Energy in Rural Markets (PERMER) program had given access to solar electric energy to more than 25,000 residential users and to schools and isolated rural outposts. [418].
Solar energy
In April 2013, the Cañada Honda Photovoltaic Solar Park, Province of San Juan, was inaugurated, becoming the largest solar park in Latin America and the first in size in Argentina.[419] When completed, it will have an area of 84 hectares.[420][421][422].
Solar energy was promoted, with various plants built in the country. In April 2011, the San Juan I Pilot Photovoltaic Plant was inaugurated in Ullum, province of San Juan, the then largest photovoltaic solar energy park in Latin America.[423].
wind energy
Argentina experienced notable growth in wind energy, going from 0.7 GW in 2007 to 2.6 GW in 2020. [424].
• - Notable Openings: Several of the largest wind farms in the country and Latin America were commissioned during the period:
Arauco Wind Farm (La Rioja): The first stage opened in 2009, one of the ten largest in the country. [425]
Diadema Wind Farm (Comodoro Rivadavia): Inaugurated in 2010 and first in Environmental Management. [426][427]
Rawson Wind Farm (Chubut): Inaugurated in 2011 (Rawson I) and 2012, considered the largest in Argentina at that time and among the largest in Latin America. It provides 410 Gigawatt-hours annually, enough for 137,000 homes, with an investment of US$144 million. [428][429][430]
Loma Blanca Wind Farm (Chubut): Inaugurated in 2012 as the largest in Patagonia at that time, and began producing energy in 2013. [431] Between 2011 and 2014, ENARSA built the Loma Blanca IV module (50 MW), which involved an investment of US$ 126 million and avoids 128,000 tons of CO2 annually. [432]
El Tordillo Wind Farm (Chubut): Connected to the national system in 2013, it was the first power park operated with national technology, managed by ENARSA and the province. [433][434]
Other parks: Antonio Morán (Patagonia, 10.56 MW), Escalante (Chubut, 27.45 MW), and the start of construction of Manantiales Behr (U$S 200 million) and the Bicentenario Wind Farm (126 MW) at the end of 2015. [435][436][437][438] The wind turbine Veladero (San Juan) was installed at the highest altitude in the world (4100 meters above sea level).
In 2011, Argentina began the national manufacturing of wind turbines and components with the inauguration of a factory in Florencio Varela and the first entirely national turbine, seeking import substitution and industrialization. [439] In addition, the wind industrial cluster created in 2012, with the participation of state companies such as IMPSA and INVAP S.E., planned to generate 1000 MW of national production annually, replacing US$ 1,750 million in equipment. [413].
YPF Energy
Through the state company and with the aim of guiding investments towards renewable energies, YPF Energía was created in 2013. The company managed to acquire more than 15 assets in 7 provinces with an installed capacity of 3.3 GW from which it generates energy for the wholesale and industrial market. Its wind farms are Manatiales Behr, in Chubut; Cañadón León in Santa Cruz; Los Teros in the Buenos Aires Azul game; and General Levalle; The solar park is El Zonda in the province of San Juan among others. Being responsible for carrying out the construction of the largest wind farms in the country.[440]
[441].
Renewable energy promotion law
In December 2007, the National Promotion Directorate (DNPROM) was created, dependent on the Ministry of Energy (SENER), it designs programs and actions that lead to the development of renewable energy initiatives (through Renewable Energy Coordination) and energy efficiency (through Energy Efficiency Coordination).[442].
In December 2007, the generation of electricity from any renewable source that is intended to supply a public service was declared of national interest. That law also set a target of 18% for renewable energy consumption over a ten-year period and ordered the creation of a trust whose resources will be allocated to renewable energy.[443] includes the Antonio Morán wind power plant[444].
thermal energy
The Ministry of Federal Planning, Public Investment and Services significantly promoted thermal generation, with a focus on increasing capacity and recovering coal activity.
• - Announcement 2007: The construction of five new dual turbine thermal plants (gas or fuel oil) was announced, with a total capacity of 1.6 GW and an investment of US$ 3,250 million. The plants would be located in Ensenada (540 MW), Necochea (270 MW), Campana "Campana (Argentina)") (540 MW), Santa Fe "Ciudad de Santa Fe (Argentina)") (125 MW) and Córdoba "Córdoba (Argentina)") (125 MW). [445][446][447].
• - Manuel Belgrano Power Plant (Campana): Inaugurated in 2008 with nearly 400 MW, expanded to 827 MW in 2009. [448][449][450].
• - Vuelta de Obligado Power Plant (Timbúes): Inaugurated in 2008 with more than 540 MW (plant number 26 inaugurated since 2003, with an investment of US$ 700 million). [451][452].
• - Guillermo Brown Power Plant (Bahía Blanca): Inaugurated in 2012, it provided 580 MW with an investment of US$ 550 million. 80% of the Bahía Blanca Thermoelectric Power Plant was completed by the end of the mandate. [453].
• - El Pilar Power Plant (Córdoba): The first stage (Pilar I) was completed in 2010, providing 160 MW. [454].
• - Expansions: The expansion of the Modesto Maranzana Thermoelectric Power Plant (Río Cuarto) was inaugurated in 2011 and the 20 MW expansion of the Generación Rosario Thermal Power Plant in 2014, reaching a total of 150 MW. [455][456].
• - Construction (Started in 2007): Construction of the country's first coal-fired thermoelectric turbine began, with an investment of more than $9,000 million.
• - Inauguration (2015): The thermoelectric plant in Río Turbio was inaugurated, with the capacity to inject 240 MW into the national system, running on coal from the local deposit or natural gas. The total investment amounted to US$700 million. [384][457][458].
• - Coal Production: Thanks to investments in the Río Turbio Carboniferous Deposits (YCRT), production multiplied by 2.5 times compared to 2011, reaching 450,000 tons of coal in 2013. [383].
• - ENARSA Tenders: Enarsa put out to tender 11 small transportable generation units (15-30 MW) and 3 larger units for barges, which would provide between 400 and 500 additional MW. [459].
• - Electrical Infrastructure: In 2007, work was announced to expand the transportation system between the General Rodríguez and José C. Paz substations (Buenos Aires). [460].
• - Southernmost Power Plant: In 2014, a new thermal power plant was inaugurated in Santa Cruz (the southernmost in the world) with the capacity to inject 240 MW into the grid. [461].
Hydraulic Power
The construction of the Yacyretá dam was completed next to Paraguay.
• - Completion of Yacyretá: On December 11, 2010, the water level reached the level of 82 m above sea level. n. m., with a production of 2,600 MW. Finally, on February 25, 2011, presidents Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and Fernando Lugo authorized raising the level of the reservoir to its projected level of 83 m above sea level. n. m. This allowed the complex to reach its design production of 3,200 MW, which represents an estimated additional contribution of 8,000 GWh/year, exceeding the average 20,000 GWh/year. [462].
• - Dr. Néstor Kirchner and Jorge Cepernic Hydroelectric Complex: In 2010, work on this complex began on the Santa Cruz River (Argentina). It will generate an electrical power of 1,700 megawatts (equivalent to 10% of the energy generated in 2008). It is the third most important hydroelectric plant in the country, after Yacyretá and Salto Grande. [40][463].
Hydrocarbons
The renationalization of YPF in 2011 boosted investment in exploration, leading to key discoveries that transformed the Argentine energy landscape.
At the end of 2011, the then president of YPF, Eng. Miguel Galuccio, announced the discovery of the Vaca Muerta Formation, a new unconventional oil basin of 30,000 square kilometers that extends through Neuquén, Río Negro, La Pampa and Mendoza. [464][465][466].
• - World Reserves: A 2013 Energy Information Agency (EIA) report placed Argentina's reserves at 27 billion barrels, which multiplied existing reserves tenfold and made the country the world's second largest shale gas reservoir and the fourth largest shale oil reservoir. [467][468].
After renationalization, YPF adopted an approach of reinvesting 90% of its profits starting in 2013.
• - Growth of Reserves and Wells: Reserves grew 10.6% in 2013 and 11.9% in 2014. The company quadrupled exploration wells compared to the average prior to 2012 and increased exploitation wells from 290 per year (2009-2011) to 478 (2012-2013 period). [469][470].
• - Market Share (2015): At the end of the mandate, YPF reached a share of 62.5% in the Argentine premium gasoline market and 55.7% in super gasoline. [471].
• - In 2013, unconventional exploration also began in the "El Trébol" deposit, in the Gulf of San Jorge. [472][473].
Nuclear power
Under the government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the State invested US$ 42,000 million in atomic development, with a focus on the reactivation of power plants, the industrialization of fuel and modular reactor technology.
• - CAREM 25 (2014): Construction of the CAREM 25 nuclear station began in Lima (Buenos Aires). This is a low-power modular reactor prototype (25 MWe) and one of the first under construction worldwide, designed for the development of commercial export reactors (100-120 MW). 70% of its materials are nationally produced (investment of US$ 450 million). . [474][475].
• - Atucha II Plant and Life Extension: The President Néstor Kirchner Plant (former Atucha II) was launched. At the same time, the Life Extension studies of the Embalse Nuclear Power Plant began (started at the end of 2007). On December 31, 2015, Embalse concluded its first operating cycle, after generating 144,599,748 MW. [476].
• - International Cooperation: In 2015, a memorandum was signed with Russia for the construction of a Russian-designed Power Plant with a capacity of 1,200 MW. [474].
• - Production of Uranium Dioxide (UO2): In 2012, through the public company Dioxitek, Argentina became the only Latin American country to produce uranium dioxide powder, a key component for the manufacture of fuel elements. [477].
• - New NPUO2 Plant: In 2015, construction began on Dioxitek's New Uranium Dioxide Production Plant (NPUO2) in Formosa, with advanced technology and the capacity to triple current production to 460 tons per year. [478][479].
• - Uranium Enrichment: Dioxitek (which increased its staff from 20 to more than 120 scientists) restarted the pilot plant and construction of the uranium enrichment center at the Pilcaniyeu Technology Center. [480].
• - Infrastructure: The Nuclear Plan involved an investment of more than US$11,000 million and included the creation of 14 Nuclear Medicine Centers in the country. [474].
Power distribution
A significant expansion and restructuring of the National Interconnected System (SADI) was promoted between 2007 and 2015.
Network Growth and Unification.
• - Integration of the SADI (since 2007): The Argentine electrical scheme, which was separated into the "national" system (SADI) and the Patagonian system, was substantially modified starting in 2007, when the Patagonian System was incorporated into the SADI.
• - Line Expansion: About 4,500 km of extra high voltage lines (LEAT) and around 5,000 km of high voltage (AT) and medium voltage (MT) lines were installed. In the six-year period, almost 9,000 km of lines were added. [481].
• - The high voltage network grew from 10,024 km in 2007 to 14,756 km in 2015, with a total increase of 3,738 km.
• - The backbone distribution network expanded by 2,810 km between 2007 and 2015.
The expansion focused on unifying the system and increasing transportation from the generating plants:
• - Key Interconnections: The Yacyretá-Buenos Aires line was completed, which allowed the use of Yacyretá's largest generation. The NEA-NOA interconnection then achieved the northern closure of the SADI. Later, the Comahue-Cuyo interconnection was added. [481].
500 kV line: In 2014, 368 km of the 500 kV network were expanded. This included:
• - The line between Lavalle and Santiago (Santiago del Estero) to improve reliability.
• - The line between Choele Choel (Río Negro) and Bahía Blanca (Buenos Aires). [482].
• - Northeast Energy Ring (2015): The Mercedes transformer station (500/132 kW) and the 132 kW line were built to link Curuzú Cuatiá and Montes Caseros, with an investment of US$ 461 million. [483].
Under state management, YPF focused its policy on reinvestment and increasing exploration and production.
• - Reinvestment and Reserve Growth: Starting in 2013, YPF announced the policy of reinvesting 90% of its profits. This resulted in reserve growth of 10.6% in 2013 and 11.9% in 2014. [469].
• - Increase in Exploratory Activity: The company quadrupled its exploration wells compared to the 2009-2011 average. Between 2012 and 2013, exploratory wells grew by 48% (from 21 to 31), and exploitation wells increased by 32% (from 363 to 478). [470].
• - Investment and Findings: Annual investment went from US$2,000 million in 2011 to US$6,000 million estimated for 2015. [509] In 2014, a new well was announced in Los Caldenes (Río Negro) with reserves estimated at 40 million barrels. [510].
Development of Unconventionals: YPF attracted investments from companies such as Chevron Corporation, Petronas and Dow Chemical to develop the Vaca Muerta Formation, considered the second largest shale gas deposit and the fourth largest shale oil deposit in the world. [511][512].
Cattle raising
Poultry production grew by 170%, pork production by 109% and dairy production by 43%.[515]
In 2013, exports of whole milk powder were 213,349 tons, for a total FOB price of 958.4 million dollars, increasing compared to 706.3 million in 2012.[516] There was also growth in the production of non-traditional agricultural products and the number of hectares worked with banana, avocado and mango had grown. In addition, programs are carried out to encourage crops such as mburucuyá or passion fruit and mamón or papaya.[517].
In 2014, a financing program was launched for productive projects aimed at promoting investment in strategic sectors of the economy, technological innovation or that add value to regional economies,[518] which would facilitate access to the credit and financing necessary to generate a higher degree of export and a higher degree of added value for the national industry.[519] The program consisted of granting economic compensation to small producers of wheat, soybeans, corn and/or sunflower who had produced up to a total accumulated 700 tons in the 2013/2014 campaign. The total scope of the program was $2.5 billion for 48,000 producers,[520] and was finally implemented under the name of the Small Grain Producer Stimulus Program (PEPP).
Between 2007 and 2012, mining-oriented FDI (foreign direct investment) grew at an annual rate of 47%. In 2003, mining generated 79,000 direct and indirect jobs, compared to 505,000 in 2013. In the case of mineral exports, which in 2003 were equivalent to 2,900 million pesos, in 2013 they grew to 23,059 million. Between 2003 and 2013, investment projects in execution increased from 18 in 2003 to 614 in 2013, while mineral production increased tenfold.[78][521] Investment grew at an annual rate of 47%. In 2003, mining generated 79,000 direct and indirect jobs, compared to 505,000 in 2013. In the case of mineral exports, they presented a surplus in their exchange balance for all years with a total contribution of US$53,813 million net.[101].
Fishing
The fishing industry, together with fishing, increased its sales abroad, producing a positive balance of almost 1.5 billion dollars in 2012, 70% more than in 2003.[522]
During 2013, 133,000 tons of squid were exported, obtaining 1.5 billion dollars, 92% higher compared to the 2012 season, in which 69,000 tons were exported. In this way a historical record was achieved. That year, fishery exports increased by 17%.[523]
By 2014, exports grew strongly to 1.6 billion dollars[524][525][526] By the middle of his second term, Argentine fishing had managed to gain ground in international markets, becoming an important source of foreign currency. In 2013, it was exported for a historical record of US$1.5 billion, at the same time that the markets diversified, exporting to Spain (28%), Japan (10%), China (9%), Italy (8%), Brazil (8%), the USA (7%), France (2%).[527] Along with the export boom, there was a constant increase in fish consumption in the domestic market, reaching 9.7 kilos per inhabitant in 2014, compared to 9. kilos in 2013 and 6.8 kilos in 2012. Managing to generate 40,000 jobs.[528]
In five years, hake fishing grew in the country from 90,000 to 270,000 tons thanks to the enactment of the National Fisheries Law.[529] This law made it possible to access a criterion that contemplates the economic forecast that fishing companies must have, and provide legal certainty for said companies.[530].
Forestry production
Forestry and timber production, mainly pines and eucalyptus, expanded centered in the Mesopotamian provinces "Mesopotamia (Argentina)"), productivity also had a considerable increase. In the last 8 years, the wood industry increased its production by 132% and furniture production by 115%.[531] It is the year 2012. Forestry and wood production, mainly pines and eucalyptus, has expanded in the last decade, centered in the Mesopotamian provinces "Mesopotamia (Argentina)"), productivity also had a considerable increase. In 2012, it made Argentina the largest Latin American producer of pulp and cellulose[532].
Water and Irrigation Works
Mendoza
Key irrigation canals were modernized. In the Atuel River basin, the Nuevo Alvear Main Canal (20,560 ha, 3,500 producers) was modernized. The Lower Tunuyán River system (Junín and San Martín) was modernized, benefiting 2,988 producers and 19,550 hectares.[533]
160 km of canals were waterproofed in Cuyo (benefiting 7,775 producers and 53,000 ha) and infrastructure such as the Canal Norte (195,000 ha, 2,980 producers), Chachingo-Pescara (8,000 ha, 834 producers) and Socavón Frugoni (5,560 ha, 430 producers).[534][535] It was also built. the Huarpe Canal for vegetables and the Civit and Oeste canals in the City of Mendoza were repowered.
The modernization works in the Naciente Chachingo-Pescara (8040 ha, 834 producers), Socavón-Frugoni (5560 ha, 413 producers) and the Lower Tunuyán River (19550 ha, 2988 producers, with an investment of 147 million) systems[536] represented a total investment of more than 500 million pesos.[537].
Jump
The irrigation area of Colonia Santa Rosa was optimized by extending 51 km of canals, which supply about 10,000 hectares and improve rural supply.[538].
Santiago del Estero
In 2011, the Figueroa/Néstor Kirchner dam was rebuilt (369 million pesos), recovering 30,000 hectares for production, along with the construction of the El Cero dam and intake works on the Gini and San Jorge canals.[539].
In 2012, the construction of the El Bolsón reservoir (Albigasta River) was resumed, to recover an agricultural area in the Choya department.[540]
In 2014, the Western Aqueduct (149.2 km) was completed, from the Río Hondo Reservoir to Laprida. It directly benefits 20,000 people (and indirectly 90,000) and improves supply in 500,000 hectares for livestock production in various departments.[541][542][543].
Cordova
In 2011, the Etruria-Laboulaye aqueduct (150 km) was inaugurated, with a national investment of 130 million pesos, which supplies nearly 50,000 people.[544][545].
Saint John
In 2010, the Salto de la Loma Hydroelectric Power Plant (Jáchal River) was rebuilt, a "run-of-the-river" power plant whose water, after generating energy, is used for irrigation.[546].
Black River
Maintenance and modernization works began on irrigation systems and power plants, including the lining of the adduction channel of the Julián Romero Power Plant (Cinco Saltos), the repair of the irrigation system of the Salto Andersen Power Plant (Río Colorado), the repair of gates at the Ballester Dam (Barda del Medio) and maintenance at the Cipolletti Power Plant.[547]
The plan was carried out for the Cinco Saltos Main Canal ($46 million pesos)[548] and the waterproofing of the Río Colorado Main Canal.[549][550] 31 million pesos were invested in irrigation improvements for the Alto, Medio, Viedma and Río Colorado valleys.[551].
Provision of Drinking Water
Land of Fire
In Río Grande, works for almost 10 million pesos began in March 2011 (completed in December) that included a 2.5 million liter cistern for Margen Sur and an aqueduct for the northern zone.[552][553].
Holy Cross
In October 2015, the Lago Buenos Aires Aqueduct was put out to tender to supply Caleta Olivia and other northern towns.[554][555] The tender was void and the project was canceled by the next administration.[556][554].
Land Law
During his mandate, the Land Law was approved, which limits sales to foreigners to 15% of the national territory. Until then, the provinces were obliged to report within 60 days the amount of land in foreign hands, whether natural persons or legal entities.[557] With the unification and updating of the Civil and Commercial Code of the Argentine Republic, the recognition of indigenous community property was achieved. Historically, indigenous people were evicted from the lands they occupied for not having any title or recognition from the State. Within the framework of this regulation, hectares corresponding to 653 indigenous communities in 21 provinces were demarcated, according to statistics from the Territorial Survey of Indigenous Communities Program of the INAI. To this State activity, carried out with indigenous participation, was added the regularization of the records of legitimate ownership of hectares in the provinces of Jujuy, Mendoza, Chaco and Salta, carried out through provincial programs and expropriation laws. The new Code will allow the transformation of the indigenous possession demarcated in these years, since in its article 18 it provides for the sanction of a special law, which will regulate the scope and implementation of community property, with its corresponding titling.[235] By June 2015, 647 indigenous communities and 6,999,443 hectares had been surveyed, which was equivalent to 67% of the estimated total. The National Registry of Indigenous Communities by then had granted legal status to 1,380 communities belonging to the until then 32 indigenous peoples recognized by the national State.[235] A larger budget was granted to the National Registry of Indigenous Communities.[558] Likewise, new bilingual schools were created where children learn their ancestral history and instruction on their culinary traditions.
aboriginals.[239].
Environmental policy
La política ambiental del gobierno tuvo diferentes aristas. En primer lugar se realizó un programa para eliminar las lámparas incandescentes y se impulsaron las energías renovables, en especial la solar. Con respecto a la conservación de especies y ambientes se reglamentó la Ley de Bosques "Ley de Bosque Nativo (Argentina)") mediante el Decreto 91/2009[562] de 2009 y se sancionó y reglamentó la Ley de glaciares en 2010.[563][564] Se avanzó a su vez con la limpieza de la cuenca del Riachuelo. A partir de 2008 Argentina disminuyó la cantidad de gases contaminantes generados. La tendencia al descenso que empezó en 2008 se mantuvo en los siguientes años, según datos del Inventario de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático.[565][566][567] Para su segunda gestión los fondos presupuestarios de la secretaría de Ambiente se multiplicaron ampliamente y la agenda de programas nacionales alcanzó mayor diversificación y visibilidad, transformándose en Ministerio. En mayo de 2015 se inauguró desde General Roca, la planta de reciclaje de residuos para la región del Alto Valle que implicó 80 millones de pesos.[568].
El Ministro Norberto Yahuar promovió la trazabilidad pesquera, vital para la sostenibilidad de la riqueza marina. Ducha ley se basa en la preservación y del océano argentino que alberga ecosistemas frágiles como los de la plataforma continental, donde se desarrollan actividades de reproducción y alimentación de numerosas especies. La ley busco integrar todas las regiones y actores de la cadena pesquera, garantizando que cada captura sea registrada y monitoreada, para contribuir combate a la pesca ilegal y proteger los hábitats marinos, rastrear cada paso de la cadena de pesca, desde la captura hasta su destino final y transparentar la industria.[569].
Impulso y logro la sanción de la Ley 13.288 de Gestión Integral de Plaguicidas, que estableció un manejo de los residuos resultantes del uso de plaguicidas en la agricultura.
animal law
In 2011 Argentina acceded to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Starting that year, the state company Aerolíneas Argentinas prohibited the transport of hunting trophies on its national and international flights.[570] That same year, Dr. Kirchner promoted a new program for the protection of wild animals, for domestic animals, and to promote responsible pet ownership. The regulations were promoted by the Minister of Health, Juan Manzur; the Legal and Technical Secretaries, Carlos Zannini and Oscar Parrilli, as well as leaders and members of several environmentalist and protectionist NGOs.[571] During his second term, he launched the National Program for Responsible Ownership and Health of Dogs and Cats, which includes animal protection measures, in order to avoid infectious diseases, encourage the adoption of stray dogs and cats, and promote the vaccination of pets and their castration.[572].
Glacier Protection Law
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The environmental policy of Cristina Kirchner's Government basically had as its axes the regulation of forest laws in 2007 and the sanction of the glacier law in 2010.[580] It was promulgated and regulated on February 23, 2009 by the Executive Branch headed by Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. In 2015, the Guinle Law was enacted to increase the rate of renewable energy in the national energy mix.[581].
Through Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos (AySA),[582] a comprehensive program was initiated for the universalization of drinking water and sanitation services for the population of Buenos Aires and 17 municipalities in the first belt of the Buenos Aires suburbs. The plan carried out by AySA involved an investment of $26,174 million between 2007 and 2015, 727 completed works that benefit eight million people within the company's concession area. Drinking water coverage, which in 2003 was 71.1% of the population, rose to 82% in 2015, incorporating 3,881,047 inhabitants, while sewage coverage rose from 43.1% in 2003 to 54.4% in 2015, incorporating 3,130,225 inhabitants into the service.[583].
One of the first activities was the national program to eliminate incandescent lamps in 2011, replacing them with low-consumption compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) in all homes connected to the public network and in public buildings. The law was originally promoted by Greenpeace during 2008 and quickly supported by the Executive branch, which made it possible to discuss it in parliament.[584][405] It provides for the distribution of 25 million lamps in total.[406][405] This plan resulted in law 26,473 (enacted on January 21, 2009) that prohibits “the import and marketing of lamps.” incandescent for residential use”.[407][408].
Solar energy was also promoted, in April 2011, the San Juan I Pilot Photovoltaic Plant was inaugurated in Ullum, province of San Juan, the then largest photovoltaic solar energy park in Latin America.[585].
Through the Foreign Ministry, Argentina maintained, together with the rest of the Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, the Dominican Republic, and Uruguay) an active position in favor of the prohibition of whaling and the protection of the species.
The National Promotion Directorate (DNPROM) was created, with the objective of designing programs and actions that lead to the development of renewable energy initiatives, and Law 26 190 was passed, generating tax exemptions for a period of 15 years. The 2007 law is a complement to the previous one and declares the generation of electricity that is intended to supply a public service from any renewable source to be of national interest. That law also set a target of 8% for renewable energy consumption over a 10-year period and ordered the creation of a trust whose resources will be used to pay a premium for electricity produced from renewable resources.[410] Also included was the construction of the Antonio Morán wind power plant,[586] of 10.56 MW in the Patagonia region. The two existing small-scale projects are the production of electricity from biomass at the General Deheza Oil Plant[416] and the recovery of methane and electricity generation at the North landfill.[587].
In 2010, a new glacier law was voted and approved, which was promulgated on October 28. Said law 26,639 establishes the minimum budgets for the protection of glaciers and the periglacial environment with the aim of preserving them as strategic reserves of water resources for human consumption; for agriculture and as providers of water for the recharge of hydrographic basins; for the protection of biodiversity; as a source of scientific information and as a tourist attraction. Glaciers constitute public assets.[589] On February 28, 2011, the law was regulated, establishing minimum budgets and the immediate preparation of an inventory of glaciers. The law regulates the activities permitted in glaciers and their surroundings, absolutely prohibiting industrial and mining activities, the construction of architectural and infrastructure works (with the exception of scientific ones) and the release of polluting substances regardless of their volume.[590].
The glacier law presented by the ruling Front for Victory senator Daniel Filmus obtained its approval on September 30, 2010 by Congress and regulation in March 2011 by the National Executive Branch. The national government then signed an agreement with CONICET to carry out the glacier inventory and the Argentine Institute of Glaciology and Nivology (Ianigla), a CONICET unit based in Mendoza, was summoned. The National University of Cuyo and the Governments of Mendoza and San Juan "San Juan (Argentina)") also participated, as the enforcement authority.[591] 4,000 bodies of ice were surveyed in different sub-basins of the provinces of Catamarca, Mendoza, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. In total, the sum of these bodies covers an area greater than 3,700 km², more than 17 times the size of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. An agreement was also signed for the surveys to be subjected to an external audit by national or international experts, including the Center National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France.[592] In total, Argentina has 16,968 bodies that represent 8,484 square kilometers covered in ice, being the second country in Latin America with the most glaciers and one of the 15 countries in the world with the most bodies of ice.
National parks
Between Néstor Kirchner's mandate and yours, eight National Parks were created, increasing the protected area of national territory by 24 percent. The parks were expanded, incorporating 900,000 land hectares and 407,124 marine hectares, increasing the number of visitors by 78 percent. In 2011, the Strategic Tourism Plan was launched, in 2010 more than 400,000 visitors arrived in the country, and Argentina stood out as the first destination among South American countries.[601]
In December 2015, the properties for the future Traslasierra national park in the province of Córdoba were acquired.
To preserve marine resources, on June 19, 2008, the Federal Fisheries Council of Argentina created a total fishing prohibition area within the Namuncurá Bank delimited by the coordinates 54° 30′ S and 60° 30′ W, 54° 30′ S and 59° 30′ W, 54° 15′ S and 60° 30′ W, 54° 15′ S and 59° 30' W within the isobath of 100 meters depth.[602][603] The area has breeding sites for species such as polaca and Fuegian sardine spawning. On October 27, 2010, the National Parks Administration established the creation of a marine national park in the area, giving protection to several species of albatrosses and petrels (black-browed albatross, grey-headed albatross, wandering albatross, Tristan albatross, northern giant petrel, southern giant petrel and white-chinned petrel), as well as penguins (Magellan penguin, penguin rockhopper, gentoo penguin and king penguin).[604].
Protected Marine Parks
In November 2015, the designation of new Marine Protected Areas, including the Creation of the Namuncurá-Banco Burdwood II and Yaganes Marine Protected Areas.
River sanitation
In 2008, the Acunar Municipal Council was established with representatives of the 15 municipalities that make up the Matanza Riachuelo River basin, and a Social Participation Commission as a space for articulation with civil society and the Forum of Universities of the Matanza Riachuelo Basin[622].
Likewise, in 2014, the cleaning and recovery of the Reconquista River Basin began, which covers 175,000 hectares and includes the municipalities of: Moreno, Merlo, Luján, General Rodríguez, General Las Heras, Marcos Paz. Malvinas Argentinas, San Miguel, General San Martín, Tres de Febrero, Morón, Ituzaingó, José C. Paz, Hurlingham. Tigre, Vicente López, San Isidro, San Fernando. Among the works carried out was the Camino del Borde, sidewalks, public lighting, bike paths, bridges at stream crossings, ditches and railway tracks, along 12 kilometers, from Panamericana to Route 8. The basin includes 134 water courses that cover 606 km, of which 82 correspond to the Reconquista River.[623]The cleaning of the Reconquista River was carried out. Upper and Middle Sections, in the districts of Merlo, Moreno, Ituzaingó, Hurlingham and San Miguel. The work includes the trunking, clearing, weeding and reconditioning of the main channel of the river, as well as its re-profiling and works against flooding.
Together with the province of Buenos Aires, the Undersecretary of Water Resources, the work of improvement and sanitation of the Middle Section of the Luján River was undertaken, financed by the Development Bank of Latin America.
Animal protection
Through the Foreign Ministry, Argentina maintained, together with the rest of the Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, the Dominican Republic, and Uruguay) an active position in favor of the prohibition of whaling and the protection of the species. In 2011, it created the National Program for Responsible Ownership and Health of Dogs and Cats.[624] The initiative established the responsible ownership of pets and the health of dogs and cats, promoting free surgical castration in both sexes.[625].
In 2010, the first survey on invasive species was launched, creating the National Information System on Invasive Exotic Species. More than 650 species of invasive flora and fauna were detected in Argentina. In 2009, the protection of around 200 species was approved[626]
In 2015, the transport of hunting trophies was prohibited on all flights, both domestic and international flights.
In January 2013, Law 26,815 was enacted, which created the Federal Fire Management System, with the National Fire Management Service being the body in charge of its compliance.[627].
Wildlife Preservation
Regarding the care of biodiversity, in 2010, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2010-2020 was approved, which established the main lines of work and the Action Plan for the protection of endangered species, which aimed to protect species in critical condition.
Housing policy
A national and federal registry was created with unified beneficiary selection criteria with which the different levels of the State and NGOs can validate the demand for housing and future awards made throughout the country.[628].
the entity representing the National State.
[629][630][631][632] The PRO.CRE.AR Bicentenario Credit program was launched on June 12, 2012, until mid-2015 families were benefited with credits for the purchase of land and the construction of homes on them.[633][634][635].
Educational policy
La política educativa del gobierno de Cristina Fernández fue una continuación de la gestión de Néstor Kirchner. El porcentaje del Producto Interno Bruto destinado a educación creció desde el 3,64 % en 2003 a 6,02 % en 2010. En términos absolutos, pasó de 14 501 millones de pesos en 2003 a 89 924 millones de pesos en 2010, un 520 % más.[636] Ya para el 2012 el porcentaje del Producto Interno Bruto destinado a educación creció desde el 3,64 % en 2003 a 6,81 % en 2012.[637]
Se sancionó la Ley de Educación Nacional que permitió la reestructuración de la primaria y la secundaria y el fin de las políticas focalizadas y asistencialistas; destacándose la participación de más 750.000 docentes y 700 organizaciones de la sociedad civil y la reglamentación que establece que el presupuesto de educación no puede ser menor al 6% del PBI.[638] Tal inversión del Estadopermitió que Argentina trepara del puesto 83 al 17 en el ranking mundial de
inversión educativa en relación a su riqueza (Repetto, 2013) y se posicionara como el séptimo país del mundo que más aumentó la
inversión educativa en el período 2004-2011 (Informe de monitoreo, CIPPEC, 2014).[639] Además se llevaron a cabo iniciativas para asegurar la neutralidad política y religiosa dentro del aula.[640][641].
Según datos del censo de 2010, la tasa de analfabetismo es del 1.9 %, siendo la segunda más baja de Latinoamérica.[642][643] En la última década se han creado nueve nuevas universidades, mientras que el egreso de estudiantes universitarios aumentó un 68 %.[644] Según datos del Programa Naciones Unidas para el desarrollo (PNUD), en el año 2011 el 99,0% de la población de 6 a 11 años asistía al nivel primario y, el 96,5% de los jóvenes de 12 a 14 años asistía al nivel secundario.
En 2015 se establece que las clases comiencen el 29 de febrero y finalicen el 16 de diciembre para cumplir con un calendario educativo mínimo de 190 días de clases, con la necesidad de fijar un calendario escolar lo más extenso posible.[645].
Initial Education
In 2007, one of the first projects of his administration was approved, which constituted one of the points of the Kirchner campaign platform, modifying national education law No. 26,206.
Through this modification, the five-person room was incorporated by law as mandatory.
The norm declares Initial Education mandatory for 5-year-old boys and girls, modifies article 16 of Law 26,206 and established compulsory schooling throughout the country, extending from the age of 4 years to the completion of the secondary education level.
In 2013, the Executive Branch bill was approved for the implementation of mandatory initial education from the 4-year-old classroom. The law was accompanied by the creation of a School Infrastructure Fund for 500 million pesos for the construction of 4-year classrooms, which allowed the incorporation of 100,000 more students into the national educational system, achieving more than 80 percent coverage in the 4-year classroom.[646][647] In 2012, a study by the Latin American Observatory of Education revealed that school dropouts at the secondary level fell 5.3 percentage points in 4 years the highest decrease in Latin America. In 2007, 19.4% of 17-year-old students had dropped out of school, while in 2011 the figure dropped to 14.1%, the lowest in the Latin American region along with Uruguay with 14.3.[648].
Between 2011 and 2015, the percentage of children who dropped out of primary school in Argentina decreased from 0.4 to 0.28%, according to the Argentinos por la Educación Observatory.
7 billion pesos were invested in equipment for technical schools, more than 54 million books were distributed. The investment in university teaching salaries was 19 billion pesos in 2012, with the salary increase being more than 1000% since 2001.[649].
In 2015, the Higher Education Law was reformed through the law on the Effective Implementation of State Responsibility at the Higher Education Level, which establishes “free and unrestricted” access to state degree studies, prohibiting eliminatory economic reasons and fees with the aim of making admission to universities transparent and making it universal.
Primary and secondary education
During his administration, in-person teacher training throughout the country reached 55,000 courses in 2015; At the same time, staff from 14,000 schools were trained, while teacher training courses taught online reached 16,914 trained teachers.[650] In 2015, the Minister of Education Alberto Sileoni proposed to all his peers in the country that classes begin on February 29 and end on December 16 to comply with an educational calendar of 190 days of classes, with the need to set a school calendar as soon as possible. extensive possible.[645].
The teaching salary gained 78% of purchasing power between 2003 and 2015 on average throughout the country. During the administrations of Néstor and Cristina Kirchner, teachers' salaries exceeded the price increase by 78 points and increased more than 100 percent in the same period in Chaco, province of Buenos Aires and Santa Cruz.[651] In 2013, the Law on Teaching Centers was passed. Students (law 26877) that recognizes them as democratic bodies of student representation. The law guaranteed that the Student Centers are responsible for generating the participation of those represented in various activities of different kinds such as: art, recreation, sports, campaigns, culture and others, establishing the right of students to get the best possible offer of courses, good course conditions, extracurricular workshops and sports activities and the obligation of the State to collaborate with the insertion of students in their social environment aimed at the development of actions for the benefit of the entire society. community.[652][653].
In addition, initiatives were carried out to ensure political and religious neutrality within the classroom.[640] In 2013, 23 minibuses were delivered to agricultural schools in different provinces and the "University, Design and Productive Development" Program was launched, focused on agricultural schools in the Argentine countryside.[657].
After the Five-Year Plan of the Perón Government between 1947 and 1951 (which opened 8,000 schools),[658] the period between 2003 and 2010 is the second period of greatest school construction in Argentine history. Between 1969 and 2003, the different national governments financed the construction of a total of 427 schools, while between 2003 and 2010, more than 1,880 schools were built, benefiting half a million students.[659].
In 2015, the law was enacted that declares initial education mandatory for four-year-old children in the national education system. The “Title your Secondary School” program was also launched, an intensive monitoring of students who, having completed the last year of secondary education, have pending subjects. In this framework, "52,845 students graduated thanks to the plan. The population aged 25-29 with completed secondary school went from 58.9% to 71.4% in 2013 in the country between 2003 and 2013. During the period, the evolution of secondary technical education enrollment was notable: it went from 487,000 students in 2005 to 595,000 in 2012.[660].
University System
The university system expanded especially starting in 2007, during the two presidencies of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, when 18 national universities were created, 8 of which are located in the Buenos Aires suburbs, 1 university institute and 5 provincial universities.[660] 7 universities and 2 private university institutes were also authorized. The new universities are the Ezeiza Airport University,[691] the National University of Avellaneda,[692] the National University of José C. Paz[693] the Arturo Jauretche National University, the National University of Moreno, the National University of Tierra del Fuego, the National University of Villa Mercedes, the National University of Chaco Austral, the National University of Río Negro and the National University of the West.[694] The new public universities in The Buenos Aires suburbs, together with the National University of Lomas de Zamora – which dates back to the 1970s – added 15 establishments that bring together more than 170 thousand students, 12% of the national public university enrollment. In a high percentage between 70 and 95% depending on the institutions, it was made up of students who constitute the first generation of university students in their families. The growth of State contributions to education allowed for an increase in transfers to national universities, whose budget increased from $1,992 million in 2003 to $13,258 million in 2011.
The total number of people attending public universities grew by 39 percent between 2008 and 2015. Enrollment had a significant increase, which far exceeded the growth rate of the Argentine population. Between 2008 and 2015, the number of low-income students in the total number of students enrolled in the university system grew by 47 percent for quintile 1 (the poorest 20% of the population) and 95 percent for quintile 2.[695] According to data from 2013 and 2014 published in reports from the Center for Argentine Education Studies of the University of Belgrano - the proportion of university students Every 10 thousand inhabitants of Argentina reached 436 students in 2011, a proportion greater than that of Brazil 380, Chile 361, Colombia 273 and Mexico 285, the second largest in Latin America after Cuba with 421 students.
Scholarships were also implemented to support the development of strategic careers for the country (engineering, basic and natural sciences) and also favor students from the non-university sector. According to data provided by the 2015 Management Report of the Secretariat of University Policies, in that year 62,300 scholarships were awarded with a total investment of 900 million pesos, compared to the 2,453 scholarships for an amount of just over 7 million pesos that had been awarded in 1999/2002.[702].
Another policy implemented since 2007 was the development of international networks, through the promotion program of the Argentine University; another program aimed at promoting postgraduate training in priority areas and university well-being; On the other hand, there is a group of programs sustained since 2008, one of them aimed at training computer technicians, and another three at the promotion of university extension, university volunteering and local development. Then, the author identifies a set of programs that began in 2009: the program to promote mobility in exact and natural sciences, the program to strengthen social and human careers, and a program to support the first year of careers with knowledge of mathematics.[703].
Health policy
Durante sus gobiernos se implementaron el Plan Nacer (que luego fue ampliado por el Programa Sumar), el Salud Materno Infantil, el Programa Remediar y el Programa Nacional de Salud Sexual. Se promulgaron leyes para controlar el consumo de tabaco y de sal de mesa. Se lanzó el plan de salud dental.[735] en 2008 se produjo la creación del Programa Nacional para la Producción Pública de Medicamentos, Vacunas y Productos Médicos") para abaratar su costo y mejorar la eficiencia. De forma complementaria en 2011 con la sanción del Congreso de la ley 26.688 impulsada por el partido FPV se declaró interés nacional a la investigación y producción de medicamentos, vacunas y productos médicos como bienes sociales, con el objetivo de promover la accesibilidad y propiciar el desarrollo científico y tecnológico nacional. En diciembre de 2014 se crea la Agencia Nacional de Laboratorios Públicos.[736] Logrando que la población tenga una amplia cobertura de acceso a los medicamentos, en especial en los medicamentos esenciales de bajo costo. Esto se explica debido a la existencia de programas de provisión pública y gratuita a la población en todos los Centros de Atención Primaria de la Salud (CAPS). En particular el Programa Remediar, que llega a todos los CAPS de todas las localidades del país unos 6200 en total.
El 4 de mayo de 2011 el Congreso sanciona la Ley 26 682 de Regulación de la Medicina Prepaga que estableció que la obligación de que las empresas de medicina prepaga cubran los planes de cobertura médico-asistencial del Programa Médico Obligatorio (PMO) y el sistema con prestaciones básicas para personas con discapacidad, también incrementó los derechos de los usuarios al establecer que los usuarios de prepagas pueden rescindir en cualquier momento el contrato celebrado, sin limitación y sin penalidad alguna de parte de la empresa, también establecía que a los mayores de 65 años con al menos diez años de antigüedad en la cobertura no se les puede aumentar la cuota.[737] El nuevo plan de servicios de salud federal incluyó 6 líneas de cuidado –control periódico de salud; detección de riesgo de enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles (hipertensión, diabetes, cardiovasculares y renal); detección de riesgo y diagnóstico de cáncer colorrectal; salud mental; apoyo y seguimiento en casos de alcoholismo y consumo de sustancias, y promoción de hábitos saludables, salud sexual y reproductiva, y prevención de lesiones externas, además de acceso a cerca de 50 nuevas prestaciones de salud, además de incluir la vacuna contra la difteria y el tétanos; la vacuna contra la hepatitis B; la Doble viral/ triple viral que inmuniza contra el sarampión y la rubéola; además de la vacuna antigripal y contra el neumococo.[738]
Dio impulso a la Ley N.º 26.689 sobre el cuidado integral de la salud de las personas con enfermedades congénitas -acompañada por el lanzamiento del Programa Nacional de Enfermedades Poco Frecuentes y Anomalías Congénitas y la Ley N.º 25.929 de Parto Humanizado, que buscaba anteponer el parto natural a las prácticas invasivas y garantizar el respeto a los derechos de las mujeres gestantes y sus familias.
En 2014 se creó la Red Federal Pública de Alta Complejidad, integrada por 17 hospitales que cumplen los estándares de calidad, coordinada por un Centro Nacional, y con un enfoque regional. Más de 3.500 niños y niñas operados de cardiopatías congénitas desde 2010. Reducción de la lista de espera en un 80% con respecto a la existente en 2003, fue el primer programa de América Latina en contar con evaluaciones externas y rigurosas de su impacto.[214] A partir del 4 de diciembre de 2014, Argentina, se convirtió en el primer país de América en prohibir la producción y venta de grasas trans en todo su territorio, sumándose a Suiza y Dinamarca.[739].
Desde la Sedronar desarrolló un programa para la prevención del consumo de drogas en ciudades de la Costa Atlántica y partidos de fútbol argentino.[740] Al mismo tiempo se han encarado convenios con diferentes ONG especializadas en el tema, como con la organización Madres en Lucha, para el reacondicionamiento y equipamiento de Centro Preventivo Local de las Adicciones (CePLA) en el Barrio Mitre.[741] En 2014 el gobierno de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner comenzó a implementar como parte del plan de lucha contra las drogas los Centros de Prevención de creación Toxicomanías en 150 localidades, con un presupuesto de 1.279 millones de pesos, con una inversión de 714 millones de pesos para la instalación de 60 casas educativas y otros 1279 millones para 150 centros preventivos.[742] En 2014 se aprobó la Ley de Muerte digna que establecía que el paciente en estado vegetativo tiene el derecho de aceptar o rechazar determinadas terapias o procedimientos médicos, dando su consentimiento informado, es decir, la declaración de su voluntad -o, en todo caso, por medio de sus representantes legales-, emitida luego de recibir toda la información necesaria sobre su situación. El texto también deja en claro que, en estos casos, el médico no tendrá responsabilidad civil, penal ni administrativa alguna.[743].
En 2008 se reglamentó la ley 26.066, aprobada en 2006[744] que establece que toda persona mayor de 18 años es considerada donante con excepción de quienes manifiesten su voluntad con contrario, entró en vigencia en 2006 y permitió que la actividad de procuración continuara en ascenso.
En 2010 se implementa a nivel federal Plan de Desarrollo de Trasplante Renal, para prevenir, diagnosticar, tratar y seguir la enfermedad renal crónica. En paralelo se implementa la Estrategia Hospital Donante Archivado el 12 de noviembre de 2020 en Wayback Machine., que tiene como objetivo incorporar la procuración como una actividad propia de los hospitales para incrementar la disponibilidad de órganos y tejidos para trasplante.
Durante el 2012 Argentina alcanzó una tasa de 15,1 donantes por millón de habitantes, lo que la posicionó a la vanguardia en la región en materia de donación.[745][746].
En el año 2014 Argentina se mantenía como líder entre los países de la región en materia de trasplante de órganos por millón de habitantes, liderando las estadísticas en trasplantes cardíacos, pancreáticos e intestinales, según consta en el Newsletter Transplant, publicado por el Consejo de Europa, el cual contiene las cifras internacionales de donación y trasplantes.[747][748] En 2013 se lanzó normativa implica que los familiares de alguna persona fallecida ya no podrán revocar autorización de la donación que realizo la persona fallecida y no pueden negarse a la misma. Establece respecto a los derechos de donantes y receptores la intimidad, privacidad y confidencialidad; a la integridad; a la información y al trato equitativo e igualitario.
Presentó la ley 26529 que establece derecho del paciente, historia clínica y consentimiento informado y sobre muerte digna y cuidados paliativos integrales.
Se implementaron programas como “Qunita - Un comienzo de vida equitativo”[749] y se incorporaron nuevos segmentos poblacionales a programas ya existentes, como es el caso de “SUMAR”, que, hasta ese momento, proveía cobertura de salud gratuita a niños, niñas y adolescentes y a mujeres de hasta 64 años. Con la nueva modificación, “SUMAR” extendió la cobertura a varones de entre 20 y 64 años, lo que significó la incorporación de 2.223.972 personas al programa.[750].
En el mismo período, se reglamentaron: la Ley N° 26.689 sobre el cuidado integral de la salud de las personas con enfermedades congénitas -acompañada por el lanzamiento del Programa Nacional de Enfermedades Poco Frecuentes y Anomalías Congénitas (EPFyAC)[751] la Ley N° 25.929 de Parto Humanizado,[752] que buscaba anteponer el parto natural a las prácticas invasivas y garantizar el respeto a los derechos de las mujeres gestantes y sus familias, la Ley N° 26743 [753] que garantiza el acceso de tratamientos hormonales y quirúrgicos de modificación corporal y establecía las primeras compras de insumos de hormonización.
National Plan against Dengue
Since 2009, numerous measures were taken after the National Plan against Dengue was launched, a disease that affects Argentina during the southern summer. The disease was controlled by applying a strong community-based strategy to control the transmitting mosquito. Since the launch of the plan, a budget of 102 million pesos was granted to combat dengue, extensive modernization and strengthening of the operational bases for vector control and federal health delegations, health operations were carried out through mobile health units dependent on the Ministry of Health. Through the Ministry of Health, national and provincial authorities were coordinated to implement active state prevention policies, including communication campaigns, environmental sanitation in public spaces, provision of barrier methods such as mosquito nets and repellents in an accessible manner, distributing them in health services and hospitals and vulnerable groups, and distribution of drinking water.
After 2009, measures were taken that led to the reduction of the disease and its geographical decline, gradually reducing Dengue cases until reaching a minimum of 223 cases in 2015, while in other countries in the region cases remained high.[754] During this time it went from being an endemic disease in twelve of the twenty-three provinces in 2008 to being endemic in only six. Decreasing the geographic incidence by 40 percent.[755].
During his second term, there was an increase in fumigation capacity, from 1,500 hectares per hour in 2009 to 3,900 hectares per hour in 2015, and the renewal of machines, with the acquisition of 200 new motor-foggers.
Through INTA, the development of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was investigated to combat Aedes aegypti. The TIE system has already been used successfully against the fruit fly plague in the Cuyo region.
Maternity and childhood
Law 26,862 on Medically Assisted Reproduction, also known as the 'National Assisted Fertilization Law', was promoted, enacted on June 25, 2013, through which the most varied possibilities of fertilization and implantation are allowed and regulated, and the cryopreservation of genetic material and embryos is enabled without further precautions. By this law, health institutions must incorporate as mandatory benefits and provide their members or beneficiaries with comprehensive and interdisciplinary coverage of the approach, diagnosis, medications and supportive therapies and procedures and techniques that the World Health Organization defines as medically assisted reproduction.[756] Such coverage will also be provided for those people who, although not wanting to carry out the immediate achievement of a pregnancy, due to health problems or medical treatments or surgical interventions, may see their ability to carry out compromised. procreate in the future. The regulations also provide for the incorporation into the Mandatory Medical Program (PMO) of these procedures, as well as diagnostic procedures, medications and supportive therapies, with the coverage criteria and modalities established by the application authority.
The Neonatal Screening law was expanded by adding cystic fibrosis, galactocemia, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, biotinidase deficiency, retinopathy of prematurity, Chagas disease and syphilis.[757].
Argentina managed to reduce maternal and child mortality from 4.4 per thousand to 3.2 per thousand, and the infant mortality rate from 16.5 per thousand to 10.8 per thousand, thanks to free health plans for women and children. Meanwhile, maternal and infant mortality decreased from 4.4 per thousand to 3.2 per thousand. By 2015, the infant mortality rate fell to single digits in 2015 for the first time in 25 years, reaching 9.7.[213] Much of the credit for this improvement in indicators was given by the creation of Plan Nacer in 2004, which was later extended and renamed the Sumar Program in 2012.
In 2010, financing was incorporated for comprehensive care of congenital heart diseases in children, which constitute the main cause of infant mortality that is difficult to reduce, for all boys and girls in the country without social work. Since its launch, 3,500 boys and girls have undergone surgery for congenital heart disease, achieving a reduction in the waiting list by 80% compared to the one that existed in 2003.
organ donation
By means of Decree 421/2013 of April 19, 2013, Law No. 26,845 was promulgated, on the Promotion of Awareness About the Social Relevance of Organ Donation, which had the objective of promoting at all levels and modalities of the educational system proposals and actions for raising awareness about the social relevance of the donation of organs and tissues for transplantation, on a voluntary, altruistic basis, selfless and supportive.[765] The organ donation and transplant policy was a continuation of that of his predecessor; In eight years, Argentina experienced notable and sustained growth in the generation of donors and organ transplants, as a result of the implementation of innovative public procurement policies. In eight years of management of the cycle inaugurated by Néstor Kirchner and continued by President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the rate of donors per million inhabitants tripled, which meant that in the last year a transplant rate of 39.2 per million inhabitants was recorded in 2010, making it the second country in Latin America in the number of transplants.[766] By 2013, Argentina was at the forefront in Latin America in donation of organs.[767] Later in 2016, the rate of organ donors per million inhabitants decreased in 2016 to its lowest level in the last decade.[768] In 2011, the Procurar Program was launched, which aims to develop hospital organ procurement units in each national and provincial hospital.
Mental health law
From the mental health model in asylums and closed institutions, we moved to a Community Mental Health paradigm that promotes networked approaches based on alternative devices to hospitalization: general consultations.
bulatorias, home assistance, social and labor inclusion devices, day centers and night centers, community participation, among others; supported by comprehensive medical and psychological care.
Among the main advantages of the change towards the outpatient model was the comprehensive approach to people's mental health, inclusion of the person in society as a functional and autonomous member; reducing the average hospitalization time; the recovery and creation of emotional and social ties; and the promotion of work activities.
obesity law
In 2008, the well-known "Obesity Law" was promoted and approved, which established the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of obesity, bulimia and anorexia to be covered by health insurance plans and prepaid medicine firms.[772] One of the most important points it establishes is that obesity is a disease and a public health problem, subject to government policies. In this way, it frees the obese person from being guilty of being sick. The law implies that weight loss treatments are included in the Mandatory Medical Program (PMO), which means that the public health system, social works, mutual societies and prepaid medicine companies have to take care of them. This includes surgical alternatives such as “gastric sleeve,” bypass, and adjustable gastric banding.
anti-smoking law
The law decrees the obligation that warnings about the risk of smoking appear on the packages; these legends must occupy 30% of the upper part of each side of the package and be renewed every 6 months. It also established that tobacco companies will be obliged to place images on the packages - they will occupy 70% of one of the sides of the package -, the total prohibition of advertising or promotion of cigarette brands through any mass media, each package must also carry the number of the free telephone service that will be enabled to quit smoking, the prohibition of the sale of cigarettes to minors under 18 years of age, the prohibition of cigarette vending machines1.
National Cancer Research Institute
On September 9, 2010, the National Cancer Institute was created, a decentralized organization whose fundamental mission is the development and implementation of health policies, as well as the coordination of integrated actions for the prevention and control of cancer.[778] Among its most notable functions was the management of the Institutional Tumor Registry of Argentina (RITA), which allowed hospitals throughout the country to systematize epidemiological data and improve health planning. In addition, the institute trained professionals in oncology and cancer epidemiology, promoting the generation of scientific information for the development of public health plans, training spaces and epidemiological data collection, and the development of public policies.[779].
Tropical diseases
In August of that year, the National Plan for the Prevention and Control of Dengue and Yellow Fever was implemented, through which the experiences and knowledge of different actors from the national and provincial government order, in addition to scientific societies, universities and social organizations, were capitalized. Thus, it was achieved that there were no fatalities and just over a thousand patients were registered, 96% less than in 2009.[780].
The Institute of Tropical Medicine was launched in 2014, which will operate in the Triple Border area, in the missionary city of Puerto Iguazú, and which will serve to control and prevent diseases that develop in hot climates such as Chagas, Leishmaniasis, Malaria and Dengue.[781] In 2013, it regulated the National Mental Health Law that guarantees the rights of users of mental services and establishes the state responsibility to promote community treatments, and the closure of public and private asylums by 2020, in accordance with what was agreed by different countries, including Argentina, in what is known as the Panama Consensus.[782] In 2015, three new vaccines were incorporated into the national calendar: one against rotavirus, one against chickenpox, and the last against meningococcus. They will be applied to 1.5 million children up to 2 years of age.
Nuclear Medicine Plan
At the end of 2014, the Kirchner Government launched the National Plan for Nuclear Medicine-Nucleovida, which planned to invest 4.3 billion pesos for centers for diagnostic imaging and treatment of diseases such as cancer, with the objective of "expanding nuclear medicine equipment by 40% to cover the needs of the population and guarantee equitable access to this technology throughout the country." The plan included the construction of Nuclear Medicine and Radiotherapy Centers, with the contribution of the state company INVAP and the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA), in different provinces. The one in La Pampa includes a sector dedicated to the production of radioisotopes and radiopharmaceuticals, it was built with an investment of more than 400 million pesos, the Formosa Nuclear Medicine Center invested 528 million pesos, the Santiago del Estero center invested more than 300 million pesos in 2015 and, finally, the Río Gallegos Nuclear Medicine Center with an investment of 328 million in its construction and equipment.[783].
Palliative Care Law
In 2012, the first palliative care law was enacted along with the Dignified Death Law, Law 26,742. which established that the patient in a vegetative state has the right to accept or reject certain therapies or medical procedures, giving their informed consent, that is, the declaration of their will - or, in any case, through their legal representatives -, issued after receiving all the necessary information about their situation. The text also makes it clear that, in these cases, the doctor will not have any civil, criminal or administrative liability. The legislation established the right not to extend medical treatments when the patient has an irreversible, incurable, terminal illness or if he or she suffered injuries that leave him or her in this situation.
[743][784] in turn, it specified the sanitary conditions that contemplate the dignity deserved by the dying person; being the first Latin American country to have a law of this nature, being approved with 55 senators in favor and none against.[785].
Dental health
In 2008, the National Dental Health Plan was implemented, an initiative aimed at guaranteeing the right to dental health through the production and placement of prostheses and implants, which included in the PMO the repair of cavities, dental fluoridation, tooth extractions, endodontic treatments, periodontics, oral surgeries, implants and dental prostheses, etc. In addition, dental specialists were made mandatory in hospitals and public clinics to achieve free access to dentists for seven million people, with priority given to children and pregnant women.[786].
In December 2014, the Argentina Sonríe program would be launched as a complementary form, a national plan to guarantee access to absolutely free dental prostheses for all Argentines. The main modality of the federal health program was the use of health trucks that would travel through different towns and cities in the country, where specialists carried out checkups, routine controls, even fixing a cavity, canal, even extraction of pieces, dental repairs and prostheses. The mobile health units were equipped with 3D robotic medical technology, with 30 units, 10 of them intended for rehabilitation, 12 provided with first level care and 8 intended for the transfer of patients.[787][788].
With the aim of making the pharmaceutical chain transparent and reducing the price of medicines, a control and traceability system was adopted. Through the system. The State will be able to control medications by monitoring them throughout the production chain from the laboratory to the patient. Through the new regulations, each company or entity involved must generate codes that will be incorporated into the database of the ANMAT system. Each box or unit of product will have its own unique code, unmodifiable and non-transferable. The database is open to the citizen, allowing them to know what components each medication contains, where it was manufactured.[789] This law allows preventing health risks from the use of illegitimate products, discouraging theft and smuggling of medications, detecting duplications and deviations from the legal marketing chain, providing security to users, reducing medical costs and optimizing the use of public resources.[790].
Birth policies
The main public policy to lower the birth rate in the most vulnerable population, guaranteeing the rights to sexual and reproductive health, in addition to lowering the birth rate in the population of girls and adolescents. In 2007, the fertility rate for girls between 15 and 19 years old in Argentina was around 57 per thousand, below the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which is 72.4. Decreasing from a peak of 67.8 in 2001.[791] At the same time, it was complemented with community promotion activities on rights, sexual and reproductive health for out-of-school populations and the creation of individual or group consultation spaces in schools and clinics in classrooms and hospitals. Reaching in its first year almost 5,700 secondary schools, 1,490 health centers.
Assisted Fertility Law Law 26,862 was promulgated in 2013, guaranteeing comprehensive access to medically assisted reproduction procedures for all people who need it.
Hospital infrastructure
In 2012 he launched the works of the Comprehensive refunctionalization program of the Churruca-Visca Medical Hospital Complex, in the works 16 million pesos were invested in the remodeling of 36 rooms to which 60 orthopedic beds and new instruments were added.[792] He inaugurated several public hospitals during his presidential term. One of the most notable examples was the inauguration of the Morón Municipal Hospital in December 2014, works in the Posadas Hospital and presented the progress of works in other Bicentennial Hospitals, such as those in Ituzaingó and Esteban Echevarría.[793].
In 2011, the remodeling and expansion of the San Isidro hospital was inaugurated in the northern area of the AMBA, whose surface area tripled that of the old Hospital.[794] In the Luis Lagomaggiore hospital, located west of the City of Mendoza, a new maternity hospital was built, a work of 11,544 square meters distributed over 5 floors, which are added to the 17,000 m² that the hospital already has, that is, it adds up to around 70% more space.[795].
In 2008, the Bicentennial Hospitals program was launched, announced in October 2008 under the first government of Cristina Kirchner, including the Ituzaingo hospital, the Nestor Kirchner maternal and child hospital in Laferrere, in La Matanza, the René Favaloro general acute care hospital and the Ramón Carrillo in Santiago del Estero-La Banda.
In 2015, the construction of the Dr. René Favaloro General Acute Hospital in La Matanza, a High Complexity hospital, with 18,352 m2 covered, was completed, with a total investment of 374 million pesos.
Public production of medicines
Regarding health policy, in 2008, the National Program for the Public Production of Medicines, Vaccines and Medical Products was created to reduce their cost and improve efficiency. In addition, in 2011, with the Congressional sanction of Law 26,688 promoted by the FPV party, national interest was declared in the research and production of medicines, vaccines and medical products as social goods, with the aim of promoting accessibility and promoting scientific and technological development. national. In December 2014, the National Agency for Public Laboratories was created.[736] Through the state company, medicines were exported to 17 countries, diversifying the export areas and obtaining new markets and businesses worth 500 million dollars since 2013,[121] ensuring that the population has wide coverage of access to medicines, especially low-cost essential medicines. free to the population in all Primary Health Care Centers (CAPS). In particular, the Remediar Program, which reaches all CAPS in all locations in the country, some 6,200 in total.
Since 2009, numerous measures were taken after the National Plan against Dengue was launched, a disease that affects Argentina during the southern summer. The disease was controlled by applying a strong community-based strategy to control the transmitting mosquito. Since the launch of the plan, a budget of 102 million pesos was granted to combat dengue, extensive modernization and strengthening of the operational bases for vector control and federal health delegations, health operations were carried out through mobile health units dependent on the Ministry of Health. Through the Ministry of Health, national and provincial authorities were coordinated to implement active state prevention policies, including communication campaigns, environmental sanitation in public spaces, provision of barrier methods such as mosquito nets and repellents in an accessible manner, distributing them in health services and hospitals and vulnerable groups, and distribution of drinking water.
After 2009, measures were taken that led to a decrease in the disease and its geographical decline, gradually reducing Dengue cases until reaching a minimum of 223 cases in 2015, while in other countries in the region cases remained high.[754] During this time it went from being an endemic disease in twelve of the twenty-three provinces in 2008 to being endemic in only six, decreasing the geographical incidence by 40 percent. cent.[755][796].
During his second term, there was an increase in the fumigation capacity against mosquitoes, from 1,500 hectares per hour in 2009 to 3,900 hectares per hour in 2015, and the renewal of machines, with the acquisition of 200 new motor-foggers. Through INTA, the development of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was investigated to combat Aedes aegypti. The TIE system has already been used successfully against the fruit fly plague in the Cuyo region.
Human rights policy
La política de derechos humanos de la presidencia de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner tuvo como ejes el juzgamiento de los crímenes de lesa humanidad ocurridos durante la última dictadura militar (1976-1983) y la sanción de leyes que protegen a las mujeres y las diversidades sexuales. En ese sentido se destacan la sanción de las leyes de matrimonio igualitario en 2010 y de identidad de género "Ley de identidad de género (Argentina)") en 2012.[798] Durante su primera administración se creó el Banco de Datos Genéticos mediante la Ley Nacional nº 26.548 del 18 de noviembre de 2009 entre otras, acompañada con la sanción de la Ley Nacional de Sitios de Memoria, nº 26.691, el día 29 de junio de 2011. En 2008 se quitó la jubilación
de privilegio que gozaban Jorge Rafael Videla y Emilio Massera, elimnandose las jubilaciones de privilegio de rango militar a condenados por delitos de lesa humanidad, Ley 26128 apoyada por todos los bloques parlamentarios excepto el PRO.[799] En el año 2012 con el voto unánime del Frente para la Víctoria, el Partido Socialista, Nuevo Encuentro, GEN y la UCR y con la oposición del PRO se sanciona la Ley 26827 que conllevó a la creación del Sistema Nacional de Prevención de la Tortura y Otros Tratos o Penas Crueles, Inhumanos o Degradantes, tendiente a la prevención y prohibición de la tortura y otros tratos o penas crueles, inhumanos o degradante.[800].
Se produjo la señalización de alrededor de 200 lugares que funcionaron como centros clandestinos de detención durante la última dictadura.
El informe anual de Human Rights Watch correspondiente a 2015 sintetizó la situación de los derechos humanos en Argentina del siguiente modo:.
Durante su primera presidencia el INADI abrió delegaciones propias en 21 provincias y en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, como parte de un plan de federalización, que incluyó convenios con más de 200 municipios de todo el país.[245][246] y en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires el aumento fue del 14,8 % al 72,9 % (fuente: Analogías, diciembre de 2006 y CEOP, abril de 2009).
En 2014 se aprobó la Ley de Muerte digna que establecía que el paciente en estado vegetativo tiene el derecho de aceptar o rechazar determinadas terapias o procedimientos médicos, dando su consentimiento informado, es decir, la declaración de su voluntad -o, en todo caso, por medio de sus representantes legales-, emitida luego de recibir toda la información necesaria sobre su situación. El texto también deja en claro que, en estos casos, el médico no tendrá responsabilidad civil, penal ni administrativa alguna.[743].
Trials for state terrorism
Human rights politician Cristina Fernández had open support from several human rights organizations such as the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo and the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo. On March 1, 2009, when formally opening the session of Congress, Fernández questioned the slow pace of progress in trials for crimes against humanity:
During his first term, the creation of the National Memory Archive took place; the creation of the Space for Memory and for the promotion and defense of Human Rights, on the grounds of the former ESMA; the creation of the Haroldo Conti Cultural Center; the marking of around 500 clandestine detention centers, the updating of the Never Again Report, the creation of 20 research units on the consequences of State terrorism; the extension of reparatory policies for people who directly suffered Human Rights violations, the declassification of different files from the last military dictatorship; the creation of the Comprehensive Assistance Center for victims of State Terrorism, Law No. 26,061 on Comprehensive Protection of the Rights of Children and Adolescents; the creation of the National Registry of Missing Minors; the promotion of the National Human Rights Plan and the National Plan against Discrimination and the classification of human trafficking as a federal crime.[803].
President Fernández's reference to the delay of Justice in resolving cases for crimes against humanity was related to the criticism of the Criminal Cassation Chamber made by then-President Kirchner, on March 26, 2007, for the great delay in resolving the appeals systematically presented by the accused repressors, causing the paralysis of almost all cases.[804][805].
On December 17 and 18, 2008, Chamber II of the Criminal Cassation Chamber, made up of W. Gustavo Mitchell, Guillermo J. Yacobucci and Luis M. García, by two votes to one (Mitchell), ordered the release of 21 repressors accused of crimes against humanity in the ESMA mega-case, including Alfredo Astiz, sentenced to life imprisonment in France, arguing that the maximum legal period of preventive detention had been exceeded. authorized by law.[806] The decision was severely questioned by Cristina Fernández on the same day that the rulings were announced, in an event held precisely at the ESMA, transformed into a center for memory:.
The ruling was also criticized by political leaders of various tendencies and human rights activists. Taty Almeida, president of Madres de Plaza de Mayo Línea Foundadora, maintained that the ruling was "a slap in the face, a shame."[808] For her part, deputy Victoria Donda, born and stripped of her identity in the ESMA, accused the court: "I am not surprised, because it is precisely this Chamber of Criminal Cassation that has a strategy of benefiting the genocidaires."[808] Ragmar Hagelin, father of the teenager Dagmar Hagelin disappeared in the ESMA, defined the ruling as "a sacrilege", "a slap on each cheek of the Argentine people" and maintained that "it is a national shame that there are judges who at this point in time make a similar decision."[809].
Given the ruling, the National Executive Branch ordered to present an extraordinary appeal before the Supreme Court, thus suspending the release of the repressors and requesting in the Council of the Judiciary the impeachment against the two judges (Yacobucci and García) who voted in favor in the decision.[810].
Through an agreement, the Supreme Court demanded that the courts throughout the country expedite trials for human rights violations that occurred during the last military dictatorship.[811] The Court also created on that occasion a superintendence unit with special powers to monitor pending cases, request information from judges about progress and delays in the processes and establish measures to avoid delays.[812] On the same occasion, it invited the other public powers, the Executive and the Legislative, as well as the Public Prosecutor's Office, to expedite the cases.[811].
In 2009, the Judiciary announced the sending to oral trial of several cases of crimes against humanity. Among them, a date was set for October 10, in the Federal Oral Court No. 5, for two of the ten sections of the ESMA mega-case, corresponding to the disappearance of the French nuns Léonie Duquet and Alice Domon and the journalist Rodolfo Walsh, where Astiz, Acosta, Rolón, Pernías, among other repressors, will be prosecuted.[813] As part of these policies, 106 places that had been centers will be prosecuted. clandestine detention centers "Clandestine detention center (Argentina)") were marked by the state and converted into spaces for memory.[814].
The different trials, which have been carried out since 2007, were carried out throughout the country. The best known causes are: the Simón Case, Battalion 601, Von Wernich, Etchecolatz, ESMA clandestine center "Escuela de Mecánica de la Armada (clandestine detention center)", First Corps), Plan Cóndor, Margarita Belén Massacre, Trelew Massacre, Third Corps) and Barreto, Gonçalves and D'Amico") (detachment from the Riveros case). They were also 106 places that had been clandestine detention centers "Centro clandestino de detention (Argentina)") were marked and converted into spaces for memory.[814] In December 2008, Law 26,475 was passed, which provided for the extinction of the special benefits of those who usurped positions in centralized and decentralized organizations of the national public administration between the coup d'état of March 1976 and the end of the dictatorship. The rule ranged from de facto former presidents, to ministers, to secretaries and undersecretaries. The following year, circular 17/09 of the National Social Security Administration (Anses) established a mechanism to materialize the dismissals.
In 2009, a resolution was signed in which it was strictly prohibited to honor deceased repressors involved in crimes against humanity during their funerals.[818] Program 26 Promotion and Defense of Human Rights (whose objectives have also varied across different governments, but will be analyzed later). And starting in 2009, the Program to Strengthen Judicial Processes against Crimes Against Humanity was created.
In 2013, the Senate unanimously turned into law a bill from the Executive Branch that includes recognition and compensation for the victims of the attacks and bombings that occurred from June 16 to September 16, 1955, known as the bombing of the Plaza de Mayo. The measure also recognizes the soldiers who suffered reprisals or were discharged for not joining the bombing during the self-styled dictatorship Revolución Libertadora "Liberating Revolution (Argentina)").[819] The surviving victims have received tributes from the National Memory Archive.[820].
In 2013, the creation of the Genetic Data Bank was approved, promoted by the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo, guaranteeing the obtaining, storage and analysis of the genetic information that is necessary as evidence for the clarification of crimes against humanity whose execution has begun within the scope of the national State until December 10, 1983.[821].
In 2015, it enacted a compensation law for survivors and relatives of victims of the AMIA attack. The norm was published in the Official Gazette and was promulgated by Decree 838/2015.[822] a few weeks before the end of his second term, he promulgated the Law on free legal support for victims of gender violence, creating the Corps of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence, to provide free legal sponsorship and comprehensive legal advice throughout the national territory to victims of gender violence. All of this is framed in Law 27,210, presented by deputy Juan Manuel Abal Medina "Juan Manuel Abal Medina (son)").[823] The modification of the Penal and Procedural Code granted victims' rights for the first time, granting greater participation and guarantees in the criminal process to victims of crimes and contemplates free legal assistance when they cannot afford the expenses.
The norm modified the Criminal Procedure Code and the Criminal Execution Law with the objective of "recognizing and guaranteeing the rights of crime victims, avoiding revictimization and ensuring effective support during the process.
Protection of sexual diversity
Among other laws promoted we can highlight:
• - the law repealing article 765 of the Military Justice Code that established the crime of homosexuality for soldiers.
• - the Same-Sex Marriage Law (2010), known as the Equal Marriage Law, also recognizing the right to adopt children of LGBT+ people.
• - the Gender Identity Law "Gender Identity Law (Argentina)") (2012), recognizing the right to change gender, from childhood and through the simple self-perception of the person, with recognition of the right to free necessary medical treatments.
Since 2009, Law 26,529 on "Patient Rights in their Relationship with Health Professionals and Institutions" in its article 2, recognizes the right to be assisted by health professionals, without any impairment or distinction based on sexual orientation.[824] That same year, the crime of homosexuality provided for in the military was eliminated from the Code of Military Justice (article 765), which was punishable by demotion and a prison sentence. from six months to six years.[825][826][827].
On August 13, 2010, the Chamber of Deputies approved the amendment to the anti-discrimination law that prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, but it was not voted on by the Senate.[828] In those years, there has been an effort to encourage LGBT tourists to visit Buenos Aires, added to the boom that this type of tourism has experienced.[829] According to a study by the Pew Research Center, Argentina is the country that most accepts homosexuality in Latin America.[830] On August 13, 2010, the Chamber of Deputies approved the amendment to the anti-discrimination law that prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.[831][832].
Through ruling 1,181/11, the federal police and security forces were instructed to respect the gender identity of both the agents of the different agencies and the detainees and of any citizen who carries out a procedure in their facilities, providing treatment in accordance with the self-perceived identity to people who request it. The new regulations also made it possible to accept transvestite, transsexual and transgender officers in the security forces in which they were prohibited.[833][834][835].
In 2011, civil marriage legislation was modified allowing people of the same sex to marry and adopt. In that year, Argentina became the second country in America to have this right and the tenth in the world. By 2015, the number of marriages had risen to more than 10,000 couples.[836] Single women and homoparental families were included in the Medically Assisted Reproduction Law enacted in 2013, a demand promoted by the FALGBT.[837] The Law for the Comprehensive Protection of the Rights of Children and Adolescents was enacted.
A year later, the Penal Code was modified by adding the penalty of life imprisonment to hate crimes motivated by sexual orientation and gender identity or its expression.[838] The Regime for equalizing employment opportunities for trans people was approved. Establishing the creation of a minimum priority quota in the national public administration, for trans people who meet the suitability conditions for the position.
Protection against gender violence
In April 2008, Law 26,364 on Human Trafficking and Assistance to its Victims was passed as a measure of protection for all minor and adult women who were exploited both inside and outside the country.[848] In 2009, Law 26,485 on "Comprehensive protection to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women in the areas in which they carry out their activities" was passed. interpersonal relationships" that expanded the definition of "violence against women" in the country.[849] Later a paragraph was added to prevent and eradicate obstetric violence. Being complemented by the "Humanized Childbirth" Law, which establishes rights for the mother, the newborn, and the father and mother in case there is a risk situation for the newborn.[850].
In 2011, the Law on Comprehensive Protection of Women was passed, which finally became Law 26,485 "Law on Comprehensive Protection of Women (Argentina)"), and which refers to comprehensive protection to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women in the areas in which they develop their interpersonal relationships. The law protects women from physical violence, but also from psychological, sexual, reproductive, obstetric, economic and symbolic violence suffered both in the family, as well as in the institutional, work or media environment.[852]In 2009, Law 26,485[853] was passed to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Violence against Women in the Areas in which Their Relationships Develop Interpersonal. The law was regulated by Decree 1011/2010.[854].
On November 14, 2012, Congress, at the initiative of the Socialist Party, the Left Front and the Front for Victory, sanctioned Law 26,791[855] creating the crime of feminicide as an autonomous cause of aggravated homicide, classifying it as homicide carried out against "a woman when the act is perpetrated by a man and through gender violence."
In 2012, the National Congress, through Law 26,842, incorporated two modifications: on the one hand, not accepting the “consent” of the victim - even despite their age of majority -, and also requiring that the sentences be enforced effectively regardless of the case. That same year, the Federal Council against Trafficking in Persons and the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights of the Nation were created, which enabled the toll-free number 145 to receive complaints from any point in the country. national territory 24 hours a day, thanks to the telephone line until April of this year, 8,325 victims were rescued by the National State.[856][857].
In 2015, the law was enacted that provides for the creation of the Body of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence (Law No. 27,210). Law 26,842 was also passed, which extends sentences for trafficking crimes, accelerates the judicial process, eliminates the consent of the victim as an exculpatory element for the person responsible for promoting prostitution and exploiting the victim, and creates a Federal Council for the fight against trafficking and an Executive Committee for assistance to the victim.[858].
Protection policies towards women
During her management, she stood out for the federalization of public policies implemented at the federal level, reaching all the provinces of the country and also establishing the Federal Council of Women, Gender and Diversity, made up of the high authorities of the areas of gender and diversity of the Argentine provinces.
In 2007, the “Victims against Violence” program was established, whose main objective is the care, support and assistance to victims of family and sexual violence. Positioning them in an active place that implies their decision to collaborate as a citizen responsibility.[866].
With the aim of combating trafficking in women and sexual violence, it prohibited item 59 intended for advertising of brothels and related activities.[867] It argued that the sexual offer in item 59 is a profound discrimination against women as such. This law is a gigantic step against double standards and hypocrisy." The Minister of Justice, Dr. Julio Alak, who had the Office of Rescue and Accompaniment for people affected by this crime, participated in the presentation.
At the same time, the coordination of the fight against trafficking was launched together with the Ministry of Justice together with the National Women's Council.[868] the Law against Trafficking in Persons (26,364), the Comprehensive Law to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women (26,485).[869] The law established the prohibition of advertisements that promote sexual offers or that disseminate, both explicitly and implicitly, the request of people for the sexual trade, which had the objective of preventing the crime of Human Trafficking and, in addition, becomes a form of progressive decrease in the forms of discrimination suffered by women.[870] Months later, all media outlets had stopped publishing sexual offer ads except those of the Clarín group, which decided to ignore the law, publishing more than 157 thousand sexual offer ads on its pages, obtaining millionaire profits by advertising brothels and whiskerias.[871][872] Thanks to the law together with the implementation of the federal telephone line 145, several brothels were closed.[873]
Brigades specialized in attacking child prostitution were created, Dr. Eva Giberti was summoned to work on drafting the Law against Human Trafficking, which sought to ensure that the victims were active and demanded that the State arrest the rapist. Due to her policies in favor of women's rights, Fernández de Kirchner would be awarded in 2015 at the Meeting of World Leaders on Gender Equality held in New York.[874].
Law of children and adolescents
During his administration, the Argentine legal framework for the protection of children was updated and expanded, through Law 26,061. These rights are based on the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which establishes principles such as the best interests of the child, the right to life and development, non-discrimination and participation. Protection against child labor: Laws were enacted to criminalize child labor and protect working mothers and fathers, seeking to guarantee the right of children to adequate physical, mental and social development.
[875]
In 2012, a new adoption law was promoted[876].
In 2014, the new Civil and Commercial Code incorporated the right of children and adolescents to be heard in all judicial processes that affect them. The opinion of the minor must be taken into account according to their age and degree of maturity.[877]Article 641 of the new civil code specifically established that the exercise of parental responsibility corresponds to both parents equally. The general principle of the exercise of joint or dual parental responsibility was established, when there is no coexistence of the parents or it has ended. The regime of parental authority was repealed, to be replaced by regimes of parental responsibility, based on the equality of men and women, the status of boys and girls as subjects and the parental function governed by the principle of the best interests of the child. In addition, a regime of equal co-parental responsibility was established.[878].
The equal principle between men and women was also established to carry out their life projects, in addition to the right of every child or adolescent to maintain a bond with both parents after the breakdown of the union between the parents.
Immigrant rights
In 2008, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner signed the new immigration law described as a "world example" by the International Organization for Migration and established the largest regulation of immigrants in Argentine history. The new law replaced the one dictated during the dictatorship of Jorge Rafael Videla in 1981, known as the Videla Law.[879] The new law incorporated two axes that were absent in the previous regulations: the perspective of human rights and the regionalist immigration approach. The new law had an inclusive spirit, recognizing migration as a fundamental human right that the State must guarantee and must favor the regularization of migrants, granting them social and economic rights not recognized until then.[880].
The government of Cristina Fernández continued with the Plan Patria Grande initiated in the previous government, in order to grant documents to immigrants in an irregular situation. In 2008, Argentine documents were delivered to 144,549 people, thus adding the number of 714,907 regularized immigrants, since the plan was launched in 2006.[881] The figure represents almost half of the foreigners registered in the 2001 census (1,531,940). The massive regularization of immigrants and the consequent possibility that they can assert their rights (unionization, association, labor demands, etc.) has a strong impact on the labor market, since foreigners usually occupy jobs that are in the lowest and most informal salary levels, so an improvement in them directly impacts the entire salary scale.[882]With the objective of reducing the number of people in a situation of documentary irregularity, it was intended for native citizens of member countries of the Mercosur and its associated states, which included Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.[883] As of August 2010, 423,697 immigrants had registered in the program. Of that number, 248,144 were Paraguayans,[884] 104,984 Bolivians, 47,455 Peruvians, 10,785 Uruguayans, 5,349 Chileans, 4,603 Brazilians, 914 Ecuadorians and 22,816 Venezuelans.[885]
Since 2014, it has been enabled that the Argentine citizenship process through naturalization can be done completely digitally through the website of the National Directorate of Migration. The measure sought to streamline procedures, guarantee greater security and transparency, and simplify access for foreigners over 18 years of age residing in the country who wished to naturalize Argentine citizenship.
With the reforms promoted to the Criminal Procedure Code, Law 13,943 limited alternatives to dangerous criminals. 14,128 limited release to repeat offenders and adults who use minors to commit crimes, and 14,517 limited release to all those who carry weapons when committing crimes.
indigenous peoples
In the field of indigenous policies, within the INAI, an autonomous organization created by the management of Néstor Kirchner, the Indigenous Participation Council was created in response to a sustained demand for compliance with current regulations. In the area of education, the enactment of Law 26,206 on National Education incorporated bilingual and intercultural education as an educational modality, while in the field of communication and culture, laws such as Law 26,522 on Audiovisual Communication Services (2009) promoted cultural diversity and the incorporation of indigenous community channels and aboriginal content on mass channels into the radio sector. [886] During the Bicentennial celebrations in 2010, a central place was reserved for indigenous peoples, carrying symbolism and establishing an idea of a nation with a place for indigenous peoples.[887] A policy of restitution of indigenous remains to their original communities was carried out. In 2013, the remains of three members of the Wichí community, murdered between 1881 and 1921 in the Ledesma and La Esperanza sugar mills, were returned.[888] Bones of Tehuelches and Mapuches exhibited in the Tello Museum, in Viedma, were also returned.[889]
The regulatory framework of indigenous rights was completed with the ratification of Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the International Labor Organization (ILO) by law 24,071, the inclusion of indigenous peoples in the National Census as of 2010, the United Nations Declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples and the new Civil and Commercial Code "Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación (Argentina)") (2015), regulating indigenous ownership of land.[890] From then on, the indigenous communities that live in Argentina began to organize to make their new constitutional rights effective.[890] The main difficulty arises when the "traditional occupation" is considered in the terms of art. 75 inc. 15 of lands that, registered, have a recognized owner prior to the constitutional reform, as is the case of the lands belonging to the Italian company Benetton.[891][892] The Indigenous Territorial Emergency Law No. 26,160 was sanctioned, suspending for 4 years the evictions of indigenous lands in order to carry out the cadastral survey of the ancestral lands, a previous step to formalize the community property titles.[893][894].
Since 2012, a survey was carried out in more than 59 national and provincial museums to make an inventory of indigenous remains to be returned to their communities, managing to identify 203 remains and restore more than 178 by 2015.[895] In 2010, Cristina Kirchner regulated National Law No. 25517, issued in 2001 and known as the “law of restitution of human remains.” This law establishes among its main articles, the return of the mortal remains of Aboriginal people, regardless of their ethnic characteristics, that are part of museums and/or public or private collections.[896]
Memory policy
In 2013, the Senate unanimously signed into law the Executive Branch project that included the victims of the attacks and bombings that occurred from June 16 to September 16, 1955, as beneficiaries of the compensation laws for having been detained or having suffered forced disappearance or another act of illicit force on the part of the State. The measure also recognizes the soldiers who suffered reprisals or were discharged for not joining the bombing.[908]
The surviving victims have received tributes from the National Memory Archive.[909]
In honor of the victims and martyrs, a monument was erected "From heaven they saw them arrive" that was incorporated into UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) as a way to "pay tribute to each of the 308 victims[910].
In May 2008, with the participation of Secretary Eduardo Luis Duhalde and human rights activist and journalist Eduardo Jozami (1939-).[911][912] the Haroldo Conti cultural center and museum[913] was inaugurated at the ESMA.
Later, the Public Entity Space for Memory and the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights would be inaugurated.[914] the ESMA Memory Site Museum.[915] and the
Mothers of Plaza de Mayo cultural space.[916].
Personal rights
Very personal rights are subjective rights inherent to the human person that guarantee their integrity and dignity, protecting their essence and both physical and spiritual manifestations.[917].
A new law was passed with the objective of guaranteeing the comprehensive protection of personal data of natural and legal persons. This law recognizes and protects the right of access, rectification, updating and cancellation of data, as well as the possibility of opposing its use.
International Center for Human Rights
In 2013 it was inaugurated in the former ESMA
The International Center for the Promotion of Human Rights (CIPDH) whose purpose is to promote cooperation and articulation with the international community for the development of human rights education and to plan and implement regional and international projects to promote human rights. The CIPDH has the status of a category 2 center under the auspices of UNESCO, although with autonomy and autarky.[918][919].
Human rights in Malvinas
On December 11, 2008, the Argentine National Congress sanctioned national decree 2131 that declared the Puerto Darwin cemetery a national historic site. Later, it was declared a national historic site again through national law 26,498 of June 4, 2009, published in the Official Gazette of the Argentine Republic.[920].
In 2010, a Kelper citizen of British origin was granted refuge and an Argentine DNI, arguing the human rights violations that occurred in the Islands. In another case, Linsey and Jamies Trevaskis were exiled in Wales, from where they reported that the woman's daughter was unjustly taken from her by the social services of the islands when she was 11 years old because her mother had requested Argentine nationality.[921].
In 2010, the organization began in the "Malvinas Humanitarian Project Plan" in conjunction with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship of the Nation, the Forensic Anthropology Team and the Center for Assistance to Victims of Human Rights Violations to identify the remains of 122 soldiers who could not be identified, which began in 2012 with the collection of DNA samples taken between March and December 2011 with the due consent of each family.[922][923].
That same year, the National Council on Affairs related to the Malvinas Islands was created, created by Law 27,558, its central objective is to generate the political and social consensus necessary to design and implement State policies that contribute to the full exercise of sovereignty over the Malvinas Islands, South Georgia Islands, South Sandwich Islands and the surrounding maritime spaces.
In 2014, for the first time since the war, the work of doctors, surgical instruments and nurses who participated in the conflict was recognized, along with the awarding of medals and diplomas of honor, an honorary pension was granted that male combatants enjoy that had not been granted to female combatants, although they served during the combat.[924].
Anti-discrimination policy
During his presidency, the National Institute against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism (INADI) was established, granting it financial autonomy and autarky, the decentralized body of the national State, whose objective is to guarantee respect for the rights of all those who may be affected by any type of discrimination, whether due to their ethnic origin or nationality, their political opinions or religious beliefs, their gender or sexual identity, their disability or illness, their age or their physical appearance. INADI opened its own delegations in 21 provinces and in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, as part of a federalization plan, which included agreements with more than 200 municipalities throughout the country. In 2008, a free telephone line (0800) was created for consultation, which operates 24 hours a day to report discriminatory acts.
In 2010, it was incorporated through the update of the anti-discrimination law, Law 23,592, which addresses anti-Semitism as a form of discrimination, establishing sanctions for discriminatory acts based on race, religion, nationality or origin.
Politics in media and communication
Durante la presidencia de Cristina Kirchner se debatió y aprobó por sectores oficialistas y opositores la Ley de Servicios de Comunicación Audiovisual que reemplaza a la antigua Ley de Radiodifusión 22.285 creada por la última dictadura. Este hecho, junto con la migración hacia la televisión digital abierta, dio como resultado la multiplicación de la cantidad de señales audiovisuales[925][926][927] y espacios relacionados con la creación estatal de contenido y demás,[928][929] principalmente en el interior del país, donde todavía se consumen productos de la televisión de Buenos Aires. Se concedieron 1000 nuevas licencias de radio y televisión, y se crearon cerca de 100 000 puestos de trabajo. Otros aspectos que resaltan son la aparición de varios nuevos diarios de alcance nacional.[930] Se realizaron 1.132 reservas de frecuencias de radios para municipios, se dieron más de mil autorizaciones y licencias a radios AM y FM y televisión abierta y paga y más de 650 de radio AM y FM al sector privado; mientras que se entregaron las 23 licencias para radios de baja frecuencia en zonas de alta vulnerabilidad social y se llamó a concurso para 1.052 frecuencias de radio en todo el país, recibieron la autorización para poner en marcha 175 radios y canales de televisión; al tiempo que fueron autorizadas 35 radios y un canal para los pueblos originarios.[931].
Otros aspectos que resaltan son la aparición de varios nuevos diarios de tirada nacional,[930] y la despenalización de las calumnias e injurias para expresiones de interés público, tema vinculado a la libertad de expresión y la libertad de prensa.[932][933][934][935] Se aprobó la despenalización de las calumnias e injurias para expresiones de interés público, tema vinculado a la libertad de expresión y la libertad de prensa.[932][933][934][935].
Audiovisual communication services law
In 2004 and debated for a year in 24 forums that were held for this purpose in different parts of the country.[1057] After more than 100 and two years of debate and modifications, it was approved by a large majority in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. With the new law, a thousand radio and TV licenses and authorizations were delivered since the enactment of the media law. The Federal Authority for Audiovisual Communication Services (AFSCA) highlighted the delivery of 1,007 authorizations and licenses to broadcast on radio and TV, the reservation of 1,132 frequencies for municipalities, as well as the creation of 100,0000 new jobs in the sector.
The law led to the creation of 1,008 new radio and television licenses, generating around 100,000 jobs. The most beneficiaries were cooperatives, community radio stations, indigenous peoples, national universities, educational institutions, cooperatives and SMEs received 98 new licenses.
In the radio area: 250 licenses were granted to FM radio stations and four to AM radio stations. The most notable correspond to the 34 FM granted to indigenous peoples, the Catholic Church with 25 FM and one AM, educational institutes with 168 FM and universities with six.[936][937].
Telecommunications
On June 1, 2012, it published the resolution that forces mobile phone companies to charge for calls from the moment the recipient answers and not from the moment the number is dialed as they did previously, a measure repeatedly requested by consumer defense movements.[938] In March 2012, President Cristina Kirchner announced that as of March 30 of that year, the number portability of cell phones would begin to govern throughout the country, which allows users to change companies while maintaining the number.[939].
The National Plan "Argentina Conectada") launched during the Fernández administration built 15,453 kilometers of the Fiber Optic Backbone Network, acquired another 4,494 kilometers of ducts from the companies Silica, Giga Red and Global Crossing, and signed agreements with telephone companies to add another 8,305 kilometers from exchanges. In total the network reached an extension of 28,252 kilometers, to which the provincial networks would be added in construction, financed with funds from the national government. Until 2014, 79.3% of the 19,480 km projected were installed in the different regions into which the country was divided for the implementation of the plan.[940] the State promoted aerospace policy, exponentially increasing investment in an area considered strategic. Among the achievements, the following stand out: the construction of the
Pehuensat-1, which with its launch in 2007 marked the first step of the National Satellite Plan; the launch in 2011 of the Sac-D Aquarius, a satellite for monitoring
of the biosphere, in a joint work of Conae, Invap and NASA; working together
to Brazil for the development of Sac-E, which will consist of SABIA-Mar A and SABIA-Mar B, with the objective of meteorological prevention, study of the sea, deforestation and
agriculture; There was also progress in the so-called “nanosatellites”,
the small satellite “Capitán Beto”, which orbits at 650 km for
experimental free access for educational and scientific centers, and “Manolito”, a satellite with similar characteristics.[941].
Finally, Arsat-1 was launched into orbit, the first telecommunications satellite in Latin America, which with an investment of
6,500 million pesos provides telecommunications services and, later, in
September 2015, the launch of Arsat-II. This second satellite
communications involved an investment of 250 million dollars and has a
continental coverage. In this way, Argentina was included in the group of 12 countries that produce telecommunications satellites.
In 2015, the laying of the fiber optic backbone network in Entre Ríos was completed with 1,768 kilometers, adding to another 1,000 that were already deployed, reaching almost 2,800 kilometers that will provide service to 150 cities and towns in the province, with an investment of 300 million pesos.[942] The construction of the communications satellite had already been completed, and the period was in progress. of tests in San Carlos de Bariloche. It was transferred to French Guyana in August of the same year and launched on September 30, 2015 aboard an Ariane 5 from the Kourou Spaceport, which had a state investment of 250 million dollars, offering Internet, data, IP telephony and television coverage for the entire American continent, unlike its predecessor the Arsat 1 satellite, launched a year before that covered the surface of the entire Argentina, managing to six-fold the broadband speed throughout. the country.[943].
New public channels
In 2010, INCAA TV (later renamed CINE AR) was launched, the film signal of the National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts, operated by Radio and Television Argentina. It was inaugurated on December 28, 2010 by President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. The channel broadcasts films 24 hours a day, in a proportion of 70 percent Argentine films, 20 Ibero-American films and 10 percent in other languages.[957] On November 25, 2015, the Argentine government inaugurated a streaming service under the name Odeón, dedicated to broadcasting only Argentine productions, both fiction and documentaries. Two years later Odeón was renamed CINE.AR Play, by that date it had approximately 500,000 users, 600 films, including feature films and short films, and 500 hours of Argentine series.[958].
In 2012, the law was passed prohibiting unwanted calls for commercial purposes, unless the user has given their consent, prohibiting commercial calls without the express consent of the user. The measure, which was widely supported by Congress, sought to safeguard the privacy and peace of mind of users against intrusive commercial practices.
Freedom of expression
According to the report carried out monthly by the organization Reporters Without Borders, which as of December 2010 positions press freedom in Argentina on the same scale as Europe.[959].
In 2009, Congress approved a law proposed by Fernández in order to decriminalize slander and insults for expressions of public interest.[960] The law responded to a ruling by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of May 2, 2008, in the case Eduardo Kimel v. Argentina, of the Argentine journalist Eduardo Kimel, sentenced to one year in prison, in 2000, for his questions to a judge made in a journalistic investigation into the massacre of the Pallottine priests in the church of San Patricio in 1976, during the military dictatorship that governed at that time, published as a book under the title The massacre of San Patricio.[960].
The law repealed article 112 of the Penal Code in force at that time, which established the so-called "crime of slander or covert insults",[961] and added in the text of the remaining articles referring to the crimes of slander and insults, that "in no case will expressions referring to matters of public interest or those that are not assertive constitute a crime."[960] The project adopted a radical position on the matter, decriminalizing absolutely all types of expressions, when they refer to matters of public interest or are not assertive. In this way, the project went beyond the doctrine of actual malice, which had been established by the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation,[962] which maintains that in the case of journalists, it was necessary to prove that they knew that the news was false, or at least, that they were notoriously reckless when verifying its veracity such as not having 'checked' the sources.[963].
The project was approved by the Chamber of Deputies in the session of October 28, 2009,[964] with 154 votes in favor, 12 against (of them 4 from the Republican Proposal-PRO), 2 abstentions, and the absence of 91 deputies.[965] In the Senate the project was voted on November 18, 2009, being approved unanimously by all 51 senators. present, although 21 senators were absent.[966].
The Committee to Protect Journalists, an international entity based in New York, congratulated the Argentine authorities for the passage of the law, noting that "it is an important step towards the advancement of freedom of expression in Argentina and marks a milestone in the campaign to decriminalize defamation in Latin America."[967].
With the aim of ensuring equal access to newsprint, and eliminating restrictions on a basic input for freedom of expression,[968] the production and marketing of newsprint was declared of public utility in 2010, where Papel Prensa S.A. is the only local supplier.[969] The measure had the support of different associations linked to print media such as Diarios y Periódicos Regionales Argentinos (DYPRA) and The Associative Federation of Newspapers and Cooperative Communicators of the Argentine Republic (FADICCRA),[970] whose members warned about overpricing in paper, a situation that put at risk the continuity of print media not linked as shareholders to the sole producer of the input.[971][972].
Regulation and limitation of official advertising
In 2011, the law was passed that regulated official advertising in the graphic media for the purposes of the distribution of the so-called official advertising. The law establishes an equitable distribution that must be carried out to the exclusion of any criterion that implies examining the editorial lines or the points of view they express, for which the analogous characteristics of the different publications must be established taking into account the superficiality of the formats, the general theme of each medium and some other objective circumstances, such as: price, the geographical scope of distribution, the profile of the public to which it is directed -age, gender, socioeconomic situation, etc.-, among others.
The law prohibited increasing the official advertising without authorization from Congress, at the same time it limited its use during the electoral period, also establishing that official advertising must have the sole objective of disseminating messages of public interest to the population. The state needs to communicate various facets of its action: based on that, it must define a target audience and, based on an adequate analysis of the media, choose which ones allow for better dissemination of the message.
Subsequently, Law 26,522 on audiovisual media established that “for official advertising investment, the State must consider criteria of equity and reasonableness in its distribution, taking into account the communication objectives of the message in question.”
Una de las primeras medidas adoptadas por la Presidenta Fernández fue la creación del Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva, designando a su cargo a Lino Barañao, un reconocido biólogo molecular.[113] Las principales políticas del ministerio fueron el programa Raíces que existía desde 2004 pero fue institucionalizado mediante una ley en 2008 y el plan estratégico Argentina Innovadora 2020. En el sector aeroespacial se diseñaron y fabricaron satélites en el país. El 10 de junio de 2011 se lanzó con éxito el satélite SAC-D / Aquarius de observación climática y oceanográfica.[976] Posteriormente se lanzaron los satélites geoestacionarios ARSAT-1 y ARSAT-2. En ciencia y tecnología se destacan varios puntos, entre ellos la legalización de patentes por parte del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) de semillas y leche maternizada. Asimismo se sancionó la Ley de Promoción de Software Nacional.[977] construido por la INVAP y lanzado el 10 de junio de 2011 por un cohete argentino Delta II.
En 2008 fue inaugurado oficialmente el Observatorio Pierre Auger en Malargüe, un emprendimiento conjunto de más de veinte países —Alemania, Argentina, Australia, Brasil, Croacia, Eslovenia, España, Estados Unidos, Francia, Italia, México, Países Bajos, Polonia, Portugal, Reino Unido, República Checa, Rumania, Vietnam— en el que colaboran unos 250 científicos de más de treinta instituciones, con la finalidad de detectar partículas subatómicas de alta energía que provienen del espacio exterior denominadas rayos cósmicos.[978][979] En el área informática se prorrogó la Ley del Software.[110] Durante su presidencia creció un 66 % la cantidad de recursos humanos dedicados a ciencia y tecnología; indicó que Argentina tiene un índice de 2,9 cada mil integrantes de la población económicamente activa, dedicados a la ciencia y a la tecnología.[112].
CONICET
Between 2007 and 2015, the number of scientists funded by CONICET increased, covering more than 16,000 among researchers, scholarship holders and support staff, compared to the 8,000 that were funded in 2003. Among all the scholarship programs of the National State, there were more than 55,000 higher education students who enjoyed the benefit,[997] becoming the most important scientific institution in the country and the second in Latin America according to the SCImago Journal Rank.[998][999] In total between 2007 and 2015, 502 building establishments were renovated out of the 700 that made up CONICET, building 149 new institutes.[1000].
Between 2003 and 2010, CONICET incorporated more than 8,000 people, increasing its staff by 93.2%. The number of researchers in 2003 was 3,804, increasing to 6,350 in 2010. In 2010 the average salary of researchers was $10,894 and that of scholarship recipients was $5,164, this represented an increase of more than 500%.[1001] Transfers to researchers from CONICET "National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (Argentina)") (National Council for Scientific and Technical Research) have multiplied several times. These State policies, together with a special repatriation program, allowed hundreds of scientists and researchers to return to the country.[1002] In 2014, the Institute of Limnology «Dr. Raúl Ringuelet», belonging to the CONICET of La Plata and located on the UNLP campus.
In 2012 Cristina Fernández de Kirchner put into operation the Scientific and Technological Pole, which included the new administrative headquarters of the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research "National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (Argentina)"), the Cultural Center of Science and the Science Park. It was the most important scientific infrastructure work of the last 50 years.[1003][1004][1005].
In 2014, the new facilities of the Institute of Biology and Experimental Medicine were inaugurated with 687 m², eleven laboratories, a culture room, a dark room, a laboratory for cytometers, a radioisotope room, the vivarium, the guard room, the electricity room, the multipurpose room and the toilets. Conicet researchers Julián Petrulevicius and Pedro Gutiérrez described a series of species, genera, families and orders of insects 325 million years old found in the province of La Rioja. One of them received the name Argentinala cristinae"), after Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.
Biotechnology
The legalization of patents by the National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) for seeds and formula was achieved. In 2012 alone, exports of medicines to Latin America grew by 53%.[1006] Argentina made advances in scientific matters based on research carried out by INTA, in agreements with local and foreign companies and with the financial support of the State.[1007][1008].
During his management, he continued with the project to develop a low-power nuclear power plant conceived with a state-of-the-art design for the supply of energy in isolated regions at a low cost, provision of energy for desalination of seawater, until its use as a research laboratory through the state National Atomic Energy Commission. The Carem project was selected among a dozen projects of greatest interest worldwide for reactors in that power range, by a commission of experts convened by the US Department of Energy. Thanks to state developments, Argentina exported nuclear reactors and nuclear technology: to countries such as Australia, Algeria, Egypt and Peru. The country has five operational research reactors, among which is the RA-3, the most important in Latin America due to its power and production of radioisotopes.
Since 2011, Argentina has exported nuclear technology to Canada for millions of dollars. Argentina became one of the few countries that exports nuclear reactors, along with the United States, Russia, France, Germany, China and South Korea, among others.[1009][1010].
Satellite development
During his presidency, Argentina advanced in the development of climate and oceanographic observation satellites, coordinated by the National Commission for Space Activities (CONAE), and telecommunications that remained under the administration of Arsat. In both cases, the design and construction of the satellites was carried out mainly by the state high-tech company INVAP. The technicians of both the CONAE and the CNEA received a sustained increase in budget and salaries. The Argentine space project was restarted with the achievement of launching the SAC-D into orbit in 2011, built almost entirely by INVAP,[1011] as well as the completion of the Atucha Nuclear Power Plant. Through the state company invap Argentina became the only country in Latin America with a company certified by NASA to carry out complete satellite systems, from their design and construction to their operation (except launch).[1012].
During the presidency of Néstor Kirchner, the state company Arsat was created to maintain the two Argentine orbital positions granted by the International Telecommunications Union. Until 2010, it provided services with rented satellites,[1013][1014] while developing the necessary capabilities for their national construction, which was the objective set in its creation law.[1015].
Starting in 2010, Arsat began the development of the ARSAT-1 satellite, built and assembled by INVAP in Bariloche, under the direction of Thales Alenia Space.[1016] All of the software was developed in Argentina.[1017] After this, the country became one of the eight nations in the world that develop and produce its own geostationary satellites and, together with the United States, are the only two on the continent. American.[1015][1018] It is the first satellite of its type built by a Latin American country.[1019] The launch was on October 16, 2014 on the Ariane 5 rocket, by the Arianespace company, from the space base established on the island of Kouru in French Guiana.[1020][1014].
The ARSAT-2 satellite was launched on September 30, 2015 aboard an Ariane 5 from the Kourou Spaceport. It had a state investment of 250 million dollars, offering Internet, data, IP telephony and television coverage for the entire American continent, unlike its predecessor the ARSAT-1 satellite, launched a year earlier that covered the surface of the entire Argentina.[943].
In 2014, planning began for ARSAT-3,[1021][1022] satellite whose objective will be to cover the entire American continent. At the beginning of 2015, its construction had begun,[1023] with its launch scheduled for 2019.[1024] This ultimately could not be fulfilled since the construction of the satellite was suspended by the subsequent government.
In search of land to carry out tests and build a spaceport, the CONAE reached an agreement in 2011, to install a spaceport at the Punta Indio Naval Air Base and from the Puerto Belgrano Naval Base to the CONAE for the construction of the test site and the spaceport.[1025] On March 25, 2014, the cleaning and demolition works of the factory began.[1026] The Space Center was formally inaugurated on December 23, 2014.[511] Three launches were carried out at the center, the first being VEx-1A in February 2014, the second launch was VEx-1B on August 15 of the same year.[1027] The Punta Indio Space Pole") was inaugurated in 2014. It has a total area of 2,000 m² and is used to test the prototypes of the Tronador II of the CONAE.[1028][1029].
Nuclear development
• - During his mandate he launched the Nuclear Reactivation Plan of the National Energy Plan, which carried out investments of 11,000 million dollars in 10 years.
• - The Néstor Kirchner Nuclear Power Plant was completed in the Buenos Aires town of Atucha with 745 megawatts, the largest in Latin America. Its completion required an investment of 3 billion dollars and required an average of 6,000 jobs with an 88% share of local supplies.
• - In 2014, the uranium enrichment plant was launched in Pilcaniyeu, Río Negro, after the work of scientists and technicians to recover the facilities that had been abandoned at the end of the 80s and that represented a symbol of Argentine nuclear development, where 27 million dollars were invested, that same year they began loading uranium to enrich it.
• - Since 2013, the Neuquén Heavy Water production plant was expanded, making it the largest in operation in the world.
• - Since 2009, the Atucha I nuclear plant was modernized along with the completion of Atucha II after three decades. The Atucha I Nuclear Power Plant uses slightly enriched uranium. This plant originally produced based on natural uranium, based on the change in the core, the conversion was achieved so that it began to produce energy based on slightly enriched uranium, which resulted in a 30% reduction in fuel costs, and 10% in generation costs.[1035].
• - The development of nuclear technology applied to medicine and the federalization of nuclear medicine occurred through Invap with the construction of Nuclear Diagnostic Centers in the City of Buenos Aires and in 2014 in Mendoza.
• - The country managed to produce for export essential materials for nuclear plants: Radioisotope Molybdenum-99 to Egypt, Australia, Algeria and India. At the same time, nuclear reactors were exported to Algeria, Egypt, Australia and Peru.[1036].
• - In 2014, the construction of the RA-1 reactor located at the Constitucióntes Atomic Center was completed, and it was built entirely in the country, which made it the first operational reactor in all of Latin America.[1037].
Politics in culture
Durante el gobierno se construyó el Centro Cultural Kirchner un espacio para artes plásticas, espectáculos musicales y exposiciones, que fue inaugurado el 21 de mayo de 2015. Es el más importante en tamaño de América Latina y el tercero a nivel mundial. También se construyó el Museo Casa Rosada emplazado en las antiguas galerías de la Aduana de Taylor[1039] de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, inaugurado el 24 de mayo de 2011[1040] donde se exponen unas 10 000 piezas históricas. Abrió sus puertas con el nombre de Museo del Bicentenario[1041] con fotografías, pinturas y material audiovisual que recrean en una línea de tiempo los distintos períodos históricos del país. También exhibe objetos históricos hallados en excavaciones, los restos arqueológicos del Fuerte de Buenos Aires[1040] y la obra mural Ejercicio plástico del artista mexicano David Alfaro Siqueiros.[1039] También fueron construidos Museo del Libro y de la Lengua, el Parque Tecnópolis, Centro Cultural Julio Le Parc en Mendoza, el Museo de Bellas Artes en San Juan, el Centro Cultural del Bicentenario y el Centro de Convenciones en Santiago del Estero, Casa de las Culturas en Resistencia "Resistencia (ciudad)"), Chaco, Cine Teatro Renzi en La Banda, Centro del Conocimiento en Posadas, Misiones.[1042] Desde su mandato llevó a cabo una política de restitución de trofeos de guerra a países amigos, en 2011 anunció la restitución de miles de piezas arqueológicas a Perú y Ecuador al dejar inaugurada la ampliación del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes.[1043] -lpez_53024/</ref>También impulsó el proyecto de "Ley Federal de Cultura" y la creación de la Casa del Bicentenario, en pleno centro de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. En el marco de los festejos del Bicentenario de Argentina.[1040].
Al respecto de la restitución de piezas expresó "Es un honor y un placer estar restituyendo su patrimonio cultural a países como Ecuador y Perú, en un mundo que se han caracterizado en arrebatar el patrimonio cultural a esos pueblos", al mismo tiempo que hizo un llamado a los museos del mundo devuelvan las piezas saqueadas durante la época colonial[1044] Luego de la restitución de 439 piezas arqueológicas al Ecuador, y 4150 al Perú Argentina llevo adelante la devolución de objetos culturales y patrimoniales de gran valor a otros dos países latinoamericanos con 55 piezas restituidas a Bolivia, y otras 6, a México que se hallaban en casas particulares, locales y ferias de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, o habían sido ingresadas ilegalmente a Argentina[1045][1046] En 2014 continuando con la política de devolución de objetos a otros países[1047] encabezó el acto formal de restitución de objetos que pertenecieron al mariscal Francisco Solano López, héroe nacional paraguayo, saqueados durante la guerra de la Triple Alianza por Bartolomé Mitre. La gestión de la restitución estuvo a cargo de Sergio Uribarri gobernador peronista de Entre Ríos.[1048][1049][1050].
En 2014 se logro la restitución para el Estado de entre 15.000 y 20.000 restos arqueológicos, paleontológicos y paleobotánicos provenientes de América, Europa y Asia recuperados, entre los que hay piezas cerámicas que datan del año 3500 antes de Cristo.
Se crea en 2007 en el ámbito de la Secretaría de Cultura el Comité Argentino de Lucha Contra el Tráfico Ilícito de Bienes Culturales, ese mismo año se aprueba la Ley Nº 25.568, que adhiere a la "Convención sobre defensa del patrimonio arqueológico, histórico y artístico de las naciones americanas". Se uso en marcha el programa Libros y Casas,que entregaba una biblioteca equipada con 18 libros a familias beneficiarias del Plan Federal de Viviendas, que después adoptarían países como México, Cuba y España.[1051].
En agosto de 2015 Cristina Fernández de Kirchner inauguró 18 nuevas salas que suman 3200 m² de exposición, y la finalización de la remodelación del edificio del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes.[1052] Se habilitaron 16 salas de 2845 m² en conjunto, donde se exhiben unas 300 obras de arte del siglo XX.[1053] Durante este período se reglamentó la Ley de Doblaje,[1054] se impulsó la industria audiovisual,[1055] e iniciaron sus transmisiones las señales televisivas INCAA tv, Canal Encuentro "Encuentro (canal de televisión)") y Paka-Paka "Pakapaka (canal de televisión)").
Se encararon planes de fomento a la industria que «generaron más de 8000 puestos de trabajo genuinos y crearon 100 productoras». Para el INCAA fueron contratadas más de 100 mil personas de manera directa o indirecta.[1056]
La gestión de Odeon produjo 650 series, y la creación de canales no tradicionales como la página Odeon, entre otras cosas. Se triplicaron las películas nacionales estrenadas -en 2002 fueron 48 y en el 2015 181- y se dobló su público: de 3,4 millones en 2002 a 7,1 en el 2015. El cine argentino, en ese año, tuvo un gran crecimiento: el 14% del total de las personas que iban al cine miraban trabajos de industria nacional.[1057].
Se sancionó la ley del actor, que los sitúa como trabajadores en relación de dependencia –algo que hasta entonces era difícil de reglamentar en este negocio–, la ley del intérprete, que permite que los actores cobren por la repetición de sus trabajos en un medio y que es el sustento legal de Sagai, y la ley del doblaje, que alienta a que todas las películas que sean modificadas al idioma español sean hechas por artistas argentinos y la ley sobre la actividad teatral, para entender como obras de autor nacional a las traducciones y adaptaciones de obras de autores extranjeros realizadas por traductores y/o adaptadores argentinos. Se iniciaron las obras de renovación edilicia y técnicas del histórico Cine Gaumont, adquirido por el INCAA y transformado en el Espacio INCAA km 0.
Las sociedades de gestión, creadas en estos años, reconocen derechos a los actores (Sagai) y a los directores de cine (DAC), para ser compensados monetariamente los primeros por el uso de sus imágenes, cada vez que un programa o película es emitido o repetido, y los segundos, el reconocimiento como autores de sus films, lo que los habilita también a cobrar por ello. También durante su gestión se produjo la creación de la Unidad de Fomento de Producción televisiva, la señal Incaa TV y la Cinemateca y Archivo de la Imagen Nacional (Cinain). El incremento de los fondos para el Instituto Nacional de Teatro (INT), la ley de Teatro Independiente y la creación del bonaerense Instituto Provincial de Teatro dieron, al mismo tiempo, nuevo impulso a las actividades escénicas (en Capital, a su vez, apuntaladas por Proteatro).[1058].
En 2008 el Festival Internacional de Cine de Mar del Plata creado en 1954 por el entonces presidente Juan Domingo Perón, accedió a la «categoría A», la más alta asignada por la Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Productores Cinematográficos siendo uno de los 13 de los 2500 festivales de cine del mundo reconocidos por la Clase A.[1059] En dicha edición Fernández participó de la inauguración del festival.[1060] Dos años más tarde crea la Cinemateca y Archivo de la Imagen Nacional (CINAIN) como ente autárquico y autónomo dentro de la Secretaría de Cultura de la Nación, cuyo objetivo es cuidar del cine nacional y de lo más destacado de la producción internacional, materiales hasta ese momento se destruían sistemáticamente por falta de lugar adecuado para preservarlo hasta ese momento se había perdido el 90% del cine mudo y el 50% del cine sonoro argentino.[1061] La Argentina es uno de los países pioneros en la exhibición y producción cinematográfica y uno de los de mayor producción audiovisual de Latinoamérica.[1062].
Durante su gestión se destacó la creación de canales culturales, deportivos e infantiles. Sabiendo que son medios masivos, aunque haya una especificidad diferente para una televisión generalista ―como la TV Pública― y señales direccionadas ―como Encuentro, Paka Paka y DeporTV.[1063]
Respecto a Canal 7, su gestión se orientó a lograr una mayor producción propia, aunque ya no solo de contenidos de ficción sino también de documentales.[1064] La presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, firmara el decreto 943/09 con fecha del 29 de julio del 2009, que autoriza al Radio y Televisión Argentina (RTA) a instalar y operar un sistema de televisión satelital en todo el país con el fin de difundir señales educativas, culturales e informativas para que el Estado Nacional cuente con herramientas que le permitan desarrollar una política de libre acceso a la información por parte de la población en situación de vulnerabilidad social.[1065][1066] En 2015 creó Odeón, una plataforma argentina de vídeo a demanda, que contiene películas, series, documentales y cortos de producción nacional el servicio de streaming con el nombre de Odeón, dedicada a difundir únicamente producciones argentinas, tanto de ficción como documentales.[1067] Fue presentado por Cristina Fernández de Kirchner como "El Netflix criollo" con 700 horas de contenido.[1068] La plataforma conto con 31 millones de pesos del Tesoro Nacional, como inversión inicial del Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales y más de 3 millones de pesos de inversión inicial en desarrollo tecnológico Arsat.[1069] En 2011 el estado junto con el INCAA y en conjunto con el Consejo Asesor del SATVD-T del MINPLAN "Ministerio de Obras Públicas (Argentina)") realiza un concurso llamado "Series de Ficción en Alta Definición para todos" que promueve la realización de programas para ser emitidos en los canales de aire.[1070][1071].
Cristina Fernández ordenó en la Casa Rosada la restauración de los salones, los pisos de mosaico a los cuales les faltaban piezas, o las pinturas murales que habían sido recubiertas con pintura lisa en algún momento del siglo XX; inauguró una serie de salas temáticas sobre diversas áreas de la cultura y la historia argentina, trasladando de esos salones las oficinas de la Presidencia de la Nación.[1072] Se efectuaron los trabajos faltantes en las tres fachadas que habían quedado sin restaurar y se recuperaron las molduras que habían sido dañadas por la vegetación que había crecido sobre el revoque.[1073].
El proyecto brindaba a escuelas rurales y a hogares de escasos recursos― un paquete básico de señales educativas, culturales, informativas e infantiles, todas pertenecientes al Estado, el cual se ofrecería sin cargo y se distribuiría por medio del satélite argentino Arsat y sin codificar; los interesados solo deberán adquirir la antena, cuyo costo era de 15 dólares.[1074].
Para los festejos del bicentenario de 2010 de la Revolución de Mayo se realizaron algunas modificaciones y se realizó la apertura del Museo del Bicentenario en la zona restaurada de lo que fue el patio de maniobras de la Aduana de Taylor. Se restauró el Palacio del Congreso, que se encontraba carente de mantenimiento desde décadas atrás. Se recuperaron los salones interiores en 2008 mediante un Plan de Conservación y Puesta en Valor de la Cúpula-Salón Azul que comenzó a ejecutarse en enero de 2010 y duró un año.[1075].
Se impulsó la restauración, después de casi veinte años del edificio de la Confitería el Molino que se encontraba en fuerte riesgo edilicio,[1076] donde se habían invertido más de 270 mil dólares para repararla. En julio de 2012 se concluyeron las obras de recuperación del templo que fueron iniciadas en 2009. También se llevó a cabo la restauración respetando el estilo original de las Iglesias históricas de Buenos Aires.[1077][1078] Se restauró la Basílica de Luján, uno de los mayores iconos religiosos del país.[1079] Se rescató la "aduana vieja" o Aduana de Taylor convirtiéndola en un museo de 5000 m², donde se exhiben objetos históricos hallados en excavaciones, los restos arqueológicos del Fuerte de Buenos Aires y la obra mural Ejercicio Plástico del artista mexicano David Alfaro Siqueiros, que fue restaurada.[1039] En 2010, comenzaron las obras de restauración del Palacio de Justicia de la Nación (Argentina) "Palacio de Justicia de la Nación (Argentina)") correspondientes a los frentes laterales a las calles Viamonte y Lavalle, últimas necesarias para que el exterior del edificio recupere su aspecto original, ya que se encontraba deteriorado y deslucido por la adhesión de hollín a su superficie. En marzo de 2010 comenzó la restauración del edificio de los Ministerios de Desarrollo Social y de Salud "Edificio del Ministerio de Obras Públicas (Argentina)").[1080] La restauración de las fachadas sur y norte avanzó a lo largo de 2011 e incluyó la instalación de dos grandes murales.[1081].
Durante su gestión se formaron dos grupos de danza: el Ballet Nacional de Danza, que dirige Iñaki Urlezaga, y la Compañía Nacional de Danza Contemporánea, que dirige Cristina Gómez Comini. La primera se creó en 2014 y la segunda, en 2010.[1082] También se realizaron importantes inversiones realizadas en el Incaa (Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales), que al 2015 posee 55 salas en todo el país, con más de 18 000 butacas, organiza 90 festivales, cines móviles y concursos.[1083].
Se llegó durante su presidencia a la máxima asignación histórica para la cultura en Argentina, el 3,8% del PIB. Las exportaciones culturales argentinas rondaron los 500 millones de dólares, en especial aumentaron 150 % las exportaciones del sector audiovisual, lo que convierte al país en uno de los principales productores de contenido audiovisual cultural y educativo del mundo.[1084] En 2012 se lanzó el programa Carnavales Federales de la Alegría, que convocó a más de 2 500 000 argentinos. El Estado apoyó los festejos de 200 localidades del país. En el exterior, 9 000 000 de visitantes recorrieron el pabellón argentino en la Expo Shanghái 2010 y más de 600 mil personas visitaron el espacio argentino de Expo Yeosu 2012. Apoyando la labor de las 2000 bibliotecas populares de todo el país, se distribuyeron más de 1 000 000 de libros y a través del Programa Libros y Casas, de la Secretaría de Cultura de la Nación, se distribuyeron más de 1 800 000 libros entre 100.000 nuevas viviendas populares construidas por el Estado nacional. Respecto de la producción editorial, en 2012, se registraron en el país 27 660 títulos y 97 000 000 de ejemplares. En los barrios de todo el país, se crearon 250 Puntos de Cultura, esto es, organizaciones sociales y comunitarias que realizan proyectos culturales. Se organizaron cuatro Congresos Argentinos de Cultura en Mar del Plata, Tucumán, San Juan "San Juan (Argentina)") y Chaco").[1085]
En 2014 el país fue sede del 22° Festival Internacional de Poesía, en la ciudad de Rosario.
Durante su gobierno se creó el Instituto Nacional de la Música (INAMU), luego de que el proyecto fuera aprobado por ambas Cámaras del Congreso Nacional y promulgado como Ley 26.801. Se logró la recuperación del extenso catálogo discográfico que perteneció a la empresa Sicamericana S.A., que se desempeñaba comercialmente a través de los nombres "Music Hall", "Sazam" y/o "TK", que contaba con más de 1500 discos.[1086].
Creó SINCA (Sistema de Información Cultural de la Argentina), con la más completa información sobre la cultura del país en formato electrónico. Durante su gestión, la Secretaría promovió la Campaña contra el Tráfico Ilícito de Bienes Culturales y organizó el segundo Congreso Argentinos de Cultura.[1087].
Bicentennial of the May Revolution
In the city of Buenos Aires, the national government organized the main event commemorating the anniversary of the May Revolution, which took place mainly on Avenida 9 de Julio. The celebration began on May 21 and ended on the 25th, "Bicentennial Day." This event represented all the provinces and invited countries.[1088] The longest parade was carried out by the artists of Fuerza Bruta with a length of about 5 km, where the scenes were repeated every fifteen minutes and the display of the longest flag in the world with an approximate length of 20 km.
The call was massive with three million people gathered. With three million people gathered on Avenida 9 de Julio to sing the National Anthem, constituting the largest concentration of people in national history[1089][1090] Several Latin American rulers attended the event: Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Rafael Correa of Ecuador; Evo Morales of Bolivia; Sebastián Piñera from Chile; José Mujica, from Uruguay; Fernando Lugo from Paraguay, and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, from Brazil.[1091][1092].
Culture for children
With the aim of creating educational content for children, Pakapaka was created, an Argentine open television channel focused on the preschool, children and youth audience. Originally released on September 17, 2010, aimed at children ages 2 to 12, and includes microprograms, documentaries and cartoons. The proposal consists of a children's channel with high-quality content aimed at educating and entertaining, open to the culture of all sectors of Argentina and different expressions around the world...[1093][1094].
cultural consumption
According to data from the Argentine Book Chamber, the Argentine publishing industry had produced more than 380 new titles per week in 2007, launching 19,791 new titles on the market between January and December of that year,[1095] increasing in 2011 at the end of its first term to 26,676 new titles published annually. Regarding the origin of the printing, 94% of the records are declared as printed within the country while only 6% are recorded abroad. By 2014—the last year of the full annual mandate—the number of printed book releases had risen to 28,010. Likewise, the production and consumption of books also grew, going from 68.52 million books sold in 2007 to 128.92 million in 2014.[1096] Espacios INCAA” is a program created with the purpose of guaranteeing the exhibition of Argentine film productions, including commercial releases, digital or minor releases and short films.
The restoration was promoted, after almost twenty years of the Confitería el Molino building, which was at serious risk to the building,[1076] where more than 270 thousand dollars had been invested to repair it. In July 2012, the recovery works on the temple that began in 2009 were completed. The restoration was also carried out respecting the original style of the historic churches of Buenos Aires.[1077] In 2015, the exemption for musical shows was approved.[1097].
Cinematography
During Fernández de Kirchner's administration, INCAA recovered its autarky, the Screen Quota was implemented, theaters (INCAA Spaces) were inaugurated throughout the country and abroad and co-production and distribution agreements were signed with Spain, France and Italy as part of the Raíces Program. Film co-production and distribution agreements were also signed with countries in Latin America and Europe.[1098].
In 2012, the UNASUR Cine was created, an international film festival of the member countries of UNASUR, intended as a cultural meeting space between the countries that comprise it, with the participation of 11 countries.[1099] with the support of the Ministry of Culture of the Nation and the National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts of Argentina (INCAA).[1100] In 2013 the historic Gaumont space was purchased by the INCAA[1101] The remodeling works were inaugurated on July 16 of that year by President Cristina Fernández, including the replacement of its roof, which now supports the Arsat satellite antenna, technical updating, fitting out its stage and dressing rooms, decoration and seats; in an event in which he also announced the regulation of the Dubbing Law.[1102] bringing its capacity to 1,150 seats.[1103].
Social Tourism
On June 28, 2010, the creation of the National Ministry of Tourism was carried out, thus emphasizing the importance of tourism as one of the fundamental components of income and job creation for Argentina. Until then, Argentina, along with Chile, were the only two Latin American countries that did not have an entity of this type.[1104][1105] During his administration, the perception of Argentina in the international tourism field improved according to the ranking of the most visited places in Latin America, Country Brand Index,[1106][1107] The country is the second most visited destination in Latin America and South America, climbing to number 12 worldwide. among the best tourist destinations, rising from 14th place in 2010. During his two terms, inbound tourism was promoted with a series of measures such as the refund of VAT on accommodation for foreign visitors, the elimination of the reciprocity rate for priority tourism markets and the implementation of electronic visas to facilitate immigration procedures. This line was complemented by the aerocommercial policy launched by the Ministry of Transportation and the state company Aerolíneas Argentinas that promoted the entry of millions of tourists through the creation of dozens of federal air corridors to promote tourism in small cities in the interior within the framework of the implementation of the Federal Strategic Plan for Sustainable Tourism.[1108] The application of new technologies was also prioritized through the development of websites and applications aimed at advertising the country, along with strong campaigns. advertising to attract high-spending markets, such as the United States and Canada, Europe and the Middle and Far East. In 2007, Argentina was ranked seventh in the ranking of international arrivals to the region, occupying third place in 2015 after Brazil and Mexico.
Due to the economic expansion process, domestic tourism has grown significantly with 5.80 million tourists in 2011 according to the World Tourism Organization, being the first most visited country in South America and the second most visited in all of Latin America, after Mexico.[1109] The growth of tourism was very important in recent years, the arrival of foreign tourists doubled between 2003 and 2011. In 2011 Argentina stood out as the country with greater growth in tourism worldwide. In 2010, the country received about 4.93 billion dollars in foreign exchange income "Currency (currency)." In 2012, 5,211 million dollars entered the country thanks to tourism.[1112].
While domestic tourism mobilized more than 25.6 million travelers, generating income of 35,228 million pesos in regional economies.[1113] Through the national company Aerolíneas Argentinas, social tourism was promoted with special discounts for retirees and pensioners reached by the agreements. In 2014 Argentina became part of the WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council - 2018)[1114] With the objective to attract tourists and increase the development of automobile competitions in 2009, the Dakar Rally arrived in the country for the first time, one of the most important automobile competition events in the world, a total of almost 2.5 million tourists were registered who toured the 11 Argentine provinces through which the rally passed, generating income of 200 million dollars during their stay in Argentina.[1115].
Sports policy
Se dio una marcada impronta en la gestión deportiva argentina. El presupuesto del deporte se incrementó hasta finales de 2009 en casi un 400 %. Con la creación del Enard se buscó generar recursos para las becas de los atletas de alta competencia. Además se apuntó específicamente al deporte social como política central de su acción. En 2010 se creó el Ente Nacional de Desarrollo Deportivo") del que dependen cinco programas: la Asignación universal al deporte, el empoderamiento de la mujer en el deporte, la comisión antidopaje, y la profundización y jerarquización de competencias juveniles. Paralelamente se estableció un cupo joven y femenino para que aquellas personas que tengan entre 18 y 29 años y las mujeres ocupen el 40 por ciento de la representación en las comisiones directivas de instituciones deportivas.[1130] Se estableció además el cupo femenino y el límite a las reelecciones indefinidas en clubes y federaciones, que habilitaban que los dirigentes permanecieran en el cargo durante plazos indeterminables, al establecer mandatos de 4 años, con una única posibilidad de reelección. A partir de 2009 y de manera ininterrumpida, Rally Dakar se realizó cada año en el continente y Argentina siempre formó parte del recorrido.[1131] Durante estos años Argentina ganó más medallas en los JJOO que en los 44 años anteriores.[1132].
Hacia fines del 2015 se creó el Instituto Nacional del Deporte y la Actividad Física.[1133][1134] A partir de las obras realizadas y los diferentes avances, el país fue sede de los Sudamericanos Escolares y los Parapanamericanos y logró en conjunto con el gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires ser la sede de los Juegos Olímpicos Juveniles 2018. Se instituyeron las bases de la ley 27.201 que crea el Enaded para la implementación de la asignación universal por deporte y la ley 27.202 que actualiza la Ley del Deporte.[1135] Entre tras obras de infraestructura deportiva se destaca la construcción del Polo deportivo de la Ciudad de Córdoba, con una pileta olímpica inaugurada en 2014 y una pista de atletismo.[1136].
A partir del año 2014 se establecieron siete tipos de becas, según que el o la deportista hubiera ganado una medalla o un diploma, en los niveles olímpico/paralímpico, panamericano/parapanamericano, suramericanos/parasuramericanos y jóvenes talentos. Las becas están ligadas al rendimiento deportivo acreditado, así como al compromiso de completar los estudios secundarios, estar afiliado a la federación deportiva correspondiente y representar al país cuando sea requerido. Entre 2010 y 2015 el ENARD otorgó unas 7.000 becas deportivas.[1137] A partir de las obras realizadas y los diferentes avances, el país fue sede de los Sudamericanos Escolares y los Parapanamericanos y logró en conjunto con el gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires ser la sede de los Juegos Olímpicos Juveniles 2018. Se instituyeron las bases de la ley 27.201 que crea el Enaded para la implementación de la asignación universal por deporte y la ley 27.202 que actualiza la Ley del Deporte.[1135].
Football for All and broadcasts of other sports
On February 24, 2011, the president, through the Federal Council of Audiovisual Communication, signed an agreement by which the transmission of all sporting events of mass interest was released. Among the agreed events, Argentina's participation in world, Olympic and Pan American championships stands out, all the final stages of those tournaments, soccer tournaments organized by the South American Confederation. National B, Argentine A, Argentine B soccer matches and Interior tournament where the participating team has relevance. Road Tourism, TC2000 and Top Race. National Basketball League and local rugby and volleyball tournaments for the area where the team is relevant. That same year, the country organized the 2011 Copa América with an investment from the national government in the construction and remodeling of stadiums. Cristina accompanied Daniel Scioli at the reopening of the Único de la Plata stadium; it is estimated that the investment in the cup was close to 100 million dollars.[1131] That same year, the Law establishing the National Sports Entity and another that updated the National Sports Law were passed, thus giving rise to the creation of the Universal Child Allowance in Sports,[1149] an additional supplement for each person under the age of majority or person with a disability, between six and sixteen years of age, who receives the Universal Child Allowance for social protection and will be used directly to pay the fee in the clubs or civil sports associations where the beneficiary practices sports.[1150] During its management, Public Television also bought the rights from the different federations to broadcast the Copa América, the Basketball Pre-Olympic, the Rugby World Cup and the Olympic Games.[1151].
Judicial policy
Durante su gestión se produjo la unificación del Código Civil y el Código Comercial de la Nación, así como la generación del Digesto Jurídico Argentino que simplificó el conjunto de leyes vigentes hasta el momento. También se aprobó una reforma judicial en 2013. Desde el Ministerio Público fueron creadas cinco procuradurías para combatir el crimen organizado desde distintas áreas especializadas, como el lavado de dinero, el narcotráfico, la violencia institucional, crímenes contra la humanidad, trata de persona. Fue aprobada la Ley 26.364 de Prevención y Sanción de la Trata de Personas y Asistencia a sus Víctimas.[1152].
En diciembre de 2012 se crea la unidad especial de investigación Procelac dedicada a realizar y recibir denuncias, investigar y recuperar activos relacionados con crímenes económicos como el lavado de dinero, la evasión tributaria, el fraude bancario, el financiamiento del terrorismo, el contrabando y otros delitos contra la administración pública.[1153].
Creó la Comisión de Acceso a la Justicia integrada por jueces y fiscales con el objeto de agilizar la solución de conflictos por medios no judiciales.
Reform and unification of the Civil and Commercial Code
During the last year of his first term, he promoted the reform and unification of the Civil and Commercial Code, both drafted by Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield in 1869. At the beginning of 2011, by presidential decree 191/2011, the "Commission for the Preparation of the Draft Law for the Reform, Update and Unification of the Civil and Commercial Codes of the Nation" was established, made up of the president of the Supreme Court of the Nation. Argentina, Ricardo Lorenzetti, the Vice President of that body (Elena Highton de Nolasco) and the former member of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Province of Mendoza, Aída Kemelmajer de Carlucci. On August 8, 2012, an attached commission was formed with members from both chambers to analyze the reform and update both codes after more than 140 years in force. The new code has 2671 articles.[1154].
Different public hearings were held in several provinces with the aim of democratizing and broadening the debate on the changes.[1155] Among the most relevant changes presented are the incorporation of cohabitation, added to the figure of equal marriage, which grants its parties rights similar to those of marriage. The new Code determined that the marriage will not have to meet a minimum period to be dissolved through divorce, and it will be enough for one of the spouses to request a divorce for it to be carried out. Among other reforms, it introduced simplified divorce, the authorization of a prenuptial contract, the legalization of assisted fertilization: the possibility for a woman to undergo an assisted fertilization procedure will be contemplated in the new code, as well as the womb agreement for those women who cannot conceive, the improvement in adoption processes.[1156].
The incorporation of prenuptial agreements contemplating the possibility that couples can agree, before marriage, on the way in which assets will be distributed in the event of divorce. In addition, children may have both their mother's and their father's surname as their surname.
The adoption process was also accelerated to 90 days. The new code modifies the adoption statute, allowing access to the right for people who are alone or who are not legally married. It was also incorporated into the Parental Responsibility Law, which establishes that the relationship between parents and children must be subject to the best interests of the child. It enshrines the progressive participation of the minor in decisions about his person.[206].
Regarding the commercial part, with the new rules, it will be possible to form a sole proprietorship, made up of a single person, to favor SMEs and micro-entrepreneurs.[207] It incorporates Assisted Human Reproduction, where children born through these techniques will also be children of those who have given prior consent. It is also expected that the personal care tasks carried out by the parent who has assumed personal care of the child have an economic value. Very personal rights: The rights to dignity, privacy, honor and image, among others, are expressly recognized.[1157] The new Civil Code introduced strong changes so that a portion of the inheritance can be left to whoever is preferred regardless of the relationship.[1158] In addition to simplifying the buying and selling of cars
with the gradual elimination of automobile ownership records until all procedures are digitized.
It also legalizes surrogacy, for the first time in Argentina motherhood by altruistic surrogacy will be permitted, prohibiting its commercial nature, establishing the rights and duties of a woman carrying a baby in her womb, instead of another person who cannot have children, until she gives birth.[207] It incorporates indigenous community property, new regulations with a specific consumer protection regime. Modern forms of contracting are incorporated, such as arbitration contracts, commercial agency, commercial concession, franchises and leasing.[1159].
Judicial reform
In April 2013, six projects were sent to Congress.[1164][1165] One of the points reformed was the Council of the Judiciary "Consejo de la Magistratura (Argentina)"), where it was proposed that its members become elected by universal vote; The elections would take place during the Simultaneous and Mandatory Open Primaries (PASO) and the councilors had to be academics and professionals from some discipline or science (not just lawyers). The requirements to apply for the position of counselor were going to be the same as those required to apply for a candidate for deputy of the Nation. Democratic Entry to the Judiciary, the Public Prosecutor's Office and the Defense through the completion of prior entry exams and, if they pass them, the applicants will be included in a list of entrants to participate in an annual draw by the National Lottery "National Lottery (Argentina)") for entry as an employee of the Judiciary. The entire ladder of the judicial career will be respected to reach positions of greater responsibility and the positions of secretaries and assistant secretaries will be accessed by examination.[1166] The publicity of the acts of the Judiciary through the project contemplated that they be published on the Internet, so that they are available to the citizens, the state and the sentences of all the cases in the different courts throughout the country. In addition, it provides for the creation of a public registry of cases and is valid for the Supreme Court of Justice and the other chambers. One of the rules is the one that requires the publication of the decisions of the Supreme Court, the oral courts and chambers and a list of cases pending in all instances. The dissemination must be carried out through a digital newspaper that is free to access and the website of the high court.[1167] In addition to making the presentation of sworn statements from officials of the three branches of the State mandatory. These sworn statements will be public and freely accessible on the Internet.[1168].
In criminal matters, the current Argentine criminal system, which has a written and an oral process, began to be replaced by a completely oral adversarial process with juries, to speed up the simplest trials, modernize and restructure judicial institutions (courts, prosecutor's offices, defense offices), to make them more efficient and digitize the files, as well as carry out procedures and submit documents through the Internet and democratize entry to the judicial career through the application of the public competition "Opposition (examination)"). In addition to these proposals, an increase in the number of cassation chambers was also proposed to decongest the work of the Supreme Court of Justice. The publicity of judicial acts was also stimulated, encouraging each ruling and resolution to be published on the Internet, so that the citizens, the state and the sentences of all cases in the different courts throughout the country, the publication of the decisions of the Supreme Court, the oral courts and chambers and a list of cases in process of all instances. The dissemination must be carried out through a digital newspaper that is free to access and the website of the high court.[1166][1167][1169] In 2011, Law No. 20,959 was annulled, which grants senators and deputies of the Nation free station in any part of the territory, being seen as a privilege. The repeal also reached federal judges, however this last part was left without effect by agreement of the Supreme Court that maintained the privilege over its members. In parallel, preferential patents for judges and diplomatic personnel were eliminated.
Penal Code Reform, Update and Integration Project
In 2012, the opposition, civil society and legal specialists were called to form part of the Commission for the Preparation of the Draft Law for the Reform, Update and Integration of the National Penal Code, which sought to update and reform the Penal Code of 1921, which over the decades had been modified numerous times, losing internal coherence and proportionality. It sought to achieve adequate systematization and ordering of all criminal regulations.
The purpose of the development of a new criminal code was to produce a single regulatory body that concentrates all criminal regulations, systematize and unify the different provincial criminal measures, generate balance and proportionality between the criminal scales of the different crimes.
It establishes clear criteria for determining the sentence and reduces the margin of discretion of judges, while planning the implementation of oral and public trials.
Incorporate new types of crimes. It also protects the environment and adds genetic and cybercrimes, among other notable reforms. It incorporates new crimes against humanity, environmental crimes, genetic and cyber crimes, and those related to violence against women.
It includes crimes against humanity and typifies new punishable conduct in the context of road accidents.
Strengthen the prosecution of serious crimes: Toughen penalties for crimes related to drug trafficking, corruption, terrorism and its financing. Protect the rights of victims: Give them participation in the criminal process and expand their rights. Establish clear criteria for determining the sentence. Reduce judicial discretion and ensure a more homogeneous application of the law.
The project incorporated, among other modifications:
New types of crimes:
Crimes against humanity, crimes against the environment, cybercrimes, crimes related to gender violence and crimes related to non-consensual sexual activity are incorporated.
Greater protection of victims:
Mechanisms are established for the protection of crime victims and their rights and participation in the judicial process are expanded, along with the possibility of monitoring compliance with the sentence of their perpetrators.
The participation of victims in the criminal process is guaranteed.
Liability of legal persons: The liability of legal persons - companies, NGOs - is incorporated for crimes committed in their name or for their benefit.
In November 2015, Congress approved Law 27,210, which created the Corps of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence, and was promulgated by the Executive Branch two days later.[1170]
[1171].
Implementation of the accusatory criminal procedural system
Since 2010, technical and financial support was provided to 14 of the 23 provincial jurisdictions to implement reforms such as orality in civil processes, the incorporation of electronic files, video recording of criminal hearings and the adoption of the accusatory criminal procedural system, which implied the transition to an adversarial and adversarial system, seeking greater speed, orality, publicity and deformalization in judicial processes. The National Criminal Procedure Code, approved by Law No. 27,063, came into force progressively.
The implementation of the adversarial system represented a radical change in criminal justice, going from an inquisitorial system to one where the parties, the Prosecutor's Office and the defense, face each other on equal terms before an impartial judge. The new system is characterized by the oral nature of the hearings, judicial immediacy and the separation between the judge and the accusing and defending parties.
With legislative sanction, the judicial system must adopt the adversarial model, where the prosecutor directs the criminal process, investigates, accuses and produces evidence, while the judge becomes an impartial guarantor of the process. This transformation seeks to guarantee greater transparency and speed in cases.
This reform replaced the old inquisitorial and written system that had operated in Argentina since the mid-19th century, with an adversarial and oral system.
Implementation of jury trials
Although the administration of justice corresponds to the provinces, the national government provided help and encouraged the application of jury trials.
Support for the implementation of jury trials was conceived by the government as a way to restore society's confidence in the judicial system, as part of the democratization of justice and to promote bringing the administration of justice closer to the community, giving it a fundamental role in it, achieving greater transparency in judicial decisions and making justice more accessible to citizens.[1172].
The first province to implement the jury trial modality was Córdoba,
Neuquén in 2011, Buenos Aires in 2015, and Río Negro, later joined by Chaco, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, Catamarca, Chubut, Mendoza, San Juan, Santa Fe, CAba, La Rioja, Jujuy, Salta, among others, with a total of 15 provinces in 2025.
Pension justice
In 2011, a special commission was formed between the social security jurisdiction and the Anses to computerize data and expedite the trials of retirees to obtain greater speed in the pension processes. The agreement establishes a system for initiating lawsuits and electronic notifications, the digitization of judicial and pension documents.[1173]
In 1994, after privatizing social security, the neoliberal minister Domingo Cavallo froze retirements for the rest of the 1990s. Additionally, during the government of Fernando de la Rúa in 2001, social security minister Bullrich would establish a 13 percent reduction in pensions, which would lead to the opening of more than 2.3 million pre-trial lawsuits that would accumulate during the 1990s and 2001. In In 2005, the first plan to regularize the trials of retirees was launched, managing to regularize the situation of 1.37 million, in 2008 a new plan to regularize provisional trials would be launched again, managing to regularize another 900 thousand trials.
[1174].
In 2007 the domestic violence office was opened. A year later, Line 137 was established, a telephone service for people who are victims of sexual, grooming and family violence; Line 149, created in order to assist victims of crimes and their family groups with Law No. 27,372.
With the aim of combating gender violence, different programs were created, including Comprehensive Assistance to Victims of Gender-Based Violence; of Shelters and Comprehensive Protection Homes, of Comprehensive Addressing Cases of Femicides, Transvesticides, Transfemicides and Crimes against Sexual Integrity.
In 2007, the Care Program for Women Victims of Violence was created, with a telephone line linked to the Ministry of Security and Human Rights. During 2013, it promotes the Network Accompanying Program for Victims of Gender Violence. In 2009, the Directorate of the Observatory of Gender Violence and Inequalities was launched and in 2010 the National Directorate of Policies for the Prevention of Gender-Based Violence.
Electoral politics
On July 9, 2009, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner called for a broad process of political dialogue. Months later, as a result of these meetings, a bill was prepared that served to deal with more than one hundred linked projects, of which numerous contributions were incorporated, proceeding to the sanction of Law No. 26,571 on Democratization of Representation. This law implemented the system of open, simultaneous and mandatory primaries. It was sanctioned on December 2, 2009.[1175] The law established primary elections in which each political group presents its candidates, and may have one or more internal lines. Citizens will choose between the national candidates (president, senators and deputies) of the party groups they want. Political parties present all their pre-candidates for all their positions to be elected and citizens vote for their preferred pre-candidates to compete for said position. The new one established the mandatory banking of all contributions destined to political groups and for electoral campaigns to guarantee traceability of their contributions and transparency.
Likewise, the free distribution of electoral advertising on an equitable basis was established, which will be publicly drawn and the National Electoral Directorate of the Ministry of the Interior will distribute them among the political parties, distributing 50% of the spaces between all political parties and the remaining 50% in proportion to the number of votes obtained in the previous general election. The law had a total of 110 articles and pursued the objectives of generating greater democratization within political parties and their openness to society, providing institutional mechanisms and rules that contribute to the stability and representativeness of political parties, reducing asymmetries between political forces by regulating the financing mechanisms of parties and electoral campaigns, and rationalizing and modernizing some aspects of electoral administration.[1176].
On November 2, 2012, Cristina Kirchner signed the decree promulgating the modifications to Law 26,774 on Argentine Citizenship.[1177] The approved project, promoted by the President, modified seven laws: numbers 346, 17,671, 19,945, 23,298, 25,432, 26,215 and 26,571 in order to enable young people aged 16 and 17 to vote in national elections, establishes that the vote for these new voters will be optional, this law allowed expanding the right to vote for 500,000 young people who were enabled to exercise their vote,[1178] representing around 3 percent of the electoral roll.[1179] The approval of law 26,774 placed Argentina in the select group of countries and regions that allow 16 and 17 year old citizens to vote. Brazil, since 1988, and Ecuador, since 2007, Austria, Bolivia,[1180] Chile,[1181] the United Kingdom,[1182] Venezuela.[1183] Greece,[1184] and Spain.[1185] This law was approved with 131 votes in favor, 2 against and 1 abstention.
In 2015, among other measures to speed up the counting and guarantee greater transparency, the application of inviolable envelopes to transport telegrams, greater participation of prosecutors and real-time GPS tracking of trucks in the collection of ballot boxes were some of the measures that will be adopted for the first time to ensure transparency and "reaffirm the legitimacy" of that year's presidential election. It was established that party prosecutors have access to the necessary equipment to be able to follow the entire process in real time, and that they can be present at the reception, digitization and transmission centers of the scrutiny telegrams.[1186] In this sense, progress was made in the approval of fundamental laws such as: Law on Access to Public Information;[1187] Law on the Financing of Political Parties.[1188] The accountability of the Political Parties that established the periodicity in the presentation of their financial statements and make public the registry of their donors.[1189].
Debureaucratization and digitalization policy
With the objective of modernizing the State, reducing bureaucracy and simplifying administrative procedures, the State Simplification Secretariat was created in 2010, whose work was in the design of the policy of simplification and debureaucratization of the procedures and processes of the National Public Sector. In a context of diversification and generalization of the use of the Internet and mobile devices, technological innovation was instituted from various agencies, communication channels that previously did not exist: optimization of access to online procedures and procedures, digital fingerprint,[1190] Safe Visit Program to identify the identity of state agents who visit homes, among others.[1191] In 2012, the Trademark Law was approved Collective.[1192] Procedures in official registries such as automobile ownership, real estate, and criminal recidivism were also digitized.
Through the Secretary of Public Management of the Argentine Nation, the implementation of the electronic public procurement system, and the use of the Digital Signature in the public administration was promoted as the sanction of the General Collective Labor Agreement of the National Public Administration.
In December 2008, the introduction and generalization of the use of electronic invoices was carried out, the benefits of which lie in avoiding apocryphal billing and "benefits collection for the State coffers given the greater transparency. [25] It also implemented computer auditing, authentication services using Tax Code; Digital Signature in different cities, in the modernization and simplification of processes. We want the AFIP to be a true highway of the Electronic Government and that all the structures of the "National State and provincial and municipal agencies to simplify the lives of citizens." Modifications were carried out in the design of the passport, which included the novelty of a chip,[1193] making Argentina one of the first Latin American countries to implement the biometric passport.[1194].
In 2008 it was decided to withdraw the DNI booklet and a new modification was launched; With the new version of the DNI, each person will be able to have data from their medical history, ANSES, PAMI and SUBE card incorporated, which will simplify and improve procedures, avoiding paperwork and multiple identifications. According to the then Minister of the Interior, almost 38 million documents were made, 4 million passports, reaching the standards of the most developed countries in the world in terms of identity.[1195] A year later, the CUIL number (Unique Labor Identification Code) was incorporated on the back, which simplifies procedures and saves time.[1196] In addition, it was resolved to modify the resolution that establishes the guidelines that the photograph of the National Identity Document must have with the objective of guaranteeing respect for people's freedom of gender, religion and culture.[1197] The new system ended the stamp system in the DNI and was replaced by a bar code. It also serves to prevent identity changes and fraud and to clarify crimes because it is identified with fingerprints and facial impressions.[1198] The new DNI is entirely prepared by the State, it incorporated 30 digital and computer security measures and reduced the time of obtaining five days. As a security measure, in the new DNI the photograph is not glued to the paper, but printed. In addition, the notebooks have a holographic mark and fibers sensitive to infrared rays, in the style of passports.
In 2010, a new regime was announced for the modernization of fiscal controllers, the incorporation of digitalized information and will allow an average saving of up to 3 million pesos annually for large taxpayers, significantly reducing the costs of paper, storage and supplies, streamlining commercial operations.[86] During its management, the AFIP was the winner of the award for "Best Provision of Digital Services in the Public Sector", awarded by Datacenter Dynamics within the framework of the international competition "DCD Latin America Awards 2015.[87] In Customs, in order to limit discretion and reduce personal procedures, the Foreign Trade Electronic Window was launched in 2014. There are 319 procedures that correspond to foreign trade operations of 30 government agencies of different organizations. Of that number, 301 have already been digitized by the end of 2015, streamlining controls. Automation facilitated the traceability of the processes. time that allows management to be audited and measured, even in real time. It also reduces the possibility of disparate criteria being applied in similar cases and the eventual alteration of pre-established shifts and orders.
Since 2014, the use of a Customs Electronic Monitoring Seal (PEMA) has been incorporated in merchandise transits through the national territory. This device allowed the customs service and businessmen to know in real time the diversions, detentions, contingencies or alarms of the transportation of merchandise in order to avoid smuggling.[1199] As of January 1, 2010, Argentina acquired all the computer equipment so that 200 DGI agencies can take photos and scan the fingerprints and signature of 7 million taxpayers, launching a fully tax DNI. digital.[1200].
Since 2014, a new computer system was implemented to avoid the use of paper in customs procedures, which was intended to facilitate safe and transparent foreign trade by simplifying procedures without reducing control. The Malvina software is a development of the AFIP and Argentina is the first country in South America to have a system of these characteristics that, among other innovations, allows the image of the cargo scan to be available along with the export and import declaration.[1201] Technological advances were also incorporated and implemented aimed at providing greater transparency to foreign trade and that are framed within the strategic plan of Electronic Government such as the Bar Code to the Customs Declaration, to strengthen traceability of foreign trade, and self-management of the Tax Code through the fingerprint capture system, an online closed-circuit TV at Customs and Border Crossings, the “Digitized Certificate of Origin” and the digitization of documents under the “Faithful Depositary” scheme. The modalities through which electronic receipts must be issued were established in order to support the sales and purchase operations of movable things, locations and provision of services, locations of things and works and deposits or advances that freeze the price, in pursuit of a trend towards a more modern regime focused on the implementation of electronic invoices, and which currently reaches a good part of taxpayers. However, the deadlines set for the incorporation of this type of invoices.[1202] That same year, the possibility of presenting the Universal Child Allowance Booklet and the school certificate for the collection of the Annual School Aid was incorporated, by simply taking a photo and uploading it via a cell phone, the implementation of the "Electronic Document Management (GDE) and Digital Signature", 24 million digital documents and 2 million files have already been created electronics.
In June 2015, the replacement of the paper moving sheet with a digital systematization of the settlement of salaries to its staff began. Buenos Aires is the first jurisdiction to implement this system. In this regard, Echegaray stated that "We work every day to simplify processes because we believe that the AFIP is a true highway of Electronic Government so that it can be used by and all the structures of the national State and provincial agencies to simplify the lives of citizens."[1203] In August 2015, Argentina won an international award for the fight against evasion, the British newspaper The Telegraph highlighted Argentina as the second country in the world that fought the most against evasion. fiscal.[1204] At Anses, the social security system was reorganized and managed to improve the efficiency by incorporating modern management means.[1205].
On June 12, 2012, new modifications to the passport design were announced, which would include the novelty of an electronic chip,[1193] transforming Argentina into one of the first Latin American countries to implement the biometric passport and the Argentine passport into one of the most powerful in the world.[1194] Thanks to the modernization in 2015, the National Registry of Persons, the body in charge of the production of DNI and passports, was certified internationally in its quality management system under the criteria of the ISO 9001 Standard.[1206].
In 2013, a plan was launched to modernize some 400,000 fiscal controllers, significantly reducing the costs of paper, storage and supplies, streamlining commercial operations and safeguarding duplicate receipts.[1207] In 2015, the process of digitizing the Automotive Registries began along with the DNI 24 hours a day, where a person processes it in 15 minutes, and collects it within a day. next.[1208][1209] In 2015, the first automatic entry and exit doors to the country equipped with biometric technology were inaugurated at the Ezeiza airport, which made entry and exit from the country even easier, since it takes less than 30 seconds to complete the procedure, with the maximum parameters of biometric security, as the final stage of modernization of the immigration process initiated with the elimination of the Entry and Exit Cards (TES). manuals, and its replacement by much safer and more comfortable biometric technology.[1210] In 2014, a regulatory framework for securities transportation operations was approved, which contemplates a supervision and control regime.[1211][1212].
In December 2011, during the presidency of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the Ministry of the Interior called a competition for the new headquarters on the grounds of the former Caseros Prison, in Parque Patricios. With support from the Central Society of Architects and FADEA"), which began construction in mid-2012.[1213].
In terms of administrative simplification, improvement in the efficiency of the State and rationalization, digital procedures were implemented, which allowed that since December 2009 the AFIP, which had 23,269 employees, will now have 22,732 workers in November 2015, which represented a rationalization of 537 positions.[1214].
Security policy
En 2010 se crea el Ministerio de Seguridad "Ministerio de Seguridad (Argentina)") siendo su primera titular Nilda Garré, quien fue sucedida por Arturo Puricelli (junio - diciembre de 2013) y luego por María Cecilia Rodríguez (diciembre de 2013-diciembre de 2015).
En 2010 con el objetivo de patrullar el espacio aéreo se desarrolló el Radar Primario Argentino 3D que permite realizar tareas de detección, vigilancia, identificación y control en el espacio aéreo, con un radio de cobertura 400 kilómetros.[1215][1216] en 2015 se estableció un nuevo radar en Las Lomitas, Formosa, que aumentaron a cinco hacia finales de 2015.[1217]Llevó adelante en 2012 la modificación del Código Penal para agravar las penas sobre delitos cometidos contra personas mayores de 70 o menores de 16 años de edad[1218] y sobre comisión de delito por violencia de género.[1219].
En 2012 el informe de la Oficina de la ONU contra la Droga y el Delito (Unodc) reveló que Argentina se encontraba entre los tres países de América latina con menor tasa de homicidios dolosos. Segúnel informe, “en la subregión de América del Sur, las tasas de homicidio en el Cono Sur (Argentina, Chile y Uruguay) se acercan a las tasas relativamente bajas que se registran en Europa”. El país con menor tasa en la región en Latinoamérica es Chile y Argentina con 5,5 homicidios por cada 100 mil habitantes.[1220].
En 2013 se lanza un plan de control en las principales estaciones de autobús del país, en las estaciones de trenes y aeropuerto un sistema de seguridad y vigilancia con 630 agentes suplementarios de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina y 140 de Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria, escáneres de rayos X, perros detectores de drogas, domos y cámaras fijas de alta definición.[1221][1222] A partir de octubre de 2013 se reforzó con unos 4.500 efectivos el operativo escudo norte, el Fortín II para operaciones de vigilancia y control del área geográfica de interés nacional, y de operaciones de ayuda humanitaria y apoyo a la comunidad". También se inició un despliegue radárico que cubre la vigilancia y el control de todo el espacio aéreo norteño con equipos nuevos fabricados por el Invap y se firmó un contrato de 1.000 millones de pesos para desarrollar otros 6 cubriendo la totalidad de la frontera norte. Lanzó el Programa Federal de Colaboración y Asistencia para la Seguridad, cuyo principal objetivo es poner a disposición de las jurisdicciones provinciales y de la ciudad de Buenos Aires aquellas herramientas y recursos que coadyuven al combate del delito y la criminalidad y permitan asimismo generar ámbitos de coordinación y relación interjurisdiccional.[1223].
En la segunda gestión de la Presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, se lanzó el Programa Federal de Colaboración y Asistencia para la Seguridad, cuyo principal objetivo es poner a disposición de las jurisdicciones provinciales y de la ciudad de Buenos Aires aquellas herramientas y recursos que coadyuven al combate del delito y la criminalidad y permitan asimismo generar ámbitos de coordinación y relación interjurisdiccional.[1223] En 2009 se dispone el despliegue de seis mil efectivos de la Gendarmería Nacional en el conurbano bonaerense para profundizar las actividades de prevención para resguardar la seguridad ciudadana, con una inversión de 150 millones de pesos.[1224] En 2013, lanzó el Programa Federal de Colaboración y Asistencia para la Seguridad, cuyo principal objetivo era poner a disposición de las jurisdicciones provinciales y de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires aquellas herramientas y recursos que coadyuven al combate del delito y la criminalidad, y permitan asimismo generar ámbitos de coordinación y relación interjurisdiccionales.[1223] Se lanzaron los radares RASIT, que se desplegaron en las provincias de Jujuy, Salta, Formosa, Chaco, Corrientes y Misiones, cubriendo la frontera y las principales avenidas de aproximación de Tránsitos Aéreos Irregulares. Los relevos de escuadrones aeromóviles se realizan aproximadamente cada 30 días[1225] para la vigilancia del territorio y la lucha contra las incursiones ilegales en el país, con motivo de atacar el tráfico de drogas en las fronteras.[1226] >Fernández de Kirchner promulga el Plan Nacional de Radarización y crea el Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia y Control Aeroespacial (SINVICA).[114] Para cumplir con este objetivo el Ministerio de Defensa y la Fuerza Aérea le encargaron a INVAP el desarrollo y la instalación de 13 radares en la frontera norte.[1227][1228] En 2011 se lanza la línea 137 para denunciar el acoso, que funcionaba para todo el país, las 24 horas los 365 días del año, que asiste y acompaña a personas que sufrieron violencia familiar y/o sexual que se encuentran en una situación crítica.[1229] En noviembre de ese año se lanza la Unidad Fiscal Especializada en ciberdelincuencia.
En 2011, el gobierno nacional adquiere para la policía Federal el H11 LQ-BXI Airbus Eurocopter EC135, primer helicóptero de este modelo adquirido a Eurocopter en 2009 y H12 LQ-CQN Airbus Eurocopter EC135 T2+. El segundo EC135 fue adquirido en 2009. Un tercer helicóptero EC135 fue adquirido a fines de 2009 equipada con sistemas de visión nocturna, cámara giro-estabilizada y faro de búsqueda, sistemas de Piloto Automático "Full IFR - Single Pilot" que le permiten volar con un solo piloto sin ninguna visibilidad y aterrizar en forma automática con los sistemas ILS de los aeropuertos, de la misma forma que un avión de aerolínea. Además está dotado con grúa de rescate, bamby buckett para la lucha contra incendios y transporte externo de cargas. Posteriormente nuevas aeronaves adquiridas en 2014 con capacidad multifunción como los H15 LQ-FQH Airbus Eurocopter EC145.
A mediados del año 2012, el gobierno nacional puso en circulación el AFA plus, un sistema biométrico de acceso de público a los estadios, con el objetivo de identificar a violentos para que no puedan ingresar a los estadios y disminuir así los episodios de violencia. Para asistir a un partido de fútbol de Primera División y del seleccionado argentino, cada aficionado deberá estar inscrito previamente en un Padrón Nacional de Aficionados. El empadronamiento se realizará como un trámite personal en las sedes de los clubes, donde cada persona que desee ir a la cancha deberá registrarse con su nombre, foto, domicilio, número de Documento Nacional de Identidad y sus huellas digitales. Se empadronaron 111 000 personas.[1230] A pocos días de asumir encabezó la negociación con España para adquirir cuatro radares tridimensionales AN-FPS 113/90 con un alcance de vigilancia de 400 kilómetros y 30 mil pies de altura, con el objetivo mayor seguridad aérea y control de vuelos furtivos en el NOA y NEA.[1231][1232] En noviembre de 2015, continuando con el programa de completa radarización de las fronteras Fernández de Kirchner inauguró el tercer Radar Primario Argentino 3D de largo alcance y la construcción de seis nuevos radares argentinos. La inversión acumulada para la radarización del país alcanzó los mil millones pesos, con radares de tecnología nacional, con un ochenta por ciento de componentes argentinos. Los radares primarios, de uso en defensa y seguridad. En el año 2004 solo cuatro aeropuertos argentinos contaban con radares, al año 27 aeropuertos cuentan con equipos que son radaresque fabrica el Invap, logrando cubrir el 95% de las rutas comerciales.[1232].
En cuanto a ciber seguridad en julio de 2011 se creó, el Programa Nacional de Infraestructuras Críticas de Información y Ciberseguridad, que tiene como finalidad impulsar la creación y adopción de un marco regulatorio específico que propicie la identificación y protección de las infraestructuras estratégicas y críticas del Sector Público Nacional, los organismos interjurisdiccionales y las organizaciones civiles y del sector privado.[952].
Según cifras del diario británico BBC, de 2015 hubo 6,6 homicidios cada 100 000 habitantes, una reducción del 12% desde 2003, cuando la violencia llegó a tope, en medio de una fuerte crisis económica.[1233] En 2011 comenzó la instalación de radares 3D construidos por el Invap y la incorporación de tres aviones de combate Pucará que patrullarán el Norte Argentino para detectar vuelos irregulares.[1234].
urban security
In 2013, the Federal Security Collaboration and Assistance Program was launched, with which new tools and resources were made available to provincial jurisdictions to combat crime and criminality, including coordination programs and interjurisdictional relations. trafficking in persons and/or drugs.[1247] In December 2007, the educational program was launched in federal prisons and prisons, causing the number of prisoners with complete primary education to increase from 23 percent of the prison population to 78 percent, and the number of persons deprived of liberty with an approved secondary degree to increase from 34 percent to 59. Along with this, more than 7,300 prisoners began a tertiary and university career.[1248].
Prison policy
Regarding penitentiary policy, the modernization of the penitentiary system was sought, through the construction of new units and the extension of technology such as electronic anklets, the digitization of penitentiary files, greater training for prison guards and external control and auditing of federal prisons. federal. This included modifications and modernization in legislation, detention practices, new rehabilitation programs and improvements and extension of training for prison staff.[1250].
The 2008 prison reform included the construction of new prisons, the improvement of existing facilities, the halving of prison overcrowding between 2008 and 2011, and improving the prison population's access to health and education through the inauguration of seven educational centers inside federal prisons and 16 first aid rooms. It sought to promote the social reintegration of inmates through new education and vocational training programs through the development of mechanics, bodywork and painting, electricity, carpentry, etc. workshops in all prisons in the country.[1251]
At the same time, we sought to involve civil society and justice organizations to guarantee transparency in the management of the prison system. [1252].
Gendarmerie and Naval Prefecture
With the aim of combating drug trafficking on the border, helicopters, planes, speed boats, trucks and motorcycles were incorporated, the Ministry of Defense under the mandate of Nilda Garre installed two radars in Las Lomitas, Formosa and Santiago del Estero, adding others to Chaco, Salta and Misiones that help detect planes that are about to land and 18 latest generation truck-scanners,[1269] backpack radios for a group of radars; PPS-15 ground radars; smart boards; meteorological equipment; GPS transmission systems; etc.[1270].
Gender equality and sexual identity
In November 2014, the national government announced the delivery of 1,000 anti-panic buttons at the disposal of justice for women victims of gender violence.[1286] A law was also approved in November 2012 that punishes crimes considered gender-based with life imprisonment, which also includes both women and trans people. Femicide was thus created as a new penal figure, and not as an aggravating circumstance to a simple one[863]. Likewise, the Reparatory Regime for Victims of Institutional Violence for reasons of Gender Identity was promoted and the Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Violence against Women, "Convention of Belem do Pará"), approved by the General Assembly of the Organization of American States in its twenty-fourth regular period and also the creation of the Gender Equality Ombudsman. In 2014, it was voted to eliminate the possibility of a rapist's sentence being extinct if his victim agrees to marry him, a figure known as compromise.
disarmament program
In 2007, a national emergency regarding the purchase and sale of firearms was declared and a National Program for the Voluntary Surrender of Firearms was implemented. The objective of the Program was the anonymous delivery of weapons - legal and illegal - by citizens in exchange for an economic incentive to render them useless and then destroy them through their foundry. which "places the country as a world leader in the disarmament of the civilian population."[1288].
Since his government took office, 151,174 weapons and 1,201,086 ammunition delivered anonymously by Argentine citizens since 2007 have been destroyed,[1289] According to Diego Fleitas, director of the Public Policy Association (APP) and author of the document “Arms collection plans in Latin America” published by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). “The Government had a clearer policy on the issue compared to previous governments, which adopted very limited actions.” In 2013, Argentina was awarded by the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs for this policy.[1290].
Federal Intelligence Agency
In March 2015, the National Intelligence Law (Law No. 25,520) was enacted and came into effect 120 days later. The reform created the Federal Intelligence Agency (AFI). New agents, both students and graduates from different careers, were summoned through the UNICEN university to join the new agency. The new Intelligence Law implemented the centralization of data banks through the creation of the Intelligence Data Protection and Archives Bank. In this way, the figure of an official responsible for the processing of this information was incorporated. On the one hand, it sought to professionalize the agency with the incorporation of agents who have a university degree, for the first time it incorporated a meritocratic system for the appointment of agents that became competitive, internal Intelligence activities were limited only to the investigation of complex federal crimes, complex criminal intelligence or attacks against the institutional order and the democratic system, the duration of the mandate of the director and deputy director of the agency was limited, both positions will be appointed by the Executive Branch but must have approval from the Senate. The reform also creates a Data Protection Bank and establishes penalties for those agents who carry out improper activities.[1291][1292][1293] This was created by Law 27,126[1294] which modifies the National Intelligence Law establishing that all employees of the Intelligence Secretariat must make sworn statements without distinction of grades, eliminating the so-called reserved funds thereof.[1295] Establishing as their specific function is the production of national intelligence and criminal intelligence referring to complex federal crimes, framed in respect for the rights and guarantees of citizens enshrined in the National Constitution and international treaties.
According to the Intelligence Law, reformed in February 2015, a bicameral commission for the Supervision of Intelligence Organizations and Activities was created whose purpose is to supervise the activities, personnel, documentation and data banks of the National Intelligence Agency (AFI). In addition to supervising and controlling all the expenses that were assigned to the components of the National Intelligence System, the evaluation of the execution of the National Intelligence Plan", the "consideration of the Annual Report on Intelligence Activities", among other tasks
The separation between internal security and national defense was established, the general limits that regulate intelligence activity were specified, among other issues it prevented the components of the intelligence system from carrying out repressive tasks, at the same time it prohibited any type of criminal investigation not authorized by justice and prohibited the production of intelligence on the data of race, religion, political opinion or social belonging of the investigated.
human trafficking
In June 2008, when Aníbal Fernández was Minister of Justice, Security and Human Rights, specific units were created in the National Security Forces, in order to carry out actions aimed at the prevention and investigation of the crime of human trafficking, and an interdisciplinary team was also created made up of psychologists, lawyers and social workers, which from the beginning is coordinated by Zaida Gatti, who will act in conjunction with the Security Forces.
Thanks to their efforts, the Chamber of Deputies repeals Law 26,364 on human trafficking, which was expanded by National Law 26,842. The new law eliminated the consent of the victim as an exculpatory element and extended the sentences in cases of trafficking.[1300] Thanks to their efforts, the government launched on July 19, 2011 a free telephone number for reporting that operates all year round and 24 hours a day, number 145, dependent on the Office of Rescue and Accompaniment for Persons Harmified by the Crime of Trafficking,
a hotline and the report can be made anonymously about cases of trafficking in persons and minors, but also to report media and Internet portals that advertise sexual offers.[1301].
In 2012, the National Rescue and Support Program for people affected by the crime of trafficking and the Office of the Prosecutor against Trafficking for Exploitation were created, promoted by Dr. Alejandra Magdalena Gils Carbó.
In 2013, work on the Comprehensive Refunctionalization program of the Churruca-Visca Medical Hospital Complex of the Federal Police began with the aim of expanding and improving the hospital used by the federal police.
Dr. Eva Giberti, who was part of the Ministry of the Interior since 2006, worked on drafting the Law against Human Trafficking, which seeks to ensure that victims are active and demand that the State arrest the rapist.[1302] On April 9, 2008, Congress passed Law 26,364 on the Prevention and Punishment of Human Trafficking and Assistance to its Victims. Victims.[1152] In August 2008, the Rescue and Accompaniment Office was created for people affected by the Crime of Trafficking.[1303][1304] Until 2008, official statistical figures on this crime did not exist in Argentina, so a statistical office was created.
In 2011, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner launched the free telephone number for reporting complaints that operates all year round and 24 hours a day, number 145, dependent on the Office of Rescue and Support for Persons Damaged by the Crime of Trafficking. This line is not only used to report cases of trafficking in persons and minors, but also to report media and Internet portals that advertise sexual offers.[1305] It is a direct line and without the intermediary of the police and the report can be made anonymously.[1306][1307] The Northern Shield operation covered the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Formosa, Chaco, Misiones, Corrientes, La Rioja, Catamarca, Córdoba and Santa Fe, and focused on the prevention and conspiracy of problems related to "illicit drug trafficking, human trafficking and smuggling of goods." To this end, it was part of the "internal security system", the use of radars and military means, as well as military personnel, was committed, in coordination with police institutions and, especially, with federal security forces.
Gender violence
In 2011, the Comprehensive Gender Center was created in the Argentine security forces.[843][844] The arrival of transsexual and transgender officers to the security forces was accepted, and federal police and security forces were instructed to respect the gender identity of both the agents of the different agencies and the detainees and of any citizen carrying out a procedure in their facilities.[833] The objective of this measure was to combat conduct. transphobic and homophobic, in order to raise awareness about gender issues and integrate transgender, transvestite and transsexual people in the workplace.[834][835]
By 2015, 1,000 new patrol cars with cutting-edge technology were incorporated for the Federal Police that guards the city of Buenos Aires.[1313].
road safety
In 2008, the National Road Safety Agency (ANSV) was created by the President of the Nation, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, through Law No. 26,363, which complemented the modernization of Traffic Law No. 24,449. Since that year, multiple prevention campaigns were launched; in addition, in 2010, the Training Center for Road Safety Policy and Management was launched. Electronic inspection, educational campaigns, and road design improvements were implemented.
Since the creation of the Agency at the initiative of the President of the Argentine Nation, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, according to official data and non-governmental organizations, the life accident rate was reduced by 9% between 2008 and 2009 in the first year of the Agency. Attributing the improvement in road figures to the increase in controls and investment in awareness carried out by the organization.
In 2010, the National Road Safety Agency, together with the development of CONICET, launched the interactive map on road safety statistics, which included the use of safety elements, traffic incidents and the areas with the highest accident rate in each Argentine municipality and province, managing to unify all the dispersed statistics of cities and municipalities into a single federal base.
In 2010, the National Strategic Road Safety Plan 2010–2015 established Argentina's priority policies to reduce deaths and serious injuries due to road accidents. The plan was framed in the Safe System approach and promotes the philosophy of Vision Zero, which maintains that no death in traffic is acceptable, establishing joint work between the national State, the provinces, the municipalities, civil society and citizens.
The Licensing Issuance Centers were strengthened, specific training updated, use of protective elements and certification of instructors. It was established that wearing a helmet was mandatory to refuel at service stations. This measure, known as "No helmet, no gas", sought to guarantee the safety of motorcyclists. A fund of 120 million pesos was established for municipalities to create local road safety plans, inter-jurisdictional collaborative networks. The Road Observatory of the National Road Safety Agency (ANSV) was established, which presents consolidated data on fatal road accidents that occurred in Argentina each year.
In December 2015, a law promoted by relatives of victims of traffic accidents was approved, toughening penalties from 3 to 6 years in prison for drivers who cause one or more deaths due to speeding, or driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs. This law would be promulgated in the official gazette two years later.
Computer crimes
Law 26,388, on Computer Crimes and Cybersecurity, was passed, which incorporates cybercrimes in Argentina for the first time. This law incorporated criminal modalities such as computer fraud, computer damage, violation of privacy and secrets, and crimes against public safety into the criminal system.
At the same time, the right to victims was incorporated, which was provided by a State lawyer for victims of gender violence or intentional crimes.
[1314].
gun control
Through the National Agency for Controlled Materials (ANMaC), the requirements and controls that manufacturers and dealers of weapons and ammunition had to comply with to enter or remain in the sector were tightened, establishing periodic controls and inspections by the police on retail commercial users, weapons repair workshops and weapons factories of different types. At the same time a record was created
commercial reloading of ammunition, workshops for repairing and assembling materials for armored vehicles, plants for the destruction of special-use materials and storage of weapons and/or ammunition and shooting entities with their own facilities, it is also established that people with criminal records may not be the owner of them or work there, keep a record of each weapon sold with a mandatory serial number.
In 2008, new requirements were established for weapon bearers, including a mandatory license, not presenting mental or physical abnormalities that disable the petitioner" and "proof of identity, real address and lawful means of livelihood, that they do not have a criminal record and the minimum age to purchase weapons was raised from 18 to 21 years.
Anti-money laundering regulations
In 2008, the “National Coordination Program to Combat Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism” was created within the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. Said decree also established that the aforementioned Ministry is the central authority of the National State to carry out inter-institutional coordination functions between all organizations and entities of the public and private sector, with jurisdiction in Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing[1315] In 2010, the AFIP established the exchange of information and to carry out reciprocal collaboration with the agencies of the United States of America (FinCEN), the Republic of Colombia (UIAF), the Republic of Paraguay (SEPRELAD), the Republic of Chile (UAF), the Republic of Panama (UAF), the Federative Republic of Brazil (COAF) and the Eastern Republic of Uruguay (UIAF).[1316].
In 2010, the Central Bank adjusted its controls on the opening of correspondent accounts that financial institutions can open in the country and abroad, following the recommendations of the FATF. The regulations were adapted and modernized by designing a strict policy for the regulation, prevention, detection, and punishment of crime; to become a member of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). The FATF is an organization that promotes policies for the prevention and repression of money laundering at the international level. In 2014, penalties were increased for crimes related to the illicit trafficking and marketing of narcotics. the Crimes of weapons smuggling (Crimes related to the activities of an illicit association organized to commit crimes for political or racial purposes; and the penalty was doubled for the Crimes of fraud against the Public Administration.[1317] In 2008, through several resolutions, the Public Prosecutor's Office and the FIU decided to enable the freezing of assets and money of fugitive repressors tried for crimes against humanity.
In 2011, the Action Plan presented in February 2011 was launched, which allowed FATF to recognize that our country began to comply with international standards on the matter. Until 2010, Argentina respected only 2 of the 40 standards of anti-money laundering recommendations included in global financial control institutions. Two years later, it complied with 100% of the requirements.[1318].
In 2007, the crime of Financing of the Illicit Terrorist Association was classified in Art. 213 quater of the Penal Code under Title VIII “crimes against public order.” However, in 2011, in compliance with the requirements of international conventions and standards, the Law modified the crime of Money Laundering, classifying it this time as an autonomous crime in Art. 303 of the Penal Code under a new Title XIII "against the economic and financial order." In the same year 2011, for similar reasons, the Law also modified the crime of Financing of Terrorism, classifying it as an autonomous crime in Art. 306 of the Penal Code under the same Title XIII “against the economic and financial order”[1319].
Defense policy
Durante su presidencia se fortaleció el rol institucional del Ministerio de Defensa "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)") y ajustaron la doctrina de defensa a las transformaciones del escenario regional e internacional y sentaron las bases para la modernización integral del sector. Las autoridades civiles comenzaron a participar activamente de la definición, análisis y supervisión de los criterios que orientan la organización y el funcionamiento de las Fuerzas Armadas.[1330] Para el año 2015 el presupuesto militar de Argentina subió un 43% en comparación con el año 2013.[1331].
Basada en la premisa del gobierno civil de la Defensa como principio fundamental la política de defensa fue acompañada por una distinción entre las esferas de la Defensa y la seguridad interior y se busco afianzar en control civil sobre las fuerzas armadas.[1332] Durante su presidencia se fortaleció el rol institucional del Ministerio de Defensa "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)") y ajustaron la doctrina de defensa a las transformaciones del escenario regional e internacional y sentaron las bases para la modernización integral del sector. Las autoridades civiles comenzaron a participar activamente de la definición, análisis y supervisión de los criterios que orientan la organización y el funcionamiento de las Fuerzas Armadas.[1330] Basada en la idea de gobierno civil de la Defensa como principio fundamental la política de defensa fue acompañada por una distinción entre las esferas de la Defensa y la seguridad interior y se busco afianzar en control civil sobre las Fuerzas Armadas.[1332]
Durante su gestión tuvo como eje la modernización del ejército, llevando adelante la entrega de más de setenta vehículos nuevos y equipamiento modernizado al Ejército Argentino.[1333].
En primer lugar, se modifica el sistema de justicia militar a través de la Ley 26.394 de 2009 que derogó el Código de Justicia Militar. En el ámbito educativo, se estableció una la conducción civil del subsistema educativo de Defensa. A través de la Ley 26.396, de agosto del año 2008, se eliminó el fuero militar, donde los militares se juzgaban a sí mismos y se eliminó la pena de muerte cómo castigo militar, se rediseñó integralmente el sistema disciplinario militar adoptándolo a la Constitución y a los tratados internacionales, en materia de derechos humanos.[1334] 10La reforma en el sistema de justicia y disciplina militar argentina que estaba de 1951 se inscribio en procesos internacionales más amplios, que avanzan en el mismo sentido y llevaron a la supresión del fuero penal militar en países como Francia y Alemania entre otros. El Proyecto de Ley de Reforma Integral del Sistema de Justicia Militar, establecía entre otras reformas
“[…] abandonar definitivamente una legislación de raíz tan autoritaria que cae en el escándalo de que el militar argentino en tiempo de paz tiene menos garantías que el prisionero enemigo en tiempo de guerra; ya que el militar tiene derecho a defensor letrado.[1335].
También se procedió a la desmilitarización de organismos dependientes de las Fuerzas que pasaron a la órbita del Ministerio de Defensa en 2008: (Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, Servicio de Hidrografía Naval, Instituto Geográfico Nacional y la Administración Nacional de Aviación Civil). Asimismo, se creó la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria en 2005, dependiente del Ministerio de Seguridad.[1336] En 2011 se adquirió dos helicópteros MI 17 rusos con el fin de ser utilizados para la campaña antártica y otros fines con una inversión que demandó al Estado 15 millones de dólares, capaces de trasportar hasta 27 personas sentadas y cinco toneladas de peso, adaptado a climas polares.[1337].
En 2008 el Congreso aprobó la Ley N.º 26 394 derogando el Código de Justicia Militar y creó el Código de Disciplina de las Fuerzas Armadas.[1338] también se sancionó la ley para ampliar las competencias del Defensor del Pueblo sobre al área militar apuntando a mejorar la capacidad de reclamo y el respeto por los derechos humanos entre los miembros de la institución castrense.[1339] En 2008 se reglamenta dejar sin efecto los tribunales militares marciales a favor a los juicios civiles, ya que los tribunales marciales privaban a hombres y mujeres del debido proceso.[1340]
A partir del año 2009 Argentina a través del Regimiento mecanizado número 12 conformó el núcleo del Batallón de Infantería Mecanizado de la Fuerza de Paz Binacional Conjunta Combinada "Cruz del Sur" que junto a la República de Chile, se constituye la única Fuerza Combinada de la Región dispuesta para desplegar en misiones de paz donde la Organización de las Naciones Unidas lo requiera.
Training
In 2011, a course on Human Rights was included in the curricula of the Military School and of the other officer schools of the armed institutes in 2008 in matters of defense and human rights. With regard to military education, the Ministry of Defense carried out the inclusion of content related to human rights in the basic training curricula and, within the framework of the Joint Higher War School, in the training of officers of the Joint Major Army. With the aim of promoting the entry and permanence of women in the Armed Forces, the Observatory on the Integration of Women and the Gender Policy Council were created, promoting gender policies for peace operations, eliminating restrictions on access for women with children and reducing mandatory guards for pregnant and lactating women.
Starting in 2008, the goal was set to democratize access to the armed forces and pass it on merit. In 2008, the army federalized admission to its officer and non-commissioned officer schools so that the place of residence of the applicants does not impede their training. The possibility was also added for applicants to be able to stay in military units during the time that the academic and physical exams required for their entry are extended. The exams that had to be taken until 2008 in the City of Buenos Aires were federalized and could be taken in military high schools and other facilities in Salta Litoral, Jujuy, Tucumán, Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Córdoba, Santa Fe, Buenos Aires, Greater Buenos Aires and the Federal Capital.[1341]
[204] In 2015, the ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24) "ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24)"), a notice "Notice (vessel)") of the Argentine Navy of the class Project V92/I Neftegaz, was incorporated into the Navy, to fulfill patrol and supply functions for ships heading to the scientific bases of the Antarctica.[1342][1343] It was acquired by the Argentine government in 2014 after an agreement with the Russian government and a Russian state company with the Argentine Ministry of Defense "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)"), which led to the acquisition of the ARA Puerto Argentino, along with the current ARA Bahía Agradable, ARA Islas Malvinas and ARA Estrecho de San Carlos.[1342] It was also carried out a repair and modernization of the ARA Irizar ship awarded to Sener, this included the change of engines and generators for new ones of greater power, an increase in the personnel transport capacity from 245 to 313 seats and an increase in the area dedicated to research laboratories, from 74 to 415 m²[1344].
With the aim of improving the protection of the borders and their surveillance, the policy of modernizing and incorporating more troops continued between 2004 and 2014, the number of gendarmerie troops increased from 17,000 to 34,000 troops.[1345] On December 14, 2010, the Ministry of Security "Ministerio de Seguridad (Argentina)") was created, to which the Gendarmerie was assigned, among other forces.[1346].
Scientific-technological development
In 2009, it replaced the name of the Military Geographic Institute "Military Geographic Institute (Argentina)") with National Geographic Institute.[1352] Starting in 2013, incorporate the Armed Forces into the task of comprehensive development of the country's infrastructure with the recovery of the Tandanor and Domeq shipyards, and the cooperation agreement between the Ministry of the Interior and Transportation and the Ministry of Defense, which is the object of renewal. roads and works of the Belgrano Cargas route and logistics of the Sociedad Anónima Belgrano Cargas.
Fernández de Kirchner created the National Radarization Plan and the National Aerospace Surveillance and Control System (SINVICA).[114] The INVAP produced the Argentine Monopulse Secondary Radar (RSMA) capable of controlling air traffic.[1227][114] The development ended in 2007 and units were installed in Bariloche, Neuquén "Neuquén (city)"), Santa Rosa "Santa Rosa (La Pampa)"), Quilmes and Córdoba "Córdoba (Argentina)"), to which were later added Bahía Blanca, Morteros "Morteros (city)"), La Rioja "La Rioja (city)") and San Luis "San Luis (Argentina)").[1353].
In 2011, an AN-FPS-113/90 radar and the Posadas Aerospace Control Station were installed at the Posadas airport. In 2014, the first nationally manufactured RPA3DLA radar was installed in Las Lomitas, operated by the Las Lomitas Aerospace Surveillance Station. Another RPA3DLA was installed in Ingeniero Juárez.[1354] Also, the FF. AA. They provided security to the XLIII Mercosur Summit —Mendoza "Mendoza (Argentina)"), 2012— and the XLVII Mercosur Presidential Summit —Paraná "Paraná (Argentina)"), 2014—.[1355] In 2014 the Ministry of Defense created the Aerospace Command of the EMCFFAA, headed by a senior officer of the Force Air.[1356] Starting in October 2013, the northern shield operation, Fortín II, was reinforced with some 4,500 troops for surveillance and control operations in the geographic area of national interest, and for humanitarian aid and community support operations. A radar deployment was also initiated that covers the surveillance and control of the entire northern airspace with some new equipment manufactured by Invap and a contract worth 1 billion pesos was signed to develop another six radars that covered 70 percent of the northern border.[1357].
Through the state company DGFM, it began to renew the armament of the armed forces to provide since 2009 the basic types 7.62 mm (for FAL) and 9 mm (for pistol) for portable weapons intended for the annual training of the Armed Forces. The turnover of the Directorate went from 78 million pesos in 2006 to 125 million in 2009.[1215] Between 2011 and 2015 Fabricaciones Militares, based on the 2012-2016 Strategic Plan, grew significantly in investments, production and sales and developed new projects, products, plants and production lines.[1358][1215].
Works plan
In 2008, a plan was launched for a total of 4.5 billion pesos with the objective of modernizing the Army's infrastructure, including the Córdoba Base, III Corps and IV Brigade; Villa Martelli the Command of the V Brigade of Salta, Intelligence Company V; V Engineer Battalion, V Engineering Regiment; Salta Military Hospital, Communications Company.
In Cuyo the Logistics Support Base Salta; Mendoza: 8th Mountain Brigade Command; Mountain Communications Company 8; Intelligence Company 8; BAL Mendoza, Mendoza Military Hospital, Gral. Espejo Military High School. In the Navy: Posadas; Zarate; Santiago River; Indio Point; Río Grande and Ushuaia, and in the Air Force the Córdoba Air Garrison and the Río Gallegos Air Base.
Presence of women in the Armed Forces.
In 2006, the Minister of Defense Nilda Garré created the Observatory on the Integration of Women in the Armed Forces and in 2007 she created the Gender Policy Council, a unique institution in the world due to the fact that military women joined it. female students who became pregnant, as well as male soldiers who recognized their paternity and the obligation to request authorization from their superior to marry.[1369] At the end of 2007 In
In the 2007 Instruction Trip, female cadets from the Naval Academy embarked for the first time.[1370] In 2008, with the aim of promoting the role of women in the Armed Forces, the Observatory on the integration of women in the Armed Forces was created, to promote the integration of women into the military career, and the administrative interventions linked to the first measures aimed at gender equality that were materialized through Resolutions. Ministerial. That same year, subsection b of article 8 of the Voluntary Military Service Regulations was repealed, which prevented those who had children or dependents from accessing Voluntary Military Service, which mainly affected military women. The rules that prevented the entry and/or permanence, in the Military College and the Aviation School, of students who became pregnant were repealed, adapting the regulations of the Forces to the provisions of Law No. 25,808, which establishes that no institutional actions may be adopted that prevent the normal pursuit of studies by students in a state of pregnancy or during the period
breastfeeding, and to students as parents, in any type of educational establishment in the country. In June 2008 the Regulations were modified
for the Navy Personnel Administration, annulling the provision of October 1955 that required the situation of concubinage, the existence of non-marital children or pregnancies outside of marriage by military personnel to be subject to disciplinary consideration.[1371].
Regarding the roles developed by women, they were included in international missions, including the Argentine Mission in Cyprus and the Argentine Joint Battalion in Haiti.
With the aim of preventing women in the army from abandoning their careers, within the framework of the National Plan for daycare centers and responsible parenthood - MD Resolution No. 198/08 - the daycare center located in the San Telmo neighborhood was put into operation for workers of the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff of the Army.
In 2009, the deceased soldier and heroine of the fight for Independence Juana Azurduy was promoted post-mortem to general, thus becoming the first woman to reach that rank in the Argentine Army.[1372] In 2015, Colonel María Isabel Pansa was promoted to brigadier general, becoming the first woman to reach that rank in life.[1373] Also in 2015 María Inés Uriarte She was promoted to rear admiral, becoming the first woman to reach that rank. Unlike the other two weapons, until 2017 no woman had been promoted to the rank of brigadier in the Air Force, equivalent to rear admiral and brigadier general.
Army
In 2010, together with the Minister of Defense, Agustín Rossi "Agustín Rossi (politician)"), he carried out the logistics equipment program with an investment of 930 million pesos. 120,000 multi-camouflage uniforms, 50,000 modular belts, 23,000 Kevlar helmets, 30 REO M931" truck tractors with 25-ton semi-trailer, 18 M113 combat vehicles, 5 TAM family vehicles, completely repowered and reequipped, 10 REO 2.5 TON trucks, more than 100 were reequipped coupled trailers for transporting water, fuel, motorcycles and quadricycles, more than 100 Ford Ranger and F350 4×4 trucks, 5 Humvee all-terrain vehicles, the modernization of the FAL rifle, the TAM 2C, simulation systems, observation radars, were incorporated into the force, in addition, a Bell Huey II helicopter with accessories and cutting-edge equipment, and as part of the comprehensive repair and modernization of the vehicle park, were added 40 fully repowered Unimog 416s and 5 Mercedes Benz 230G jeeps").[1377].
In 2012, Argentina acquired military components for helicopters, warships, aircraft, guns and radars, as well as other types of communications equipment, strengthening the operational status of its Armed Forces. multiple CP-30s, PPCC modules, the SEMIL equipment and Bell 206 helicopters. TAM tanks, M113 armored vehicles—A1 to A2—, CITER 155 mm cannons, and FN FAL rifles were modernized.[1379].
Air Force
In 2011, the Air Force acquired four Saab 340B aircraft, a Learjet 35A, two Mi-171E helicopters, two Bell 412EP helicopters and indigenous radars in addition to AN-FPS-113/90"). remunerative.[1380].
In 2015, it carried out the incorporation of Kfir Block 60 supersonic aircraft to replace the old Mirage III from the 1970s, with an investment of 360 million dollars.[1381].
Navy
The Navy incorporated the oceanographic vessel ARA Austral (Q-21) "ARA Austral (Q-21)")[1382] and the notices ARA Puerto Argentino (A-21) "ARA Puerto Argentino (A-21)"), ARA Estrecho de San Carlos (A-22) "ARA Estrecho de San Carlos (A-22)"), ARA Bahía Agradable (A-23) "ARA Bahía Pleasant (A-23)") and ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24) "ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24)") in addition to UH-3H Sea King helicopters. The Panhard vehicles, the ARA Indómita (P-86) boat "ARA Indómita (P-86)"), the ARA Almirante Irízar (Q-5) icebreaker "ARA Almirante Irízar (Q-5)") were updated and mid-life maintenance of the ARA San Juan (S-42) submarine "ARA San Juan (S-42)") was carried out.[1379].
The ARA Puerto Deseado (Q-20) "ARA Puerto Deseado (Q-20)") investigated the continental shelf of the Argentine sea that was finally handed over on April 22, 2009 to the United Nations, with an oceanic territory of squares to be recognized as part of Argentina, as governed by the Convention on the Continental Shelf and the Convention on the Law of the Sea.[1383].
In 2009, the President led the inauguration of the new headquarters of the National Fluvial School, dependent on the national Navy, a training institute in the Buenos Aires neighborhood of Puerto Madero, accompanied by the Minister of Defense, Nilda Garre.
[1384][1385].
Works were also carried out to modernize and expand the Puerto Belgrano Naval Base, concentrating the work on Docks No. 1 and No. 2 that make up the Arsenal and allow various vessels belonging to the Navy to be housed for maintenance and repair. Three years later, the first stage of repair and modernization of Carena Dam No. 2 was completed with an investment of 100 million pesos. Other elements that make Dock No. 2 function were modernized.[362] At the end of 2011, the ARA Espora (P-41) "ARA Espora (P-41)") underwent repairs at the Río Santiago Shipyard.[1386] With the aim of modernizing it, the Granville corvette underwent repairs at the Puerto Belgrano Naval Arsenal.[1387] During 2014 the ship ARA Patagonia (B-1) "ARA Patagonia (B-1)") was modernized in the Carena Dock No. 2 of the Puerto Belgrano Naval Arsenal, which allowed it to maintain the operational level.[1388] In 2007 the shipyards that remained in the hands of the Navy were reorganized to pass into civilian hands, through Astilleros Río Santiago.
Two ships and a series of 5 units of Multipurpose Ocean Patrol Vessels (POM) were built. In addition to twelve barges to transport bulk cargo.[1389] On January 18, 2008, construction work began on the first block “Eva Perón”, one of the two oil tankers contracted by PDVSA.[1390] The "Eva Perón" became the largest double-hulled ship built in Argentina in the last 30 years, and was launched in 2012, with a capacity of 47,000 gross cargo tons (TPB). Likewise, a repair and modernization of the ARA Irizar ship was carried out at the Tandanor shipyard in Buenos Aires, with work scheduled to begin in November 2009, to end with ice tests in October 2011.[1391].
Joint operations
The Argentine Armed Forces developed specific, joint, specific-combined and joint-combined military operations. President Kirchner launched Operation Northern Shield in order to increase surveillance of land, river and air spaces on the borders of northwest and northeast Argentina. The Joint Chiefs of Staff "Joint Staff of the Armed Forces (Argentina)") created the Joint Task Force for the Control of Aerospace «Fortín II».[1354].
In 2013, the modernization of the Mar Chiquita Self-Propelled Projectile Launch and Experimentation Center (CELPA), an Argentine military suborbital flight launch site operated by the Argentine Air Force, was carried out.
As a result of the 2010 earthquake, the three hospitals in the Haitian capital collapsed, the Argentine establishment was initially the only functioning health complex.[1396] On the first morning of the day after the earthquake, 85 highly complex operations were performed there and 800 injured were treated. Since supplies ran out, on January 14, 2010, Argentina sent a C-130 Hercules with doctors, experts and about 12 tons of cargo, including satellite phones, tents and water treatment plants. White Helmets stretched their capabilities to help the survivors and wounded.[1398][1399] Three years later Fernández inaugurated a hospital in Haiti,[1400] with the capacity to care for 150,000 patients.[1401].
Between 2003 and 2015, during the governments of Néstor and Cristina Kirchner, Argentine rights over the Malvinas Islands were reaffirmed. One of the pillars of the policies on the matter was the support and recognition of the Veterans of the Malvinas War, the implementation of measures to improve the quality of life of the veterans, providing medical, psychological and economic assistance.
Benefits and pensions were also expanded.[1402] the first national census of veterans was carried out, the granting of honorary pensions was decreed, benefits were extended to relatives of fallen soldiers, April 2 was declared an immovable national holiday, among other measures. During the second government of Fernández de Kirchner, the Cenotaph was inaugurated in the Argentine Cemetery in the Malvinas Islands and on June 6, 2014, the Malvinas Museum was created in the city of Buenos Aires to promote the vindication of the Argentine sovereignty claim over the Malvinas and the South Atlantic Islands.[1403].
Antarctica
In ten years, the number of scientists who participated in the Antarctic Campaigns multiplied by three, going from 117 professionals in the period 2003-2004 to more than 320 in 2015, which translated into a constant increase in the production of specialized material and research for the country. This put Argentine science at the forefront of other nations. Of the 254 scientific articles about Antarctica published by Latin American countries, 146 were produced in Argentina.[1404].
In 2008, 4 operational SAAB 340B aircraft were acquired during Nilda Garré's Defense management with an investment of 30 million dollars with the objective of connecting the continent and the bases in Antarctica.[1405] In 2009, later the Minister of Defense, Agustín Rossi "Agustín Rossi (politician)"), carried out the reactivation and refunctionalization of a new permanent Base with a strategic activity in the logistics for research.
In 2010, Antarctic policy was characterized by the construction of new facilities at the Belgrano II Base and completed the construction of the new main building of the Belgrano II Base, along with greater emphasis on the monitoring of marine resources, and the signing of agreements with Uruguay to promote scientific exchanges in Antarctica.[1406][1407].
With the aim of adding more means to guarantee the security of the Antarctic bases, in April 2010, the contract for the acquisition of two Mi-171E helicopters was signed with an investment of 20 Million Euros, which in addition to the purchase of these machines, included the training of crews and mechanics.[1408][204] In 2011, an aerial photogrammetric survey was carried out in the Marambio Base and surrounding areas, an action that had not been carried out since 1978. The cartographic plans of that sector were updated.[1409] That same year, the seven Russian Ka-32C helicopters were added to the defense assets, acquired months before to operate in the 2011-2012 Argentine Antarctic campaign, intended to supply the five permanent Argentine Antarctic bases, the six temporary ones, and the scientific shelters. In demonstration of Argentine solidarity and peaceful purposes and international cooperation, the government decided to provide support to the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla base by supplying it with fuel, generators and medical supplies; transfer material to the Peruvian base Machu Picchu and cooperate with the Chilean base Frei Montalva by transferring its envoys there and help the Ecuadorian scientific base Maldonado. Bellingshausen.[1412].
In 2013, Dr. Fernández de Kirchner together with her counterpart Michelle Bachelet formed the Antarctic Combined Naval Patrol that guards the marine resources of both countries in the Antarctic seas.
In 2014, two MI-17 helicopters were acquired to operate in the Argentine Antarctic sector. These are multipurpose transport aircraft with the capacity to transport 26 passengers and up to 5 tons of cargo.[1413] In 2015, at the urging of the Minister of Defense Dr Agustín Rossi, the Petrel base, which is located on Dundee Island located in Antarctica, was converted into a permanent base. This meant that the base, which previously operated only in summer, became operational all year round since 2015. The decision implies an expansion of the Argentine presence in Antarctica and a greater effort in research and protection of the area.[40]
Territorial policy
Antarctic policy
During 2010/2011, an aerial photogrammetric survey was carried out at the Marambio Base and surrounding areas, something that had not been done since 1978, thus updating the cartographic plans of that sector.[1418] In 2011, a C-130 was used to launch loads to supply the Belgrano II Base, scientific equipment, spare parts for Antarctic vehicles, helium tubes for the launch of meteorological probes, and material for the laboratory.[1419][1420][1421][1422]
In 2013, from Puerto Deseado, it carried out plate research campaigns, species monitoring and digital mapping, taking advantage of its navigations to transport scientists to the Orcadas Base and supply the Decepción and Jubany bases. Air Force C-130 planes transported material to the Marambio and Frei bases.
The policy regarding the Argentine Sea was characterized by the defense of Argentine sovereignty in the surrounding Antarctica and the South Atlantic, the promotion of scientific research and the protection of the environment. In 2011, the Pampa Azul initiative was promoted for the sustainable development of the Argentine Sea. Argentina has a maritime coastline of 4,725 kilometers on the American continent, adding to 11,325 kilometers of the coasts of Argentine Antarctica and southern islands. The Argentine continental shelf has some 6,683,000 km2 that represent the Argentine continental, insular and Antarctic maritime spaces.[1423].
Expansion of sovereignty
Since his appointment Jorge Taiana, Chancellor of the presidents Dr. Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner between 2006 and 2010. During his administration he promoted the extension of the Argentine continental shelf, where it is estimated that there are important resources in the soil and subsoil. Finally, Chancellor Taiana announced in December 2015 that the UN recognizes Argentine sovereignty in 1.7 million km² more incorporated into the sovereign territory, which validated the expansion of the Argentine continental shelf.[1424] Consequently, the country gained 1,782,000 square kilometers, which includes the islands of the South Atlantic and Antarctica, the surface of the seabed and subsoil on which there is legal security so that Argentina can explore and exploit its resources exclusively and exclusively
[1425][1426].
In 2009, it presented to the United Nations a request for the expansion of the continental shelf, which covers an area of 1,782,500 km², equivalent to more than half of the emerged territory, applying the rules established in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), in force for Argentina since 1995. In the presidential administrations since 2006, the government carried out hundreds of geological, geophysical, cartographic, and On April 21, 2009, he presented 40 volumes of documentation to the UN to establish that outer limit, which gives 1,700,000 km² more territory, and rights over the seabed and its resources.[1427] Several public organizations and universities collaborated in the work, professionals from different disciplines involved in the subject participated: geodesists, hydrographers, geologists, geophysicists, cartographers, oceanographers, systems experts of geographical information, lawyers and experts in international law. Finally, the working groups of the National Commission on the Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf (COPLA), formed in 2006, prepared the final report after about 100,000 hours of joint work.[1428] The work of the commission was praised by various political sectors, including some of the opposition, and criticized by the PRO and the Civic Coalition, who considered its work unnecessary and the spending on studies by the commission superfluous.
[1429][1430] The new official territory expanded the continental shelf and extends across two continents.[1431][1432][1433] The area also corresponds to the area in which the Malvinas Islands and other islands in the South Atlantic are located. In February 2016, after years of efforts, the United Nations unanimously approved the Argentine request doubling Argentine sovereignty over the continental shelf.[1434][1435].
Reaffirmation of sovereignty over the Malvinas Islands
Based on the constitutional imperative, the defense of Argentine sovereignty in the Malvinas Islands became a matter of State.
Hydrocarbons Law and its amendments prohibited the illegal exploitation of oil on the Argentine continental shelf and established the relevant sanctions for companies that operate without permission.
On December 6, 2011, in a statement unanimously approved by all the CELAC countries in Caracas, the heads of State and Government of Latin America and the Caribbean supported the Argentine position on the Malvinas and reiterated "their strongest support for the legitimate rights of the Argentine Republic in the sovereignty dispute over the Malvinas, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands and the surrounding maritime spaces." </ref>Celac supports the claim for Malvinas Argentina.ar - consulted on December 6, 2011</ref>In 2011 the Group of 77 made up of 134 nations - by number the most important negotiating bloc of the United Nations - issued for the first time that in its Final Declaration it dedicated an exclusive paragraph to the Malvinas Question, supporting the Argentine government.[1436] At the end of that same year in the Within the framework of the IX Mercosur Summit, unanimously, the presidents of the Mercosur member countries ratified "their support for the legitimate rights of the Argentine Republic in the sovereignty dispute."[1437] At the same time, they agreed to reject the passage of military ships flying the British flag.[1438].
After being a founding member of the regional integration and defense of democracy mechanism Unasur, Argentina received the support of the organization. In March 2012, in a statement unanimously approved, Unasur supported Argentine sovereignty in the Malvinas and urged Great Britain to end the "anachronistic colonial situation on American soil". regarding the arrogance of the Malvinas. The secretary general of the Organization of American States (OAS), José Miguel Insulza, supported the position and strategy of the Argentine president.[1442] Later in 2013 the Organization of American States - with the exception of the United States - issued a joint declaration of support for Argentine sovereignty over the South Atlantic Islands.[1443]
[1444] Luis Almagro would maintain the same position, recognizing Argentina's right to its full sovereignty over the islands.[1445].
At the end of Fernández de Kirchner's efforts, the vice president of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Jiang Shusheng"), stated that solidarity with Argentina regarding the Malvinas "constitutes an invariable position for China", while highlighting the role that Argentina played in the Pro Tempore presidency of the Group of 77, in its "work towards integration and world peace".[1446]
In March 2014, after a meeting between Dr. Fernández de Kirchner and Vladimir Putin, Russia, a member of the G7 and one of the five countries with veto power in the UN security council, granted unrestricted support to Argentine sovereignty over the Malvinas Islands and its diplomatic support.[1447] That same year.
International politics
During her administration she had a close relationship with Merkel Chancellor of Germany, Michele Bachelet President of Chile, with Ségolène Royal Hillary Clinton forming working groups to propose changes and a greater role for women in the UN, along with the rights of women and children in state policies.[1454]
On July 29, Fernández de Kirchner, accompanied by Foreign Minister Héctor Timerman, inaugurated a new Argentine embassy in Brazil in Brasilia.
In 2014, the 54 countries of the African Union published the "Malabo Declaration" signed in the capital of (Equatorial Guinea), approved unanimously and states:
Demographic policy
During his administration, Argentina continued the trend of accelerated demographic changes in a demographic transition. This period was characterized by a sharp drop in infant mortality and the number of births.
The increase in the internal market, the decrease in unemployment and the increase in installed capacity in the industry led to an acceleration in the incorporation of women into the workplace. Argentina had been leading this trend in Latin America since the mid-1940s. A demographic report on Argentine women highlighted the accelerated decrease in fertility and postponement of motherhood. The increase in the dissemination of contraceptive methods, the reduction of teenage pregnancy, social changes and the incorporation of women into the workplace and universities led to Argentine women becoming mothers at an older age and a tendency to have fewer and fewer children[1455] Significant changes occurred in the structure of the Argentine population with a marked decrease in the birth rate, the reduction in the number of large families, the increase in life expectancy and the aging of the population, a marked decrease in fertility and, at the same time, time, a more feminized and older social composition. The 2010 National Population Census showed that 92% of the population lived in cities, a figure that exceeds the world average, making the country one of the most urbanized in the world[1456]
During his government and especially since 2014, there was a sharp drop in birth rates. Among other factors, the changes in the role of women stand out, with greater access to education and the labor market, better access to a university degree and the implementation of public policies such as Comprehensive Sexual Education (ESI) and the Federal Plan for the prevention of unintentional pregnancy in adolescence, which contributed to significantly reducing the number of mothers under 19 years of age.
The mortality rate fell to historic lows, while there was a drop in birth and fertility rates, especially thanks to greater access to contraceptive methods and the late onset of motherhood. Population growth was moderated by the decrease in the fertility rate, although partially compensated by the increase in Immigration to Argentina.
Ministries and Secretaries of State
On Wednesday, November 14, 2007, the cabinet of ministers for his first government was announced. Of the 12 elected, 7 already held positions in Néstor Kirchner's government and 5 assumed the ministerial portfolio for the first time.
In 2014, with the aim of reducing public spending, the possibility of public officials accumulating miles for themselves on trips made on official flights was eliminated.[1458] Likewise, a law was promoted to make it mandatory for magistrates and prosecutors to present sworn statements.
In 2010, the highest denomination $100 bill was redesigned with the face of Eva Perón, Argentine first lady and promoter of women's suffrage and the rights of women, children and the elderly.[1459] The design of Eva Duarte's bill was awarded by the international industry during the Second International Conference on High Security Impressions in Bogotá (Colombia).[1460] Different associations specialized in international nunimastics, included the 100 peso bill with the image of Eva Perón on the cover. Previously, when it had been awarded, Martyn White, president of the organizing entity, noted "the attractive aesthetics of the paper currency", saying that the note was "first class" and that its presentation was "integrated and comprehensive." He also referred to the "historical context of the matter with which the Argentine population could easily identify."[1461].
On April 2, 2014, at the commemoration event for the anniversary of the Falklands War, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner presented the $50 bill on the occasion of the anniversary of the Argentine claim on those islands, and in tribute to Gaucho Rivero, at the Casa Rosada[1460] The bill was designed in blue and light blue tones and shows off the outline of the islands and a cormorant, a typical bird of the coasts. Atlantic. On the reverse, there is the figure of Gaucho Rivero on horseback raising the Argentine flag. Rivero was a field laborer who led the uprising against the British occupation in the Falklands in 1833 "British occupation of the Malvinas Islands (1833)").[1462][1463][1464].
Months later, in June 2014, during the commemoration of the death of Manuel Belgrano, Cristina Kirchner presented the redesign of the $10 bill, focusing on Belgrano's life, also paying tribute to Juana Azurduy, Pedro Ríos (soldier known as Tambor de Tacuarí) and the soldiers who swore an oath to the Argentine flag for the first time on the banks of the Paraná River in Rosario "Rosario (Argentina)").[1465][1466].
In April 2015, the government created a commission of experts together with senators and national deputies with the aim of investigating the origin, evolution and irregularities in the taking of external debt since the beginning of the dictatorship in 1976. prosecutor.[1204]
In 2014 the government promoted
and achieved the sanction of the law that established the mandatory nature of the four-year court. The sanction of Law No. 27,045 favored an increase in enrollment and attendance rates. National regulations, which forced the State to expand the offer, allowed progress with the inclusion of the hard core of students who were still outside the system, achieving in a few years that Argentina 91% of 4-year-old children attend kindergarten, until the sanction of the law only 83% attended: since 2014 they joined 100,000 students. The increase in coverage was accompanied by a reduction in assistance gaps by socioeconomic level and by province. In parallel, national and provincial investment were essential to increase kindergarten coverage, especially in 4- and 3-year-old classrooms.
While 5-year-old children who are enrolled in school reached 98%. Law No. 27,045 also established that the provinces had to guarantee the universalization of the 3-room, coverage grew from 38% in 2014 before the Law to 53% a decade later.[1469][1470][1471].
The increase in attendance levels in grades 3 and 4 was driven by the expansion of educational offerings and strengthening through state investment in kindergarten teaching teams. Since 2014 there has been a marked increase in 3 room and multi section sections and the expansion of sections throughout the kindergarten. The law managed to incorporate more than 100 thousand new students and reducing by 60% the number of children who arrive in class 5 without having attended class 4.[1472][1473] By 2015, the school situation of those 5,376,316 boys and girls between 5 and 13 years old, 98.7 percent attended class regularly.[1474].
In 2008 he promoted the update of Law 25,188 passed during the government of Dr Carlos Menem on Ethics in the Exercise of Public Function, establishing that public officials cannot receive gifts, donations or gifts. This applies to any type of good, service or thing, whether delivered on the occasion of their position or on the occasion of their performance, which previously covered only the President, vice president, ministerial authorities, secretaries and undersecretaries, was extended to all national public officials.
Image of the Government and the opposition
His government was classified as center-left, social-democratic[1475]and Latin Americanist[1476]forming part of the pink tide, a trend of progressive governments in the Latin American region since the beginning of the 21st century that share a vision that emphasizes the improvement in income distribution, the granting of new civil rights - in several cases with a strong presence of the feminist movement -, the protection of the environment and a fundamental role of the State.[1477][1478]It was also classified as developmentalism[1479].
During his administration, the presidential image fluctuated.[1480] On Thursday, September 19, 2008, the editor-in-chief of Clarín Julio Blanck maintained that Kirchnerism was "a political corpse that only needed to be given a burial date." That same week, dictator Jorge Rafael Videla asked the military "58 to 68 years old, who are still physically fit to fight, to prepare to fight to combat" President Cristina (Kirchner) and his henchmen." Videla stated that "I did it for the honesty of my public and private conduct, but also for the prudence of my decisions that were not lacking in firmness."[1481] after that he called for a coup d'état against Cristina.[1482]while the opposition deputy Elisa Carrió denounced that Julio Cobos would be seeking to destabilize the government to be president[1483].
The opposition had reached high rates of negative image.[1484][1485] At the end of November 2008, Cristina Kirchner was the preferred candidate for Argentines ―according to a survey by Channel 26 "Canal 26 (Argentina)").[1486] A survey by the CEOP pollster published in November 2009 places the positive image of the president between 46% and 52%. %.[1484] The CEOP pollster in its report published in November 2009 placed the positive image of the president between 46% and 52%.[1484] By 2010 her positive image exceeded 70 percent.[1487] By 2013 she maintained a positive image of 63 percent.[1488][1489].
In 2009, Fernández de Kirchner was considered by Forbes magazine as the eleventh among the hundred most powerful women in the world.[1490][1491] She rose two more positions compared to the previous year, 2008.[1492] In 2015 she was ranked 16th in said ranking.[1493].
In March 2011, a survey by Ipsos-Mora and Araujo, published in the newspapers Perfil of Argentina and El Mundo "El Mundo (España)") of Spain, found Fernández with a 68% positive image. votes, accessing a second presidential term in the period 2011-2015, being the president elected with the highest percentage of votes since 1983.[1496][1497] and a historic advantage over the second classified, which reached more than 40 points of difference, the largest since the victory of President Juan Domingo Perón over the radical Ricardo Balbín, in 1973.[1498] Cristina Kirchner not only became the first re-elected female president, but also marked a milestone in terms of the highest number of votes since the return of democracy and one of the largest in Argentine history together with Hipólito Yrigoyen in 1928 (57.4%) and Juan Domingo Perón in 1946 (52.4), again in her re-election in 1951 (62.5%) and in 1973 after returning from exile (61.8%). The elections were marked by the strong difference in votes, since no opposition candidate obtained more than 20 percent of the votes, the socialist Binner lost in his province of Santa Fe and a sharp fall for Carrió, a former competitor, going from almost 22 points to less than two percent of the votes. life.[1500][1501][1502].
During the opening of the 2015 ordinary sessions of the National Congress of Argentina, on March 1, 2015, he gave a review of his government to the National Congress of Argentina.[1503][1504]That day, from the morning, citizens arrived at the Plaza del Congreso to accompany the speech despite the drizzle, 400 thousand people crowded into the Plaza del Congreso.[1505].
The end of his mandate, in 2015, represented the highest level of support for an outgoing president since the return of democracy in 1983, with a massive demonstration in his support and with 62% of positive image.[1506]
[1507][1508]
By 2019, after four years of ending her mandate, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner appeared in first place in the survey of the most influential Argentines according to the survey carried out by Giacobbe & Asociados.[1509][1510][1511]
[1512][1513].
The administration would end on December 10, 2015. As a gesture of cordiality, a week before leaving power he ordered beds of yellow flowers, the favorite color of his successor Mauricio Macri, to be planted in front of the presidential villa.[1514].
The afternoon before the end of his term, a crowd of 700,000 people gathered in the historic Plaza de Mayo to honor and bid farewell to the government. There he would give a speech around midnight.[1515] The citizens brought white lilies, the president's favorite flower, as a sign of gratitude.[1516] The speech was followed from various provinces by citizens who gathered in the main squares to listen to the speech.[1517] In his farewell before the crowd gathered in Plaza de Mayo, he highlighted actions of his government and asked citizens to take care of their obtained rights.[1518].
• - CasaRosada.gov.ar (portal of the Presidency of the Argentine Nation).
• - CIDOB.org (biography on the CIDOB foundation site).
• - Senator.gov.ar (biography of Fernández de Kirchner on the website of the Senate of the Argentine Nation).
[12] ↑ Ricardo González-Leandri et Elda González Martínez, « El triunfo de Cristina Kirchner y el futuro de la Argentina », Cahiers des Amériques latines.
[14] ↑ LA INDUSTRIA ARGENTINA EN LA POSCONVERTIBILIDAD: REACTIVACIÓN Y LEGADOS DEL NEOLIBERALISMO. Daniel Azpiazu, Martín Schorr Revista Latinoamericana de Economía 2010 número 41. 161.
[40] ↑ a b c d «Informe económico de coyuntura», artículo en la revista CPCECABA, n.º 272, marzo de 2007; publicado en el sitio web Consejo.org.ar. Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «#1» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes.: http://www.consejo.org.ar/frames/index_iec.htm
[56] ↑ Mercado de Capitales Federico Bünsow, Ed.La Ley, año 2012, página 35 ISBN: 9789870322412. Buenos Aires.
[57] ↑ Schenkel, Erica y Almeida, Fernando. (2015).La política turística y la intervención del Estado. El caso de Argentina. Revista Perfiles Latinoamericanos. 11/12FLACSO, México.
[58] ↑ Schenkel, Erica y Almeida, Fernando. (2015).La política turística y la intervención del Estado. El caso de Argentina. Revista Perfiles Latinoamericanos. Page 17 FLACSO, México.
[80] ↑ «Programa de Acceso al Crédito y Competitividad (PACC)». Casa Rosada. Presidencia de la Nación. 16 de junio de 2011. Archivado desde el original el 26 de febrero de 2018. Consultado el 25 de febrero de 2018. • Cámara de Diputados de la Nación (28 de noviembre de 2007). «125.º Periodo Legislativo Ordinario. 17.º Sesión Tablas. 29.º Reunión Expediente 2843-D-06.». Cámara de Diputados de la Nación. Archivado desde el original el 5 de octubre de 2012. Consultado el 17 de junio de 2009.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180226091819/https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/informacion/archivo/25176-programa-de-acceso-al-credito-y-competitividad-pacc-
[83] ↑ «Programas de Asistencia Financiera para PyMES». Secretaría de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa y Desarrollo Regional. p. 10. Archivado desde el original el 16 de mayo de 2017. Consultado el 8 de junio de 2018.
[89] ↑ Jorge Remes Lenicov (2015). «La Inversión Externa Directa en América Latina y en el mundo». Observatorio de la Economía Mundial - Boletín N.º 21. Escuela de Economía y Negocios - Universidad Nacional de San Martín. p. 5.: http://www.unsam.edu.ar/escuelas/economia/oem/pdf/oem21.pdf
[99] ↑ «Anunciado por Cristina: oficializan nuevo programa de crédito para el sector productivo», artículo del 29 de abril de 2014 en el diario Ámbito (Buenos Aires).: http://www.ambito.com/noticia.asp?id=738750
[106] ↑ http://diarioepoca.com/192157/El-canje-de-deuda-tuvo-una-adhesion-del-97 «El canje de deuda tuvo una adhesión del 97 %. Cristina Kirchner dio detalles del canje voluntario de préstamos garantizados por 15 100 millones de pesos. Se alivian los vencimientos de deuda de este año y el próximo»], artículo en el diario Época del 29 de enero de 2009.: http://diarioepoca.com/192157/El-canje-de-deuda-tuvo-una-adhesion-del-97
[114] ↑ a b c d Calderón, Tulio (2017). «Una década de radares argentinos: reseña del desarrollo de los radares nacionales». En Dvorkin, Eduardo, ed. ¿Qué ciencia quiere el país?. Colihue.
[120] ↑ Richard Musgrave: Hacienda Pública teórica y aplicada, cit., t. IV, § 2, pág. 14. En su obra, Richard Musgrave cita al gasto público como un instrumento para aumentar la demanda agregada y conducir la economía al pleno empleo.
[121] ↑ a b Technology and Industrial Policies in Semi-peripheral environments: Public Production of Medicins in Argentina (2007-2015) Lautaro Zubeldía Centro de Estudios de Historia de la Ciencia y la Técnica, Escuela de Humanidades.
[132] ↑ Pujadas, M.F.; Castagna, A.I., Woelflin, M.L. (2016). Economías extra-pampeanas en una provincia pampeana: las cadenas algodonera y arrocera en Santa Fe. Revista Pampa. 2016. Pp. 55.
[134] ↑ Radiografía del sector lácteo en Argentina, Natalia Marín, Revista de la Bolsa de Comercio de Rosario. Edición N° 2101 - Especial Ganadería - 02 de Junio de 2015.
[136] ↑ Premici, Sebastián; y Dellatorre, Raúl (2014): «A la Mesa de Enlace no hay trigo que le venga bien», artículo acerca de los récords de cosechas, publicado el 15 de enero de 2014 en el diario Página/12 (Buenos Aires).: http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/economia/2-237773-2014-01-15.html
[145] ↑ Quiroga, Anabella, «Polleros, frigoríficos y lácteas, en contra de los cortes de ruta» Archivado el 5 de abril de 2008 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario Clarín (Buenos Aires), 2 de abril de 2008.: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/04/02/elpais/p-1641986.htm
[146] ↑ «El Mocase, entre la distancia y la lejanía». En la senda del Che, revista de la Juventud Guevarista. Consultado el 28 de marzo de 2008.: http://www.actividadesjg.wordpress.com
[150] ↑ «El Frente Nacional Campesino pidió una profunda transformación de las condiciones de producción. Los productores invisibles», artículo en el sitio web del Frente Nacional Campesino, 3 de junio de 2008.: http://www.fisyp.org.ar/modules/news/article.php?storyid=58
[152] ↑ «Martín Lousteau renunció al Ministerio de Economía», (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última). La Voz, 25 de abril de 2008.: http://www2.lavoz.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=183933
[155] ↑ INDEC. Cuentas nacionales. Producto Interno Bruto (PIB). Informes de prensa. Informe de Avance del Nivel de Actividad. Cuadro 4.1. Datos para el año 2007INDEC. Archivado el 21 de febrero de 2016 en Wayback Machine.: http://www.indec.mecon.ar/
[160] ↑ «Cobos: "Solo me sacarán muerto"» Archivado el 21 de febrero de 2009 en Wayback Machine., artículo del periodista Joaquín Morales Solá en el diario La Nación del 28 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1075087
[170] ↑ La política agraria en tiempos de la grieta: Argentina (2003-2019) Lattuada, Mario JoseIcon 2021 Editorial: Teseo; ISBN: 978-987-723-283-7 pp 102/103.
[192] ↑ «Según el Banco Mundial, Argentina duplicó su clase media entre 2003 y 2009». Diario La Nación. 13 de noviembre de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 1 de julio de 2014. Consultado el 24 de marzo de 2013. «La Argentina duplicó entre 2003 y 2009 su clase media y es el país latinoamericano con el mayor porcentaje de crecimiento de ese segmento de población, según un informe difundido hoy por el Banco Mundial.
[209] ↑ CARMONA, R. (2014). Instrumentación de políticas públicas en el contexto argentino reciente. Un balance en materia político-institucional y administrativa durante el período kirchnerista (2003-2012). Revista de Políticas Públicas UFMA, São Luís, 18, 33-44.
[210] ↑ CEPAL-UNICEF (2009). “Maltrato infantil: una dolorosa realidad puertas adentro”. Desafíos. Boletín de la Infancia y la Adolescencia sobre el avance de los objetivos del Milenio.
[225] ↑ “Cultura, política y movimiento estudiantil secundario en la Argentina. En Propuesta Educativa, N.º 35, p. 41. Argentina, Buenos Aires, FLACSO. 2011.
[229] ↑ a b Danani, Claudia y Susana Hintze (coord., 2014): Proteccio- nes y desprotecciones (II): problemas y debates de la Seguridad Social en la Argentina. UNGS. Buenos Aires.
[231] ↑ La Argentina y el Envejecimiento Poblacional -Connotaciones estratégicas para la educación, la economía y el desarrollo-. Centro Argentino de Estudios Internacionales (CAEI), Programa de Ciencia y Tecnología, Working Paper nº 2, Buenos Aires 2011 http://caei.com.ar/es/programas/cyt/02.pdf.: http://caei.com.ar/es/programas/cyt/02.pdf
[232] ↑ «Políticas Sociales del Bicentenario - Tomo I - Un Modelo Nacional y Popular». Ministerio de Desarrollo Social de la Nación Argentina. 13 de junio de 2013.: http://cdi.mecon.gov.ar/bases/docelec/az2086.pdf
[235] ↑ a b c La Gaceta. Ya son más de 600 las comunidades indígenas registradas en todo el paísCOMUNIDADES INDIGENAS, Ley 26.160Ley Nº 24.430 Archivado el 7 de mayo de 2017 en Wayback Machine. Resolución 587/2007 Creáse el Programa Nacional de "Relevamiento Territorial de Comunidades Indígenas - Ejecución de la Ley Nº 26.160". 25 de octubre de 2007.: http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/640774/sociedad/ya-son-mas-600-comunidades-indigenas-registradas-todo-pais.html
[244] ↑ Del trabajo al trabajo de la casa un análisis de la implementación del subprograma “Ellas Hacen” Agustín Torres Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina (CONICET) Economía social y solidaria y género: aportes transdisciplinarios 2020, ISBN 9788413363356, págs. 313.
[251] ↑ «Cristina Fernández de Kirchner ante el Congreso de la Nación Argentina en la apertura del período de sesiones ordinarias 2013» Archivado el 23 de septiembre de 2015 en Wayback Machine., artículo del 1 de marzo de 2013 en el sitio web oficial Casa Rosada (Buenos Aires). Consultado el 4 de agosto de 2013.
[267] ↑ Pontoni, G.; Filipetto, S. y Trajtemberg, D. (2016): “Dinámica del empleo y las relaciones laborales en la Argentina”. Revista La Maquila N°3, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Chile. Santiago de Chile, Chile.
[290] ↑ «Finalizó la entrega de los Alstom Metrópolis». EnElSubte.com. 3 de marzo de 2009. Consultado el 21 de febrero de 2014. «La última formación Metrópolis ha sido entregada la semana pasada luego de las pruebas dinámicas correspondientes, para su puesta en servicio comercial.».: http://www.enelsubte.com/noticias/finalizo-la-entrega-los-alstom-metropolis-143
[296] ↑ «Renuevan todos los vagones de líneas Sarmiento y San Martín». Ámbito financiero. 10 de enero de 2013. «Randazzo junto a la Presidenta anunciaron un plan para renovar los vagones del Mitre y Sarmiento». Ministerio del Interior y Transporte. 10 de enero de 2013. Archivado desde el original el 10 de junio de 2016. Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2016.: http://www.ambito.com/670918-renovaran-todos-los-vagones-de-lineas-sarmiento-y-san-martin
[297] ↑ «Randazzo anunció la compra de 300 coches 0 km para renovar de manera completa la línea Roca». Ministerio del Interior y Transporte. 23 de mayo de 2013. Archivado desde el original el 10 de junio de 2016. Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2016. *«Randazzo anunció la compra de 300 vagones para la línea Roca». La Nación. 23 de mayo de 2013. Archivado desde el original el 12 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2016.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160610065558/http://www.mininterior.gov.ar/prensa/prensa.php?i=1569
[336] ↑ «Ley 26466 - TRANSPORTE AEROCOMERCIAL - ACCIONES DE AEROLINEAS ARGENTINAS SA Y AUSTRAL LINEAS AEREAS CIELOS DEL SUR SA». Presidencia de la Nación Argentina. 22 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 9 de agosto de 2020.: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-26466-148723
[337] ↑ EXÁMEN ESPECIAL LEY Nº 26.412 | AEROLÍNEAS ARGENTINAS S.A. - AUSTRAL LÍNEAS AÉREAS S.A. - CIELOS DEL SUR S.A. (PDF). Auditoría General de la Nación. 11 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 10 de agosto de 2020.: https://www.agn.gob.ar/sites/default/files/informes/2008_215info_0.pdf
[342] ↑ http://hostnews.com.ar/index.php/news/9968/16/Los-Nuevos-Airbus-A-330-200-de-Aerolineas- (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).
[410] ↑ a b «Cristina promulgó la ley Guinle de energías renovables». El diario de Madryn. 22 de octubre de 2015. Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «Cristina promulgó la ley Guinle de energías renovables» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes.: http://eldiariodemadryn.com/2015/10/cristina-promulgo-la-ley-guinle-de-energias-renovables/
[423] ↑ Viviana Pastor (2 de enero de 2012). «San Juan, capital de la energía solar». Tiempo de San Juan. • «San Juan será la mayor fuente de energía solar de América Latina». Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2012. • «Nueva planta solar fotovoltaica en San Juan». e>renova. INTI - Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial. Mayo de 2011. Archivado desde el original el 12 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 11 de julio de 2018.: https://www.tiempodesanjuan.com/sanjuan/2012/1/2/juan-capital-energia-solar-4238.html
[462] ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas Sin-nombre-p37g-1.
[463] ↑ Reyna, S.; Reyna, T.; Fulginitti, F.; Lábaque, M; Gióvine, L; Toselli, L. (noviembre de 2010). «Sistema Cóndor Cliff - La Barrancosa: diseño de presas y operación de embalses ajustados por condicionantes ambientales» (pdf). Neuquén. Consultado el 24 de abril de 2013. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://www.cadp.org.ar/docs/congresos/2010/51.pdf
[491] ↑ «Ingresó a Diputados el Decreto de Necesidad y Urgencia que dispone la intervención de YPF». Télam - Agencia Nacional de Noticias. 16 de abril de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 13 de noviembre de 2013. Consultado el 5 de enero de 2013.: https://web.archive.org/web/20131113224231/http://www.telam.com.ar/nota/22075/
[498] ↑ «Argentina's energy industry: Fill 'er up». The Economist (Londres). 19 de abril de 2012. Consultado el 15 de julio de 2025.: http://www.economist.com/node/21553070
[519] ↑ «¿Qué es el Programa de Estímulo al Pequeño Productor de Granos?». Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas Públicas - Secretaría de Comercio. Marzo de 2015. Archivado desde el original el 10 de julio de 2015.
[520] ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas peppg.
[533] ↑ Javier Disparti (24 de abril de 2013). «Inauguran obras hídricas en Junín e impulsan una bodega para contratistas». Este Online (Mendoza).: https://www.esteonline.com.ar/nota_5480.php
[546] ↑ «Microcentral hidráulica Salto de la Loma». SIEyE, Servicios de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electromecánica. «Provincia de San Juan, cuenca del río Jáchal». Página de la Secretaría de Minería de la Nación Argentina. Archivado desde el original el 18 de abril de 2009.: http://www.sieye.com.ar/microcentral-hidraulica-salto-de-la-loma.html
[549] ↑ «El DPA finalizó trabajos en el Canal Principal de Río Colorado». Departamento Provincial de Aguas - Río Negro. 25 de agosto de 2014.: http://www.rionegro.gov.ar/?contID=17520
[569] ↑ Gobernanza del agua en América del Sur: dimensión ambiental, Alejandro Iza y Marta Della Rovere ISBN: 978-2-8317-0814-0 Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza, Departamento de Publicaciones – Facultad de Derecho de l universidad de Buenos AiresEditores del Puerto s.r.l.2014.
[577] ↑ «Ley de presupuestos mínimos para la protección de los glaciares y del ambiente periglacial» Archivado el 29 de agosto de 2019 en Wayback Machine., de la Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación.: http://www1.hcdn.gov.ar/dependencias/dsecretaria/Leyes/26418.pdf
[580] ↑ «Texto Ley 26631 de Presupuestos Mínimos de Protección Ambiental de los Bosques Nativos» (web). Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable. 2011. Archivado desde el original el 3 de septiembre de 2011. Consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011.
[585] ↑ Viviana Pastor (2 de enero de 2012). «San Juan, capital de la energía solar». Tiempo de San Juan. • «San Juan será la mayor fuente de energía solar de América Latina». Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2012. • «Nueva planta solar fotovoltaica en San Juan». e>renova. INTI - Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial. Mayo de 2011. Archivado desde el original el 12 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 11 de julio de 2018.: https://www.tiempodesanjuan.com/sanjuan/2012/1/2/juan-capital-energia-solar-4238.html
[599] ↑ Reserva nacional Pizarro Archivado el 4 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine. Página oficial (consultada el 10 de noviembre de 2015).: http://www.pizarro.gov.ar/
[626] ↑ Bueno, María del Pilar (2010). "Política exterior y medio ambiente en la Argentina. La influencia de los actores subnacionales y no estatales en la toma de decisiones entre 1989 y 2019", Universidad Nacional de Rosario.
[633] ↑ «Datos de los Sorteos». Administración Nacional de la Seguridad Social. 25 de enero de 2013. Consultado el 29 de enero de 2013.: http://procrear.anses.gob.ar/sorteo
[637] ↑ Presentación del proyecto de presupuesto para el año 2013 Archivado el 8 de abril de 2014 en Wayback Machine., del 14 de septiembre de 2012; publicado en el sitio web Parlamentario.com (Buenos Aires). Muestra el crecimiento del presupuesto en educación.: http://www.parlamentario.com/bank/uploads/0015-JGM-2012.pdf
[660] ↑ a b Flavia Terigi (Diciembre de 2016). «Políticas públicas en Educación tras doce años de gobierno de Néstor Kirchner y Cristina Fernández». Análisis (16). Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES). ISBN 978-987-46367-5-1.: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/argentinien/13019.pdf
[688] ↑ UNICEF (Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia) (2016), Estado mundial de la infancia 2015. La adolescencia. Una época de oportunidades, Nueva York: UNICEF. Tabla 11- Adolescentes -pag. 132.
[689] ↑ Situación de los y las adolescentes en la Argentina, Programa Nacional de la Salud Integral en la Adolescencia, UNICEF 2016, p. 37.
[692] ↑ «Cristina inaugura ciclo lectivo en Universidad de Avellaneda» Archivado el 26 de septiembre de 2013 en Wayback Machine., artículo anónimo del 29 de marzo de un año no especificado, en el sitio web Impulso Buenos Aires.: http://www.impulsobaires.com.ar/nota.php?id=113022
[693] ↑ «Inauguración de la Universidad de José C. Paz» Archivado el 17 de octubre de 2015 en Wayback Machine., discurso pronunciado por Cristina Fernández el 1 de octubre del 2010; publicado en el sitio web de la Casa Rosada (Buenos Aires).: http://www.casarosada.gob.ar/informacion/discursos/22684-blank-91624061
[697] ↑ «Ley de implementación efectiva de la responsabilidad del estado en el nivel de educación superior». Argentina.gob.ar. Consultado el 24 de agosto de 2020.: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/
[707] ↑ a b «Cristina anunció subas en planes para estudios». Ámbito Financiero. 12 de marzo de 2015. Consultado el 14 de marzo de 2015.: http://www.ambito.com/noticia.asp?id=782416
[709] ↑ «Entrega de becas Bec.Ar para posgrados en el extranjero» (web). cfkargentina.com. 2013. Consultado el 29 de julio de 2013.: http://www.cfkargentina.com/becar-posgrados/
[724] ↑ «La inauguración del Planetario marca un hito trascendente para la Ciudad». La Plata, Argentina: Diario El Día. 2013. Consultado el 30 de mayo de 2019. • universidad nacional de san martin archivoarq.clarin.com• Obras del pasado con vida nueva Archivado el 5 de marzo de 2018 en Wayback Machine. clarin.com, 24 OCT 2006• Lógica Material revista866.com.ar, 3 de julio de 2013.: https://www.eldia.com/nota/2013-3-16-la-inauguracion-del-planetario-marca-un-hito-trascendente-para-la-ciudad
[750] ↑ Ministerio de Salud de la Nación (Agosto de 2018). «5 Años de Implementación del Programa Nacional de Cardiopatías Congénitas integrado en el modelo de gestión del Programa SUMAR. Recorridos y aprendizajes de una política de articulación nacional». Sistema de Información de Tendencias Educativas en América Latina. Consultado el 17 de abril de 2023.: https://siteal.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/sit_accion_files/siteal_argentina_0900.pdf
[754] ↑ a b Social Epidemiology of Dengue in Argentina. Ocampo Mallou, Carolina Folguera, Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales Ecuador, ISSN: 1390-6631.
[755] ↑ a b Geographical Limits of the Southeastern Distribution of Aedes aegypti in Argentina, Díaz Nieto, Leonardo Martín Andrade, Public Library of Science, 2013 ISSN: 1885-7388.
[786] ↑ La salud bucal en la República Argentina. Análisis del sector, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, facultad de odontología Vol. 38 Núm. 80 (2019).
[799] ↑ ANDRIOTTI ROMANIN, E. Actores, Estado y políticas públicas reparatorias en relación al terrorismo de Estado en Argentina (2003-2007). Sudamérica, Mar del Plata, n. 4, p. 131, 2015.
[806] ↑ La orden de liberar a los procesados en la megacausa ESMA fue tomada por la Sala II de la Cámara de Casación Penal mediante las decisiones registradas bajo los números 13.684, 13.685, 13.686, 13.722 y 13.726. «Buscador de fallos. Fallos de la Cámara Nacional de Casación Penal del 17 y 18 de diciembre de 2008». Centro de Información Judicial. dic-2008. Consultado el 25 de julio de 2009. • «Ordenan liberar a Astiz, Acosta y a otros represores de la ESMA». Clarín. 19 de diciembre de 2008. Archivado desde el original el 8 de marzo de 2009. Consultado el 25 de julio de 2009.: http://www.cij.gov.ar/fallos-destacados.html
[807] ↑ «'Es un día de vergüenza para los argentinos'. Duro cuestionamiento de la presidenta a la decisión judicial». La Nación. 19 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 25 de julio de 2009.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1082340
[809] ↑ «El fallo de Casación es una cachetada en cada mejilla del pueblo argentino» Archivado el 8 de marzo de 2009 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario La Nación del 19 de diciembre de 2008; consultado el 25 de julio de 2009.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1082428
[811] ↑ a b «La Corte ordenó agilizar juicios por violaciones a los derechos humanos» Archivado el 30 de diciembre de 2008 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario Crítica de la Argentina del 29 de diciembre de 2008.: http://criticadigital.com/index.php?secc=nota&nid=16385
[833] ↑ a b «Los travestis vestirán uniformes femeninos en las Fuerzas de Seguridad». La Gaceta de Tucumán. 30 de noviembre de 2011. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2012.: http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/467493/tucumanos/
[845] ↑ «Ministerio de Salud Resolución 1507/2015». Consultado el 15 de mayo de 2017.
[846] ↑ «Ministerio de Salud Resolución 1507/2015». Consultado el 15 de mayo de 2017. • «Desde hoy, los homosexuales podrán donar sangre». 16 de septiembre de 2015. Consultado el 15 de mayo de 2017.: https://www.boletinoficial.gob.ar/#!DetalleNorma/132941/20150918
[849] ↑ «Estudio Nacional sobre Violencias contra las mujeres». Dirección Nacional de Política Criminal en Materia de Justicia y Legislación Penal. También lo hizo con respecto a las enunciaciones de los organismos internacionales, categorizándola como “toda conducta, acción u omisión, que de manera directa o indirecta, tanto en el ámbito público como en el privado, basada en una relación desigual de poder, afecte su vida, libertad, dignidad, integridad física, psicológica, sexual, económica o patrimonial, como así también su seguridad personal”.: http://www.jus.gob.ar/media/3128472/Encuesta%20de%20violencias%20contra%20las%20mujeres%20-%20FINAL%2026-10.pdf
[851] ↑ «Ley de protección integral para prevenir, sancionar y erradicar la violencia contra las mujeres en los ámbitos en que desarrollen sus relaciones interpersonales». Organización de los Estados Americanos. 1 de abril de 2009. Consultado el 10 de marzo de 2019.: https://www.oas.org/dil/esp/Ley_de_Proteccion_Integral_de_Mujeres_Argentina.pdf
[859] ↑ Busso, Anabella. «The axes of Cristina Fernández´s external action: changes towards a new horizon or changes to consolidate the course?». Revista de relaciones Internacionales n.º 50/2016 1 (140): 140.
[860] ↑ Protección integral a las mujeres en Argentina: de 1944 a la ley 26.485, Yuba, Gabriela Elena I. Pag 102 Editorial Rubial- Culzoni, 978-987-30-2248-7.
[877] ↑ KEMELMAJER de CARLUCCI, Aída R., "El derecho de familia en la República Argentina en los inicios del siglo XXI. Su inexorable proceso de constitucionalización y adecuación a los tratados internacionales de derechos humanos", Revista de Derecho Comparado, Derecho de Familia-II, nro. 10, Ed. Rubinzal-Culzoni, Buenos Aires, 2015. ISSN : 2341-2216.
[878] ↑ Zaffaroni R: Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación Comentado, Tomo IV, arts. 594 a 723, Rubinzal Culzoni Editores, Santa Fe, 2015, pág 39.
[880] ↑ Nejamkis, L. (2016). Políticas migratorias en la Argentina 1976-2010. De la “Doctrina de Seguridad Nacional” a la consolidación del Derecho Humano a la migración. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Prometeo.
[881] ↑ Kollmann, Raúl (9 de febrero de 2009). «En los últimos tres años, 700 000 personas pidieron la residencia. Desde Paraguay y Bolivia, y también de Estados Unidos». Página/12. Consultado el 9 de febrero de 2009.: http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-119729-2009-02-09.html
[882] ↑ Varios (2002). Los trabajadores y las trabajadores migrantes (Educación Obrera N.º 129 edición). Ginebra: Organización Internacional del Trabajo.
[890] ↑ a b Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas DI.
[891] ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas Benetton-Cué.
[892] ↑ Rodríguez Duch, Juan Manuel; García Laroca, Manuela; Garriga Olmo, Santiago; Aranguren, Luciano (2017). «Apuntes sobre propiedad comunitaria indígena». XVI Jornadas Interescuelas/Departamentos de Historia. Editorial Universitaria de la Patagonia. p. 44. - [http://www.uba.ar/archivos_ddhh/image/DOSSIER%20PROPIEDAD%20COMUNITARIA%20INDIGENA%20(Final).pdf](http://www.uba.ar/archivos_ddhh/image/DOSSIER%20PROPIEDAD%20COMUNITARIA%20INDIGENA%20(Final).pdf)
[895] ↑ Carolina Crespo Tiempos de Reparación. Reflexiones sobre las políticas de restitución de ancestros indígenas en la Patagonia Argentina,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas Buenos Aires, Argentina 000-0002-1186-1290.
[899] ↑ Endere, Martin. Entre Lonkos y ‘ólogos.’ La participación de la comunidad indígena rankülche de Argentina en la investigación arqueológica. Arqueología Suramericana 2, 71.
[917] ↑ BERGEL, Salvador (2015). Derechos y actos personalísimos: la inclusión de los temas bioéticos. En BERGEL, S.; FLAH, L.; HERRERA, M.; LAMM, E.; WIERZBA, S., Bioética en el Código Civil y Comercial. Buenos Aires.
[918] ↑ «BOLETIN OFICIAL REPUBLICA ARGENTINA - CENTRO INTERNACIONAL PARA LA PROMOCIÓN DE LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS - Decreto 578/2023». www.boletinoficial.gob.ar. Consultado el 18 de julio de 2025.: https://www.boletinoficial.gob.ar/detalleAviso/primera/297817
[922] ↑ Malvinas, Soberanía y Memoria: Los debates sobre la identificación de cuerpos en el Cementerio de Darwin y las identidades en disputa de los veteranos de guerra y los caídos en combate.: https://cdsa.aacademica.org/000-019/754.pdf
[926] ↑ «Reelaboran los pliegos para concursos públicos para la televisión digital abierta». Agencia de Noticias Télam. 24 de julio de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 28 de julio de 2012. Consultado el 1 de septiembre de 2012.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120728043626/http://telam.com.ar/nota/32703
[945] ↑ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1723503-confirman-el-apagon-de-la-tv-analogica-argentina-para-2019 Archivado el 16 de noviembre de 2018 en Wayback Machine. • «Televisión digital abierta – Arsat». www.arsat.com.ar. Archivado desde el original el 17 de julio de 2017. Consultado el 24 de julio de 2017.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1723503-confirman-el-apagon-de-la-tv-analogica-argentina-para-2019
[947] ↑ «Convenio OEI - Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios I». Archivado desde el original el 24 de noviembre de 2015. Consultado el 3 de marzo de 2018. • «Convenio OEI - Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios II». Archivado desde el original el 24 de noviembre de 2015. Consultado el 3 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20151124163946/http://www.oei.org.ar/forms/contratacion/documentos/LPN_04_2013.pdf
[959] ↑ Informe de la web oficial de Reporteros sin fronteras. Archivado el 23 de octubre de 2010 en Wayback Machine. Consultado el 26 de febrero de 2011. • Diario Tiempo Argentino: Elogios para la Argentina y críticas al Grupo Clarín. Archivado el 1 de marzo de 2011 en Wayback Machine. Consultado el 26 de febrero de 2011.: http://es.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html
[960] ↑ a b c Poder Ejecutivo Nacional (11 de septiembre de 2009). «Proyecto de Ley 0025-PE-2009». Cámara de Diputados de la Nación Argentina. Archivado desde el original el 7 de octubre de 2009. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009. «Cristina envió un proyecto para despenalizar calumnias e injurias» Archivado el 15 de septiembre de 2009 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario Clarín del 12 de septiembre de 2009; consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009.: https://web.archive.org/web/20091007043418/http://www1.hcdn.gov.ar/dependencias/dsecretaria/Periodo2009/PDF2009/TP2009/0025-PE-09.pdf
[961] ↑ Código Penal, Art. 112 (antes de su derogación): «El reo de calumnia o injuria equívoca o encubierta que rehusare dar en juicio explicaciones satisfactorias sobre ella, sufrirá del mínimum a la mitad de la pena correspondiente a la calumnia o injuria manifiesta».
[963] ↑ Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación Argentina. Fallos 314:1517.
[964] ↑ Cámara de Diputados de la Nación Argentina (28 de octubre de 2009). «Media sanción del proyecto de Ley 0025-PE-2009». Cámara de Diputados de la Nación Argentina. Archivado desde el original el 29 de diciembre de 2009. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009.
[965] ↑ «Diputados aprobó la despenalización de calumnias e injurias». La Nación. 28 de octubre de 2009. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009.
[972] ↑ «El Senado Nacional convirtió en Ley el proyecto que declara de interés público la fabricación, comercialización y distribución de papel para diarios y además ratificó el marco que regula la norma». ARBIA - Asociación de Radiodifusoras Bonaerenses y del Interior de la República Argentina. 22 de diciembre de 2011.: http://www.arbia.org.ar/nov-detalle.php?nov=1125&Papel_para_diarios_es_Ley
[978] ↑ [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130121926/http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/11/15/um/m-01803397.htm Archivado el 30 de enero de 2009 en Wayback Machine. Inauguraron en Mendoza el observatorio de rayos cósmicos más grande del mundo, Diario Clarín 11 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/11/15/um/m-01803397.htm
[982] ↑ «Se presentó a la científica repatriada 1000», artículo del 7 octubre de 2013 publicado originalmente en el sitio web Raíces, del Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (Buenos Aires). Desde diciembre de 2015, el sitio ha sido prácticamente desmantelado, aunque sus páginas borradas pueden encontrarse en el sitio web Archive (Islandia).: https://archive.today/20140209174733/http://www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar/noti_repatriada1000.htm
[983] ↑ «Retrocede la fuga de cerebros argentinos: el retorno al país de científicos argentinos como política de Estado», artículo de 2010, publicado en el sitio web de la OEI (Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos).: http://www.oei.es/divulgacioncientifica/reportajes_487.htm
[984] ↑ «Ley 25.922 - LEY DE PROMOCION DE LA INDUSTRIA DEL SOFTWARE - Definición, ámbito de aplicación y alcances. Tratamiento fiscal para el sector. Importaciones. Fondo Fiduciario de Promoción de la Industria del Software (FONSOFT). Infracciones y sanciones. Disposiciones generales».: http://www.agencia.mincyt.gob.ar/upload/ley_25922-2.pdf
[1002] ↑ «Desde 2004, el presupuesto del Conicet aumentó un 600%» Archivado el 9 de diciembre de 2011 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el sitio web Argentina.ar; consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011. • «Ciencia y tecnología: una inversión fundamental», artículo en el sitio web Argentina.ar; consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011.• «Desde 2007, el presupuesto de la CNEA aumentó más del 750%», artículo en el sitio web de la Cnea; consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011.• «Ya suman 768 los científicos repatriados» Archivado el 5 de octubre de 2011 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el sitio web Argentina.ar; consultado el 6 de octubre de 2011.: http://www.argentina.ar/_es/ciencia-y-educacion/C7868-el-conicet-aumento-su-presupuesto-600-por-ciento-desde-2004.php
[1014] ↑ a b «El Jefe de Proyecto del Arsat 1 explicó que la Argentina está en el grupo de ocho países que desarrollan satélites de telecomunicaciones». LRA Radio Nacional. 26 de agosto de 2014. Consultado el 30 de agosto de 2014. • «PRIMEROS SATÉLITES NACIONALES DE COMUNICACIONES, UN PROYECTO DE ARSAT E INVAP». minplan.gob.ar. Archivado desde el original el 6 de junio de 2013.: http://www.radionacional.com.ar/?p=24749
[1018] ↑ «El jefe de proyecto del Arsat 1 explicó que la Argentina está en el grupo de ocho países que desarrollan satélites de telecomunicaciones». LRA Radio Nacional. 26 de agosto de 2014. Consultado el 30 de agosto de 2014.: http://www.radionacional.com.ar/?p=24749
[1040] ↑ a b c «El Museo del Bicentenario que inauguró CFK». Diario Perfil. 24 de mayo de 2011 de 2011. Consultado el 20 de noviembre. Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «perfil» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes.: http://www.perfil.com/contenidos/2011/05/24/noticia_0040.html
[1058] ↑ Sirven (17 DE JULIO DE 2011). «¿Por qué los actores quieren a Cristina?». La Nación. • «Otro empujón para el cine argentino». Página 12. 7 DE JUNIO DE 2014. • «Cristina defendió la ley del doblaje de películas extranjeras». Diario Popular. 17 de julio de 2013.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1390124-por-que-los-actores-quieren-a-cristina
[1059] ↑ Neveleff, Julio (2013). Historia del Festival Internacional de Cine de Mar del Plata. Volumen 1. Corregidor. ISBN 9789500520850.
[1063] ↑ La inauguración de una nueva sede de Radio Nacional en la provincia del Neuquén, artículo en el sitio web Radio Nacional (Buenos Aires).: http://www.radionacional.com.ar/?p=54081
[1075] ↑ «Concluyen las obras en el Salón Azul». El Parlamentario. 26 de septiembre de 2011. • Sergio Kiernan (9 de junio de 2012). «Un plan para el Congreso». Página/12. • «Ingeniería firmó un convenio para la restauración del Congreso». Diagonales (La Plata). 8 de junio de 2010. Archivado desde el original el 8 de agosto de 2014. Consultado el 9 de junio de 2018.: http://www.parlamentario.com/noticia-39583.html
[1108] ↑ chenkel, Erica y Almeida, Fernando. (2015).La política turística y la intervención del Estado. El caso de Argentina. Revista Perfiles Latinoamericanos. FLACSO, México.
[1111] ↑ «Argentina es el sexto país del mundo con mayor crecimiento en llegada de turistas entre enero y agosto del 2014, triplicando el incremento de la media mundial» Archivado el 14 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine., artículo del 25 de noviembre de 2014 en el sitio web Mensajero Web.: http://mensajeroweb.com.ar/post/44815/un-top-ten-que-enorgullece.html
[1130] ↑ «Claudio Morresi: “El deporte no es entretenimiento y negocio, es una herramienta más para el desarrollo humano”». Facultad de Periodismo y Comunicación Social de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Archivado desde el original el 20 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 11 de febrero de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180620001741/http://perio.unlp.edu.ar/node/5651
[1136] ↑ «Georgina Bardach y otro logro: pileta olímpica para Córdoba». DXRV. 24 de octubre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 21 de agosto de 2016. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018. ; «Comenzó el Campeonato Nacional en la nueva pileta olímpica del Kempes». Gobierno de Córdoba. 13 de diciembre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 16 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160821052748/http://dxtv.gob.ar/noticias/georgina-bardach-y-otro-laurel-mas-pileta-olimpica-para-cordoba/
[1145] ↑ «Georgina Bardach y otro logro: pileta olímpica para Córdoba». DXRV. 24 de octubre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 21 de agosto de 2016. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018. ; «Comenzó el Campeonato Nacional en la nueva pileta olímpica del Kempes». Gobierno de Córdoba. 13 de diciembre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 16 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160821052748/http://dxtv.gob.ar/noticias/georgina-bardach-y-otro-laurel-mas-pileta-olimpica-para-cordoba/
[1148] ↑ «Remo. 'Es un sueño hecho realidad'». Club Náutico Zárate. 2011. Archivado desde el original el 22 de agosto de 2016. Consultado el 20 de agosto de 2016. «María Laura Ábalo describió: “Se compraron catorce botes alemanes de última generación para las catorce pruebas, cada uno tiene el suyo. Antes, nosotras remábamos en botes de varones de 90 kilos que nos quedaban enormes. Ahora utilizamos los que son específicamente para mujeres, de un peso de entre 65 y 75 kilos. En Río, en donde logré la medalla de bronce, competimos con un bote que pesaba 89, quince kilos más de lo normal”.».: https://web.archive.org/web/20160822120345/http://www.clubnauticozarate.com.ar/remo/%E2%80%9Ces-un-sueno-hecho-realidad%E2%80%9D/
[1164] ↑ «Conocé los seis proyectos para la reforma judicial que propone Cristina». La Voz del Interior. 8 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013. • «Primer paso hacia la reforma del Poder Judicial». Diario Página/12. 11 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013.
[1165] ↑ «Cristina presentó la reforma judicial». La Mañana de Neuquén. 9 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013. • «Cristina presentó su plan de reforma judicial». Diario Río Negro. 9 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013.
[1174] ↑ D'Elia, Vanesa Valeria (2009). «Determinantes del traspaso de los afiliados a capitalización al régimen previsional de reparto: evidencia para la Argentina». Revista Internacional de Seguridad Social 62 ISSN 1752-1734.
[1176] ↑ Tullio, Alejandro; Álvarez Travieso, María Florencia (2015). El desafío de la reforma política: reglas que cambian el juego electoral (1ª edición). Prometeo Libros. ISBN 9789875747357.
[1183] ↑ AN aprobó bajar de 18 a 16 años edad para votar Archivado el 3 de octubre de 2008 en Wayback Machine., FM Center, 11 de octubre de 2007.: http://www.fmcenteresnoticia.com.ve/node/1912
[1189] ↑ El federalismo electoral argentino. Sobrerrepresentación, reforma política y gobierno dividido en la Argentina, con Ernesto Calvo (comps.). EUDEBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2001. ISBN 9502311736. Pp. 278.
[1204] ↑ a b LPO. «Echegaray ganó un premio internacional de lucha contra la evasión». www.lapoliticaonline.com. Consultado el 12 de marzo de 2018.: http://www.lapoliticaonline.com/nota/92932/
[1237] ↑ «Garré creó las mesas barriales y zonales para controlar a la Federal». Zona Policial. 11 de junio de 2011. Consultado el 4 de julio de 2012. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://www.zonapolicial.com.ar/ver_noticias.php?id_nota=256
[1241] ↑ «Garré inauguró Nuevo Centro de Monitoreo en Balvanera». Ministerio de Seguridad. 26 de abril de 2012. Consultado el 20 de agosto de 2012. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://m.minseg.gob.ar/garré-inauguró-nuevo-centro-de-monitoreo-en-balvanera
[1258] ↑ «Los militares lucharán contra el narcotráfico» Archivado el 31 de enero de 2018 en Wayback Machine., artículo del 21 de julio de 2011 en el diario La Nación (Buenos Aires). Consultado el 1 de julio de 2012• «Operativo Escudo Norte» Archivado el 4 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine., artículo publicado en el sitio web del Ministerio de Seguridad. Consultado el 1 de julio de 2012.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1391188-cont-militares-contra-el-narcotrafico
[1279] ↑ «Histórico: Garré designó mujeres al mando de Comisarías de la Federal». Zona Policial. 2 de junio de 2011. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2012. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://www.zonapolicial.com.ar/ver_noticias.php?id_nota=238
[1284] ↑ «Los travestis vestirán uniformes femeninos en las Fuerzas de Seguridad». La Gaceta de Tucumán. 30 de noviembre de 2011. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2012.: http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/467493/tucumanos/
[1296] ↑ «La Presidenta presentó el SIBIOS». Políticos Online. 7 de noviembre de 2011. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2012.: http://www.politicosonline.com/link/46054
[1304] ↑ a b «Programa Nacional de Rescate y Acompañamiento a las Personas Damnificadas por el Delito de Trata». Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos.: http://www.jus.gob.ar/noalatrata.aspx
[1314] ↑ Gottero, Laura (enero-junio de 2015). «Construcciones y alcances del derecho Plan Nacional de Acción en Derechos Humanosprioridades de agenda y lineamientos de política pública desde un enfoque de derechos humanos». Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (92): 167-192. Consultado el 13 de mayo de 2025.: https://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r39665.pdf
[1316] ↑ DAMARCO, J. (2013). El delito de lavado de activos provenientes de delitos y su relación con algunos aspectos fiscales. Revista de Tributación. Asociación Argentina de Estudios Fiscales.
[1317] ↑ FERNANDEZ, J. R. (2009). Lavado de dinero, paraísos fiscales y secreto bancario.XIX Encuentro Anual Internacional de Administraciones Tributarias. Instituto de las Finanzas Públicas Argentinas. Buenos Aires: Revista Criterios Tributarios N.º 157.
[1319] ↑ BURKÚN, M. E. (2009). Las nuevas formas de control del fraude fiscal en la globalización. Documento presentado en el XIX Encuentro Anual Internacional de Administraciones Tributarias. Instituto de las Finanzas Públicas Argentinas. Buenos Aires: Revista Criterios Tributarios N° 157.
[1330] ↑ a b La modernización del sistema de Defensa en la Argentina del control civil de las fuerzas Armadas al gobierno político del sector IVÁN POCZYNOK, RAMIRO CORTESE UBACYT (2016).
[1332] ↑ a b Diamint, Ruth (2012), La institucionalidad democrática de la Defensa, Atlas Comparativo de la Defensa en América Latina y Caribe, RESDAL, Buenos Aires.
[1335] ↑ Ciudadanización y profesionalización militar. La reforma del sistema de justicia y disciplina de las Fuerzas Armadas. Argentina, 2006-2008, Germán Soprano.Revista Historia y Justicia [En línea], 6 | 2016, Publicado el 30 abril 2016, p 3.
[1336] ↑ Ugarte, Juan Manuel (2012), La política de Defensa argentina actual: del fortalecimiento normativo institucional a la construcción de una capacidad de Defensa eficaz en el marco de la cooperación regional, trabajo presentado en las VII Jornadas de Sociología, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires.
[1339] ↑ Matías Bailone, “El Código de Justicia Militar en la Argentina: crónica de una muerte anunciada”, Urbe et Ius, Revista de Opinión Jurídica, Newsletter nº 25, 2008, p. 5.
[1344] ↑ Gallo, Daniel. “La reparación de un buque único” Archivado el 21 de agosto de 2011 en Wayback Machine., La Nación, Buenos Aires, 29 de mayo de 2011.• https://www.infodefensa.com/latam/2009/08/29/noticia-la-fuerza-aerea-argentina-incorpora-tres-nuevos-saab-340.html.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1377180-la-reparacion-de-un-buque-unico
[1360] ↑ «Marcha atrás en otra privatización. Reestatizan una fábrica de aviones» Archivado el 22 de marzo de 2009 en Wayback Machine., La Nación, 18 de marzo de 2009.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1109695
[1403] ↑ Malvinas, nación e identidad en los discursos de Néstor Kirchner”. Jorge Arriaga, Revista Contemporánea: historia y problemas del siglo XX vol. 10, núm. 10, 2019, págs. 131.
[1452] ↑ CORIGLIANO, F. (2008). Híbridos teóricos y su impacto en la política exterior: El caso de los gobiernos de Néstor y Cristina Kirchner, en Boletín ISIAE, 47, CARI, Buenos Aires.
[1453] ↑ «El límite más extenso de la Argentina y nuestra frontera con la humanidad». COPLA. 2016. • «Límite exterior de la plataforma continental. Presentación argentina». Presidencia de la Nación Argentina. 2009.
[1454] ↑ Ricardo González-Leandri y Elda González Martínez, Las relaciones exteriores del gobierno Cristina Kirchner Cahiers des Amériques latines, 103. 2011.
[1455] ↑ Tendencias demográficas en el nuevo siglo. Nathalson Mariel ISSN-e 1851-703X, ISSN 1853-550X, Vol. 4, Nº. 6 (Primer semestre de), 2010 Flacso.
[1456] ↑ Tendencias demográficas en el nuevo siglo. Nathalson Mariel ISSN-e 1851-703X, ISSN 1853-550X, Vol. 4, Nº. 6, 2010 Flacso.
[1457] ↑ «Cristina Kirchner le tomó juramento a Débora Giorgi como nueva ministra de la Producción» Archivado el 26 de enero de 2009 en Wayback Machine., Clarín, 26 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/11/26/um/m-01810721.htm
[1494] ↑ Javier Calvo (27 de marzo de 2011). «Cristina sube y se acerca a la misma adhesión que tenía cuando asumió». Diario Perfil. Archivado desde el original el 24 de agosto de 2011. Consultado el 7 de abril de 2011.
[1501] ↑ «Los carteles, los cantitos y los videos», artículo del 9 de noviembre de 2011 en el diario Página/12 (Buenos Aires). Consultado el 25 de enero de 2013.
[1515] ↑ Nicolás Lantos (10 de diciembre de 2015). «“Podemos mirar a los ojos a todos los argentinos”». Página/12. • «Cristina Kirchner se despidió ante una multitud en Plaza de Mayo: "A las 12 me convierto en calabaza"». Infobae. 9 de diciembre de 2015.: https://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-287943-2015-12-10.html
[1518] ↑ Roberto Álvarez Mur (10 de diciembre de 2015). «“Tomen su bandera y sean los dirigentes de sus destinos”». Diario Contexto. • «Cristina dio su último discurso como Presidenta de la Nación». Bariloche Opina. 9 de diciembre de 2015. • «Cristina se despidió ante una multitud en Plaza de Mayo». 2261 - Noticias de Lobería. 10 de diciembre de 2015. • «Cristina ante una multitud: "En mi vida pensé que iba a ver un presidente cautelar durante 12 horas en mi país"». Minuto1. 9 de diciembre de 2015.: https://www.diariocontexto.com.ar/tomen-su-bandera-y-sean-los-dirigentes-de-sus-destinos/
In October 2011, she was re-elected president with more than 54% of the votes, obtaining a difference of more than 37 points against the candidate of the Frente Amplio Progresista "Frente Amplio Progresista (Argentina)"), Hermes Binner. With this victory, she became the first woman re-elected in America and achieved the highest number and percentage of votes in an election since the return of democracy in 1983. In addition, she obtained the second largest historical advantage over second place, only 0.13% below Juan Domingo Perón's victory in 1973.
Economic policy
Contenido
Las políticas macroeconómicas iniciadas en 2003 y continuadas bajo Cristina Fernández de Kirchner (CFK) favorecieron a los sectores productivos, impulsando el mercado interno, la capacidad instalada y un proceso de sustitución de importaciones en la industria nacional. El alza de precios de commodities y la recuperación industrial revirtieron la desmejora de indicadores sociales y laborales que existía desde fines de los setenta. [14].
Social and Economic Improvements
By 2011, poverty fell to 5.7% and indigence to 1.9% (according to ECLAC), positioning Argentina as the country with the least poverty in Latin America and the second with the least indigence. The middle class doubled in the decade (from 9.3 to 18.6 million people).[15][16] Independent calculations showed a decrease of 81% in poverty and 91% in extreme poverty. The country implemented one of the largest conditional cash transfer programs in Latin America, reducing unemployment by more than half and considerably reducing economic inequality, according to The New York Times.[17][18].
In 2015, Argentina was the second Ibero-American nation with the highest human development index (behind Spain).[19][20] That same year, the World Bank classified Argentina as a high-income economy, with a PPP per capita income of more than $16,000 (the second highest in Latin America).
Unemployment and Investment
Unemployment showed a constant decrease: from 17.3% in 2003 to 5.9% at the end of his second term (the lowest level in three decades).[21][22] The minimum rate in 20 years was in 2011 (6.7%). Added to this was an increase in registered work to a historical record and the growth of the real minimum wage by 1338% in ten years.
Average investment, which was 19% of GDP (1993-2001), rose to an average of 22.5% (2006-2011), with a peak of 24.5% in 2011.[23][24] Gross Domestic Fixed Investment reached a record of 25.1% of GDP in 2012. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) increased almost seven times, going from $1,652 million in 2003 to **$11,655 million\\ in 2015, being one of the three South American countries with the highest increase in FDI (ECLAC). The BCRA's international reserves grew steadily until reaching \\$31,490 million** as of December 2015. 2,000 M in April and without rate changes it aspired to $6,908 M |access date=June 11, 2014 |archive url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714204250/http://www.diariobae.com/notas/13096-bcra-compro-casi-us2-000-m-en-abril-y-sin-cambios-de-tasas-ayer-aspiro-6-908-m.html |archive date=July 14, 2014 }}</ref>.
Fiscal policy
During his administration, state collection was modernized with the introduction of electronic invoice, computer audit, Tax Code, Digital Signature and simplification of tax processes, seeking to reduce evasion and increase efficiency.[25].
In the economic sphere, in 2012 the Competition Defense Court and the Secretariats for the Investigation of Anticompetitive Conduct were created. In 2009, the Federal Solidarity Fund was established, sharing 30% of the income from soybean withholdings "Export Withholdings (Argentina)") with provinces and municipalities.[26][27][28][29] These funds were automatically allocated to the jurisdictions for infrastructure works and productive investment (health, educational, roads, etc.), prohibiting their use for expenses ordinary.[30][31].
Additionally, the Argentina Exporta program was created in 2009 to promote and monitor export policies. By decree, import tariffs were modified, bringing them to zero for inputs necessary in the production of key sectors (textile, steel, automotive, chemical, food, agriculture and hydrocarbons).
Monetary and banking policy
During CFK's first term, Martín Redrado presided over the Central Bank (BCRA) until his replacement by Miguel Ángel Pesce.[32][33][34].
In February 2010, Mercedes Marcó del Pont assumed the presidency of the BCRA. Under his management, the Organic Charter was reformed to restore the BCRA's role as a promoter of growth and employment.[35] In addition, a floor was set for interest rates on fixed-term deposits to encourage savings in pesos.[36][37] During this period, reserves reached a historical record of US$52,000 million.[38][39].
The Argentine financial system was consolidated: bank net worth improved solvency,[40] and stood out as one of the most developed in the region.[41] Deposits in pesos grew strongly, and in 2012 they increased 39.1% (loans 41.8%).[42] In 2013, deposits reached $618,617 million.
The BCRA also implemented regulations such as the "productive investment lines" (LIP), a 36-month financing quota in pesos for companies (especially SMEs), and a refund system to promote added value to raw materials.[43][44][45]
In November 2013, Juan Carlos Fábrega replaced Marcó del Pont, initiating a policy of monetary contraction and rate increases to reduce inflation.[46] Fábrega resigned in October 2014, being succeeded by Alejandro Vanoli.
The National Inclusive Banking Plan was launched to extend financial services to excluded sectors. As part of this plan, the opening of bank branches and ATMs in areas with low coverage was promoted, and free fund transfers (up to $50,000 per day) over the counter or electronic means were established.[47]
Measures were adopted to protect financial users and a financial education policy was implemented in agreement with the Ministry of Education.[48][49] The banking system was consolidated: net worth increased by $3,000 million in 2007, and it became one of the most developed in Latin America in asset management.[40][41].
In addition, the approval of Capital Market Law 26,831 was promoted,[50] which increased the oversight powers of the National Securities Commission (CNV) and the Central Bank, seeking to expand operations with federal criteria. Thanks to this law, Argentina's CNV was accepted into the IOSCO Multilateral Memorandum of Information Exchange in 2014.[51].
Driven by economic growth, bank deposits increased from $169,729 million in 2006 to more than **$618,617 million** in 2013.
Since 2013, financial inclusion programs focused on SMEs and neighborhood/family businesses were implemented, given that these companies generate 85% of employment in Argentina.[52].
In March 2013, the Minister of Economy, Axel Kicillof, and the CNV launched a package of measures for the financial inclusion of SMEs:
The issuance of shares by SMEs was regulated as a form of financing and to become open companies. The Deferred Payment Check instrument was improved, extending the auction period and establishing settlement in 24 hours. The Common Investment Funds were forced to direct at least 2.5% of their assets to finance private initiatives.
Tourism Promotion Policy
In 2007, the National Tourism Plan 2010/2015 was launched with two key objectives: democratize and massify domestic tourism (seeking to incorporate 65% of the population) and diversify inbound tourism.[57] The arrival of visitors from the United States, Canada, and Europe was encouraged, and new markets were opened, especially China and the Middle East, through trade missions.
With the creation of the Secretariat (later Ministry) of Tourism, comprehensive measures were implemented, including:[58].
• - VAT refund on accommodation for foreign tourists.
• - Lower VAT on domestic tourism and reduction of gross income from 5% to 1%.
• - Elimination of the reciprocity rate for priority markets and implementation of electronic visas.
• - VAT refund and reimbursement for social tourism and retirees (since 2008).
Inbound tourism deepened its growth and generated a record tourist surplus that exceeded 12 billion dollars.
Internal trade policy
During Axel Kicillof's management in the Ministry of Economy, programs were launched to stimulate consumption, such as Precios Cares and Ahora 12.
Food distribution programs at cost price were implemented, such as "Meat for all", "Dairy for all" and "Pork for all".[59][60][61].
The Now 12 program offered credit for the purchase of national products in 12 interest-free installments, seeking to promote consumption, employment and industry. In 18 months, it reached sales of $22,968 million, with more than 12 million operations and 166,169 participating businesses.[62].
In 2014, a Consumer Protection Law was launched along with a package of regulations to better inform consumers and streamline conflict resolution through a new Consumer Justice.[63] Careful Prices were also continued and neighborhood fairs were promoted to eliminate intermediaries.
To boost the textile industry, credit programs for SMEs and consumers and specific plans such as "Clothes for all" and "Jeans for all" were launched.[64][65].
Law 26,993 created a conflict resolution system in consumer relations, including the Prior Conciliation Service, the Audit and the National Justice in Consumer Relations.
Industrial policy
In 2011, the Industrial Strategic Plan 2020 was launched to increase productivity in key sectors.[66][67] This boosted the growth of industrial parks, exceeding 150 in seven years, especially in the province of Buenos Aires.[68][69].
Industrial incentives were promoted such as the Software Promotion Law,[70] the Law for the Promotion of the Integration of Auto Parts and programs for the development of suppliers and the competitive adaptation of SMEs. CFK was an active negotiator in Mercosur, ALADI and in bilateral agreements with China and India.
The mandate continued the line of diversifying the productive matrix with high added value:.
• - Pharmaceutical Industry: Increased production by more than 273% and exports by 193% since 2003 (mainly to Brazil, Colombia and Uruguay). Argentina began to produce and export oncological, cardiovascular and HIV-AIDS medications globally since 2010.[71].
• - Automotive Industry: Experienced exponential growth of almost 400% in the decade. Production reached an all-time high of 828,771 units in 2011 (an increase of 388% since 2003). Between 2008 and 2013, investments of $16.9 billion were recorded.[72] Law 26,393 (2008) strengthened the national auto parts sector by requiring a Minimum National Content of 30% for automobiles.[73].
• - Other Industrial Sectors: The textile industry grew by 16% in 2010.[74] Cement production tripled in 12 years.[75] Employment in construction grew from 70,000 to 380,000 registered employees (2002-2013).[76].
• - Agricultural Sector: Record harvests of soybeans (52 million tons, 2009/2010) and corn (25 million tons, 2012/2013) were recorded.[77].
• - Mining: Foreign Direct Investment grew at 47% annually (2007-2012). Jobs (direct and indirect) increased from 79,000 to 505,000 between 2003 and 2013.[78].
Additionally, the state company INVAP was consolidated, providing other countries with systems for nuclear reactors and aerospace technology (satellites).[79].
To strengthen competitiveness, in 2011 the Ministry of Industry launched the Access to Credit and Competitiveness Program (PACC), which finances studies, R&D, design, engineering, quality certification and software development, among others.[80].
The BCRA promoted the Investment Financing Line for Productive Activities for SMEs, granting $5,000 million. In addition, it established the Productive Investment Line (LCIP), a regulation that requires banks to allocate 7.5% of their deposits to productive loans, prioritizing micro, small and medium-sized companies.
This mandatory line mobilized almost **$35,000 million** in one year (2012-2013), with 56% of the amount allocated to SMEs.[81].
Foreign investment
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Argentina showed strong growth, going from an annual average of $5,350 million (2004-2007) to $9,726 million in 2008.[89].
In the first half of 2012, FDI was 42% higher than in 2011. In 2012, FDI reached a record of $12,551 million, an increase of 27% compared to 2011 (compared to 6.7% in the rest of Latin America), and it was positioned as the fifth Latin American country with the highest FDI reception.[90][91].
The policies promoted encouraged the reinvestment of profits in the domestic market, which in 2012 reached $7,984 million (more than double that of 2011).[92] In the last year of management, FDI inflows reached $11,655 million, an increase of 130% compared to 2014, according to ECLAC.[93].
Additionally, there was notable development in the electronic, electromechanical and lighting industry (with 70% exporting companies), with expectations of exporting $700 million in 2013 to more than 60 countries.[94] Since 2013, the country produces chips (semiconductors) with a capacity of 1,150 million per year, thanks to an investment of $1,200 millions.[95].
Through the state company INVAP, the country exports nuclear reactor systems and aerospace technology (design and operation of satellites).[96].
Comprehensive Fund for Regional Development
FONDER (Comprehensive Fund for Regional Development) is a program focused on strengthening local productive development in relegated areas with defined projects.[97].
FONDER facilitated a large amount of public works and energy investment ($80 billion), installing more than 8,700 megawatts, laying more than 4,000 km of high-tension lines, and expanding gas pipeline capacity.[98] Credit for productive financing increased significantly, from 7.7% of GDP in 2003 to 16.9% of GDP at the end 2013.[99].
The development of the electronic, electromechanical and software industry was promoted:
• - 70% of the companies in this sector are exporters, with $700 million exported in 2013 to more than sixty countries.[94].
• - Since 2013, the country has been producing chips (1,150 million semiconductors/year) with an investment of $1,200 million.[95][100].
• - The state company INVAP exports nuclear reactor systems and aerospace technology (design and operation of satellites).[96].
Mining
Following the signing of a federal mining agreement and boosting laws in 2010, large-scale metal mining experienced strong development and stability.
• - FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) in mining grew at 47% annually between 2007 and 2012.
• - Employment (direct and indirect) increased from 79,000 positions in 2003 to 505,000 in 2013.
• - Mineral exports went from $2.9 billion in 2003 to **$23,059 million in 2013**.[101].
• - Mining activity maintained a net exchange surplus since January 2003.
• - Between 2003 and 2013, investment projects in execution grew from 18 to 614, and mineral production multiplied by ten.[102][103].
In 2014, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner inaugurated the Mining Services Center in San Juan, seeking to enhance growth and local value addition in a sustainable way.[104].
Debt relief policy
Regarding external debt, Argentina carried out a debt swap that achieved discounts of between 66% and 70% of the amount owed (led by Hernán Lorenzino and Amado Boudou). In 2010, the exchange for holdouts was reopened, achieving a debt reduction from 50% to 66.3%, with a final adhesion of more than 97% of creditors.[105][106].
In May 2014, the payment of $9.7 billion in default since 2001 was agreed with the Paris Club.[107].
According to the IMF, between 2003 and 2013, Argentina achieved a 73% reduction in its external debt relative to GDP, the highest level of debt relief in the world.[108] External debt as a percentage of GDP fell from 44.3% to 22.2% during the period 2011-2015.[109].
Science and technology policy
Se promovió fuertemente la ciencia, tecnología e industria, destacando la legalización de patentes por el INTA (semillas y leche maternizada) y la sanción de la Ley de Promoción de Software Nacional.[110].
Software and Technology Industry
The Software Promotion Law (Law 25,922, extended in 2011) exempted the sector from taxes for 10 years.
Between 2003 and 2013, the software sector grew significantly: sales +313%, exports +414% and employment +266%.[111]
The amount of human resources dedicated to science and technology grew by 66%.[112]
A scientific-technological hub was inaugurated in Buenos Aires and SINVICA (National Aerospace Surveillance and Control System) was created, commissioning INVAP to develop primary and secondary radars, installed in several provinces.[113][114].
Dozens of complex electronic product factories (cell phones, computers) were installed in Tierra del Fuego, protected by Law 19,640 and benefited by Decree 252/2009 (reduction of internal taxes).
After implementation, electronic production in the province multiplied by 7 in one year (2011). Investments reached $370 million.[115].
The President criticized the origin of the crisis, calling it the "Jazz Effect" and questioned the US economic model.
A Crisis Committee and a development plan were implemented that included: creation of the Ministry of Production, tax moratorium and money laundering for SMEs, credits to promote production and consumption ($13,200 million) and a Public Works Plan ($21,000 million) to double employment in the sector.[116][117].
Argentina, as a member of the G20, achieved the inclusion of the ILO in the 2009 summit and the exclusion of the mention of labor flexibility in the draft of the final London declaration.[118].
Despite the crisis, exports grew, reaching a historical record of $84,295 million in 2011 (+24% year-on-year).[119].
The nationalization of Correo Argentino, Aerolíneas Argentinas, YPF and the AFJP was completed.[120]
Recognition and Export.
Argentina received an award from the ITU (UN) for its contribution to the digital revolution, highlighting projects such as the fiber optic network, Open Digital TV and the Conectar Igualdad plan.
The state company exported medicines to 17 countries, generating new business worth $500 million since 2013.[121].
Policy in agriculture, livestock, fishing and food
Agriculture
Argentina's agricultural sector has experienced notable growth, with soybeans consolidated as its main crop. In a decade until October 2011, the planted area and soybean production increased by 122% and 152% respectively.
The soybean harvest reached a record of 52 million tons in 2009-2010 and 61.4 million tons in 2014-2015.[122] Corn production also grew, from 23.7 million tons (2010-2011) to 25 million (2012-2013). Minor crops such as rice and barley also showed growth, with productions close to two million and five million tons, respectively.[77] Strong modernization was observed, with a 97.3% increase in the sale of agricultural machinery in 2013 compared to the previous year.[123][124].
In 2009, the Agricultural Social Monotribute was established free of charge by Cristina Fernández,[125] so that small rural producers and agricultural workers (about 337,196 actively working people) could regularize their employment situation. This regime facilitated access to health, retirement contributions, and the possibility of billing, benefiting some 50,000 farmers.[126] The beneficiaries, who produced 60% of the food for domestic consumption, obtained social coverage (including the Mandatory Medical Plan and social work) for themselves and their families, reaching one hundred thousand beneficiaries in total, in addition to joining the formal economy without tax cost. national.[127][128][129].
The extra-pampa agricultural sector showed notable growth. In the Northwest, minor crops such as rice and barley tripled their production compared to the previous decade, reaching around 2 million tons and 5 million tons respectively in 2013.[77][130][131] By 2015, rice production doubled to 4.1 million tons, adding provinces such as Buenos Aires and Santa Fe.[132]
Irrigation increased significantly: irrigated hectares went from 1,355,000 in 2002 to 2,200,000 in 2008,[133] with the creation of the Rural Change Unit (UCRA) for irrigation works in arid or semi-arid areas.
The dairy industry, concentrated in the central region, grew from 8,305 million liters in 2007 to 13,557 million liters in 2015, with the launch of a plan to modernize 13 basins. The production of yogurts and fermented milks grew by an average annual 7.83% (2007-2014), and the sector recorded foreign sales of US$ 1,571 million.[134].
In 2015, the Small Dairy Producer Recomposition Regime was launched to grant tax credits to small producers (up to 6,000 liters per day).[135] That same year, the Small Grain Producer Stimulus Program (PEPP) was created, which benefited 56,355 producers with non-refundable contributions.
In the period 2001-2002 to 2012-2013, the total grain harvest reached a record (until then) of 105.8 million tons (an increase of 53%). During that decade, record increases were recorded in the production of barley (900%), peanuts (181%), cotton (149%), rice (120%), and corn (99%).[136]
Wine production received a strong boost since 2008. Foreign sales reached a historical record of USD$650 million in 2009 (17% increase compared to 2008). Production grew annually: 9.9% (2009), 10.3% (2010), 8.5% (2011) and 4.8% (2012).[137] In 2014, Argentina consolidated itself as the fifth largest producer in the world and the largest in the southern hemisphere, with 15.2 million hectoliters.[138].
A policy to support the sector was implemented, with the elimination and reduction of tax burdens and withholdings, including a 50% cut in charges and a reduction in withholdings in May 2009.[139] In 2011, the expansion of Bodegas Bianchi in San Rafael, Mendoza, was inaugurated, with an investment of 45 million.[140][141].
Finally, in 2015, soybean exports to China were a record, totaling 9,438,424 tons, an increase of 57.19% compared to 2014.[142].
On March 11, 2008, in a context of strong international rise in food prices and influenced by speculative movements in commodity markets in the United States prior to the economic crisis of 2008-2009, the Minister of Economy, Martín Lousteau, announced new moving values for soybean and sunflower exports, with reductions for corn and wheat.[143][144][145] The objective was to mitigate the price fluctuations, combat "soyization" and preserve the "high dollar policy." This caused a 129-day lockout with road blockades.
Organizations of small producers and peasants, such as the National Family Agriculture Forum (FONAF), the Missionary Agrarian Movement (MAM), and the National Indigenous Peasant Movement, rejected the lock out, accusing the four main agricultural entities of defending only their own interests.[144][146][147][148][149][150].
At the same time, the political group Unión por Todos (led by Patricia Bullrich) called on agricultural producers to commit crimes (such as tax evasion, smuggling, and grain hoarding) to "bring down the government."[151] Opposition leader Elisa Carrió accused Julio Cobos of coup plotting against President Fernández.[152].
During most of the first decade of the 21st century, Argentina was positioned as one of the five largest honey producers in the world, being at the same time the first exporter of bulk honey, increasing its production until it became the third world producer of honey and the first exporter of quality honey, with more than 28,000 bee producers and 4.5 million hives with a distribution that covers almost the entire national territory.[153][154].
In 2014, the policies implemented positioned Argentina as the third world producer of raw soybeans and the first producer of soybean oil.[155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162][162].
Incentives were announced for the dairy industry, a negotiating table for beef, and $1.5 billion pesos (USD 500 million) to compensate small and medium-sized businessmen, those who were further away from the ports, and to promote dairy and livestock production in the face of the expansion of soybeans.[163].
The growth extended to minor crops: rice and barley reached productions close to 2 million and 5 million tons, respectively.[77] In addition, strong modernization was observed; The sale of agricultural machinery increased by 97.3% in 2013 compared to the previous year.[123].
At the end of the first government period in 2011, agricultural exports exceeded the 2008 figures by USD 28.7 billion. Exports of the main crops (soybeans, wheat, corn and sunflower) reached the historical record of USD 29.6 billion in 2011, 34% more than in 2010. Argentina's total exports ended 2011 with a record of USD 80,600 million.[164] The soybean harvest grew to 55 million tons in 2014.[165][166].
In August 2009, the Federal Solidarity Fund was created, sharing 30% of the income from withholdings on soy exports with Provinces and Municipalities through a Decree of Necessity and Urgency.[28][26][27] At the end of 2009, the exemption from payment of internal taxes on sparkling wine was extended for two years.[167].
Total agricultural production grew by 41%, from 70.8 million tons (2002/3) to 100 million (2010), increasing the planted area and productivity by 25%. Beef production rose from 2.5 to 2.6 million tons.[168].
In the 2013-2014 campaign, the largest harvest in history was achieved with 105.8 million tons (an increase of 53% compared to the beginning of the decade). Record increases were recorded in the last decade for barley (900%), peanuts (181%), cotton (149%), rice (120%) and corn (99%).[169].
A strong modernization was observed: the sale of agricultural machinery increased by 97.3% in 2013 compared to the previous year.[123].
• - Incentives and Compensations: In 2010, withholdings were eliminated on 50 items exported from regional economies (including grapevines, olives, rice, dairy products and meats, among others).[170] In 2014, the Small Grain Producer Stimulus Program (PEPP) was launched with $2.5 billion for 48,000 producers of wheat, soybeans, corn and sunflower. $1.5 billion pesos (USD 500 million) were allocated to compensate small/medium producers and promote dairy and livestock farming.[163].
• - Irrigation: The UCRA Program (since 2012) promoted irrigation works. Irrigated hectares increased from 1,355,000 (2002) to 2,200,000 (2008).[133] Irrigation works were inaugurated with an investment of more than $530 million in Mendoza.[171].
• - Agrobiotechnology: INTA developed new transgenic varieties of cereals and legumes tolerant to agrochemicals or stress,[172] and tomatoes resistant to viruses.[173] In 2012, INTA tested the world's first bitransgenic bovine producer of formula milk.[174].
• - Dairy: Dairy production grew by 5.03% annually (2003-2013), reaching 14,311 million liters in 2014.[175][176] In 2015, exports of hard cheeses grew by 35% (8,701 tons), driven by sales to the US and Russia.[177][178].
• - Wine: Argentina is the largest wine producer in Latin America and the fifth in the world (with 15.2 million hectoliters in 2014).[138][179][180] Production grew continuously (9.9% in 2009; 10.3% in 2010),[137] and foreign sales reached a record of USD$650 million in 2010 (+17% compared to 2009). The production value in 2011 was $3.4 billion, 40% being exported.[179][181].
• - Biofuels: The biodiesel industry (started in 2007) grew due to the National Biofuels Program (2010). Production rose to a record of 2.5 million tons in 2011, generating 6,000 jobs (direct/indirect).[182] The reductions in export duties (2014) and the increase in the mandatory cut to 10% boosted production, consolidating Argentina as one of the largest global production hubs.[183] Investment was also made in bioethanol from sugar cane, which occupies 350 thousand hectares (2014).[184].
Macroeconomic indices
In October 2013, the development of a new national price index was announced in the INDEC.[187] This data capture model, developed with universities and international organizations, involved more than 500 surveyors, 200,000 monthly prices, in more than 100 locations and 320 cities.[187][188] Items such as castration of felines, trips to Cancún and domestic service, since, according to Vice President Amado Boudou, the latter "is clearly not part of the cost of living."[189].
According to independent calculations published by The New York Times, unemployment was reduced by more than half and economic inequality decreased considerably.[17][190]
The minimum, vital and mobile wage grew significantly: at the end of the administration, in 2015, it was US$587. Regarding Purchasing Power Parity (PPP), Argentina's minimum wage, of US$742.3 in December 2015, was ranked as the highest in Latin America, surpassing countries such as Paraguay (US$725.1) and Chile (US$ 523.2).[191].
Under the process initiated by Néstor Kirchner between 2003 and 2009, Argentina doubled its middle class, going from 9.3 million to 18.6 million people, according to the World Bank.[192][193] This constituted the greatest growth of this population segment in Latin America.
Poverty was reduced from 21% (2006) to 11.3% (2009).[194] It continued to decrease to 5.7% in 2011, ranking as the lowest in Latin America (behind Uruguay and Chile).[195][196] Destitution fell from 7.5% to 1.9%.[195][197][198]
The gap between rich and poor was significantly reduced, falling from 24.8 times (2009) to 14 times (2010), the lowest level since 1986, positioning Argentina as the most egalitarian country in Latin America.[199][200].
The increase in formal employment and social security programs, such as the Universal Child Allowance (AUH), lifted between 1.4 and 1.8 million people out of poverty.[199][201] This also increased access to food by 26% for poor households. Additionally, there was a 27% increase in children enrolled in school nationwide and an 11.5% reduction in teenage motherhood.[199][201][202].
Social policy
Durante su gestión, se mejoró la cobertura de medicamentos del PAMI del 40/50% al 70/80% del precio. La cobertura al 100% de medicación se extendió de 9 mil jubilados en 2004 a 1.102.450 en 2014.[203].
Social and Economic Impact
Independent calculations indicate a decrease of 81% in poverty and 91% in extreme poverty.[204] By 2011, ECLAC reported that poverty had fallen to 5.7% and indigence to 1.9%, making Argentina the country with the least poverty in Latin America. The middle class doubled in the last decade (from 9.3 to 18.6 million), the largest percentage increase in the region. Unemployment and economic inequality also decreased considerably.[204].
Changes in the Civil and Commercial Code
The new Code incorporated:
• - Cohabitation and ratification of equal marriage, with rights similar to marriage.
• - Divorce without a minimum period and at the request of a spouse.
• - Inclusion of prenuptial agreements on the distribution of assets.
• - Children can take the surname of the mother and/or father.
• - Acceleration of the adoption process to 90 days.[205].
• - The best interests of the child are prioritized, with their mandatory consent from the age of ten.[206].
• - Incorporation of Assisted Human Reproduction (2012) and legalization of motherhood by surrogacy.[207].
• - Recognition of the economic value of personal care tasks.
• - Changes in the inheritance law to allow leaving a larger portion to whomever is preferred.[208].
• - Recognition of very personal rights (dignity, privacy, etc.).
Policy towards children
In 2008, Law 26,390 was passed, which establishes the fundamental right of children not to work until they are 16 years old and penalizes the employment of minors under that age. By the third quarter of 2012, child labor was reduced by 66% (2.2% of children working, compared to 6.4% in 2004).[209].
In 2007, the First National Action Plan for the Rights of Girls, Boys and Adolescents was launched, a pioneer in Latin America, which included early childhood and the subsequent “Early Years” program. The Secretariat for Children, Adolescence and Family (Senaf) and Law 26061 were also created, which guarantees that resources for children are not lower than those of the previous period.[210].
Since 2014, compulsory schooling was established from the age of four to the completion of secondary school (18 years). Kindergarten enrollment expanded by 37% between 2006 and 2010. According to UNESCO (2014), the educational system became more egalitarian, with a reduction in illiteracy and the incorporation of children in classrooms from 3 to 5 years old rose from 48% (2001) to more than 87%.[211].
• - Health Plans: Plan Nacer (2004) and Plan Sumar (2012) were launched, which provided health coverage to pregnant women, children under 6 years of age, and later extended to children, adolescents and women up to 64 years of age without social work. This reduced infant mortality from 16.5‰ to 10.8‰ (reaching 9.7‰ in 2015, single digits for the first time in 25 years) and maternal and child mortality from 4.4‰ to 3.2‰.[212][213].
• - Results and Regional Gap: Between 2005 and 2010, infant mortality was reduced by 17% at the national level and by 24% in the North, halving the gap between the North and the national average.[214].
• - Coverage: Low birth weight was reduced by 63% (2007-2014) and the complete vaccination card in children under 12 years of age was raised from 71% (2008) to 98.7% (2015). The availability of hearing loss, osteoarticular and dermatological examinations was expanded.[215].
• - Qunita Plan (2014): Modeled in Finland, this program delivered kits (including bassinets, clothing and care items) to pregnant women. After its launch, deaths of babies under one year old were reduced by 27.5%.[216].
On October 28, 2009, President Fernández de Kirchner created the Universal Child Allowance (AUH) (Decree 1602/09), extending the family allowance per child to children under 18 years of age with unemployed parents, in the informal economy or social monotributists.[217] This measure was intended to cover the minimum needs of children below the poverty line, considered an extension of the social security system and a progressive policy in the distribution of income. A historical background of the idea was proposed by Eva Perón in The reason for my life.[218].
• - Scope: By mid-2013, more than 3.5 million children and adolescents were covered. Since May 2011, it was complemented with the Universal Pregnancy Allowance (AUE) for future mothers with 12 or more weeks of gestation.
• - Conditional Requirements: To receive the benefit, accreditation of the mandatory vaccination plan and compliance with mandatory education (from 5 to 18 years of age) are required, which increased schooling and decreased child deaths from preventable causes.[219].
• - Reduction of Poverty and Inequality: CONICET studies (2010) indicate that the AUH reduced total poverty from 26.0% to 19.6%, lifting between 1.6 and 1.8 million people out of poverty. Homelessness decreased from 9.5% to 3.4%. The gap between rich and poor fell to 14 times (2010), the lowest level since 1986, positioning Argentina as the most egalitarian country in Latin America.[220].
• - Health and Education: Health controls increased by 21% (2009/2010). There was an effective reintegration of 130,000 children into the educational system and an increase of 67% in the number of children enrolled in school nationwide. High school attendance rose from 84.9% to 88% in the first two years.[221].
In 2011, the adoption process was reformed to eliminate irregular practices and guardianship outside the official system.
International organizations recognized the policies:.
• - The ILO highlighted the expansion of social protection and maternity coverage.
• - Save the Children ranked Argentina as the second best country in Latin America to be a mother in 2012, rising to first position in 2015.[222][223].
• - The FAO highlighted that social inclusion policies, together with those of Chile and Venezuela, allowed Argentina to reach levels below 5% in the fight against hunger.[224].
Policy towards youth
The Fernández de Kirchner government implemented various programs and legal reforms to promote youth participation and expand their rights.
Programs were designed for youth and labor participation, such as the National Student Organization Program of Student Centers and the Youth with More and Better Work Program (PJMyMT), focused on unemployed young people aged 18 to 24 without complete compulsory schooling. The Federal Youth Council was created to develop citizenship policies.
Student participation in student centers multiplied, going from 60,233 in 2008 to 623,087 in 2011.[225] In addition, the Argentine Citizenship Law was enacted, which granted the optional vote to young people aged 16 and 17.
The new Civil and Commercial Code significantly expanded the legal status of young people:.
• - Body Autonomy and Health: Adolescents obtained the right to decide about their own body and reproductive health (including access to contraceptives) without parental permission.[226] From the age of 16, they have full power to make decisions about the care of their body (tattoos, piercings, blood donation, etc.).[227].
• - Legal and Labor Rights: The power of the young person over himself was increased from the age of 13. The right is established to have one's own lawyer, sue parents for support, practice one's profession without authorization and manage the assets acquired through one's work.
• - Adoptions: Procedures were simplified and the paradigm was changed by prioritizing "the right of the child to have a family." The spectrum of applicants was expanded, including couples in a cohabiting union and reducing the minimum age for admission from 30 to 25 years.[226].
The Federal Youth Council was created and Law 26,233-2007 on the Promotion and Regulation of Child Development Centers was enacted, which established quality and development standards for early childhood (0 to 4 years). The law required that at least half of the educators in these Child Development Centers (CDI) have a tertiary or university teaching degree and established a ratio of 1 adult for every 5 children or less in rooms up to 1 year old.[228].
Policy on the elderly
Pension and health coverage for older adults was consolidated.
Expansion of Coverage: Total retirements and pensions increased by 109.5% between 2003 and 2015, reaching 6,617,587 benefits and coverage of 97% of the retirement-age population, the highest in Latin America (universalization not seen since 1975).[229] Coverage for women increased from 48% to 91%.
Retirement Mobility: Law No. 26,417 (2008) established the automatic updating of salaries twice a year (March and September).
Minimum Asset: According to the World Bank, the minimum retirement asset, equivalent to $442 in 2015, was the highest in Latin America.
Sustainability Fund (FGS): After nationalization, the FGS was created, a sovereign fund that grew from $98,224 million (2008) to **$482,660 million** (October 2014), an increase of 392.1%.
Health (PAMI)
Free Medications: A free "essential" medication plan for retirees was launched (51 in 2007) and expanded to more than 200 in 2010, and to 310 in 2015.[229]
Infrastructure: The French Hospital passed into state hands in 2008, being renamed "Doctor César Milstein" Hospital.[230]
Laboratories: The number of laboratories for clinical analysis of PAMI members increased from 410 to 734 at the federal level.[231].
Policy towards people with disabilities
In May 2008, the Argentine Republic ratified the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol (Law No. 26 378).[232].
• - Programs and Financing: 27 programs were launched for governments, NGOs and people with disabilities, delivering 1.2 million adapted transports. The amount allocated for disability became four times greater than that of the entire region, and tax benefits were granted.[233].
• - Accessibility Regulations: Progress was made in laws with accessible content, such as the Media Law and the Web Law (which obliges states to create accessible pages), in addition to the inclusion of disability in the Universal Child Allowance.[233].
• - Autism Law (Law 27,043): Passed in 2014, this law established a comprehensive and interdisciplinary approach to Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). It obliges all health agents (social works, prepaid) to provide benefits, free diagnosis and medical-care services. The law includes the diagnosis in the Mandatory Medical Plan and requires the training of health professionals, the adaptation of primary care centers and the preparation of federal epidemiological studies.[234].
Policies towards indigenous peoples
The unification of the Civil and Commercial Code in Argentina included the recognition of indigenous community property (Art. 18), providing for a future titling law. Historically, communities lacked titles, which made evictions easier.
• - Lands: The State demarcated 6.6 million hectares corresponding to 653 indigenous communities in 21 provinces, through the INAI Territorial Survey Program (Law 26,160). In addition, 2.4 million hectares were regularized in Jujuy, Mendoza, Chaco and Salta through provincial programs.[235].
• - Census and Recognition: The 2010 Census incorporated a question about the identity of indigenous peoples.[236] In 2013, the INAI recognized the Iogys people as separate from the Wichí group.[237].
• - Participation: The Indigenous Participation Council (CPI) was created in 2004 (reformed in 2008), made up of representatives elected by town and province.[238].
• - Bilingual Education: New bilingual schools were created for children to learn their ancestral history and Aboriginal culinary traditions.[239].
• - Linguistic Census: A census of indigenous languages (2009) highlighted the existence of nine languages in recovery.[240].
• - Agricultural Recovery: National universities worked on the reintegration of sixty autochthonous breeds of native corn adapted to the NEA, seeking to improve the availability of food and the income of indigenous peoples.[241].
Social policy towards women
In 2013, within the Argentina Works program, the Ministry of Social Development created the “They Make” subprogram.[242].
This social employment program was aimed at 92,424 women with at least three children, a disabled child, or who were victims of gender violence.
• - Considerations: The beneficiaries had to complete training in trades, cooperativism, hygiene, violence prevention and promotion of rights.
• - Requirements: They were required to complete primary education and obtain a secondary degree, in addition to demonstrating compliance with health checks, vaccinations and school attendance of their children.[242].
• - Housing: The program included a section so that homeless women and victims of gender violence could build their own house and achieve economic independence.[243][244].
In 2014, the law was approved that eliminated the obligation to perform prenuptial medical examinations to get married, promoting autonomy and personal privacy.
Anti-discrimination Plan
During the Fernández administration, the participation of civil society was prioritized through the creation of Civil Society Forums by thematic axis and province, which served as training areas in anti-discrimination policies and co-management with organizations.
• - Federalization: The INADI (National Institute against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism) was reorganized, opening its own delegations in 21 provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires between 2006 and 2009. It also signed agreements with more than 200 municipalities.[245].
• - Public Recognition: Its recognition grew significantly, going from 15.8% to 41.9% at the national level and from 14.8% to 72.9% in the City of Buenos Aires in three years.[246].
• - Increase in Activity:
A free 24-hour telephone line (0800) was created, which increased its calls by 50% (more than 500 monthly).
Consultations to the Free Legal Guard increased almost 100%.
The total number of complaints and actions for discrimination almost quintupled, going from 440 to 1,911 in the last year of Lubertino's administration.[245]
INADI's opinions and technical reports went from 78 to 286 per year.[245].
Labor policy
La política laboral del Gobierno de Cristina Kirchner se centró en la profundización de la negociación colectiva y la formalización del empleo. La cantidad de trabajadores registrados alcanzó el nivel más alto en 38 años.[247].
Employment and Formalization
• - Unemployment and Informality: The unemployment rate decreased from 8.4% (2008) to 6.9% (fourth quarter of 2012), the lowest since 1992.[248] Unregistered employment (in black) was reduced from 50% (2002) to 34.6% (10 years later).[249].
• - Programs: The following were implemented:
Microcredits for entrepreneurs (320,000 until 2013).
Argentina Works Plan, which added more than 6,600 cooperatives.
Program for the regularization of SMEs (2010), benefiting 290,000 microemployers with tax benefits, including a 100% discount on employer contributions for companies with less than 15 employees.[250]
The Social Monotribute was streamlined, facilitating microentrepreneurs' access to social work, retirement and billing.[249].
• - Family Protection: The Employment Contract Law was modified to extend and equalize the rights for maternity, paternity and adoption.[251].
• - Workplace Accidents: The Law on Damages for Professional Accidents (2012) was passed, increasing compensation (eliminating the maximum limit) and incorporating frequent occupational diseases such as hernias, low back pain and varicose veins.[249].
• - Safety: The rate of work accidents was reduced by 26% and the death rate by 27%, thanks to a 600% increase in joint inspections by the Ministry of Labor and the Superintendence of Occupational Risks.[249].
• - **Social Works:**The collection of social works grew by 526% between 2003 and 2015 due to the increase in employment and the purchasing power of salaries. In 2008, the historic contribution to the Welfare Projects of bank staff was returned.[252].
Fight against informal work
Between 2002 and 2010, the number of registered workers grew by 66%, a significantly greater increase than in previous periods. This brought the number of registered workers to an all-time high in 38 years.
• - Formal Employment: Unregistered employment (in black) fell from 50% (2002) to 34.6% ten years later, and stood at 34.5% in 2012.[249].
• - Minimum Wage: The minimum wage grew by 1338% in 10 years, reaching double the best minimum wage in Latin America by the end of the government.[253].
• - **Collective Bargaining:**Collective bargaining was deepened, going from homologating 200 agreements (mainly company agreements) to registering nearly 2,000 activity and company agreements in 2014. More than 90% were by branch of activity.
• - Inspections and Safety: The National Work Regularization Plan was implemented (inspecting 900 thousand companies) and the number of joint inspections between the Ministry of Labor and the Superintendence of Occupational Risks increased by 600%.[249] This resulted in a decrease in the rate of work accidents by 26% and deaths due to work accidents by 27%.[249].
• - Risk Coverage: Coverage of insured employers increased by 100% (2003–2014), reaching a historical record of almost 9 million workers covered by the system.
• - Registered Labor Promotion Law (2014): This law was enacted to allocate $4.15 billion in benefits to small and medium-sized employers, encouraging registration, and provided for sanctions for employers who do not register their workers.[254].
• - Slave Labor: Law 26,364 created a tool against bonded labor (slave labor), with oversight in vulnerable sectors such as rural and textile sectors.[249].
Unionization
By the third quarter of 2008, the Ministry of Labor approved 890 collective agreements and agreements, which represented an increase of 24% compared to 2007 and 324% compared to 2004.[255][256].
• - Scope: More than 90% of the agreements were closed by branch or sub-branch of economic activity.
• - Clauses: Although salary clauses were the most common, an increase was observed in clauses on "regulation of labor relations" (20%) and "working conditions" (17%). These included the creation of "hygiene and safety committees" and non-discrimination clauses.[255].
• - Academic Impact: The greater union presence prompted universities to include more information on social dialogue and human resources techniques in their study plans.[257].
Job and training programs
In 2012, the EMPLEART.EC initiative was launched to promote employment in the software and technology sector at the national level, seeking competitiveness, social inclusion and reducing the digital divide.[258].
• - EMPLEART.EC: More than 65% of the 21,000 beneficiaries of the courses since 2006 found work or improved their employment situation.
• - They Make: In 2013, the work program "They Make" was launched, focused on single women with children or victims of gender violence. It provided a basic monthly stipend for training in home construction and future access to a home. The participants had to complete work days, training and finish compulsory education.[243].
Regimes for rural and domestic workers
Reforms were implemented to expand labor rights in historically neglected sectors and retirement mobility was established.
Statute of the Rural Worker (2011): The new Statute of the Rural Worker was approved, which expanded the labor rights of rural employees, a sector where more than 80% were informal.[259].
• - Day and Salary: It set the working day at 8 hours (44 hours per week), ending "work from dawn to dusk", recognized overtime and established that the minimum remuneration could not be less than the minimum, vital and mobile salary.[260].
• - Retirement and Leaves: Reduced the retirement age to 57 years (previously 65/60) and the years of contributions to 25, and incorporated a 30-day paternity leave.[259].
• - Regime for Private Houses (2013): The Special Regime for Employment Contracts for Private Houses was approved, which recognized domestic employees (close to a million workers) the same rights as the rest of the workers (paid vacations, licenses, severance pay), with a maximum working day of 48 hours per week.[261].
• - Law 26,417 (2008): The Retirement Mobility Law was passed, which established two automatic increases per year (March and September) for retirements, pensions, Family Allowances and AUH.[262] The minimum retirement increased its purchasing power by 30% between the first increase (March 2009) and the end of 2015.
Renationalization and Fund: The renationalization of the Pension System and the creation of the Guarantee and Sustainability Fund (FGS) were carried out.
Increase in compensation for work accidents
On November 5, 2009, President Fernández issued Decree 1694/2009 to correct the failures of the occupational risk system (Law 24,557) and the unconstitutionality of its regulations.
• - Ceiling and Floor: The decree eliminated the maximum limit of $180,000 pesos (approx. U$D 50,000) for periodic income and, on the contrary, established that sum as the minimum floor for total disability or the value of human life.[263].
• - Fixed Amounts: The fixed sum amounts for disabilities greater than 50% and for death were increased by more than 100%.[263].
• - Supervision and ARTs: The norm implemented a system of supervision of the medical services of the Occupational Risk Insurers (ART) and enabled the creation of non-profit ARTs.[263].
Decree 29/2014: In 2014, the scales for determining disabilities were modified and new diseases were incorporated into the work risk system. Workers affected by varicose veins, hernias or low back pain due to their tasks (standing work, lifting weights) can receive free treatments and compensation.[264].
Decree 1694/09 was supported by the two union centers (CGT and CTA), and by the Argentine Confederation of Medium Enterprises (CAME), although it was questioned by the UIA, the Rural Society and the Chamber of Commerce.[265][266].
Maternity and paternity leave
In 2010, the Reformulation of the maternity and paternity leave system was approved, significantly expanding labor rights.[267].
The reform included:
• - Extended Leaves: Extension of maternity and paternity leaves to 180 days, and extension of the paternity leave period.
• - High Risk Pregnancy: Granting of special permits in these cases.
• - Breastfeeding: Right to two daily breaks of one hour each during the breastfeeding period, extending up to two years after birth.
• - Protection against Dismissal: Right to aggravated compensation in the event of dismissal of the woman or her spouse for reasons of birth or adoption.
Policy for SMEs
In 2013, the figure of the sole proprietorship company (SAU) was created, which allows a portion of the assets to be allocated to a productive project.
Likewise, new forms of contracting were recognized and regulated in the Civil and Commercial Code, such as arbitration, agency, concession, franchise, supply, leasing and trust, among others.[268].
Infrastructure and transportation policy
El gobierno de Cristina Fernández continuó el Plan Vial Nacional iniciado en 2003, logrando un crecimiento del 130% de la red vial argentina hasta 2014.[269].
Infrastructure and Transportation
• - An average of 168 road works were tendered per year (7,840 km in total during the Kirchner administration).
• - The conversion of the dangerous National Route 14 (Mercosur Route) into a highway (Ceibas-Gualeguaychú, inaugurated in 2009) and the widening and works of General Paz Avenue (adding a fourth lane and new bridges, partially completed in 2014) stand out.
• - Routes such as 127 (Corrientes-Entre Ríos) were repaved and new road sections were inaugurated, such as Highway 19 and the new layout of National Route 150 in San Juan (Road Work of the Year).
• - Construction of the Presidente Perón Highway began (sections I, II and III).
• - Law 26,776 defined the physical integration of the continental territory with Tierra del Fuego as State policy.
• - Ports: The Port of La Plata and other ports were expanded and modernized.[270].
• - Air Transport: The most important measure was the renationalization of Aerolíneas Argentinas.[271].
• - Railway: In 2015, the Vagones Argentinos plant was inaugurated to produce wagons of its own design.[272].
• - National Agency: In 2008, the National Road Safety Agency was created.[273] Between 2008 and 2009, a reduction of more than 9% in fatal road accidents was achieved. In 2012, Argentina recorded a rate of 12.6 deaths per 100,000 inhabitants, the lowest in South America (after Chile).[274].
• - Single License: The Single National Driving License was launched (2010) to unify evaluation criteria (previously dispersed in more than 1,800 centers), centralize the violation database (National Traffic Records Registry) and apply the scoring system.[275].
The permitted blood alcohol limit was reduced from 0.8 to 0.5 (2013), complemented by the zero alcohol regulation on national routes (2014).
It was agreed with manufacturers to implement mandatory safety elements in 0 km vehicles, such as double airbags and ABS brakes.[276].
Freight railways
After the state recovery of the Belgrano Cargas Railway in 2011, the most important comprehensive investment plan in decades began, seeking to modernize and enhance the service.
• - Investment: The plan involved an investment of $10.7 billion pesos to extend more than three thousand kilometers of new roads on the existing layout.[277][278].
• - Initial Achievements: By May 2013, 400 km of new tracks had been built and about 400 wagons had been repaired.[277].
• - Rolling Stock: The purchase of 3,500 freight cars from China was completed (including hoppers and coal carriers), with the arrival of the first 151 in October 2015.[277].
• - Load Capacity: The project aims to increase the transportation capacity of Belgrano Cargas from 1 million tons per year (after two decades of privatization with 3000 km of unused roads) to 10 million tons per year for cereals, mining production and hydrocarbons.[279].
• - New Connections:
In 2012, the Santa Fe Circunvalar was put out to tender.[280]
In May 2013, the state company Trenes Argentinos Cargas reopened key branches, including the section to La Rioja and international connections to Bolivia (Branch C15) and Chile (Branch C14).[281].
Public passenger transport
Significant modernization of transport infrastructure was carried out, especially in terminals, railways and urban public transport.
Mar del Plata Railway Automotive Terminal (2009): The modern "Eva Perón" Railway Automotive Terminal of 17,000 m² with 42 docks was built. In 2015, $1.3 billion were invested in the Constitución-Mar del Plata branch to change more than 400 km of tracks and incorporate Talgo IV trains.[282].
Bus Terminals: New terminals were inaugurated, highlighting:.
• - Santiago del Estero (2008): "Presidente Néstor Carlos Kirchner" Terminal with 35 platforms and an access viaduct.
• - Bahia Blanca (2008)..
• - Córdoba (2011): Bicentennial Terminal, which increased to 89 platforms.
• - Jujuy (2014)..
• - La Plata University Train (2013): The first stage of this service was inaugurated, connecting Paseo del Bosque with the Roca Line station.
• - Metrobús: In mid-2015, a loan of U$D 120 million was granted from the World Bank for the Metrobús in La Matanza (23 km, 11 exclusive lanes), with transfer centers connected to the Belgrano Sur and Sarmiento railways.[283].
• - SUBE (2011): The Single Electronic Ticket System (SUBE) was launched, which allows paying for public transportation (buses, subways, trains) with a single smart card, extending from the AMBA to multiple cities in the interior.[284].
• - Discounts of 40% on the rate were implemented for retirees, domestic workers and other groups.
In 2015, the SUBE Network was launched, which offers discounts for combining means of transport within a period of two hours (in AMBA and other cities).
• - Collective Regulations: Since October 2013, all new collective units under national jurisdiction were required to incorporate air conditioning and comply with the Euro 5 environmental standard.[285].
• - Fleet Replacement: A credit program was launched for the acquisition of 0 km vehicles for taxis and remises nationwide, promoting replacement and benefiting the automotive industry.
Under the continuity of the National Road Plan (started in 2003), the National Government made a significant investment in road infrastructure until 2015, achieving a 130% growth of the Argentine road network.[286].
Expansion and Maintenance: 1,300 km of new roads were built, 4,100 km of national routes were paved, and maintenance coverage was extended to the entire paved road network (previously it was 50%).[286].
• - National Route 81 of Salta and Formosa was modernized with an investment of $500 million, paving 405 km to recreate the natural bioceanic corridor of the north.[287].
Road works
Investment in the National Road Plan continued, focusing on Patagonia and the improvement of the national road network, resulting in notable growth.
Provincial Route 1 (2008): The last stretch of asphalt was inaugurated, connecting the provincial capital with the Magellanic penguin colony.[292]
Madryn-Trelew Double Highway (2012): The double carriageway that connects the port cities of Puerto Madryn (with airport) and Trelew was inaugurated, improving road safety and connecting industrial parks.[293]
Route 71 and Cholila (2012): National Route 71 and access to the town of Cholila were paved.[294].
Sustained investment in the National Road Plan allowed:
• - Build 1300 km of new roads.
• - Pave 4100 km of national routes.
• - Cover the entire national road network with maintenance (compared to 50% covered in 2003).
These works resulted in a 130% growth of the Argentine road network between 2003 and 2014.[295].
Railways
The government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner prioritized the modernization of railway infrastructure and rolling stock in Argentina.
• - Acquisition: Between 2013 and 2014, contracts were signed with the Chinese company CSR Sifang for the purchase of 709 zero kilometer cars with modern technology (ABS brakes, air conditioning, etc.) for the Miter (409), Sarmiento (409) and Roca (300) metropolitan lines, replacing fleets of more than 50 years.[296][297][298].
• - Miter Line: The total renewal of the service was completed (Tiger, J. L. Suárez, Mitre branches) and 55 km of third rail were replaced. The track was improved on the diesel branch to Capilla del Señor.[299][300].
• - San Martín Line: Incorporated 160 cars and 24 0 km locomotives (increasing capacity by 37%) and carried out platform elevation works. In 2014, the service was reestablished to Luján and Pilar, expanding the section closed since 1978.[301][302].
• - Roca Line: In 2014, the electrification of the branch to La Plata (52.6 km) began, including the elimination of the embankment in Ringuelet. The electrified section Constitución-Quilmes (work paralyzed for 42 years) and the City Bell station were inaugurated.[303][304].
• - Long Distance Corridor: 558 km of tracks were renewed in the Rosario-Retiro section and the Rosario Sur Station was inaugurated (2015).[305].
• - Belgrano Cargas: Some 400 wagons were repaired and 400 km of new tracks were built since 2013. 3,500 wagons were purchased from China and 900 km of tracks were renewed in northern provinces (Salta, Santiago del Estero, Tucumán, Chaco, Santa Fe).[277].
• - Tafí Viejo Railway Workshops: The repair of 300 to 400 freight cars per year was promoted.
• - Regional Connections: The Argentina-Uruguay binational train was reopened (2011) and the Posadas-Encarnación Binational Train (Argentina-Paraguay) was inaugurated in 2014.
• - Terminal stations such as Once (with new systems, premises, and connection to Subway A) and Retiro Belgrano (restoration of masonry and dome) were restored and valued. The Retiro Miter Station had improvements in lighting, glass ceilings and entrances with turnstiles.
• - The new Mar del Plata train and bus terminal was inaugurated (2011).
• - The ADIF's total investment in 2015 for railway improvement was $9,000 million.[306].
Airports
The government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner prioritized the modernization and expansion of airports in Argentina.
• - Córdoba International Airport (2013-2015): Expanded its surface by $12,000 m², with the reconstruction of $2,200 m² of facilities, new boarding bridges, offices and reconfiguration of $5,800 m² of apron. It acquired capacity for 2.4 million passengers. The $300 million investment, financed by ORSNA and a trust, included state-of-the-art equipment, improvements to boarding gates, taxiways, sleeves and the ILS system. In October 2015, a new Control Tower and radar systems were inaugurated ($40 million investment), which generated an economic impact of more than $4,079 million and 11,939 jobs in 2013.[307][308][309].
• - Hub Córdoba (2015): It was founded as a flight distribution center that connects Córdoba directly with multiple national destinations (Mendoza, Salta, Bariloche, Ushuaia, etc.) and international destinations, without passing through Buenos Aires.
• - Aeroparque Jorge Newbery: In March 2010, its internationalization was completed, allowing flights to neighboring countries (Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay) with Aerolíneas Argentinas as the first operator.[310] In 2014, it was the first in Argentine airline history to exceed 10 million passengers (10,255,541). In 2013, it was listed by Skytrax as one of the most modern airports in South America.[311].
• - Bariloche: Completely remodeled in 2012 (modernization of signage, beacons, technology, central building and runway extension).[312] In 2012, $66 million were invested in the comprehensive reconstruction of its runway.[313].
• - Comodoro Rivadavia: The complete work of a new $7,000 m² airport was carried out (investment of $300 million), which included the demolition of the 1978 building and renovations to the runway.[314].
• - Mendoza: In 2014, a modernization began with an investment of $150 million and an additional **$12,000 m²** in the terminal.[315].
• - Ushuaia: In 2013, expansion works were inaugurated in service areas, check-in, arrivals, bathrooms and confectionery, in addition to the parking area.[316].
• - Esquel: Works were carried out with a budget of $22 million.[313].
• - Resistance: The taxiway, the hangar bay and the access to the Aeronautical Technical School were paved.[317].
• - Trelew: Remodeling and expansion of the Almirante Marcos A. Zar Airport, which was completed in 2010 and sought its international declaration.[318][319].
• - Mar del Plata: Work was carried out on the renovation and expansion of the passenger terminal.[320].
Ports and canals
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's management prioritized the modernization and expansion of the country's port and water infrastructure.
• - Port of La Plata (2014): It was expanded and modernized with an investment of $420 million dollars, considered the most outstanding port project in Argentina. It increased its operational capacity to 400,000 containers per year (later 800,000) and incorporated 13 state-of-the-art cranes, a terminal for two Super Post Panamax vessels, and a 600-meter dock with 15 hectares of stowage area. The work included dredging the entrance channel from 28 to 34 feet.[270][347][348][349][350].
• - Paraná-Paraguay Waterway: Investment in dredging and beaconing was promoted (2012 contract for $112 million) to enable the transit of larger vessels.[351].
• - Beaconing and Channeling: Beaconing and signaling work was carried out on the Santa Fe to Confluencia section ($1,238 km of the Paraná River) and progress was made on the channeling of the Paraguay River.[352].
• - Puerto de Posadas (2013): The construction of a new dock was completed, key for access to the Paraná-Paraguay Waterway.[353].
• - Port of Barranqueras (2013): The waterway signaling works were extended to Barranqueras (Chaco) with $382 million in investments. This allowed 24-hour navigability and turned the port into a technological center with a new container yard, increasing transport from 200,000 to 700,000 tons between 2008 and 2012.[354].
• - Mar del Plata (2009-2014): A $1,600 m² cruise terminal was built (2012, $7 million) and intensive dredging works were carried out (2009-2012 and 2014, $108 million) to recover draft in the main and secondary access channels, taking them to depths of $-11.60 m and $-10.60 m respectively.[355].
• - Puerto Rosales (2010): A new free zone was inaugurated with an investment of $5 million, enhancing the Coronel Rosales-Bahía Blanca logistics axis. [356].
• - Port of San Nicolás (Since 2013): The North Pier was extended by 250 meters with reinforced concrete pavement ($250 million investment), suitable for loading and unloading steel products, fertilizers and bulk.[357].
• - Puerto Quequén (Since 2014): Repowering began with the conversion of Route 88 into a highway and the construction of a new bridge over the Quequén Grande River. In 2015, the expansion of the Terminal began ($5 million investment) to increase the capacity of the property. 5 million in Puerto Quequén |publication=Diario Cuatro Vientos |date=October 15, 2015}}.
• - Port of Caleta Paula (Santa Cruz): The main dock was expanded to 680 meters and a shipyard with a dry dock was built capable of repairing ships up to 140 meters in length ($52 million cost), inaugurated in 2011.[358][359][360].
Housing plans
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's management focused on the construction of social housing and the expansion of electrical infrastructure.
Social Housing (PRO.CRE.AR).
• - Total Housing (2003-2011): As of September 2011, more than 630,000 housing solutions were completed, benefiting nearly 2.8 million people through programs such as the Federal Housing Construction Fund, the National Housing Fund and the Federal Better Living Program.
• - PRO.CRE.AR (2012): On June 12, 2012, the PRO.CRE.AR Bicentenario program (Argentine Bicentennial Credit Program for Single Family Housing) was launched for the massive delivery of mortgage loans (20 and 30 years with rates from 2% to 14%).
Objective: Financing the construction of 100,000 homes in four years.
Financing: Resources from the Sustainability Guarantee Fund (FGS), with Banco Hipotecario as trustee.
Urban Developments: From 2012 to 2015, 23,656 homes were started in urban developments, with an investment of more than $38,000 million in the national program.[365].
• - State Intervention: The president justified the creation of the program due to the "lack of mortgage policy of the private banks" and increased the state participation in the Mortgage Bank to 79.22% in 2012.
• - Water and Sanitation (AYSA): At the end of 2015, the state company AYSA had connected more than 5 million inhabitants to the networks (3 million to drinking water and 2 million to sewage).
• - Electrical System: The Federal Electrical Energy Transportation Plan was continued at 500 kV, converting the energy system from being Radial (directed to the Federal Capital) to an interconnected Federal Ring System.
National Interconnection: Between 2003 and 2015, ten provinces were incorporated into the Argentine Interconnection System (SADI).
Patagonia: The interconnection works with the rest of the country, started in 2004, concluded in 2014, integrating the federal network to the entire country.
Flood works
During the administration, important water works were carried out to prevent flooding and drinking water and sewage coverage was significantly expanded nationwide.
4,880 water works were executed for $122,387 million (more than $60 billion in the Province of Buenos Aires).[366].
Key Water Works
• - Río Salado (Province of Buenos Aires): The third stage of canalization was put out to tender (2013) with an investment of $1.6 billion to increase the conduction capacity along 118 km, benefiting 25% of agricultural production.[367][368].
• - La Plata (2013-2015): An infrastructure plan was initiated to prevent flooding by widening the El Gato stream (60 meters in total).[369].
• - Colorado River: The Salto Andersen dam was built to regulate the flow and prevent flooding, complemented by a hydroelectric plant (2010-2011).[370].
Expansion of Basic Services
Through state management, 2,358,244 people were incorporated into the water service and 2,070,791 into the sewage service in the AMBA between 2006 and 2015.[371][372]
The number of inhabitants with drinking water in Greater Buenos Aires increased from 6,093,516 in 2003 to 9,293,760 in 2015.
The number of inhabitants with sewers increased from 5,136,755 in 2003 to 7,207,546 in 2015.
According to the World Bank (2012), Argentina achieved coverage in urban areas of 98% in access to improved sources of drinking water and 92% in sanitation.[373].
Energy policy
Durante este periodo, el Estado argentino retomó la planificación energética nacional, incrementando la regulación y participación en el mercado energético. Un hito central fue la renacionalización de YPF en 2012, lo que le devolvió el control soberano sobre la exploración, explotación, industrialización y comercialización de hidrocarburos. Se creó también la empresa ENARSA.
Infrastructure Expansion
Between 2003 and 2015, the system added 11,300 megawatts (MW), a 51% increase in installed power.
The construction of the Yacyretá dam next to Paraguay was completed, reaching its final level of 83 m above sea level. n. m. in 2011, which allowed it to reach its design production of 3,200 MW (an additional contribution of 8,000 GWh/year) and generate 60% of the country's hydroelectricity. Previously, in 2008, a high-voltage transportation line from Yacyretá to the Litoral was inaugurated. [374][375][376][377]
The Atucha II nuclear power plant project was concluded and life extension works were carried out on Atucha I, recovering national nuclear and coal activity. [378]
Important thermoelectric plants were inaugurated: the General Belgrano (Campana, 823 MW), the San Martín Plant (Timbúes), the El Pilar Plant (Córdoba, 466 MW), a new Albanesi plant (Rosario), the San Nicolás Thermal Plant (with investment since 2007),[379][380][381][382] the Guillermo Brown (Bahía Blanca, 580 MW) [300] and the first coal turbine in Río Turbio (started in 2007).[383][384] The Costanera Sur Power Plant was also modernized and expanded. [385]
The incorporation of renewable energies (wind, biofuels) was promoted through Law 26,190 (end of 2006).[386].
5,500 km (or more than 4,000 km according to another source) of high voltage lines were built, connecting 10 provinces to the National Interconnected System (SIN) or SADI, and nearly 4,500 km of Extra High Voltage (LEAT) were laid. The total extension of the Extra High Voltage and Trunk Distribution network went from 17,331 km in 1993 to 31,527 km in September 2011.[387]</nowiki>[98][378][388][389]
The Patagonian System was integrated into the SADI and key interconnections were made such as the Yacyretá-Buenos Aires Third Section, the NEA-NOA Interconnection and the Comahue-Cuyo Interconnection, adding neglected regions.[388]
The capacity of the trunk gas pipelines was expanded and the Northeast Gas Pipeline was promoted to bring natural gas to the provinces of the NEA and the north of Salta and Santa Fe. [390] </nowiki>.
Between 2003 and 2011, installed power increased 42% and the record demand for power increased 53%.
The number of homes with electricity increased by 21.9% (2.15 million), and homes with access to gas through networks by 28.9% (1.65 million). [378]
Annual investment in distribution and transportation tripled, mostly with state funds.[391]
There was a change in the property matrix: the presence of the State in the energy matrix went from 7% to 45%, national private capital from 13% to 30%, while foreign companies reduced their participation from 80% to 25%.[392]
In terms of savings, the national replacement plan for incandescent lamps with low-consumption lamps was launched (with free delivery) and energy labeling of electrical appliances was implemented (IRAM 11900 standard).
Gas pipelines
In 2015, Dr. Cristina Fernández de Kirchner inaugurated the works of the Argentine Northwest Gasduct (GNOA), run by Enarsa. This project benefits 103 towns and 1.37 million inhabitants in Salta, Formosa, Chaco, Misiones, Corrientes, Santa Fe and Entre Ríos by extending the home gas network. [393][394][395][396]
In parallel, in 2008 the construction of the Juana Azurduy Integration Gas Pipeline (GJA) began, initially agreed upon in 2006 between Néstor Kirchner and Evo Morales. The GJA, inaugurated by both presidents in 2011, transports 27.7 million cubic meters of gas per day from Bolivia (through the Campo Durán Compressor Plant in Salta) to Argentina, improving the energy security of both countries. [397][398][399][400][401][402] One year after its inauguration, it was expanded to connect with the 1,500 km Gasoducto del Nordeste Argentino. Originally planned to import Bolivian gas in winter, the rise of Vaca Muerta has ensured self-sufficiency and has even made it possible to export gas to Brazil.[403].
Energy saving
Starting in 2008, the government implemented policies to reduce energy consumption, especially during peak hours, and promote efficiency.
• - National Plan for Energy Efficiency and Savings (2008): It sought the massive replacement of incandescent lamps with low-consumption lamps (LFC).
• - Public Buildings: Since 2009, the use of low consumption lamps was mandatory.
• - Prohibition of Incandescent Lamps: The plan culminated in Law 26,473 (2009), promoted by Greenpeace and supported by the Executive, which prohibits the import and marketing of incandescent lamps for residential use. [404][405][406][407][408] In 2011, a program was launched to distribute 25 million CFLs in homes.
• - Time Change: From December 30, 2007 to March 2008 (with the exception of the province of San Luis), the official time was moved back 60 minutes by law of Congress to reduce consumption during peak hours.
• - Energy Labeling (2008-2009): Efficiency labeling was implemented for refrigerators, freezers, motors and air conditioners. In December 2009, the IRAM 11900 standard was approved, which seeks to energy label buildings that request natural gas service through the network.
• - Renovate Program") (2012): Promoted the replacement of old refrigerators and washing machines for high-efficiency national models through discounts of 25% and financing in 12 interest-free installments, seeking to lower the electricity bill and promote responsible use. [409].
Renewable energies
At the end of 2007, the National Promotion Directorate (DNPROM) was established to promote renewable initiatives. Law 26,190 (2007) declared renewable electricity generation for public service of national interest, granted tax exemptions for 15 years and set a goal of 8% renewable consumption in 10 years. In addition, it created a trust to subsidize the electricity produced with these resources. [410] In 2015, the Guinle Law was enacted to increase that rate. [411].
• - Tender (2010): The tender carried out by ENARSA and the Ministry of Planning awarded a total of 895 MW in projects: 754 MW wind, 110.4 MW thermal with biofuels, 20 MW solar photovoltaic and 10.6 MW in small hydroelectric projects. [412].
• - Wind Cluster (2012): An industrial cluster was launched (with the participation of IMPSA and INVAP S.E.) together with INTA, which plans to generate 1000 MW of wind power of annual national production by 2020, replacing US$ 1,750 million in equipment. [413][414].
The Bio Plan (2012) was launched to convert used vegetable oil (more than 240,000 liters collected) into biofuel.
Withholdings on biofuels were reduced by 5 points [415] and the mandatory use of 5% Bioethanol mixed with gasoline was regulated.
Small-scale projects included the production of electricity with biomass (Aceitera General Deheza) [416] and generation with methane at the North landfill. [417].
• - Rural Access (PERMER): By 2015, the Renewable Energy in Rural Markets (PERMER) program had given access to solar electric energy to more than 25,000 residential users and to schools and isolated rural outposts. [418].
Solar energy
In April 2013, the Cañada Honda Photovoltaic Solar Park, Province of San Juan, was inaugurated, becoming the largest solar park in Latin America and the first in size in Argentina.[419] When completed, it will have an area of 84 hectares.[420][421][422].
Solar energy was promoted, with various plants built in the country. In April 2011, the San Juan I Pilot Photovoltaic Plant was inaugurated in Ullum, province of San Juan, the then largest photovoltaic solar energy park in Latin America.[423].
wind energy
Argentina experienced notable growth in wind energy, going from 0.7 GW in 2007 to 2.6 GW in 2020. [424].
• - Notable Openings: Several of the largest wind farms in the country and Latin America were commissioned during the period:
Arauco Wind Farm (La Rioja): The first stage opened in 2009, one of the ten largest in the country. [425]
Diadema Wind Farm (Comodoro Rivadavia): Inaugurated in 2010 and first in Environmental Management. [426][427]
Rawson Wind Farm (Chubut): Inaugurated in 2011 (Rawson I) and 2012, considered the largest in Argentina at that time and among the largest in Latin America. It provides 410 Gigawatt-hours annually, enough for 137,000 homes, with an investment of US$144 million. [428][429][430]
Loma Blanca Wind Farm (Chubut): Inaugurated in 2012 as the largest in Patagonia at that time, and began producing energy in 2013. [431] Between 2011 and 2014, ENARSA built the Loma Blanca IV module (50 MW), which involved an investment of US$ 126 million and avoids 128,000 tons of CO2 annually. [432]
El Tordillo Wind Farm (Chubut): Connected to the national system in 2013, it was the first power park operated with national technology, managed by ENARSA and the province. [433][434]
Other parks: Antonio Morán (Patagonia, 10.56 MW), Escalante (Chubut, 27.45 MW), and the start of construction of Manantiales Behr (U$S 200 million) and the Bicentenario Wind Farm (126 MW) at the end of 2015. [435][436][437][438] The wind turbine Veladero (San Juan) was installed at the highest altitude in the world (4100 meters above sea level).
In 2011, Argentina began the national manufacturing of wind turbines and components with the inauguration of a factory in Florencio Varela and the first entirely national turbine, seeking import substitution and industrialization. [439] In addition, the wind industrial cluster created in 2012, with the participation of state companies such as IMPSA and INVAP S.E., planned to generate 1000 MW of national production annually, replacing US$ 1,750 million in equipment. [413].
YPF Energy
Through the state company and with the aim of guiding investments towards renewable energies, YPF Energía was created in 2013. The company managed to acquire more than 15 assets in 7 provinces with an installed capacity of 3.3 GW from which it generates energy for the wholesale and industrial market. Its wind farms are Manatiales Behr, in Chubut; Cañadón León in Santa Cruz; Los Teros in the Buenos Aires Azul game; and General Levalle; The solar park is El Zonda in the province of San Juan among others. Being responsible for carrying out the construction of the largest wind farms in the country.[440]
[441].
Renewable energy promotion law
In December 2007, the National Promotion Directorate (DNPROM) was created, dependent on the Ministry of Energy (SENER), it designs programs and actions that lead to the development of renewable energy initiatives (through Renewable Energy Coordination) and energy efficiency (through Energy Efficiency Coordination).[442].
In December 2007, the generation of electricity from any renewable source that is intended to supply a public service was declared of national interest. That law also set a target of 18% for renewable energy consumption over a ten-year period and ordered the creation of a trust whose resources will be allocated to renewable energy.[443] includes the Antonio Morán wind power plant[444].
thermal energy
The Ministry of Federal Planning, Public Investment and Services significantly promoted thermal generation, with a focus on increasing capacity and recovering coal activity.
• - Announcement 2007: The construction of five new dual turbine thermal plants (gas or fuel oil) was announced, with a total capacity of 1.6 GW and an investment of US$ 3,250 million. The plants would be located in Ensenada (540 MW), Necochea (270 MW), Campana "Campana (Argentina)") (540 MW), Santa Fe "Ciudad de Santa Fe (Argentina)") (125 MW) and Córdoba "Córdoba (Argentina)") (125 MW). [445][446][447].
• - Manuel Belgrano Power Plant (Campana): Inaugurated in 2008 with nearly 400 MW, expanded to 827 MW in 2009. [448][449][450].
• - Vuelta de Obligado Power Plant (Timbúes): Inaugurated in 2008 with more than 540 MW (plant number 26 inaugurated since 2003, with an investment of US$ 700 million). [451][452].
• - Guillermo Brown Power Plant (Bahía Blanca): Inaugurated in 2012, it provided 580 MW with an investment of US$ 550 million. 80% of the Bahía Blanca Thermoelectric Power Plant was completed by the end of the mandate. [453].
• - El Pilar Power Plant (Córdoba): The first stage (Pilar I) was completed in 2010, providing 160 MW. [454].
• - Expansions: The expansion of the Modesto Maranzana Thermoelectric Power Plant (Río Cuarto) was inaugurated in 2011 and the 20 MW expansion of the Generación Rosario Thermal Power Plant in 2014, reaching a total of 150 MW. [455][456].
• - Construction (Started in 2007): Construction of the country's first coal-fired thermoelectric turbine began, with an investment of more than $9,000 million.
• - Inauguration (2015): The thermoelectric plant in Río Turbio was inaugurated, with the capacity to inject 240 MW into the national system, running on coal from the local deposit or natural gas. The total investment amounted to US$700 million. [384][457][458].
• - Coal Production: Thanks to investments in the Río Turbio Carboniferous Deposits (YCRT), production multiplied by 2.5 times compared to 2011, reaching 450,000 tons of coal in 2013. [383].
• - ENARSA Tenders: Enarsa put out to tender 11 small transportable generation units (15-30 MW) and 3 larger units for barges, which would provide between 400 and 500 additional MW. [459].
• - Electrical Infrastructure: In 2007, work was announced to expand the transportation system between the General Rodríguez and José C. Paz substations (Buenos Aires). [460].
• - Southernmost Power Plant: In 2014, a new thermal power plant was inaugurated in Santa Cruz (the southernmost in the world) with the capacity to inject 240 MW into the grid. [461].
Hydraulic Power
The construction of the Yacyretá dam was completed next to Paraguay.
• - Completion of Yacyretá: On December 11, 2010, the water level reached the level of 82 m above sea level. n. m., with a production of 2,600 MW. Finally, on February 25, 2011, presidents Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and Fernando Lugo authorized raising the level of the reservoir to its projected level of 83 m above sea level. n. m. This allowed the complex to reach its design production of 3,200 MW, which represents an estimated additional contribution of 8,000 GWh/year, exceeding the average 20,000 GWh/year. [462].
• - Dr. Néstor Kirchner and Jorge Cepernic Hydroelectric Complex: In 2010, work on this complex began on the Santa Cruz River (Argentina). It will generate an electrical power of 1,700 megawatts (equivalent to 10% of the energy generated in 2008). It is the third most important hydroelectric plant in the country, after Yacyretá and Salto Grande. [40][463].
Hydrocarbons
The renationalization of YPF in 2011 boosted investment in exploration, leading to key discoveries that transformed the Argentine energy landscape.
At the end of 2011, the then president of YPF, Eng. Miguel Galuccio, announced the discovery of the Vaca Muerta Formation, a new unconventional oil basin of 30,000 square kilometers that extends through Neuquén, Río Negro, La Pampa and Mendoza. [464][465][466].
• - World Reserves: A 2013 Energy Information Agency (EIA) report placed Argentina's reserves at 27 billion barrels, which multiplied existing reserves tenfold and made the country the world's second largest shale gas reservoir and the fourth largest shale oil reservoir. [467][468].
After renationalization, YPF adopted an approach of reinvesting 90% of its profits starting in 2013.
• - Growth of Reserves and Wells: Reserves grew 10.6% in 2013 and 11.9% in 2014. The company quadrupled exploration wells compared to the average prior to 2012 and increased exploitation wells from 290 per year (2009-2011) to 478 (2012-2013 period). [469][470].
• - Market Share (2015): At the end of the mandate, YPF reached a share of 62.5% in the Argentine premium gasoline market and 55.7% in super gasoline. [471].
• - In 2013, unconventional exploration also began in the "El Trébol" deposit, in the Gulf of San Jorge. [472][473].
Nuclear power
Under the government of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the State invested US$ 42,000 million in atomic development, with a focus on the reactivation of power plants, the industrialization of fuel and modular reactor technology.
• - CAREM 25 (2014): Construction of the CAREM 25 nuclear station began in Lima (Buenos Aires). This is a low-power modular reactor prototype (25 MWe) and one of the first under construction worldwide, designed for the development of commercial export reactors (100-120 MW). 70% of its materials are nationally produced (investment of US$ 450 million). . [474][475].
• - Atucha II Plant and Life Extension: The President Néstor Kirchner Plant (former Atucha II) was launched. At the same time, the Life Extension studies of the Embalse Nuclear Power Plant began (started at the end of 2007). On December 31, 2015, Embalse concluded its first operating cycle, after generating 144,599,748 MW. [476].
• - International Cooperation: In 2015, a memorandum was signed with Russia for the construction of a Russian-designed Power Plant with a capacity of 1,200 MW. [474].
• - Production of Uranium Dioxide (UO2): In 2012, through the public company Dioxitek, Argentina became the only Latin American country to produce uranium dioxide powder, a key component for the manufacture of fuel elements. [477].
• - New NPUO2 Plant: In 2015, construction began on Dioxitek's New Uranium Dioxide Production Plant (NPUO2) in Formosa, with advanced technology and the capacity to triple current production to 460 tons per year. [478][479].
• - Uranium Enrichment: Dioxitek (which increased its staff from 20 to more than 120 scientists) restarted the pilot plant and construction of the uranium enrichment center at the Pilcaniyeu Technology Center. [480].
• - Infrastructure: The Nuclear Plan involved an investment of more than US$11,000 million and included the creation of 14 Nuclear Medicine Centers in the country. [474].
Power distribution
A significant expansion and restructuring of the National Interconnected System (SADI) was promoted between 2007 and 2015.
Network Growth and Unification.
• - Integration of the SADI (since 2007): The Argentine electrical scheme, which was separated into the "national" system (SADI) and the Patagonian system, was substantially modified starting in 2007, when the Patagonian System was incorporated into the SADI.
• - Line Expansion: About 4,500 km of extra high voltage lines (LEAT) and around 5,000 km of high voltage (AT) and medium voltage (MT) lines were installed. In the six-year period, almost 9,000 km of lines were added. [481].
• - The high voltage network grew from 10,024 km in 2007 to 14,756 km in 2015, with a total increase of 3,738 km.
• - The backbone distribution network expanded by 2,810 km between 2007 and 2015.
The expansion focused on unifying the system and increasing transportation from the generating plants:
• - Key Interconnections: The Yacyretá-Buenos Aires line was completed, which allowed the use of Yacyretá's largest generation. The NEA-NOA interconnection then achieved the northern closure of the SADI. Later, the Comahue-Cuyo interconnection was added. [481].
500 kV line: In 2014, 368 km of the 500 kV network were expanded. This included:
• - The line between Lavalle and Santiago (Santiago del Estero) to improve reliability.
• - The line between Choele Choel (Río Negro) and Bahía Blanca (Buenos Aires). [482].
• - Northeast Energy Ring (2015): The Mercedes transformer station (500/132 kW) and the 132 kW line were built to link Curuzú Cuatiá and Montes Caseros, with an investment of US$ 461 million. [483].
Under state management, YPF focused its policy on reinvestment and increasing exploration and production.
• - Reinvestment and Reserve Growth: Starting in 2013, YPF announced the policy of reinvesting 90% of its profits. This resulted in reserve growth of 10.6% in 2013 and 11.9% in 2014. [469].
• - Increase in Exploratory Activity: The company quadrupled its exploration wells compared to the 2009-2011 average. Between 2012 and 2013, exploratory wells grew by 48% (from 21 to 31), and exploitation wells increased by 32% (from 363 to 478). [470].
• - Investment and Findings: Annual investment went from US$2,000 million in 2011 to US$6,000 million estimated for 2015. [509] In 2014, a new well was announced in Los Caldenes (Río Negro) with reserves estimated at 40 million barrels. [510].
Development of Unconventionals: YPF attracted investments from companies such as Chevron Corporation, Petronas and Dow Chemical to develop the Vaca Muerta Formation, considered the second largest shale gas deposit and the fourth largest shale oil deposit in the world. [511][512].
Cattle raising
Poultry production grew by 170%, pork production by 109% and dairy production by 43%.[515]
In 2013, exports of whole milk powder were 213,349 tons, for a total FOB price of 958.4 million dollars, increasing compared to 706.3 million in 2012.[516] There was also growth in the production of non-traditional agricultural products and the number of hectares worked with banana, avocado and mango had grown. In addition, programs are carried out to encourage crops such as mburucuyá or passion fruit and mamón or papaya.[517].
In 2014, a financing program was launched for productive projects aimed at promoting investment in strategic sectors of the economy, technological innovation or that add value to regional economies,[518] which would facilitate access to the credit and financing necessary to generate a higher degree of export and a higher degree of added value for the national industry.[519] The program consisted of granting economic compensation to small producers of wheat, soybeans, corn and/or sunflower who had produced up to a total accumulated 700 tons in the 2013/2014 campaign. The total scope of the program was $2.5 billion for 48,000 producers,[520] and was finally implemented under the name of the Small Grain Producer Stimulus Program (PEPP).
Between 2007 and 2012, mining-oriented FDI (foreign direct investment) grew at an annual rate of 47%. In 2003, mining generated 79,000 direct and indirect jobs, compared to 505,000 in 2013. In the case of mineral exports, which in 2003 were equivalent to 2,900 million pesos, in 2013 they grew to 23,059 million. Between 2003 and 2013, investment projects in execution increased from 18 in 2003 to 614 in 2013, while mineral production increased tenfold.[78][521] Investment grew at an annual rate of 47%. In 2003, mining generated 79,000 direct and indirect jobs, compared to 505,000 in 2013. In the case of mineral exports, they presented a surplus in their exchange balance for all years with a total contribution of US$53,813 million net.[101].
Fishing
The fishing industry, together with fishing, increased its sales abroad, producing a positive balance of almost 1.5 billion dollars in 2012, 70% more than in 2003.[522]
During 2013, 133,000 tons of squid were exported, obtaining 1.5 billion dollars, 92% higher compared to the 2012 season, in which 69,000 tons were exported. In this way a historical record was achieved. That year, fishery exports increased by 17%.[523]
By 2014, exports grew strongly to 1.6 billion dollars[524][525][526] By the middle of his second term, Argentine fishing had managed to gain ground in international markets, becoming an important source of foreign currency. In 2013, it was exported for a historical record of US$1.5 billion, at the same time that the markets diversified, exporting to Spain (28%), Japan (10%), China (9%), Italy (8%), Brazil (8%), the USA (7%), France (2%).[527] Along with the export boom, there was a constant increase in fish consumption in the domestic market, reaching 9.7 kilos per inhabitant in 2014, compared to 9. kilos in 2013 and 6.8 kilos in 2012. Managing to generate 40,000 jobs.[528]
In five years, hake fishing grew in the country from 90,000 to 270,000 tons thanks to the enactment of the National Fisheries Law.[529] This law made it possible to access a criterion that contemplates the economic forecast that fishing companies must have, and provide legal certainty for said companies.[530].
Forestry production
Forestry and timber production, mainly pines and eucalyptus, expanded centered in the Mesopotamian provinces "Mesopotamia (Argentina)"), productivity also had a considerable increase. In the last 8 years, the wood industry increased its production by 132% and furniture production by 115%.[531] It is the year 2012. Forestry and wood production, mainly pines and eucalyptus, has expanded in the last decade, centered in the Mesopotamian provinces "Mesopotamia (Argentina)"), productivity also had a considerable increase. In 2012, it made Argentina the largest Latin American producer of pulp and cellulose[532].
Water and Irrigation Works
Mendoza
Key irrigation canals were modernized. In the Atuel River basin, the Nuevo Alvear Main Canal (20,560 ha, 3,500 producers) was modernized. The Lower Tunuyán River system (Junín and San Martín) was modernized, benefiting 2,988 producers and 19,550 hectares.[533]
160 km of canals were waterproofed in Cuyo (benefiting 7,775 producers and 53,000 ha) and infrastructure such as the Canal Norte (195,000 ha, 2,980 producers), Chachingo-Pescara (8,000 ha, 834 producers) and Socavón Frugoni (5,560 ha, 430 producers).[534][535] It was also built. the Huarpe Canal for vegetables and the Civit and Oeste canals in the City of Mendoza were repowered.
The modernization works in the Naciente Chachingo-Pescara (8040 ha, 834 producers), Socavón-Frugoni (5560 ha, 413 producers) and the Lower Tunuyán River (19550 ha, 2988 producers, with an investment of 147 million) systems[536] represented a total investment of more than 500 million pesos.[537].
Jump
The irrigation area of Colonia Santa Rosa was optimized by extending 51 km of canals, which supply about 10,000 hectares and improve rural supply.[538].
Santiago del Estero
In 2011, the Figueroa/Néstor Kirchner dam was rebuilt (369 million pesos), recovering 30,000 hectares for production, along with the construction of the El Cero dam and intake works on the Gini and San Jorge canals.[539].
In 2012, the construction of the El Bolsón reservoir (Albigasta River) was resumed, to recover an agricultural area in the Choya department.[540]
In 2014, the Western Aqueduct (149.2 km) was completed, from the Río Hondo Reservoir to Laprida. It directly benefits 20,000 people (and indirectly 90,000) and improves supply in 500,000 hectares for livestock production in various departments.[541][542][543].
Cordova
In 2011, the Etruria-Laboulaye aqueduct (150 km) was inaugurated, with a national investment of 130 million pesos, which supplies nearly 50,000 people.[544][545].
Saint John
In 2010, the Salto de la Loma Hydroelectric Power Plant (Jáchal River) was rebuilt, a "run-of-the-river" power plant whose water, after generating energy, is used for irrigation.[546].
Black River
Maintenance and modernization works began on irrigation systems and power plants, including the lining of the adduction channel of the Julián Romero Power Plant (Cinco Saltos), the repair of the irrigation system of the Salto Andersen Power Plant (Río Colorado), the repair of gates at the Ballester Dam (Barda del Medio) and maintenance at the Cipolletti Power Plant.[547]
The plan was carried out for the Cinco Saltos Main Canal ($46 million pesos)[548] and the waterproofing of the Río Colorado Main Canal.[549][550] 31 million pesos were invested in irrigation improvements for the Alto, Medio, Viedma and Río Colorado valleys.[551].
Provision of Drinking Water
Land of Fire
In Río Grande, works for almost 10 million pesos began in March 2011 (completed in December) that included a 2.5 million liter cistern for Margen Sur and an aqueduct for the northern zone.[552][553].
Holy Cross
In October 2015, the Lago Buenos Aires Aqueduct was put out to tender to supply Caleta Olivia and other northern towns.[554][555] The tender was void and the project was canceled by the next administration.[556][554].
Land Law
During his mandate, the Land Law was approved, which limits sales to foreigners to 15% of the national territory. Until then, the provinces were obliged to report within 60 days the amount of land in foreign hands, whether natural persons or legal entities.[557] With the unification and updating of the Civil and Commercial Code of the Argentine Republic, the recognition of indigenous community property was achieved. Historically, indigenous people were evicted from the lands they occupied for not having any title or recognition from the State. Within the framework of this regulation, hectares corresponding to 653 indigenous communities in 21 provinces were demarcated, according to statistics from the Territorial Survey of Indigenous Communities Program of the INAI. To this State activity, carried out with indigenous participation, was added the regularization of the records of legitimate ownership of hectares in the provinces of Jujuy, Mendoza, Chaco and Salta, carried out through provincial programs and expropriation laws. The new Code will allow the transformation of the indigenous possession demarcated in these years, since in its article 18 it provides for the sanction of a special law, which will regulate the scope and implementation of community property, with its corresponding titling.[235] By June 2015, 647 indigenous communities and 6,999,443 hectares had been surveyed, which was equivalent to 67% of the estimated total. The National Registry of Indigenous Communities by then had granted legal status to 1,380 communities belonging to the until then 32 indigenous peoples recognized by the national State.[235] A larger budget was granted to the National Registry of Indigenous Communities.[558] Likewise, new bilingual schools were created where children learn their ancestral history and instruction on their culinary traditions.
aboriginals.[239].
Environmental policy
La política ambiental del gobierno tuvo diferentes aristas. En primer lugar se realizó un programa para eliminar las lámparas incandescentes y se impulsaron las energías renovables, en especial la solar. Con respecto a la conservación de especies y ambientes se reglamentó la Ley de Bosques "Ley de Bosque Nativo (Argentina)") mediante el Decreto 91/2009[562] de 2009 y se sancionó y reglamentó la Ley de glaciares en 2010.[563][564] Se avanzó a su vez con la limpieza de la cuenca del Riachuelo. A partir de 2008 Argentina disminuyó la cantidad de gases contaminantes generados. La tendencia al descenso que empezó en 2008 se mantuvo en los siguientes años, según datos del Inventario de Gases de Efecto Invernadero (GEI) de la Convención Marco de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático.[565][566][567] Para su segunda gestión los fondos presupuestarios de la secretaría de Ambiente se multiplicaron ampliamente y la agenda de programas nacionales alcanzó mayor diversificación y visibilidad, transformándose en Ministerio. En mayo de 2015 se inauguró desde General Roca, la planta de reciclaje de residuos para la región del Alto Valle que implicó 80 millones de pesos.[568].
El Ministro Norberto Yahuar promovió la trazabilidad pesquera, vital para la sostenibilidad de la riqueza marina. Ducha ley se basa en la preservación y del océano argentino que alberga ecosistemas frágiles como los de la plataforma continental, donde se desarrollan actividades de reproducción y alimentación de numerosas especies. La ley busco integrar todas las regiones y actores de la cadena pesquera, garantizando que cada captura sea registrada y monitoreada, para contribuir combate a la pesca ilegal y proteger los hábitats marinos, rastrear cada paso de la cadena de pesca, desde la captura hasta su destino final y transparentar la industria.[569].
Impulso y logro la sanción de la Ley 13.288 de Gestión Integral de Plaguicidas, que estableció un manejo de los residuos resultantes del uso de plaguicidas en la agricultura.
animal law
In 2011 Argentina acceded to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Starting that year, the state company Aerolíneas Argentinas prohibited the transport of hunting trophies on its national and international flights.[570] That same year, Dr. Kirchner promoted a new program for the protection of wild animals, for domestic animals, and to promote responsible pet ownership. The regulations were promoted by the Minister of Health, Juan Manzur; the Legal and Technical Secretaries, Carlos Zannini and Oscar Parrilli, as well as leaders and members of several environmentalist and protectionist NGOs.[571] During his second term, he launched the National Program for Responsible Ownership and Health of Dogs and Cats, which includes animal protection measures, in order to avoid infectious diseases, encourage the adoption of stray dogs and cats, and promote the vaccination of pets and their castration.[572].
Glacier Protection Law
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The environmental policy of Cristina Kirchner's Government basically had as its axes the regulation of forest laws in 2007 and the sanction of the glacier law in 2010.[580] It was promulgated and regulated on February 23, 2009 by the Executive Branch headed by Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. In 2015, the Guinle Law was enacted to increase the rate of renewable energy in the national energy mix.[581].
Through Agua y Saneamientos Argentinos (AySA),[582] a comprehensive program was initiated for the universalization of drinking water and sanitation services for the population of Buenos Aires and 17 municipalities in the first belt of the Buenos Aires suburbs. The plan carried out by AySA involved an investment of $26,174 million between 2007 and 2015, 727 completed works that benefit eight million people within the company's concession area. Drinking water coverage, which in 2003 was 71.1% of the population, rose to 82% in 2015, incorporating 3,881,047 inhabitants, while sewage coverage rose from 43.1% in 2003 to 54.4% in 2015, incorporating 3,130,225 inhabitants into the service.[583].
One of the first activities was the national program to eliminate incandescent lamps in 2011, replacing them with low-consumption compact fluorescent lamps (CFL) in all homes connected to the public network and in public buildings. The law was originally promoted by Greenpeace during 2008 and quickly supported by the Executive branch, which made it possible to discuss it in parliament.[584][405] It provides for the distribution of 25 million lamps in total.[406][405] This plan resulted in law 26,473 (enacted on January 21, 2009) that prohibits “the import and marketing of lamps.” incandescent for residential use”.[407][408].
Solar energy was also promoted, in April 2011, the San Juan I Pilot Photovoltaic Plant was inaugurated in Ullum, province of San Juan, the then largest photovoltaic solar energy park in Latin America.[585].
Through the Foreign Ministry, Argentina maintained, together with the rest of the Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, the Dominican Republic, and Uruguay) an active position in favor of the prohibition of whaling and the protection of the species.
The National Promotion Directorate (DNPROM) was created, with the objective of designing programs and actions that lead to the development of renewable energy initiatives, and Law 26 190 was passed, generating tax exemptions for a period of 15 years. The 2007 law is a complement to the previous one and declares the generation of electricity that is intended to supply a public service from any renewable source to be of national interest. That law also set a target of 8% for renewable energy consumption over a 10-year period and ordered the creation of a trust whose resources will be used to pay a premium for electricity produced from renewable resources.[410] Also included was the construction of the Antonio Morán wind power plant,[586] of 10.56 MW in the Patagonia region. The two existing small-scale projects are the production of electricity from biomass at the General Deheza Oil Plant[416] and the recovery of methane and electricity generation at the North landfill.[587].
In 2010, a new glacier law was voted and approved, which was promulgated on October 28. Said law 26,639 establishes the minimum budgets for the protection of glaciers and the periglacial environment with the aim of preserving them as strategic reserves of water resources for human consumption; for agriculture and as providers of water for the recharge of hydrographic basins; for the protection of biodiversity; as a source of scientific information and as a tourist attraction. Glaciers constitute public assets.[589] On February 28, 2011, the law was regulated, establishing minimum budgets and the immediate preparation of an inventory of glaciers. The law regulates the activities permitted in glaciers and their surroundings, absolutely prohibiting industrial and mining activities, the construction of architectural and infrastructure works (with the exception of scientific ones) and the release of polluting substances regardless of their volume.[590].
The glacier law presented by the ruling Front for Victory senator Daniel Filmus obtained its approval on September 30, 2010 by Congress and regulation in March 2011 by the National Executive Branch. The national government then signed an agreement with CONICET to carry out the glacier inventory and the Argentine Institute of Glaciology and Nivology (Ianigla), a CONICET unit based in Mendoza, was summoned. The National University of Cuyo and the Governments of Mendoza and San Juan "San Juan (Argentina)") also participated, as the enforcement authority.[591] 4,000 bodies of ice were surveyed in different sub-basins of the provinces of Catamarca, Mendoza, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego. In total, the sum of these bodies covers an area greater than 3,700 km², more than 17 times the size of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires. An agreement was also signed for the surveys to be subjected to an external audit by national or international experts, including the Center National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France.[592] In total, Argentina has 16,968 bodies that represent 8,484 square kilometers covered in ice, being the second country in Latin America with the most glaciers and one of the 15 countries in the world with the most bodies of ice.
National parks
Between Néstor Kirchner's mandate and yours, eight National Parks were created, increasing the protected area of national territory by 24 percent. The parks were expanded, incorporating 900,000 land hectares and 407,124 marine hectares, increasing the number of visitors by 78 percent. In 2011, the Strategic Tourism Plan was launched, in 2010 more than 400,000 visitors arrived in the country, and Argentina stood out as the first destination among South American countries.[601]
In December 2015, the properties for the future Traslasierra national park in the province of Córdoba were acquired.
To preserve marine resources, on June 19, 2008, the Federal Fisheries Council of Argentina created a total fishing prohibition area within the Namuncurá Bank delimited by the coordinates 54° 30′ S and 60° 30′ W, 54° 30′ S and 59° 30′ W, 54° 15′ S and 60° 30′ W, 54° 15′ S and 59° 30' W within the isobath of 100 meters depth.[602][603] The area has breeding sites for species such as polaca and Fuegian sardine spawning. On October 27, 2010, the National Parks Administration established the creation of a marine national park in the area, giving protection to several species of albatrosses and petrels (black-browed albatross, grey-headed albatross, wandering albatross, Tristan albatross, northern giant petrel, southern giant petrel and white-chinned petrel), as well as penguins (Magellan penguin, penguin rockhopper, gentoo penguin and king penguin).[604].
Protected Marine Parks
In November 2015, the designation of new Marine Protected Areas, including the Creation of the Namuncurá-Banco Burdwood II and Yaganes Marine Protected Areas.
River sanitation
In 2008, the Acunar Municipal Council was established with representatives of the 15 municipalities that make up the Matanza Riachuelo River basin, and a Social Participation Commission as a space for articulation with civil society and the Forum of Universities of the Matanza Riachuelo Basin[622].
Likewise, in 2014, the cleaning and recovery of the Reconquista River Basin began, which covers 175,000 hectares and includes the municipalities of: Moreno, Merlo, Luján, General Rodríguez, General Las Heras, Marcos Paz. Malvinas Argentinas, San Miguel, General San Martín, Tres de Febrero, Morón, Ituzaingó, José C. Paz, Hurlingham. Tigre, Vicente López, San Isidro, San Fernando. Among the works carried out was the Camino del Borde, sidewalks, public lighting, bike paths, bridges at stream crossings, ditches and railway tracks, along 12 kilometers, from Panamericana to Route 8. The basin includes 134 water courses that cover 606 km, of which 82 correspond to the Reconquista River.[623]The cleaning of the Reconquista River was carried out. Upper and Middle Sections, in the districts of Merlo, Moreno, Ituzaingó, Hurlingham and San Miguel. The work includes the trunking, clearing, weeding and reconditioning of the main channel of the river, as well as its re-profiling and works against flooding.
Together with the province of Buenos Aires, the Undersecretary of Water Resources, the work of improvement and sanitation of the Middle Section of the Luján River was undertaken, financed by the Development Bank of Latin America.
Animal protection
Through the Foreign Ministry, Argentina maintained, together with the rest of the Latin American countries (Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, the Dominican Republic, and Uruguay) an active position in favor of the prohibition of whaling and the protection of the species. In 2011, it created the National Program for Responsible Ownership and Health of Dogs and Cats.[624] The initiative established the responsible ownership of pets and the health of dogs and cats, promoting free surgical castration in both sexes.[625].
In 2010, the first survey on invasive species was launched, creating the National Information System on Invasive Exotic Species. More than 650 species of invasive flora and fauna were detected in Argentina. In 2009, the protection of around 200 species was approved[626]
In 2015, the transport of hunting trophies was prohibited on all flights, both domestic and international flights.
In January 2013, Law 26,815 was enacted, which created the Federal Fire Management System, with the National Fire Management Service being the body in charge of its compliance.[627].
Wildlife Preservation
Regarding the care of biodiversity, in 2010, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2010-2020 was approved, which established the main lines of work and the Action Plan for the protection of endangered species, which aimed to protect species in critical condition.
Housing policy
A national and federal registry was created with unified beneficiary selection criteria with which the different levels of the State and NGOs can validate the demand for housing and future awards made throughout the country.[628].
the entity representing the National State.
[629][630][631][632] The PRO.CRE.AR Bicentenario Credit program was launched on June 12, 2012, until mid-2015 families were benefited with credits for the purchase of land and the construction of homes on them.[633][634][635].
Educational policy
La política educativa del gobierno de Cristina Fernández fue una continuación de la gestión de Néstor Kirchner. El porcentaje del Producto Interno Bruto destinado a educación creció desde el 3,64 % en 2003 a 6,02 % en 2010. En términos absolutos, pasó de 14 501 millones de pesos en 2003 a 89 924 millones de pesos en 2010, un 520 % más.[636] Ya para el 2012 el porcentaje del Producto Interno Bruto destinado a educación creció desde el 3,64 % en 2003 a 6,81 % en 2012.[637]
Se sancionó la Ley de Educación Nacional que permitió la reestructuración de la primaria y la secundaria y el fin de las políticas focalizadas y asistencialistas; destacándose la participación de más 750.000 docentes y 700 organizaciones de la sociedad civil y la reglamentación que establece que el presupuesto de educación no puede ser menor al 6% del PBI.[638] Tal inversión del Estadopermitió que Argentina trepara del puesto 83 al 17 en el ranking mundial de
inversión educativa en relación a su riqueza (Repetto, 2013) y se posicionara como el séptimo país del mundo que más aumentó la
inversión educativa en el período 2004-2011 (Informe de monitoreo, CIPPEC, 2014).[639] Además se llevaron a cabo iniciativas para asegurar la neutralidad política y religiosa dentro del aula.[640][641].
Según datos del censo de 2010, la tasa de analfabetismo es del 1.9 %, siendo la segunda más baja de Latinoamérica.[642][643] En la última década se han creado nueve nuevas universidades, mientras que el egreso de estudiantes universitarios aumentó un 68 %.[644] Según datos del Programa Naciones Unidas para el desarrollo (PNUD), en el año 2011 el 99,0% de la población de 6 a 11 años asistía al nivel primario y, el 96,5% de los jóvenes de 12 a 14 años asistía al nivel secundario.
En 2015 se establece que las clases comiencen el 29 de febrero y finalicen el 16 de diciembre para cumplir con un calendario educativo mínimo de 190 días de clases, con la necesidad de fijar un calendario escolar lo más extenso posible.[645].
Initial Education
In 2007, one of the first projects of his administration was approved, which constituted one of the points of the Kirchner campaign platform, modifying national education law No. 26,206.
Through this modification, the five-person room was incorporated by law as mandatory.
The norm declares Initial Education mandatory for 5-year-old boys and girls, modifies article 16 of Law 26,206 and established compulsory schooling throughout the country, extending from the age of 4 years to the completion of the secondary education level.
In 2013, the Executive Branch bill was approved for the implementation of mandatory initial education from the 4-year-old classroom. The law was accompanied by the creation of a School Infrastructure Fund for 500 million pesos for the construction of 4-year classrooms, which allowed the incorporation of 100,000 more students into the national educational system, achieving more than 80 percent coverage in the 4-year classroom.[646][647] In 2012, a study by the Latin American Observatory of Education revealed that school dropouts at the secondary level fell 5.3 percentage points in 4 years the highest decrease in Latin America. In 2007, 19.4% of 17-year-old students had dropped out of school, while in 2011 the figure dropped to 14.1%, the lowest in the Latin American region along with Uruguay with 14.3.[648].
Between 2011 and 2015, the percentage of children who dropped out of primary school in Argentina decreased from 0.4 to 0.28%, according to the Argentinos por la Educación Observatory.
7 billion pesos were invested in equipment for technical schools, more than 54 million books were distributed. The investment in university teaching salaries was 19 billion pesos in 2012, with the salary increase being more than 1000% since 2001.[649].
In 2015, the Higher Education Law was reformed through the law on the Effective Implementation of State Responsibility at the Higher Education Level, which establishes “free and unrestricted” access to state degree studies, prohibiting eliminatory economic reasons and fees with the aim of making admission to universities transparent and making it universal.
Primary and secondary education
During his administration, in-person teacher training throughout the country reached 55,000 courses in 2015; At the same time, staff from 14,000 schools were trained, while teacher training courses taught online reached 16,914 trained teachers.[650] In 2015, the Minister of Education Alberto Sileoni proposed to all his peers in the country that classes begin on February 29 and end on December 16 to comply with an educational calendar of 190 days of classes, with the need to set a school calendar as soon as possible. extensive possible.[645].
The teaching salary gained 78% of purchasing power between 2003 and 2015 on average throughout the country. During the administrations of Néstor and Cristina Kirchner, teachers' salaries exceeded the price increase by 78 points and increased more than 100 percent in the same period in Chaco, province of Buenos Aires and Santa Cruz.[651] In 2013, the Law on Teaching Centers was passed. Students (law 26877) that recognizes them as democratic bodies of student representation. The law guaranteed that the Student Centers are responsible for generating the participation of those represented in various activities of different kinds such as: art, recreation, sports, campaigns, culture and others, establishing the right of students to get the best possible offer of courses, good course conditions, extracurricular workshops and sports activities and the obligation of the State to collaborate with the insertion of students in their social environment aimed at the development of actions for the benefit of the entire society. community.[652][653].
In addition, initiatives were carried out to ensure political and religious neutrality within the classroom.[640] In 2013, 23 minibuses were delivered to agricultural schools in different provinces and the "University, Design and Productive Development" Program was launched, focused on agricultural schools in the Argentine countryside.[657].
After the Five-Year Plan of the Perón Government between 1947 and 1951 (which opened 8,000 schools),[658] the period between 2003 and 2010 is the second period of greatest school construction in Argentine history. Between 1969 and 2003, the different national governments financed the construction of a total of 427 schools, while between 2003 and 2010, more than 1,880 schools were built, benefiting half a million students.[659].
In 2015, the law was enacted that declares initial education mandatory for four-year-old children in the national education system. The “Title your Secondary School” program was also launched, an intensive monitoring of students who, having completed the last year of secondary education, have pending subjects. In this framework, "52,845 students graduated thanks to the plan. The population aged 25-29 with completed secondary school went from 58.9% to 71.4% in 2013 in the country between 2003 and 2013. During the period, the evolution of secondary technical education enrollment was notable: it went from 487,000 students in 2005 to 595,000 in 2012.[660].
University System
The university system expanded especially starting in 2007, during the two presidencies of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, when 18 national universities were created, 8 of which are located in the Buenos Aires suburbs, 1 university institute and 5 provincial universities.[660] 7 universities and 2 private university institutes were also authorized. The new universities are the Ezeiza Airport University,[691] the National University of Avellaneda,[692] the National University of José C. Paz[693] the Arturo Jauretche National University, the National University of Moreno, the National University of Tierra del Fuego, the National University of Villa Mercedes, the National University of Chaco Austral, the National University of Río Negro and the National University of the West.[694] The new public universities in The Buenos Aires suburbs, together with the National University of Lomas de Zamora – which dates back to the 1970s – added 15 establishments that bring together more than 170 thousand students, 12% of the national public university enrollment. In a high percentage between 70 and 95% depending on the institutions, it was made up of students who constitute the first generation of university students in their families. The growth of State contributions to education allowed for an increase in transfers to national universities, whose budget increased from $1,992 million in 2003 to $13,258 million in 2011.
The total number of people attending public universities grew by 39 percent between 2008 and 2015. Enrollment had a significant increase, which far exceeded the growth rate of the Argentine population. Between 2008 and 2015, the number of low-income students in the total number of students enrolled in the university system grew by 47 percent for quintile 1 (the poorest 20% of the population) and 95 percent for quintile 2.[695] According to data from 2013 and 2014 published in reports from the Center for Argentine Education Studies of the University of Belgrano - the proportion of university students Every 10 thousand inhabitants of Argentina reached 436 students in 2011, a proportion greater than that of Brazil 380, Chile 361, Colombia 273 and Mexico 285, the second largest in Latin America after Cuba with 421 students.
Scholarships were also implemented to support the development of strategic careers for the country (engineering, basic and natural sciences) and also favor students from the non-university sector. According to data provided by the 2015 Management Report of the Secretariat of University Policies, in that year 62,300 scholarships were awarded with a total investment of 900 million pesos, compared to the 2,453 scholarships for an amount of just over 7 million pesos that had been awarded in 1999/2002.[702].
Another policy implemented since 2007 was the development of international networks, through the promotion program of the Argentine University; another program aimed at promoting postgraduate training in priority areas and university well-being; On the other hand, there is a group of programs sustained since 2008, one of them aimed at training computer technicians, and another three at the promotion of university extension, university volunteering and local development. Then, the author identifies a set of programs that began in 2009: the program to promote mobility in exact and natural sciences, the program to strengthen social and human careers, and a program to support the first year of careers with knowledge of mathematics.[703].
Health policy
Durante sus gobiernos se implementaron el Plan Nacer (que luego fue ampliado por el Programa Sumar), el Salud Materno Infantil, el Programa Remediar y el Programa Nacional de Salud Sexual. Se promulgaron leyes para controlar el consumo de tabaco y de sal de mesa. Se lanzó el plan de salud dental.[735] en 2008 se produjo la creación del Programa Nacional para la Producción Pública de Medicamentos, Vacunas y Productos Médicos") para abaratar su costo y mejorar la eficiencia. De forma complementaria en 2011 con la sanción del Congreso de la ley 26.688 impulsada por el partido FPV se declaró interés nacional a la investigación y producción de medicamentos, vacunas y productos médicos como bienes sociales, con el objetivo de promover la accesibilidad y propiciar el desarrollo científico y tecnológico nacional. En diciembre de 2014 se crea la Agencia Nacional de Laboratorios Públicos.[736] Logrando que la población tenga una amplia cobertura de acceso a los medicamentos, en especial en los medicamentos esenciales de bajo costo. Esto se explica debido a la existencia de programas de provisión pública y gratuita a la población en todos los Centros de Atención Primaria de la Salud (CAPS). En particular el Programa Remediar, que llega a todos los CAPS de todas las localidades del país unos 6200 en total.
El 4 de mayo de 2011 el Congreso sanciona la Ley 26 682 de Regulación de la Medicina Prepaga que estableció que la obligación de que las empresas de medicina prepaga cubran los planes de cobertura médico-asistencial del Programa Médico Obligatorio (PMO) y el sistema con prestaciones básicas para personas con discapacidad, también incrementó los derechos de los usuarios al establecer que los usuarios de prepagas pueden rescindir en cualquier momento el contrato celebrado, sin limitación y sin penalidad alguna de parte de la empresa, también establecía que a los mayores de 65 años con al menos diez años de antigüedad en la cobertura no se les puede aumentar la cuota.[737] El nuevo plan de servicios de salud federal incluyó 6 líneas de cuidado –control periódico de salud; detección de riesgo de enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles (hipertensión, diabetes, cardiovasculares y renal); detección de riesgo y diagnóstico de cáncer colorrectal; salud mental; apoyo y seguimiento en casos de alcoholismo y consumo de sustancias, y promoción de hábitos saludables, salud sexual y reproductiva, y prevención de lesiones externas, además de acceso a cerca de 50 nuevas prestaciones de salud, además de incluir la vacuna contra la difteria y el tétanos; la vacuna contra la hepatitis B; la Doble viral/ triple viral que inmuniza contra el sarampión y la rubéola; además de la vacuna antigripal y contra el neumococo.[738]
Dio impulso a la Ley N.º 26.689 sobre el cuidado integral de la salud de las personas con enfermedades congénitas -acompañada por el lanzamiento del Programa Nacional de Enfermedades Poco Frecuentes y Anomalías Congénitas y la Ley N.º 25.929 de Parto Humanizado, que buscaba anteponer el parto natural a las prácticas invasivas y garantizar el respeto a los derechos de las mujeres gestantes y sus familias.
En 2014 se creó la Red Federal Pública de Alta Complejidad, integrada por 17 hospitales que cumplen los estándares de calidad, coordinada por un Centro Nacional, y con un enfoque regional. Más de 3.500 niños y niñas operados de cardiopatías congénitas desde 2010. Reducción de la lista de espera en un 80% con respecto a la existente en 2003, fue el primer programa de América Latina en contar con evaluaciones externas y rigurosas de su impacto.[214] A partir del 4 de diciembre de 2014, Argentina, se convirtió en el primer país de América en prohibir la producción y venta de grasas trans en todo su territorio, sumándose a Suiza y Dinamarca.[739].
Desde la Sedronar desarrolló un programa para la prevención del consumo de drogas en ciudades de la Costa Atlántica y partidos de fútbol argentino.[740] Al mismo tiempo se han encarado convenios con diferentes ONG especializadas en el tema, como con la organización Madres en Lucha, para el reacondicionamiento y equipamiento de Centro Preventivo Local de las Adicciones (CePLA) en el Barrio Mitre.[741] En 2014 el gobierno de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner comenzó a implementar como parte del plan de lucha contra las drogas los Centros de Prevención de creación Toxicomanías en 150 localidades, con un presupuesto de 1.279 millones de pesos, con una inversión de 714 millones de pesos para la instalación de 60 casas educativas y otros 1279 millones para 150 centros preventivos.[742] En 2014 se aprobó la Ley de Muerte digna que establecía que el paciente en estado vegetativo tiene el derecho de aceptar o rechazar determinadas terapias o procedimientos médicos, dando su consentimiento informado, es decir, la declaración de su voluntad -o, en todo caso, por medio de sus representantes legales-, emitida luego de recibir toda la información necesaria sobre su situación. El texto también deja en claro que, en estos casos, el médico no tendrá responsabilidad civil, penal ni administrativa alguna.[743].
En 2008 se reglamentó la ley 26.066, aprobada en 2006[744] que establece que toda persona mayor de 18 años es considerada donante con excepción de quienes manifiesten su voluntad con contrario, entró en vigencia en 2006 y permitió que la actividad de procuración continuara en ascenso.
En 2010 se implementa a nivel federal Plan de Desarrollo de Trasplante Renal, para prevenir, diagnosticar, tratar y seguir la enfermedad renal crónica. En paralelo se implementa la Estrategia Hospital Donante Archivado el 12 de noviembre de 2020 en Wayback Machine., que tiene como objetivo incorporar la procuración como una actividad propia de los hospitales para incrementar la disponibilidad de órganos y tejidos para trasplante.
Durante el 2012 Argentina alcanzó una tasa de 15,1 donantes por millón de habitantes, lo que la posicionó a la vanguardia en la región en materia de donación.[745][746].
En el año 2014 Argentina se mantenía como líder entre los países de la región en materia de trasplante de órganos por millón de habitantes, liderando las estadísticas en trasplantes cardíacos, pancreáticos e intestinales, según consta en el Newsletter Transplant, publicado por el Consejo de Europa, el cual contiene las cifras internacionales de donación y trasplantes.[747][748] En 2013 se lanzó normativa implica que los familiares de alguna persona fallecida ya no podrán revocar autorización de la donación que realizo la persona fallecida y no pueden negarse a la misma. Establece respecto a los derechos de donantes y receptores la intimidad, privacidad y confidencialidad; a la integridad; a la información y al trato equitativo e igualitario.
Presentó la ley 26529 que establece derecho del paciente, historia clínica y consentimiento informado y sobre muerte digna y cuidados paliativos integrales.
Se implementaron programas como “Qunita - Un comienzo de vida equitativo”[749] y se incorporaron nuevos segmentos poblacionales a programas ya existentes, como es el caso de “SUMAR”, que, hasta ese momento, proveía cobertura de salud gratuita a niños, niñas y adolescentes y a mujeres de hasta 64 años. Con la nueva modificación, “SUMAR” extendió la cobertura a varones de entre 20 y 64 años, lo que significó la incorporación de 2.223.972 personas al programa.[750].
En el mismo período, se reglamentaron: la Ley N° 26.689 sobre el cuidado integral de la salud de las personas con enfermedades congénitas -acompañada por el lanzamiento del Programa Nacional de Enfermedades Poco Frecuentes y Anomalías Congénitas (EPFyAC)[751] la Ley N° 25.929 de Parto Humanizado,[752] que buscaba anteponer el parto natural a las prácticas invasivas y garantizar el respeto a los derechos de las mujeres gestantes y sus familias, la Ley N° 26743 [753] que garantiza el acceso de tratamientos hormonales y quirúrgicos de modificación corporal y establecía las primeras compras de insumos de hormonización.
National Plan against Dengue
Since 2009, numerous measures were taken after the National Plan against Dengue was launched, a disease that affects Argentina during the southern summer. The disease was controlled by applying a strong community-based strategy to control the transmitting mosquito. Since the launch of the plan, a budget of 102 million pesos was granted to combat dengue, extensive modernization and strengthening of the operational bases for vector control and federal health delegations, health operations were carried out through mobile health units dependent on the Ministry of Health. Through the Ministry of Health, national and provincial authorities were coordinated to implement active state prevention policies, including communication campaigns, environmental sanitation in public spaces, provision of barrier methods such as mosquito nets and repellents in an accessible manner, distributing them in health services and hospitals and vulnerable groups, and distribution of drinking water.
After 2009, measures were taken that led to the reduction of the disease and its geographical decline, gradually reducing Dengue cases until reaching a minimum of 223 cases in 2015, while in other countries in the region cases remained high.[754] During this time it went from being an endemic disease in twelve of the twenty-three provinces in 2008 to being endemic in only six. Decreasing the geographic incidence by 40 percent.[755].
During his second term, there was an increase in fumigation capacity, from 1,500 hectares per hour in 2009 to 3,900 hectares per hour in 2015, and the renewal of machines, with the acquisition of 200 new motor-foggers.
Through INTA, the development of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was investigated to combat Aedes aegypti. The TIE system has already been used successfully against the fruit fly plague in the Cuyo region.
Maternity and childhood
Law 26,862 on Medically Assisted Reproduction, also known as the 'National Assisted Fertilization Law', was promoted, enacted on June 25, 2013, through which the most varied possibilities of fertilization and implantation are allowed and regulated, and the cryopreservation of genetic material and embryos is enabled without further precautions. By this law, health institutions must incorporate as mandatory benefits and provide their members or beneficiaries with comprehensive and interdisciplinary coverage of the approach, diagnosis, medications and supportive therapies and procedures and techniques that the World Health Organization defines as medically assisted reproduction.[756] Such coverage will also be provided for those people who, although not wanting to carry out the immediate achievement of a pregnancy, due to health problems or medical treatments or surgical interventions, may see their ability to carry out compromised. procreate in the future. The regulations also provide for the incorporation into the Mandatory Medical Program (PMO) of these procedures, as well as diagnostic procedures, medications and supportive therapies, with the coverage criteria and modalities established by the application authority.
The Neonatal Screening law was expanded by adding cystic fibrosis, galactocemia, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, biotinidase deficiency, retinopathy of prematurity, Chagas disease and syphilis.[757].
Argentina managed to reduce maternal and child mortality from 4.4 per thousand to 3.2 per thousand, and the infant mortality rate from 16.5 per thousand to 10.8 per thousand, thanks to free health plans for women and children. Meanwhile, maternal and infant mortality decreased from 4.4 per thousand to 3.2 per thousand. By 2015, the infant mortality rate fell to single digits in 2015 for the first time in 25 years, reaching 9.7.[213] Much of the credit for this improvement in indicators was given by the creation of Plan Nacer in 2004, which was later extended and renamed the Sumar Program in 2012.
In 2010, financing was incorporated for comprehensive care of congenital heart diseases in children, which constitute the main cause of infant mortality that is difficult to reduce, for all boys and girls in the country without social work. Since its launch, 3,500 boys and girls have undergone surgery for congenital heart disease, achieving a reduction in the waiting list by 80% compared to the one that existed in 2003.
organ donation
By means of Decree 421/2013 of April 19, 2013, Law No. 26,845 was promulgated, on the Promotion of Awareness About the Social Relevance of Organ Donation, which had the objective of promoting at all levels and modalities of the educational system proposals and actions for raising awareness about the social relevance of the donation of organs and tissues for transplantation, on a voluntary, altruistic basis, selfless and supportive.[765] The organ donation and transplant policy was a continuation of that of his predecessor; In eight years, Argentina experienced notable and sustained growth in the generation of donors and organ transplants, as a result of the implementation of innovative public procurement policies. In eight years of management of the cycle inaugurated by Néstor Kirchner and continued by President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the rate of donors per million inhabitants tripled, which meant that in the last year a transplant rate of 39.2 per million inhabitants was recorded in 2010, making it the second country in Latin America in the number of transplants.[766] By 2013, Argentina was at the forefront in Latin America in donation of organs.[767] Later in 2016, the rate of organ donors per million inhabitants decreased in 2016 to its lowest level in the last decade.[768] In 2011, the Procurar Program was launched, which aims to develop hospital organ procurement units in each national and provincial hospital.
Mental health law
From the mental health model in asylums and closed institutions, we moved to a Community Mental Health paradigm that promotes networked approaches based on alternative devices to hospitalization: general consultations.
bulatorias, home assistance, social and labor inclusion devices, day centers and night centers, community participation, among others; supported by comprehensive medical and psychological care.
Among the main advantages of the change towards the outpatient model was the comprehensive approach to people's mental health, inclusion of the person in society as a functional and autonomous member; reducing the average hospitalization time; the recovery and creation of emotional and social ties; and the promotion of work activities.
obesity law
In 2008, the well-known "Obesity Law" was promoted and approved, which established the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of obesity, bulimia and anorexia to be covered by health insurance plans and prepaid medicine firms.[772] One of the most important points it establishes is that obesity is a disease and a public health problem, subject to government policies. In this way, it frees the obese person from being guilty of being sick. The law implies that weight loss treatments are included in the Mandatory Medical Program (PMO), which means that the public health system, social works, mutual societies and prepaid medicine companies have to take care of them. This includes surgical alternatives such as “gastric sleeve,” bypass, and adjustable gastric banding.
anti-smoking law
The law decrees the obligation that warnings about the risk of smoking appear on the packages; these legends must occupy 30% of the upper part of each side of the package and be renewed every 6 months. It also established that tobacco companies will be obliged to place images on the packages - they will occupy 70% of one of the sides of the package -, the total prohibition of advertising or promotion of cigarette brands through any mass media, each package must also carry the number of the free telephone service that will be enabled to quit smoking, the prohibition of the sale of cigarettes to minors under 18 years of age, the prohibition of cigarette vending machines1.
National Cancer Research Institute
On September 9, 2010, the National Cancer Institute was created, a decentralized organization whose fundamental mission is the development and implementation of health policies, as well as the coordination of integrated actions for the prevention and control of cancer.[778] Among its most notable functions was the management of the Institutional Tumor Registry of Argentina (RITA), which allowed hospitals throughout the country to systematize epidemiological data and improve health planning. In addition, the institute trained professionals in oncology and cancer epidemiology, promoting the generation of scientific information for the development of public health plans, training spaces and epidemiological data collection, and the development of public policies.[779].
Tropical diseases
In August of that year, the National Plan for the Prevention and Control of Dengue and Yellow Fever was implemented, through which the experiences and knowledge of different actors from the national and provincial government order, in addition to scientific societies, universities and social organizations, were capitalized. Thus, it was achieved that there were no fatalities and just over a thousand patients were registered, 96% less than in 2009.[780].
The Institute of Tropical Medicine was launched in 2014, which will operate in the Triple Border area, in the missionary city of Puerto Iguazú, and which will serve to control and prevent diseases that develop in hot climates such as Chagas, Leishmaniasis, Malaria and Dengue.[781] In 2013, it regulated the National Mental Health Law that guarantees the rights of users of mental services and establishes the state responsibility to promote community treatments, and the closure of public and private asylums by 2020, in accordance with what was agreed by different countries, including Argentina, in what is known as the Panama Consensus.[782] In 2015, three new vaccines were incorporated into the national calendar: one against rotavirus, one against chickenpox, and the last against meningococcus. They will be applied to 1.5 million children up to 2 years of age.
Nuclear Medicine Plan
At the end of 2014, the Kirchner Government launched the National Plan for Nuclear Medicine-Nucleovida, which planned to invest 4.3 billion pesos for centers for diagnostic imaging and treatment of diseases such as cancer, with the objective of "expanding nuclear medicine equipment by 40% to cover the needs of the population and guarantee equitable access to this technology throughout the country." The plan included the construction of Nuclear Medicine and Radiotherapy Centers, with the contribution of the state company INVAP and the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA), in different provinces. The one in La Pampa includes a sector dedicated to the production of radioisotopes and radiopharmaceuticals, it was built with an investment of more than 400 million pesos, the Formosa Nuclear Medicine Center invested 528 million pesos, the Santiago del Estero center invested more than 300 million pesos in 2015 and, finally, the Río Gallegos Nuclear Medicine Center with an investment of 328 million in its construction and equipment.[783].
Palliative Care Law
In 2012, the first palliative care law was enacted along with the Dignified Death Law, Law 26,742. which established that the patient in a vegetative state has the right to accept or reject certain therapies or medical procedures, giving their informed consent, that is, the declaration of their will - or, in any case, through their legal representatives -, issued after receiving all the necessary information about their situation. The text also makes it clear that, in these cases, the doctor will not have any civil, criminal or administrative liability. The legislation established the right not to extend medical treatments when the patient has an irreversible, incurable, terminal illness or if he or she suffered injuries that leave him or her in this situation.
[743][784] in turn, it specified the sanitary conditions that contemplate the dignity deserved by the dying person; being the first Latin American country to have a law of this nature, being approved with 55 senators in favor and none against.[785].
Dental health
In 2008, the National Dental Health Plan was implemented, an initiative aimed at guaranteeing the right to dental health through the production and placement of prostheses and implants, which included in the PMO the repair of cavities, dental fluoridation, tooth extractions, endodontic treatments, periodontics, oral surgeries, implants and dental prostheses, etc. In addition, dental specialists were made mandatory in hospitals and public clinics to achieve free access to dentists for seven million people, with priority given to children and pregnant women.[786].
In December 2014, the Argentina Sonríe program would be launched as a complementary form, a national plan to guarantee access to absolutely free dental prostheses for all Argentines. The main modality of the federal health program was the use of health trucks that would travel through different towns and cities in the country, where specialists carried out checkups, routine controls, even fixing a cavity, canal, even extraction of pieces, dental repairs and prostheses. The mobile health units were equipped with 3D robotic medical technology, with 30 units, 10 of them intended for rehabilitation, 12 provided with first level care and 8 intended for the transfer of patients.[787][788].
With the aim of making the pharmaceutical chain transparent and reducing the price of medicines, a control and traceability system was adopted. Through the system. The State will be able to control medications by monitoring them throughout the production chain from the laboratory to the patient. Through the new regulations, each company or entity involved must generate codes that will be incorporated into the database of the ANMAT system. Each box or unit of product will have its own unique code, unmodifiable and non-transferable. The database is open to the citizen, allowing them to know what components each medication contains, where it was manufactured.[789] This law allows preventing health risks from the use of illegitimate products, discouraging theft and smuggling of medications, detecting duplications and deviations from the legal marketing chain, providing security to users, reducing medical costs and optimizing the use of public resources.[790].
Birth policies
The main public policy to lower the birth rate in the most vulnerable population, guaranteeing the rights to sexual and reproductive health, in addition to lowering the birth rate in the population of girls and adolescents. In 2007, the fertility rate for girls between 15 and 19 years old in Argentina was around 57 per thousand, below the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which is 72.4. Decreasing from a peak of 67.8 in 2001.[791] At the same time, it was complemented with community promotion activities on rights, sexual and reproductive health for out-of-school populations and the creation of individual or group consultation spaces in schools and clinics in classrooms and hospitals. Reaching in its first year almost 5,700 secondary schools, 1,490 health centers.
Assisted Fertility Law Law 26,862 was promulgated in 2013, guaranteeing comprehensive access to medically assisted reproduction procedures for all people who need it.
Hospital infrastructure
In 2012 he launched the works of the Comprehensive refunctionalization program of the Churruca-Visca Medical Hospital Complex, in the works 16 million pesos were invested in the remodeling of 36 rooms to which 60 orthopedic beds and new instruments were added.[792] He inaugurated several public hospitals during his presidential term. One of the most notable examples was the inauguration of the Morón Municipal Hospital in December 2014, works in the Posadas Hospital and presented the progress of works in other Bicentennial Hospitals, such as those in Ituzaingó and Esteban Echevarría.[793].
In 2011, the remodeling and expansion of the San Isidro hospital was inaugurated in the northern area of the AMBA, whose surface area tripled that of the old Hospital.[794] In the Luis Lagomaggiore hospital, located west of the City of Mendoza, a new maternity hospital was built, a work of 11,544 square meters distributed over 5 floors, which are added to the 17,000 m² that the hospital already has, that is, it adds up to around 70% more space.[795].
In 2008, the Bicentennial Hospitals program was launched, announced in October 2008 under the first government of Cristina Kirchner, including the Ituzaingo hospital, the Nestor Kirchner maternal and child hospital in Laferrere, in La Matanza, the René Favaloro general acute care hospital and the Ramón Carrillo in Santiago del Estero-La Banda.
In 2015, the construction of the Dr. René Favaloro General Acute Hospital in La Matanza, a High Complexity hospital, with 18,352 m2 covered, was completed, with a total investment of 374 million pesos.
Public production of medicines
Regarding health policy, in 2008, the National Program for the Public Production of Medicines, Vaccines and Medical Products was created to reduce their cost and improve efficiency. In addition, in 2011, with the Congressional sanction of Law 26,688 promoted by the FPV party, national interest was declared in the research and production of medicines, vaccines and medical products as social goods, with the aim of promoting accessibility and promoting scientific and technological development. national. In December 2014, the National Agency for Public Laboratories was created.[736] Through the state company, medicines were exported to 17 countries, diversifying the export areas and obtaining new markets and businesses worth 500 million dollars since 2013,[121] ensuring that the population has wide coverage of access to medicines, especially low-cost essential medicines. free to the population in all Primary Health Care Centers (CAPS). In particular, the Remediar Program, which reaches all CAPS in all locations in the country, some 6,200 in total.
Since 2009, numerous measures were taken after the National Plan against Dengue was launched, a disease that affects Argentina during the southern summer. The disease was controlled by applying a strong community-based strategy to control the transmitting mosquito. Since the launch of the plan, a budget of 102 million pesos was granted to combat dengue, extensive modernization and strengthening of the operational bases for vector control and federal health delegations, health operations were carried out through mobile health units dependent on the Ministry of Health. Through the Ministry of Health, national and provincial authorities were coordinated to implement active state prevention policies, including communication campaigns, environmental sanitation in public spaces, provision of barrier methods such as mosquito nets and repellents in an accessible manner, distributing them in health services and hospitals and vulnerable groups, and distribution of drinking water.
After 2009, measures were taken that led to a decrease in the disease and its geographical decline, gradually reducing Dengue cases until reaching a minimum of 223 cases in 2015, while in other countries in the region cases remained high.[754] During this time it went from being an endemic disease in twelve of the twenty-three provinces in 2008 to being endemic in only six, decreasing the geographical incidence by 40 percent. cent.[755][796].
During his second term, there was an increase in the fumigation capacity against mosquitoes, from 1,500 hectares per hour in 2009 to 3,900 hectares per hour in 2015, and the renewal of machines, with the acquisition of 200 new motor-foggers. Through INTA, the development of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) was investigated to combat Aedes aegypti. The TIE system has already been used successfully against the fruit fly plague in the Cuyo region.
Human rights policy
La política de derechos humanos de la presidencia de Cristina Fernández de Kirchner tuvo como ejes el juzgamiento de los crímenes de lesa humanidad ocurridos durante la última dictadura militar (1976-1983) y la sanción de leyes que protegen a las mujeres y las diversidades sexuales. En ese sentido se destacan la sanción de las leyes de matrimonio igualitario en 2010 y de identidad de género "Ley de identidad de género (Argentina)") en 2012.[798] Durante su primera administración se creó el Banco de Datos Genéticos mediante la Ley Nacional nº 26.548 del 18 de noviembre de 2009 entre otras, acompañada con la sanción de la Ley Nacional de Sitios de Memoria, nº 26.691, el día 29 de junio de 2011. En 2008 se quitó la jubilación
de privilegio que gozaban Jorge Rafael Videla y Emilio Massera, elimnandose las jubilaciones de privilegio de rango militar a condenados por delitos de lesa humanidad, Ley 26128 apoyada por todos los bloques parlamentarios excepto el PRO.[799] En el año 2012 con el voto unánime del Frente para la Víctoria, el Partido Socialista, Nuevo Encuentro, GEN y la UCR y con la oposición del PRO se sanciona la Ley 26827 que conllevó a la creación del Sistema Nacional de Prevención de la Tortura y Otros Tratos o Penas Crueles, Inhumanos o Degradantes, tendiente a la prevención y prohibición de la tortura y otros tratos o penas crueles, inhumanos o degradante.[800].
Se produjo la señalización de alrededor de 200 lugares que funcionaron como centros clandestinos de detención durante la última dictadura.
El informe anual de Human Rights Watch correspondiente a 2015 sintetizó la situación de los derechos humanos en Argentina del siguiente modo:.
Durante su primera presidencia el INADI abrió delegaciones propias en 21 provincias y en la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, como parte de un plan de federalización, que incluyó convenios con más de 200 municipios de todo el país.[245][246] y en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires el aumento fue del 14,8 % al 72,9 % (fuente: Analogías, diciembre de 2006 y CEOP, abril de 2009).
En 2014 se aprobó la Ley de Muerte digna que establecía que el paciente en estado vegetativo tiene el derecho de aceptar o rechazar determinadas terapias o procedimientos médicos, dando su consentimiento informado, es decir, la declaración de su voluntad -o, en todo caso, por medio de sus representantes legales-, emitida luego de recibir toda la información necesaria sobre su situación. El texto también deja en claro que, en estos casos, el médico no tendrá responsabilidad civil, penal ni administrativa alguna.[743].
Trials for state terrorism
Human rights politician Cristina Fernández had open support from several human rights organizations such as the Mothers of Plaza de Mayo and the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo. On March 1, 2009, when formally opening the session of Congress, Fernández questioned the slow pace of progress in trials for crimes against humanity:
During his first term, the creation of the National Memory Archive took place; the creation of the Space for Memory and for the promotion and defense of Human Rights, on the grounds of the former ESMA; the creation of the Haroldo Conti Cultural Center; the marking of around 500 clandestine detention centers, the updating of the Never Again Report, the creation of 20 research units on the consequences of State terrorism; the extension of reparatory policies for people who directly suffered Human Rights violations, the declassification of different files from the last military dictatorship; the creation of the Comprehensive Assistance Center for victims of State Terrorism, Law No. 26,061 on Comprehensive Protection of the Rights of Children and Adolescents; the creation of the National Registry of Missing Minors; the promotion of the National Human Rights Plan and the National Plan against Discrimination and the classification of human trafficking as a federal crime.[803].
President Fernández's reference to the delay of Justice in resolving cases for crimes against humanity was related to the criticism of the Criminal Cassation Chamber made by then-President Kirchner, on March 26, 2007, for the great delay in resolving the appeals systematically presented by the accused repressors, causing the paralysis of almost all cases.[804][805].
On December 17 and 18, 2008, Chamber II of the Criminal Cassation Chamber, made up of W. Gustavo Mitchell, Guillermo J. Yacobucci and Luis M. García, by two votes to one (Mitchell), ordered the release of 21 repressors accused of crimes against humanity in the ESMA mega-case, including Alfredo Astiz, sentenced to life imprisonment in France, arguing that the maximum legal period of preventive detention had been exceeded. authorized by law.[806] The decision was severely questioned by Cristina Fernández on the same day that the rulings were announced, in an event held precisely at the ESMA, transformed into a center for memory:.
The ruling was also criticized by political leaders of various tendencies and human rights activists. Taty Almeida, president of Madres de Plaza de Mayo Línea Foundadora, maintained that the ruling was "a slap in the face, a shame."[808] For her part, deputy Victoria Donda, born and stripped of her identity in the ESMA, accused the court: "I am not surprised, because it is precisely this Chamber of Criminal Cassation that has a strategy of benefiting the genocidaires."[808] Ragmar Hagelin, father of the teenager Dagmar Hagelin disappeared in the ESMA, defined the ruling as "a sacrilege", "a slap on each cheek of the Argentine people" and maintained that "it is a national shame that there are judges who at this point in time make a similar decision."[809].
Given the ruling, the National Executive Branch ordered to present an extraordinary appeal before the Supreme Court, thus suspending the release of the repressors and requesting in the Council of the Judiciary the impeachment against the two judges (Yacobucci and García) who voted in favor in the decision.[810].
Through an agreement, the Supreme Court demanded that the courts throughout the country expedite trials for human rights violations that occurred during the last military dictatorship.[811] The Court also created on that occasion a superintendence unit with special powers to monitor pending cases, request information from judges about progress and delays in the processes and establish measures to avoid delays.[812] On the same occasion, it invited the other public powers, the Executive and the Legislative, as well as the Public Prosecutor's Office, to expedite the cases.[811].
In 2009, the Judiciary announced the sending to oral trial of several cases of crimes against humanity. Among them, a date was set for October 10, in the Federal Oral Court No. 5, for two of the ten sections of the ESMA mega-case, corresponding to the disappearance of the French nuns Léonie Duquet and Alice Domon and the journalist Rodolfo Walsh, where Astiz, Acosta, Rolón, Pernías, among other repressors, will be prosecuted.[813] As part of these policies, 106 places that had been centers will be prosecuted. clandestine detention centers "Clandestine detention center (Argentina)") were marked by the state and converted into spaces for memory.[814].
The different trials, which have been carried out since 2007, were carried out throughout the country. The best known causes are: the Simón Case, Battalion 601, Von Wernich, Etchecolatz, ESMA clandestine center "Escuela de Mecánica de la Armada (clandestine detention center)", First Corps), Plan Cóndor, Margarita Belén Massacre, Trelew Massacre, Third Corps) and Barreto, Gonçalves and D'Amico") (detachment from the Riveros case). They were also 106 places that had been clandestine detention centers "Centro clandestino de detention (Argentina)") were marked and converted into spaces for memory.[814] In December 2008, Law 26,475 was passed, which provided for the extinction of the special benefits of those who usurped positions in centralized and decentralized organizations of the national public administration between the coup d'état of March 1976 and the end of the dictatorship. The rule ranged from de facto former presidents, to ministers, to secretaries and undersecretaries. The following year, circular 17/09 of the National Social Security Administration (Anses) established a mechanism to materialize the dismissals.
In 2009, a resolution was signed in which it was strictly prohibited to honor deceased repressors involved in crimes against humanity during their funerals.[818] Program 26 Promotion and Defense of Human Rights (whose objectives have also varied across different governments, but will be analyzed later). And starting in 2009, the Program to Strengthen Judicial Processes against Crimes Against Humanity was created.
In 2013, the Senate unanimously turned into law a bill from the Executive Branch that includes recognition and compensation for the victims of the attacks and bombings that occurred from June 16 to September 16, 1955, known as the bombing of the Plaza de Mayo. The measure also recognizes the soldiers who suffered reprisals or were discharged for not joining the bombing during the self-styled dictatorship Revolución Libertadora "Liberating Revolution (Argentina)").[819] The surviving victims have received tributes from the National Memory Archive.[820].
In 2013, the creation of the Genetic Data Bank was approved, promoted by the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo, guaranteeing the obtaining, storage and analysis of the genetic information that is necessary as evidence for the clarification of crimes against humanity whose execution has begun within the scope of the national State until December 10, 1983.[821].
In 2015, it enacted a compensation law for survivors and relatives of victims of the AMIA attack. The norm was published in the Official Gazette and was promulgated by Decree 838/2015.[822] a few weeks before the end of his second term, he promulgated the Law on free legal support for victims of gender violence, creating the Corps of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence, to provide free legal sponsorship and comprehensive legal advice throughout the national territory to victims of gender violence. All of this is framed in Law 27,210, presented by deputy Juan Manuel Abal Medina "Juan Manuel Abal Medina (son)").[823] The modification of the Penal and Procedural Code granted victims' rights for the first time, granting greater participation and guarantees in the criminal process to victims of crimes and contemplates free legal assistance when they cannot afford the expenses.
The norm modified the Criminal Procedure Code and the Criminal Execution Law with the objective of "recognizing and guaranteeing the rights of crime victims, avoiding revictimization and ensuring effective support during the process.
Protection of sexual diversity
Among other laws promoted we can highlight:
• - the law repealing article 765 of the Military Justice Code that established the crime of homosexuality for soldiers.
• - the Same-Sex Marriage Law (2010), known as the Equal Marriage Law, also recognizing the right to adopt children of LGBT+ people.
• - the Gender Identity Law "Gender Identity Law (Argentina)") (2012), recognizing the right to change gender, from childhood and through the simple self-perception of the person, with recognition of the right to free necessary medical treatments.
Since 2009, Law 26,529 on "Patient Rights in their Relationship with Health Professionals and Institutions" in its article 2, recognizes the right to be assisted by health professionals, without any impairment or distinction based on sexual orientation.[824] That same year, the crime of homosexuality provided for in the military was eliminated from the Code of Military Justice (article 765), which was punishable by demotion and a prison sentence. from six months to six years.[825][826][827].
On August 13, 2010, the Chamber of Deputies approved the amendment to the anti-discrimination law that prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, but it was not voted on by the Senate.[828] In those years, there has been an effort to encourage LGBT tourists to visit Buenos Aires, added to the boom that this type of tourism has experienced.[829] According to a study by the Pew Research Center, Argentina is the country that most accepts homosexuality in Latin America.[830] On August 13, 2010, the Chamber of Deputies approved the amendment to the anti-discrimination law that prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.[831][832].
Through ruling 1,181/11, the federal police and security forces were instructed to respect the gender identity of both the agents of the different agencies and the detainees and of any citizen who carries out a procedure in their facilities, providing treatment in accordance with the self-perceived identity to people who request it. The new regulations also made it possible to accept transvestite, transsexual and transgender officers in the security forces in which they were prohibited.[833][834][835].
In 2011, civil marriage legislation was modified allowing people of the same sex to marry and adopt. In that year, Argentina became the second country in America to have this right and the tenth in the world. By 2015, the number of marriages had risen to more than 10,000 couples.[836] Single women and homoparental families were included in the Medically Assisted Reproduction Law enacted in 2013, a demand promoted by the FALGBT.[837] The Law for the Comprehensive Protection of the Rights of Children and Adolescents was enacted.
A year later, the Penal Code was modified by adding the penalty of life imprisonment to hate crimes motivated by sexual orientation and gender identity or its expression.[838] The Regime for equalizing employment opportunities for trans people was approved. Establishing the creation of a minimum priority quota in the national public administration, for trans people who meet the suitability conditions for the position.
Protection against gender violence
In April 2008, Law 26,364 on Human Trafficking and Assistance to its Victims was passed as a measure of protection for all minor and adult women who were exploited both inside and outside the country.[848] In 2009, Law 26,485 on "Comprehensive protection to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women in the areas in which they carry out their activities" was passed. interpersonal relationships" that expanded the definition of "violence against women" in the country.[849] Later a paragraph was added to prevent and eradicate obstetric violence. Being complemented by the "Humanized Childbirth" Law, which establishes rights for the mother, the newborn, and the father and mother in case there is a risk situation for the newborn.[850].
In 2011, the Law on Comprehensive Protection of Women was passed, which finally became Law 26,485 "Law on Comprehensive Protection of Women (Argentina)"), and which refers to comprehensive protection to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women in the areas in which they develop their interpersonal relationships. The law protects women from physical violence, but also from psychological, sexual, reproductive, obstetric, economic and symbolic violence suffered both in the family, as well as in the institutional, work or media environment.[852]In 2009, Law 26,485[853] was passed to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Violence against Women in the Areas in which Their Relationships Develop Interpersonal. The law was regulated by Decree 1011/2010.[854].
On November 14, 2012, Congress, at the initiative of the Socialist Party, the Left Front and the Front for Victory, sanctioned Law 26,791[855] creating the crime of feminicide as an autonomous cause of aggravated homicide, classifying it as homicide carried out against "a woman when the act is perpetrated by a man and through gender violence."
In 2012, the National Congress, through Law 26,842, incorporated two modifications: on the one hand, not accepting the “consent” of the victim - even despite their age of majority -, and also requiring that the sentences be enforced effectively regardless of the case. That same year, the Federal Council against Trafficking in Persons and the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights of the Nation were created, which enabled the toll-free number 145 to receive complaints from any point in the country. national territory 24 hours a day, thanks to the telephone line until April of this year, 8,325 victims were rescued by the National State.[856][857].
In 2015, the law was enacted that provides for the creation of the Body of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence (Law No. 27,210). Law 26,842 was also passed, which extends sentences for trafficking crimes, accelerates the judicial process, eliminates the consent of the victim as an exculpatory element for the person responsible for promoting prostitution and exploiting the victim, and creates a Federal Council for the fight against trafficking and an Executive Committee for assistance to the victim.[858].
Protection policies towards women
During her management, she stood out for the federalization of public policies implemented at the federal level, reaching all the provinces of the country and also establishing the Federal Council of Women, Gender and Diversity, made up of the high authorities of the areas of gender and diversity of the Argentine provinces.
In 2007, the “Victims against Violence” program was established, whose main objective is the care, support and assistance to victims of family and sexual violence. Positioning them in an active place that implies their decision to collaborate as a citizen responsibility.[866].
With the aim of combating trafficking in women and sexual violence, it prohibited item 59 intended for advertising of brothels and related activities.[867] It argued that the sexual offer in item 59 is a profound discrimination against women as such. This law is a gigantic step against double standards and hypocrisy." The Minister of Justice, Dr. Julio Alak, who had the Office of Rescue and Accompaniment for people affected by this crime, participated in the presentation.
At the same time, the coordination of the fight against trafficking was launched together with the Ministry of Justice together with the National Women's Council.[868] the Law against Trafficking in Persons (26,364), the Comprehensive Law to prevent, punish and eradicate violence against women (26,485).[869] The law established the prohibition of advertisements that promote sexual offers or that disseminate, both explicitly and implicitly, the request of people for the sexual trade, which had the objective of preventing the crime of Human Trafficking and, in addition, becomes a form of progressive decrease in the forms of discrimination suffered by women.[870] Months later, all media outlets had stopped publishing sexual offer ads except those of the Clarín group, which decided to ignore the law, publishing more than 157 thousand sexual offer ads on its pages, obtaining millionaire profits by advertising brothels and whiskerias.[871][872] Thanks to the law together with the implementation of the federal telephone line 145, several brothels were closed.[873]
Brigades specialized in attacking child prostitution were created, Dr. Eva Giberti was summoned to work on drafting the Law against Human Trafficking, which sought to ensure that the victims were active and demanded that the State arrest the rapist. Due to her policies in favor of women's rights, Fernández de Kirchner would be awarded in 2015 at the Meeting of World Leaders on Gender Equality held in New York.[874].
Law of children and adolescents
During his administration, the Argentine legal framework for the protection of children was updated and expanded, through Law 26,061. These rights are based on the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which establishes principles such as the best interests of the child, the right to life and development, non-discrimination and participation. Protection against child labor: Laws were enacted to criminalize child labor and protect working mothers and fathers, seeking to guarantee the right of children to adequate physical, mental and social development.
[875]
In 2012, a new adoption law was promoted[876].
In 2014, the new Civil and Commercial Code incorporated the right of children and adolescents to be heard in all judicial processes that affect them. The opinion of the minor must be taken into account according to their age and degree of maturity.[877]Article 641 of the new civil code specifically established that the exercise of parental responsibility corresponds to both parents equally. The general principle of the exercise of joint or dual parental responsibility was established, when there is no coexistence of the parents or it has ended. The regime of parental authority was repealed, to be replaced by regimes of parental responsibility, based on the equality of men and women, the status of boys and girls as subjects and the parental function governed by the principle of the best interests of the child. In addition, a regime of equal co-parental responsibility was established.[878].
The equal principle between men and women was also established to carry out their life projects, in addition to the right of every child or adolescent to maintain a bond with both parents after the breakdown of the union between the parents.
Immigrant rights
In 2008, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner signed the new immigration law described as a "world example" by the International Organization for Migration and established the largest regulation of immigrants in Argentine history. The new law replaced the one dictated during the dictatorship of Jorge Rafael Videla in 1981, known as the Videla Law.[879] The new law incorporated two axes that were absent in the previous regulations: the perspective of human rights and the regionalist immigration approach. The new law had an inclusive spirit, recognizing migration as a fundamental human right that the State must guarantee and must favor the regularization of migrants, granting them social and economic rights not recognized until then.[880].
The government of Cristina Fernández continued with the Plan Patria Grande initiated in the previous government, in order to grant documents to immigrants in an irregular situation. In 2008, Argentine documents were delivered to 144,549 people, thus adding the number of 714,907 regularized immigrants, since the plan was launched in 2006.[881] The figure represents almost half of the foreigners registered in the 2001 census (1,531,940). The massive regularization of immigrants and the consequent possibility that they can assert their rights (unionization, association, labor demands, etc.) has a strong impact on the labor market, since foreigners usually occupy jobs that are in the lowest and most informal salary levels, so an improvement in them directly impacts the entire salary scale.[882]With the objective of reducing the number of people in a situation of documentary irregularity, it was intended for native citizens of member countries of the Mercosur and its associated states, which included Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.[883] As of August 2010, 423,697 immigrants had registered in the program. Of that number, 248,144 were Paraguayans,[884] 104,984 Bolivians, 47,455 Peruvians, 10,785 Uruguayans, 5,349 Chileans, 4,603 Brazilians, 914 Ecuadorians and 22,816 Venezuelans.[885]
Since 2014, it has been enabled that the Argentine citizenship process through naturalization can be done completely digitally through the website of the National Directorate of Migration. The measure sought to streamline procedures, guarantee greater security and transparency, and simplify access for foreigners over 18 years of age residing in the country who wished to naturalize Argentine citizenship.
With the reforms promoted to the Criminal Procedure Code, Law 13,943 limited alternatives to dangerous criminals. 14,128 limited release to repeat offenders and adults who use minors to commit crimes, and 14,517 limited release to all those who carry weapons when committing crimes.
indigenous peoples
In the field of indigenous policies, within the INAI, an autonomous organization created by the management of Néstor Kirchner, the Indigenous Participation Council was created in response to a sustained demand for compliance with current regulations. In the area of education, the enactment of Law 26,206 on National Education incorporated bilingual and intercultural education as an educational modality, while in the field of communication and culture, laws such as Law 26,522 on Audiovisual Communication Services (2009) promoted cultural diversity and the incorporation of indigenous community channels and aboriginal content on mass channels into the radio sector. [886] During the Bicentennial celebrations in 2010, a central place was reserved for indigenous peoples, carrying symbolism and establishing an idea of a nation with a place for indigenous peoples.[887] A policy of restitution of indigenous remains to their original communities was carried out. In 2013, the remains of three members of the Wichí community, murdered between 1881 and 1921 in the Ledesma and La Esperanza sugar mills, were returned.[888] Bones of Tehuelches and Mapuches exhibited in the Tello Museum, in Viedma, were also returned.[889]
The regulatory framework of indigenous rights was completed with the ratification of Convention No. 169 on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the International Labor Organization (ILO) by law 24,071, the inclusion of indigenous peoples in the National Census as of 2010, the United Nations Declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples and the new Civil and Commercial Code "Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación (Argentina)") (2015), regulating indigenous ownership of land.[890] From then on, the indigenous communities that live in Argentina began to organize to make their new constitutional rights effective.[890] The main difficulty arises when the "traditional occupation" is considered in the terms of art. 75 inc. 15 of lands that, registered, have a recognized owner prior to the constitutional reform, as is the case of the lands belonging to the Italian company Benetton.[891][892] The Indigenous Territorial Emergency Law No. 26,160 was sanctioned, suspending for 4 years the evictions of indigenous lands in order to carry out the cadastral survey of the ancestral lands, a previous step to formalize the community property titles.[893][894].
Since 2012, a survey was carried out in more than 59 national and provincial museums to make an inventory of indigenous remains to be returned to their communities, managing to identify 203 remains and restore more than 178 by 2015.[895] In 2010, Cristina Kirchner regulated National Law No. 25517, issued in 2001 and known as the “law of restitution of human remains.” This law establishes among its main articles, the return of the mortal remains of Aboriginal people, regardless of their ethnic characteristics, that are part of museums and/or public or private collections.[896]
Memory policy
In 2013, the Senate unanimously signed into law the Executive Branch project that included the victims of the attacks and bombings that occurred from June 16 to September 16, 1955, as beneficiaries of the compensation laws for having been detained or having suffered forced disappearance or another act of illicit force on the part of the State. The measure also recognizes the soldiers who suffered reprisals or were discharged for not joining the bombing.[908]
The surviving victims have received tributes from the National Memory Archive.[909]
In honor of the victims and martyrs, a monument was erected "From heaven they saw them arrive" that was incorporated into UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) as a way to "pay tribute to each of the 308 victims[910].
In May 2008, with the participation of Secretary Eduardo Luis Duhalde and human rights activist and journalist Eduardo Jozami (1939-).[911][912] the Haroldo Conti cultural center and museum[913] was inaugurated at the ESMA.
Later, the Public Entity Space for Memory and the Promotion and Defense of Human Rights would be inaugurated.[914] the ESMA Memory Site Museum.[915] and the
Mothers of Plaza de Mayo cultural space.[916].
Personal rights
Very personal rights are subjective rights inherent to the human person that guarantee their integrity and dignity, protecting their essence and both physical and spiritual manifestations.[917].
A new law was passed with the objective of guaranteeing the comprehensive protection of personal data of natural and legal persons. This law recognizes and protects the right of access, rectification, updating and cancellation of data, as well as the possibility of opposing its use.
International Center for Human Rights
In 2013 it was inaugurated in the former ESMA
The International Center for the Promotion of Human Rights (CIPDH) whose purpose is to promote cooperation and articulation with the international community for the development of human rights education and to plan and implement regional and international projects to promote human rights. The CIPDH has the status of a category 2 center under the auspices of UNESCO, although with autonomy and autarky.[918][919].
Human rights in Malvinas
On December 11, 2008, the Argentine National Congress sanctioned national decree 2131 that declared the Puerto Darwin cemetery a national historic site. Later, it was declared a national historic site again through national law 26,498 of June 4, 2009, published in the Official Gazette of the Argentine Republic.[920].
In 2010, a Kelper citizen of British origin was granted refuge and an Argentine DNI, arguing the human rights violations that occurred in the Islands. In another case, Linsey and Jamies Trevaskis were exiled in Wales, from where they reported that the woman's daughter was unjustly taken from her by the social services of the islands when she was 11 years old because her mother had requested Argentine nationality.[921].
In 2010, the organization began in the "Malvinas Humanitarian Project Plan" in conjunction with the International Committee of the Red Cross, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Worship of the Nation, the Forensic Anthropology Team and the Center for Assistance to Victims of Human Rights Violations to identify the remains of 122 soldiers who could not be identified, which began in 2012 with the collection of DNA samples taken between March and December 2011 with the due consent of each family.[922][923].
That same year, the National Council on Affairs related to the Malvinas Islands was created, created by Law 27,558, its central objective is to generate the political and social consensus necessary to design and implement State policies that contribute to the full exercise of sovereignty over the Malvinas Islands, South Georgia Islands, South Sandwich Islands and the surrounding maritime spaces.
In 2014, for the first time since the war, the work of doctors, surgical instruments and nurses who participated in the conflict was recognized, along with the awarding of medals and diplomas of honor, an honorary pension was granted that male combatants enjoy that had not been granted to female combatants, although they served during the combat.[924].
Anti-discrimination policy
During his presidency, the National Institute against Discrimination, Xenophobia and Racism (INADI) was established, granting it financial autonomy and autarky, the decentralized body of the national State, whose objective is to guarantee respect for the rights of all those who may be affected by any type of discrimination, whether due to their ethnic origin or nationality, their political opinions or religious beliefs, their gender or sexual identity, their disability or illness, their age or their physical appearance. INADI opened its own delegations in 21 provinces and in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, as part of a federalization plan, which included agreements with more than 200 municipalities throughout the country. In 2008, a free telephone line (0800) was created for consultation, which operates 24 hours a day to report discriminatory acts.
In 2010, it was incorporated through the update of the anti-discrimination law, Law 23,592, which addresses anti-Semitism as a form of discrimination, establishing sanctions for discriminatory acts based on race, religion, nationality or origin.
Politics in media and communication
Durante la presidencia de Cristina Kirchner se debatió y aprobó por sectores oficialistas y opositores la Ley de Servicios de Comunicación Audiovisual que reemplaza a la antigua Ley de Radiodifusión 22.285 creada por la última dictadura. Este hecho, junto con la migración hacia la televisión digital abierta, dio como resultado la multiplicación de la cantidad de señales audiovisuales[925][926][927] y espacios relacionados con la creación estatal de contenido y demás,[928][929] principalmente en el interior del país, donde todavía se consumen productos de la televisión de Buenos Aires. Se concedieron 1000 nuevas licencias de radio y televisión, y se crearon cerca de 100 000 puestos de trabajo. Otros aspectos que resaltan son la aparición de varios nuevos diarios de alcance nacional.[930] Se realizaron 1.132 reservas de frecuencias de radios para municipios, se dieron más de mil autorizaciones y licencias a radios AM y FM y televisión abierta y paga y más de 650 de radio AM y FM al sector privado; mientras que se entregaron las 23 licencias para radios de baja frecuencia en zonas de alta vulnerabilidad social y se llamó a concurso para 1.052 frecuencias de radio en todo el país, recibieron la autorización para poner en marcha 175 radios y canales de televisión; al tiempo que fueron autorizadas 35 radios y un canal para los pueblos originarios.[931].
Otros aspectos que resaltan son la aparición de varios nuevos diarios de tirada nacional,[930] y la despenalización de las calumnias e injurias para expresiones de interés público, tema vinculado a la libertad de expresión y la libertad de prensa.[932][933][934][935] Se aprobó la despenalización de las calumnias e injurias para expresiones de interés público, tema vinculado a la libertad de expresión y la libertad de prensa.[932][933][934][935].
Audiovisual communication services law
In 2004 and debated for a year in 24 forums that were held for this purpose in different parts of the country.[1057] After more than 100 and two years of debate and modifications, it was approved by a large majority in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. With the new law, a thousand radio and TV licenses and authorizations were delivered since the enactment of the media law. The Federal Authority for Audiovisual Communication Services (AFSCA) highlighted the delivery of 1,007 authorizations and licenses to broadcast on radio and TV, the reservation of 1,132 frequencies for municipalities, as well as the creation of 100,0000 new jobs in the sector.
The law led to the creation of 1,008 new radio and television licenses, generating around 100,000 jobs. The most beneficiaries were cooperatives, community radio stations, indigenous peoples, national universities, educational institutions, cooperatives and SMEs received 98 new licenses.
In the radio area: 250 licenses were granted to FM radio stations and four to AM radio stations. The most notable correspond to the 34 FM granted to indigenous peoples, the Catholic Church with 25 FM and one AM, educational institutes with 168 FM and universities with six.[936][937].
Telecommunications
On June 1, 2012, it published the resolution that forces mobile phone companies to charge for calls from the moment the recipient answers and not from the moment the number is dialed as they did previously, a measure repeatedly requested by consumer defense movements.[938] In March 2012, President Cristina Kirchner announced that as of March 30 of that year, the number portability of cell phones would begin to govern throughout the country, which allows users to change companies while maintaining the number.[939].
The National Plan "Argentina Conectada") launched during the Fernández administration built 15,453 kilometers of the Fiber Optic Backbone Network, acquired another 4,494 kilometers of ducts from the companies Silica, Giga Red and Global Crossing, and signed agreements with telephone companies to add another 8,305 kilometers from exchanges. In total the network reached an extension of 28,252 kilometers, to which the provincial networks would be added in construction, financed with funds from the national government. Until 2014, 79.3% of the 19,480 km projected were installed in the different regions into which the country was divided for the implementation of the plan.[940] the State promoted aerospace policy, exponentially increasing investment in an area considered strategic. Among the achievements, the following stand out: the construction of the
Pehuensat-1, which with its launch in 2007 marked the first step of the National Satellite Plan; the launch in 2011 of the Sac-D Aquarius, a satellite for monitoring
of the biosphere, in a joint work of Conae, Invap and NASA; working together
to Brazil for the development of Sac-E, which will consist of SABIA-Mar A and SABIA-Mar B, with the objective of meteorological prevention, study of the sea, deforestation and
agriculture; There was also progress in the so-called “nanosatellites”,
the small satellite “Capitán Beto”, which orbits at 650 km for
experimental free access for educational and scientific centers, and “Manolito”, a satellite with similar characteristics.[941].
Finally, Arsat-1 was launched into orbit, the first telecommunications satellite in Latin America, which with an investment of
6,500 million pesos provides telecommunications services and, later, in
September 2015, the launch of Arsat-II. This second satellite
communications involved an investment of 250 million dollars and has a
continental coverage. In this way, Argentina was included in the group of 12 countries that produce telecommunications satellites.
In 2015, the laying of the fiber optic backbone network in Entre Ríos was completed with 1,768 kilometers, adding to another 1,000 that were already deployed, reaching almost 2,800 kilometers that will provide service to 150 cities and towns in the province, with an investment of 300 million pesos.[942] The construction of the communications satellite had already been completed, and the period was in progress. of tests in San Carlos de Bariloche. It was transferred to French Guyana in August of the same year and launched on September 30, 2015 aboard an Ariane 5 from the Kourou Spaceport, which had a state investment of 250 million dollars, offering Internet, data, IP telephony and television coverage for the entire American continent, unlike its predecessor the Arsat 1 satellite, launched a year before that covered the surface of the entire Argentina, managing to six-fold the broadband speed throughout. the country.[943].
New public channels
In 2010, INCAA TV (later renamed CINE AR) was launched, the film signal of the National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts, operated by Radio and Television Argentina. It was inaugurated on December 28, 2010 by President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. The channel broadcasts films 24 hours a day, in a proportion of 70 percent Argentine films, 20 Ibero-American films and 10 percent in other languages.[957] On November 25, 2015, the Argentine government inaugurated a streaming service under the name Odeón, dedicated to broadcasting only Argentine productions, both fiction and documentaries. Two years later Odeón was renamed CINE.AR Play, by that date it had approximately 500,000 users, 600 films, including feature films and short films, and 500 hours of Argentine series.[958].
In 2012, the law was passed prohibiting unwanted calls for commercial purposes, unless the user has given their consent, prohibiting commercial calls without the express consent of the user. The measure, which was widely supported by Congress, sought to safeguard the privacy and peace of mind of users against intrusive commercial practices.
Freedom of expression
According to the report carried out monthly by the organization Reporters Without Borders, which as of December 2010 positions press freedom in Argentina on the same scale as Europe.[959].
In 2009, Congress approved a law proposed by Fernández in order to decriminalize slander and insults for expressions of public interest.[960] The law responded to a ruling by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights of May 2, 2008, in the case Eduardo Kimel v. Argentina, of the Argentine journalist Eduardo Kimel, sentenced to one year in prison, in 2000, for his questions to a judge made in a journalistic investigation into the massacre of the Pallottine priests in the church of San Patricio in 1976, during the military dictatorship that governed at that time, published as a book under the title The massacre of San Patricio.[960].
The law repealed article 112 of the Penal Code in force at that time, which established the so-called "crime of slander or covert insults",[961] and added in the text of the remaining articles referring to the crimes of slander and insults, that "in no case will expressions referring to matters of public interest or those that are not assertive constitute a crime."[960] The project adopted a radical position on the matter, decriminalizing absolutely all types of expressions, when they refer to matters of public interest or are not assertive. In this way, the project went beyond the doctrine of actual malice, which had been established by the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation,[962] which maintains that in the case of journalists, it was necessary to prove that they knew that the news was false, or at least, that they were notoriously reckless when verifying its veracity such as not having 'checked' the sources.[963].
The project was approved by the Chamber of Deputies in the session of October 28, 2009,[964] with 154 votes in favor, 12 against (of them 4 from the Republican Proposal-PRO), 2 abstentions, and the absence of 91 deputies.[965] In the Senate the project was voted on November 18, 2009, being approved unanimously by all 51 senators. present, although 21 senators were absent.[966].
The Committee to Protect Journalists, an international entity based in New York, congratulated the Argentine authorities for the passage of the law, noting that "it is an important step towards the advancement of freedom of expression in Argentina and marks a milestone in the campaign to decriminalize defamation in Latin America."[967].
With the aim of ensuring equal access to newsprint, and eliminating restrictions on a basic input for freedom of expression,[968] the production and marketing of newsprint was declared of public utility in 2010, where Papel Prensa S.A. is the only local supplier.[969] The measure had the support of different associations linked to print media such as Diarios y Periódicos Regionales Argentinos (DYPRA) and The Associative Federation of Newspapers and Cooperative Communicators of the Argentine Republic (FADICCRA),[970] whose members warned about overpricing in paper, a situation that put at risk the continuity of print media not linked as shareholders to the sole producer of the input.[971][972].
Regulation and limitation of official advertising
In 2011, the law was passed that regulated official advertising in the graphic media for the purposes of the distribution of the so-called official advertising. The law establishes an equitable distribution that must be carried out to the exclusion of any criterion that implies examining the editorial lines or the points of view they express, for which the analogous characteristics of the different publications must be established taking into account the superficiality of the formats, the general theme of each medium and some other objective circumstances, such as: price, the geographical scope of distribution, the profile of the public to which it is directed -age, gender, socioeconomic situation, etc.-, among others.
The law prohibited increasing the official advertising without authorization from Congress, at the same time it limited its use during the electoral period, also establishing that official advertising must have the sole objective of disseminating messages of public interest to the population. The state needs to communicate various facets of its action: based on that, it must define a target audience and, based on an adequate analysis of the media, choose which ones allow for better dissemination of the message.
Subsequently, Law 26,522 on audiovisual media established that “for official advertising investment, the State must consider criteria of equity and reasonableness in its distribution, taking into account the communication objectives of the message in question.”
Una de las primeras medidas adoptadas por la Presidenta Fernández fue la creación del Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación Productiva, designando a su cargo a Lino Barañao, un reconocido biólogo molecular.[113] Las principales políticas del ministerio fueron el programa Raíces que existía desde 2004 pero fue institucionalizado mediante una ley en 2008 y el plan estratégico Argentina Innovadora 2020. En el sector aeroespacial se diseñaron y fabricaron satélites en el país. El 10 de junio de 2011 se lanzó con éxito el satélite SAC-D / Aquarius de observación climática y oceanográfica.[976] Posteriormente se lanzaron los satélites geoestacionarios ARSAT-1 y ARSAT-2. En ciencia y tecnología se destacan varios puntos, entre ellos la legalización de patentes por parte del Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA) de semillas y leche maternizada. Asimismo se sancionó la Ley de Promoción de Software Nacional.[977] construido por la INVAP y lanzado el 10 de junio de 2011 por un cohete argentino Delta II.
En 2008 fue inaugurado oficialmente el Observatorio Pierre Auger en Malargüe, un emprendimiento conjunto de más de veinte países —Alemania, Argentina, Australia, Brasil, Croacia, Eslovenia, España, Estados Unidos, Francia, Italia, México, Países Bajos, Polonia, Portugal, Reino Unido, República Checa, Rumania, Vietnam— en el que colaboran unos 250 científicos de más de treinta instituciones, con la finalidad de detectar partículas subatómicas de alta energía que provienen del espacio exterior denominadas rayos cósmicos.[978][979] En el área informática se prorrogó la Ley del Software.[110] Durante su presidencia creció un 66 % la cantidad de recursos humanos dedicados a ciencia y tecnología; indicó que Argentina tiene un índice de 2,9 cada mil integrantes de la población económicamente activa, dedicados a la ciencia y a la tecnología.[112].
CONICET
Between 2007 and 2015, the number of scientists funded by CONICET increased, covering more than 16,000 among researchers, scholarship holders and support staff, compared to the 8,000 that were funded in 2003. Among all the scholarship programs of the National State, there were more than 55,000 higher education students who enjoyed the benefit,[997] becoming the most important scientific institution in the country and the second in Latin America according to the SCImago Journal Rank.[998][999] In total between 2007 and 2015, 502 building establishments were renovated out of the 700 that made up CONICET, building 149 new institutes.[1000].
Between 2003 and 2010, CONICET incorporated more than 8,000 people, increasing its staff by 93.2%. The number of researchers in 2003 was 3,804, increasing to 6,350 in 2010. In 2010 the average salary of researchers was $10,894 and that of scholarship recipients was $5,164, this represented an increase of more than 500%.[1001] Transfers to researchers from CONICET "National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (Argentina)") (National Council for Scientific and Technical Research) have multiplied several times. These State policies, together with a special repatriation program, allowed hundreds of scientists and researchers to return to the country.[1002] In 2014, the Institute of Limnology «Dr. Raúl Ringuelet», belonging to the CONICET of La Plata and located on the UNLP campus.
In 2012 Cristina Fernández de Kirchner put into operation the Scientific and Technological Pole, which included the new administrative headquarters of the National Council for Scientific and Technical Research "National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (Argentina)"), the Cultural Center of Science and the Science Park. It was the most important scientific infrastructure work of the last 50 years.[1003][1004][1005].
In 2014, the new facilities of the Institute of Biology and Experimental Medicine were inaugurated with 687 m², eleven laboratories, a culture room, a dark room, a laboratory for cytometers, a radioisotope room, the vivarium, the guard room, the electricity room, the multipurpose room and the toilets. Conicet researchers Julián Petrulevicius and Pedro Gutiérrez described a series of species, genera, families and orders of insects 325 million years old found in the province of La Rioja. One of them received the name Argentinala cristinae"), after Cristina Fernández de Kirchner.
Biotechnology
The legalization of patents by the National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA) for seeds and formula was achieved. In 2012 alone, exports of medicines to Latin America grew by 53%.[1006] Argentina made advances in scientific matters based on research carried out by INTA, in agreements with local and foreign companies and with the financial support of the State.[1007][1008].
During his management, he continued with the project to develop a low-power nuclear power plant conceived with a state-of-the-art design for the supply of energy in isolated regions at a low cost, provision of energy for desalination of seawater, until its use as a research laboratory through the state National Atomic Energy Commission. The Carem project was selected among a dozen projects of greatest interest worldwide for reactors in that power range, by a commission of experts convened by the US Department of Energy. Thanks to state developments, Argentina exported nuclear reactors and nuclear technology: to countries such as Australia, Algeria, Egypt and Peru. The country has five operational research reactors, among which is the RA-3, the most important in Latin America due to its power and production of radioisotopes.
Since 2011, Argentina has exported nuclear technology to Canada for millions of dollars. Argentina became one of the few countries that exports nuclear reactors, along with the United States, Russia, France, Germany, China and South Korea, among others.[1009][1010].
Satellite development
During his presidency, Argentina advanced in the development of climate and oceanographic observation satellites, coordinated by the National Commission for Space Activities (CONAE), and telecommunications that remained under the administration of Arsat. In both cases, the design and construction of the satellites was carried out mainly by the state high-tech company INVAP. The technicians of both the CONAE and the CNEA received a sustained increase in budget and salaries. The Argentine space project was restarted with the achievement of launching the SAC-D into orbit in 2011, built almost entirely by INVAP,[1011] as well as the completion of the Atucha Nuclear Power Plant. Through the state company invap Argentina became the only country in Latin America with a company certified by NASA to carry out complete satellite systems, from their design and construction to their operation (except launch).[1012].
During the presidency of Néstor Kirchner, the state company Arsat was created to maintain the two Argentine orbital positions granted by the International Telecommunications Union. Until 2010, it provided services with rented satellites,[1013][1014] while developing the necessary capabilities for their national construction, which was the objective set in its creation law.[1015].
Starting in 2010, Arsat began the development of the ARSAT-1 satellite, built and assembled by INVAP in Bariloche, under the direction of Thales Alenia Space.[1016] All of the software was developed in Argentina.[1017] After this, the country became one of the eight nations in the world that develop and produce its own geostationary satellites and, together with the United States, are the only two on the continent. American.[1015][1018] It is the first satellite of its type built by a Latin American country.[1019] The launch was on October 16, 2014 on the Ariane 5 rocket, by the Arianespace company, from the space base established on the island of Kouru in French Guiana.[1020][1014].
The ARSAT-2 satellite was launched on September 30, 2015 aboard an Ariane 5 from the Kourou Spaceport. It had a state investment of 250 million dollars, offering Internet, data, IP telephony and television coverage for the entire American continent, unlike its predecessor the ARSAT-1 satellite, launched a year earlier that covered the surface of the entire Argentina.[943].
In 2014, planning began for ARSAT-3,[1021][1022] satellite whose objective will be to cover the entire American continent. At the beginning of 2015, its construction had begun,[1023] with its launch scheduled for 2019.[1024] This ultimately could not be fulfilled since the construction of the satellite was suspended by the subsequent government.
In search of land to carry out tests and build a spaceport, the CONAE reached an agreement in 2011, to install a spaceport at the Punta Indio Naval Air Base and from the Puerto Belgrano Naval Base to the CONAE for the construction of the test site and the spaceport.[1025] On March 25, 2014, the cleaning and demolition works of the factory began.[1026] The Space Center was formally inaugurated on December 23, 2014.[511] Three launches were carried out at the center, the first being VEx-1A in February 2014, the second launch was VEx-1B on August 15 of the same year.[1027] The Punta Indio Space Pole") was inaugurated in 2014. It has a total area of 2,000 m² and is used to test the prototypes of the Tronador II of the CONAE.[1028][1029].
Nuclear development
• - During his mandate he launched the Nuclear Reactivation Plan of the National Energy Plan, which carried out investments of 11,000 million dollars in 10 years.
• - The Néstor Kirchner Nuclear Power Plant was completed in the Buenos Aires town of Atucha with 745 megawatts, the largest in Latin America. Its completion required an investment of 3 billion dollars and required an average of 6,000 jobs with an 88% share of local supplies.
• - In 2014, the uranium enrichment plant was launched in Pilcaniyeu, Río Negro, after the work of scientists and technicians to recover the facilities that had been abandoned at the end of the 80s and that represented a symbol of Argentine nuclear development, where 27 million dollars were invested, that same year they began loading uranium to enrich it.
• - Since 2013, the Neuquén Heavy Water production plant was expanded, making it the largest in operation in the world.
• - Since 2009, the Atucha I nuclear plant was modernized along with the completion of Atucha II after three decades. The Atucha I Nuclear Power Plant uses slightly enriched uranium. This plant originally produced based on natural uranium, based on the change in the core, the conversion was achieved so that it began to produce energy based on slightly enriched uranium, which resulted in a 30% reduction in fuel costs, and 10% in generation costs.[1035].
• - The development of nuclear technology applied to medicine and the federalization of nuclear medicine occurred through Invap with the construction of Nuclear Diagnostic Centers in the City of Buenos Aires and in 2014 in Mendoza.
• - The country managed to produce for export essential materials for nuclear plants: Radioisotope Molybdenum-99 to Egypt, Australia, Algeria and India. At the same time, nuclear reactors were exported to Algeria, Egypt, Australia and Peru.[1036].
• - In 2014, the construction of the RA-1 reactor located at the Constitucióntes Atomic Center was completed, and it was built entirely in the country, which made it the first operational reactor in all of Latin America.[1037].
Politics in culture
Durante el gobierno se construyó el Centro Cultural Kirchner un espacio para artes plásticas, espectáculos musicales y exposiciones, que fue inaugurado el 21 de mayo de 2015. Es el más importante en tamaño de América Latina y el tercero a nivel mundial. También se construyó el Museo Casa Rosada emplazado en las antiguas galerías de la Aduana de Taylor[1039] de la ciudad de Buenos Aires, inaugurado el 24 de mayo de 2011[1040] donde se exponen unas 10 000 piezas históricas. Abrió sus puertas con el nombre de Museo del Bicentenario[1041] con fotografías, pinturas y material audiovisual que recrean en una línea de tiempo los distintos períodos históricos del país. También exhibe objetos históricos hallados en excavaciones, los restos arqueológicos del Fuerte de Buenos Aires[1040] y la obra mural Ejercicio plástico del artista mexicano David Alfaro Siqueiros.[1039] También fueron construidos Museo del Libro y de la Lengua, el Parque Tecnópolis, Centro Cultural Julio Le Parc en Mendoza, el Museo de Bellas Artes en San Juan, el Centro Cultural del Bicentenario y el Centro de Convenciones en Santiago del Estero, Casa de las Culturas en Resistencia "Resistencia (ciudad)"), Chaco, Cine Teatro Renzi en La Banda, Centro del Conocimiento en Posadas, Misiones.[1042] Desde su mandato llevó a cabo una política de restitución de trofeos de guerra a países amigos, en 2011 anunció la restitución de miles de piezas arqueológicas a Perú y Ecuador al dejar inaugurada la ampliación del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes.[1043] -lpez_53024/</ref>También impulsó el proyecto de "Ley Federal de Cultura" y la creación de la Casa del Bicentenario, en pleno centro de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. En el marco de los festejos del Bicentenario de Argentina.[1040].
Al respecto de la restitución de piezas expresó "Es un honor y un placer estar restituyendo su patrimonio cultural a países como Ecuador y Perú, en un mundo que se han caracterizado en arrebatar el patrimonio cultural a esos pueblos", al mismo tiempo que hizo un llamado a los museos del mundo devuelvan las piezas saqueadas durante la época colonial[1044] Luego de la restitución de 439 piezas arqueológicas al Ecuador, y 4150 al Perú Argentina llevo adelante la devolución de objetos culturales y patrimoniales de gran valor a otros dos países latinoamericanos con 55 piezas restituidas a Bolivia, y otras 6, a México que se hallaban en casas particulares, locales y ferias de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, o habían sido ingresadas ilegalmente a Argentina[1045][1046] En 2014 continuando con la política de devolución de objetos a otros países[1047] encabezó el acto formal de restitución de objetos que pertenecieron al mariscal Francisco Solano López, héroe nacional paraguayo, saqueados durante la guerra de la Triple Alianza por Bartolomé Mitre. La gestión de la restitución estuvo a cargo de Sergio Uribarri gobernador peronista de Entre Ríos.[1048][1049][1050].
En 2014 se logro la restitución para el Estado de entre 15.000 y 20.000 restos arqueológicos, paleontológicos y paleobotánicos provenientes de América, Europa y Asia recuperados, entre los que hay piezas cerámicas que datan del año 3500 antes de Cristo.
Se crea en 2007 en el ámbito de la Secretaría de Cultura el Comité Argentino de Lucha Contra el Tráfico Ilícito de Bienes Culturales, ese mismo año se aprueba la Ley Nº 25.568, que adhiere a la "Convención sobre defensa del patrimonio arqueológico, histórico y artístico de las naciones americanas". Se uso en marcha el programa Libros y Casas,que entregaba una biblioteca equipada con 18 libros a familias beneficiarias del Plan Federal de Viviendas, que después adoptarían países como México, Cuba y España.[1051].
En agosto de 2015 Cristina Fernández de Kirchner inauguró 18 nuevas salas que suman 3200 m² de exposición, y la finalización de la remodelación del edificio del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes.[1052] Se habilitaron 16 salas de 2845 m² en conjunto, donde se exhiben unas 300 obras de arte del siglo XX.[1053] Durante este período se reglamentó la Ley de Doblaje,[1054] se impulsó la industria audiovisual,[1055] e iniciaron sus transmisiones las señales televisivas INCAA tv, Canal Encuentro "Encuentro (canal de televisión)") y Paka-Paka "Pakapaka (canal de televisión)").
Se encararon planes de fomento a la industria que «generaron más de 8000 puestos de trabajo genuinos y crearon 100 productoras». Para el INCAA fueron contratadas más de 100 mil personas de manera directa o indirecta.[1056]
La gestión de Odeon produjo 650 series, y la creación de canales no tradicionales como la página Odeon, entre otras cosas. Se triplicaron las películas nacionales estrenadas -en 2002 fueron 48 y en el 2015 181- y se dobló su público: de 3,4 millones en 2002 a 7,1 en el 2015. El cine argentino, en ese año, tuvo un gran crecimiento: el 14% del total de las personas que iban al cine miraban trabajos de industria nacional.[1057].
Se sancionó la ley del actor, que los sitúa como trabajadores en relación de dependencia –algo que hasta entonces era difícil de reglamentar en este negocio–, la ley del intérprete, que permite que los actores cobren por la repetición de sus trabajos en un medio y que es el sustento legal de Sagai, y la ley del doblaje, que alienta a que todas las películas que sean modificadas al idioma español sean hechas por artistas argentinos y la ley sobre la actividad teatral, para entender como obras de autor nacional a las traducciones y adaptaciones de obras de autores extranjeros realizadas por traductores y/o adaptadores argentinos. Se iniciaron las obras de renovación edilicia y técnicas del histórico Cine Gaumont, adquirido por el INCAA y transformado en el Espacio INCAA km 0.
Las sociedades de gestión, creadas en estos años, reconocen derechos a los actores (Sagai) y a los directores de cine (DAC), para ser compensados monetariamente los primeros por el uso de sus imágenes, cada vez que un programa o película es emitido o repetido, y los segundos, el reconocimiento como autores de sus films, lo que los habilita también a cobrar por ello. También durante su gestión se produjo la creación de la Unidad de Fomento de Producción televisiva, la señal Incaa TV y la Cinemateca y Archivo de la Imagen Nacional (Cinain). El incremento de los fondos para el Instituto Nacional de Teatro (INT), la ley de Teatro Independiente y la creación del bonaerense Instituto Provincial de Teatro dieron, al mismo tiempo, nuevo impulso a las actividades escénicas (en Capital, a su vez, apuntaladas por Proteatro).[1058].
En 2008 el Festival Internacional de Cine de Mar del Plata creado en 1954 por el entonces presidente Juan Domingo Perón, accedió a la «categoría A», la más alta asignada por la Federación Internacional de Asociaciones de Productores Cinematográficos siendo uno de los 13 de los 2500 festivales de cine del mundo reconocidos por la Clase A.[1059] En dicha edición Fernández participó de la inauguración del festival.[1060] Dos años más tarde crea la Cinemateca y Archivo de la Imagen Nacional (CINAIN) como ente autárquico y autónomo dentro de la Secretaría de Cultura de la Nación, cuyo objetivo es cuidar del cine nacional y de lo más destacado de la producción internacional, materiales hasta ese momento se destruían sistemáticamente por falta de lugar adecuado para preservarlo hasta ese momento se había perdido el 90% del cine mudo y el 50% del cine sonoro argentino.[1061] La Argentina es uno de los países pioneros en la exhibición y producción cinematográfica y uno de los de mayor producción audiovisual de Latinoamérica.[1062].
Durante su gestión se destacó la creación de canales culturales, deportivos e infantiles. Sabiendo que son medios masivos, aunque haya una especificidad diferente para una televisión generalista ―como la TV Pública― y señales direccionadas ―como Encuentro, Paka Paka y DeporTV.[1063]
Respecto a Canal 7, su gestión se orientó a lograr una mayor producción propia, aunque ya no solo de contenidos de ficción sino también de documentales.[1064] La presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, firmara el decreto 943/09 con fecha del 29 de julio del 2009, que autoriza al Radio y Televisión Argentina (RTA) a instalar y operar un sistema de televisión satelital en todo el país con el fin de difundir señales educativas, culturales e informativas para que el Estado Nacional cuente con herramientas que le permitan desarrollar una política de libre acceso a la información por parte de la población en situación de vulnerabilidad social.[1065][1066] En 2015 creó Odeón, una plataforma argentina de vídeo a demanda, que contiene películas, series, documentales y cortos de producción nacional el servicio de streaming con el nombre de Odeón, dedicada a difundir únicamente producciones argentinas, tanto de ficción como documentales.[1067] Fue presentado por Cristina Fernández de Kirchner como "El Netflix criollo" con 700 horas de contenido.[1068] La plataforma conto con 31 millones de pesos del Tesoro Nacional, como inversión inicial del Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales y más de 3 millones de pesos de inversión inicial en desarrollo tecnológico Arsat.[1069] En 2011 el estado junto con el INCAA y en conjunto con el Consejo Asesor del SATVD-T del MINPLAN "Ministerio de Obras Públicas (Argentina)") realiza un concurso llamado "Series de Ficción en Alta Definición para todos" que promueve la realización de programas para ser emitidos en los canales de aire.[1070][1071].
Cristina Fernández ordenó en la Casa Rosada la restauración de los salones, los pisos de mosaico a los cuales les faltaban piezas, o las pinturas murales que habían sido recubiertas con pintura lisa en algún momento del siglo XX; inauguró una serie de salas temáticas sobre diversas áreas de la cultura y la historia argentina, trasladando de esos salones las oficinas de la Presidencia de la Nación.[1072] Se efectuaron los trabajos faltantes en las tres fachadas que habían quedado sin restaurar y se recuperaron las molduras que habían sido dañadas por la vegetación que había crecido sobre el revoque.[1073].
El proyecto brindaba a escuelas rurales y a hogares de escasos recursos― un paquete básico de señales educativas, culturales, informativas e infantiles, todas pertenecientes al Estado, el cual se ofrecería sin cargo y se distribuiría por medio del satélite argentino Arsat y sin codificar; los interesados solo deberán adquirir la antena, cuyo costo era de 15 dólares.[1074].
Para los festejos del bicentenario de 2010 de la Revolución de Mayo se realizaron algunas modificaciones y se realizó la apertura del Museo del Bicentenario en la zona restaurada de lo que fue el patio de maniobras de la Aduana de Taylor. Se restauró el Palacio del Congreso, que se encontraba carente de mantenimiento desde décadas atrás. Se recuperaron los salones interiores en 2008 mediante un Plan de Conservación y Puesta en Valor de la Cúpula-Salón Azul que comenzó a ejecutarse en enero de 2010 y duró un año.[1075].
Se impulsó la restauración, después de casi veinte años del edificio de la Confitería el Molino que se encontraba en fuerte riesgo edilicio,[1076] donde se habían invertido más de 270 mil dólares para repararla. En julio de 2012 se concluyeron las obras de recuperación del templo que fueron iniciadas en 2009. También se llevó a cabo la restauración respetando el estilo original de las Iglesias históricas de Buenos Aires.[1077][1078] Se restauró la Basílica de Luján, uno de los mayores iconos religiosos del país.[1079] Se rescató la "aduana vieja" o Aduana de Taylor convirtiéndola en un museo de 5000 m², donde se exhiben objetos históricos hallados en excavaciones, los restos arqueológicos del Fuerte de Buenos Aires y la obra mural Ejercicio Plástico del artista mexicano David Alfaro Siqueiros, que fue restaurada.[1039] En 2010, comenzaron las obras de restauración del Palacio de Justicia de la Nación (Argentina) "Palacio de Justicia de la Nación (Argentina)") correspondientes a los frentes laterales a las calles Viamonte y Lavalle, últimas necesarias para que el exterior del edificio recupere su aspecto original, ya que se encontraba deteriorado y deslucido por la adhesión de hollín a su superficie. En marzo de 2010 comenzó la restauración del edificio de los Ministerios de Desarrollo Social y de Salud "Edificio del Ministerio de Obras Públicas (Argentina)").[1080] La restauración de las fachadas sur y norte avanzó a lo largo de 2011 e incluyó la instalación de dos grandes murales.[1081].
Durante su gestión se formaron dos grupos de danza: el Ballet Nacional de Danza, que dirige Iñaki Urlezaga, y la Compañía Nacional de Danza Contemporánea, que dirige Cristina Gómez Comini. La primera se creó en 2014 y la segunda, en 2010.[1082] También se realizaron importantes inversiones realizadas en el Incaa (Instituto Nacional de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales), que al 2015 posee 55 salas en todo el país, con más de 18 000 butacas, organiza 90 festivales, cines móviles y concursos.[1083].
Se llegó durante su presidencia a la máxima asignación histórica para la cultura en Argentina, el 3,8% del PIB. Las exportaciones culturales argentinas rondaron los 500 millones de dólares, en especial aumentaron 150 % las exportaciones del sector audiovisual, lo que convierte al país en uno de los principales productores de contenido audiovisual cultural y educativo del mundo.[1084] En 2012 se lanzó el programa Carnavales Federales de la Alegría, que convocó a más de 2 500 000 argentinos. El Estado apoyó los festejos de 200 localidades del país. En el exterior, 9 000 000 de visitantes recorrieron el pabellón argentino en la Expo Shanghái 2010 y más de 600 mil personas visitaron el espacio argentino de Expo Yeosu 2012. Apoyando la labor de las 2000 bibliotecas populares de todo el país, se distribuyeron más de 1 000 000 de libros y a través del Programa Libros y Casas, de la Secretaría de Cultura de la Nación, se distribuyeron más de 1 800 000 libros entre 100.000 nuevas viviendas populares construidas por el Estado nacional. Respecto de la producción editorial, en 2012, se registraron en el país 27 660 títulos y 97 000 000 de ejemplares. En los barrios de todo el país, se crearon 250 Puntos de Cultura, esto es, organizaciones sociales y comunitarias que realizan proyectos culturales. Se organizaron cuatro Congresos Argentinos de Cultura en Mar del Plata, Tucumán, San Juan "San Juan (Argentina)") y Chaco").[1085]
En 2014 el país fue sede del 22° Festival Internacional de Poesía, en la ciudad de Rosario.
Durante su gobierno se creó el Instituto Nacional de la Música (INAMU), luego de que el proyecto fuera aprobado por ambas Cámaras del Congreso Nacional y promulgado como Ley 26.801. Se logró la recuperación del extenso catálogo discográfico que perteneció a la empresa Sicamericana S.A., que se desempeñaba comercialmente a través de los nombres "Music Hall", "Sazam" y/o "TK", que contaba con más de 1500 discos.[1086].
Creó SINCA (Sistema de Información Cultural de la Argentina), con la más completa información sobre la cultura del país en formato electrónico. Durante su gestión, la Secretaría promovió la Campaña contra el Tráfico Ilícito de Bienes Culturales y organizó el segundo Congreso Argentinos de Cultura.[1087].
Bicentennial of the May Revolution
In the city of Buenos Aires, the national government organized the main event commemorating the anniversary of the May Revolution, which took place mainly on Avenida 9 de Julio. The celebration began on May 21 and ended on the 25th, "Bicentennial Day." This event represented all the provinces and invited countries.[1088] The longest parade was carried out by the artists of Fuerza Bruta with a length of about 5 km, where the scenes were repeated every fifteen minutes and the display of the longest flag in the world with an approximate length of 20 km.
The call was massive with three million people gathered. With three million people gathered on Avenida 9 de Julio to sing the National Anthem, constituting the largest concentration of people in national history[1089][1090] Several Latin American rulers attended the event: Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Rafael Correa of Ecuador; Evo Morales of Bolivia; Sebastián Piñera from Chile; José Mujica, from Uruguay; Fernando Lugo from Paraguay, and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, from Brazil.[1091][1092].
Culture for children
With the aim of creating educational content for children, Pakapaka was created, an Argentine open television channel focused on the preschool, children and youth audience. Originally released on September 17, 2010, aimed at children ages 2 to 12, and includes microprograms, documentaries and cartoons. The proposal consists of a children's channel with high-quality content aimed at educating and entertaining, open to the culture of all sectors of Argentina and different expressions around the world...[1093][1094].
cultural consumption
According to data from the Argentine Book Chamber, the Argentine publishing industry had produced more than 380 new titles per week in 2007, launching 19,791 new titles on the market between January and December of that year,[1095] increasing in 2011 at the end of its first term to 26,676 new titles published annually. Regarding the origin of the printing, 94% of the records are declared as printed within the country while only 6% are recorded abroad. By 2014—the last year of the full annual mandate—the number of printed book releases had risen to 28,010. Likewise, the production and consumption of books also grew, going from 68.52 million books sold in 2007 to 128.92 million in 2014.[1096] Espacios INCAA” is a program created with the purpose of guaranteeing the exhibition of Argentine film productions, including commercial releases, digital or minor releases and short films.
The restoration was promoted, after almost twenty years of the Confitería el Molino building, which was at serious risk to the building,[1076] where more than 270 thousand dollars had been invested to repair it. In July 2012, the recovery works on the temple that began in 2009 were completed. The restoration was also carried out respecting the original style of the historic churches of Buenos Aires.[1077] In 2015, the exemption for musical shows was approved.[1097].
Cinematography
During Fernández de Kirchner's administration, INCAA recovered its autarky, the Screen Quota was implemented, theaters (INCAA Spaces) were inaugurated throughout the country and abroad and co-production and distribution agreements were signed with Spain, France and Italy as part of the Raíces Program. Film co-production and distribution agreements were also signed with countries in Latin America and Europe.[1098].
In 2012, the UNASUR Cine was created, an international film festival of the member countries of UNASUR, intended as a cultural meeting space between the countries that comprise it, with the participation of 11 countries.[1099] with the support of the Ministry of Culture of the Nation and the National Institute of Cinema and Audiovisual Arts of Argentina (INCAA).[1100] In 2013 the historic Gaumont space was purchased by the INCAA[1101] The remodeling works were inaugurated on July 16 of that year by President Cristina Fernández, including the replacement of its roof, which now supports the Arsat satellite antenna, technical updating, fitting out its stage and dressing rooms, decoration and seats; in an event in which he also announced the regulation of the Dubbing Law.[1102] bringing its capacity to 1,150 seats.[1103].
Social Tourism
On June 28, 2010, the creation of the National Ministry of Tourism was carried out, thus emphasizing the importance of tourism as one of the fundamental components of income and job creation for Argentina. Until then, Argentina, along with Chile, were the only two Latin American countries that did not have an entity of this type.[1104][1105] During his administration, the perception of Argentina in the international tourism field improved according to the ranking of the most visited places in Latin America, Country Brand Index,[1106][1107] The country is the second most visited destination in Latin America and South America, climbing to number 12 worldwide. among the best tourist destinations, rising from 14th place in 2010. During his two terms, inbound tourism was promoted with a series of measures such as the refund of VAT on accommodation for foreign visitors, the elimination of the reciprocity rate for priority tourism markets and the implementation of electronic visas to facilitate immigration procedures. This line was complemented by the aerocommercial policy launched by the Ministry of Transportation and the state company Aerolíneas Argentinas that promoted the entry of millions of tourists through the creation of dozens of federal air corridors to promote tourism in small cities in the interior within the framework of the implementation of the Federal Strategic Plan for Sustainable Tourism.[1108] The application of new technologies was also prioritized through the development of websites and applications aimed at advertising the country, along with strong campaigns. advertising to attract high-spending markets, such as the United States and Canada, Europe and the Middle and Far East. In 2007, Argentina was ranked seventh in the ranking of international arrivals to the region, occupying third place in 2015 after Brazil and Mexico.
Due to the economic expansion process, domestic tourism has grown significantly with 5.80 million tourists in 2011 according to the World Tourism Organization, being the first most visited country in South America and the second most visited in all of Latin America, after Mexico.[1109] The growth of tourism was very important in recent years, the arrival of foreign tourists doubled between 2003 and 2011. In 2011 Argentina stood out as the country with greater growth in tourism worldwide. In 2010, the country received about 4.93 billion dollars in foreign exchange income "Currency (currency)." In 2012, 5,211 million dollars entered the country thanks to tourism.[1112].
While domestic tourism mobilized more than 25.6 million travelers, generating income of 35,228 million pesos in regional economies.[1113] Through the national company Aerolíneas Argentinas, social tourism was promoted with special discounts for retirees and pensioners reached by the agreements. In 2014 Argentina became part of the WTTC (World Travel & Tourism Council - 2018)[1114] With the objective to attract tourists and increase the development of automobile competitions in 2009, the Dakar Rally arrived in the country for the first time, one of the most important automobile competition events in the world, a total of almost 2.5 million tourists were registered who toured the 11 Argentine provinces through which the rally passed, generating income of 200 million dollars during their stay in Argentina.[1115].
Sports policy
Se dio una marcada impronta en la gestión deportiva argentina. El presupuesto del deporte se incrementó hasta finales de 2009 en casi un 400 %. Con la creación del Enard se buscó generar recursos para las becas de los atletas de alta competencia. Además se apuntó específicamente al deporte social como política central de su acción. En 2010 se creó el Ente Nacional de Desarrollo Deportivo") del que dependen cinco programas: la Asignación universal al deporte, el empoderamiento de la mujer en el deporte, la comisión antidopaje, y la profundización y jerarquización de competencias juveniles. Paralelamente se estableció un cupo joven y femenino para que aquellas personas que tengan entre 18 y 29 años y las mujeres ocupen el 40 por ciento de la representación en las comisiones directivas de instituciones deportivas.[1130] Se estableció además el cupo femenino y el límite a las reelecciones indefinidas en clubes y federaciones, que habilitaban que los dirigentes permanecieran en el cargo durante plazos indeterminables, al establecer mandatos de 4 años, con una única posibilidad de reelección. A partir de 2009 y de manera ininterrumpida, Rally Dakar se realizó cada año en el continente y Argentina siempre formó parte del recorrido.[1131] Durante estos años Argentina ganó más medallas en los JJOO que en los 44 años anteriores.[1132].
Hacia fines del 2015 se creó el Instituto Nacional del Deporte y la Actividad Física.[1133][1134] A partir de las obras realizadas y los diferentes avances, el país fue sede de los Sudamericanos Escolares y los Parapanamericanos y logró en conjunto con el gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires ser la sede de los Juegos Olímpicos Juveniles 2018. Se instituyeron las bases de la ley 27.201 que crea el Enaded para la implementación de la asignación universal por deporte y la ley 27.202 que actualiza la Ley del Deporte.[1135] Entre tras obras de infraestructura deportiva se destaca la construcción del Polo deportivo de la Ciudad de Córdoba, con una pileta olímpica inaugurada en 2014 y una pista de atletismo.[1136].
A partir del año 2014 se establecieron siete tipos de becas, según que el o la deportista hubiera ganado una medalla o un diploma, en los niveles olímpico/paralímpico, panamericano/parapanamericano, suramericanos/parasuramericanos y jóvenes talentos. Las becas están ligadas al rendimiento deportivo acreditado, así como al compromiso de completar los estudios secundarios, estar afiliado a la federación deportiva correspondiente y representar al país cuando sea requerido. Entre 2010 y 2015 el ENARD otorgó unas 7.000 becas deportivas.[1137] A partir de las obras realizadas y los diferentes avances, el país fue sede de los Sudamericanos Escolares y los Parapanamericanos y logró en conjunto con el gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires ser la sede de los Juegos Olímpicos Juveniles 2018. Se instituyeron las bases de la ley 27.201 que crea el Enaded para la implementación de la asignación universal por deporte y la ley 27.202 que actualiza la Ley del Deporte.[1135].
Football for All and broadcasts of other sports
On February 24, 2011, the president, through the Federal Council of Audiovisual Communication, signed an agreement by which the transmission of all sporting events of mass interest was released. Among the agreed events, Argentina's participation in world, Olympic and Pan American championships stands out, all the final stages of those tournaments, soccer tournaments organized by the South American Confederation. National B, Argentine A, Argentine B soccer matches and Interior tournament where the participating team has relevance. Road Tourism, TC2000 and Top Race. National Basketball League and local rugby and volleyball tournaments for the area where the team is relevant. That same year, the country organized the 2011 Copa América with an investment from the national government in the construction and remodeling of stadiums. Cristina accompanied Daniel Scioli at the reopening of the Único de la Plata stadium; it is estimated that the investment in the cup was close to 100 million dollars.[1131] That same year, the Law establishing the National Sports Entity and another that updated the National Sports Law were passed, thus giving rise to the creation of the Universal Child Allowance in Sports,[1149] an additional supplement for each person under the age of majority or person with a disability, between six and sixteen years of age, who receives the Universal Child Allowance for social protection and will be used directly to pay the fee in the clubs or civil sports associations where the beneficiary practices sports.[1150] During its management, Public Television also bought the rights from the different federations to broadcast the Copa América, the Basketball Pre-Olympic, the Rugby World Cup and the Olympic Games.[1151].
Judicial policy
Durante su gestión se produjo la unificación del Código Civil y el Código Comercial de la Nación, así como la generación del Digesto Jurídico Argentino que simplificó el conjunto de leyes vigentes hasta el momento. También se aprobó una reforma judicial en 2013. Desde el Ministerio Público fueron creadas cinco procuradurías para combatir el crimen organizado desde distintas áreas especializadas, como el lavado de dinero, el narcotráfico, la violencia institucional, crímenes contra la humanidad, trata de persona. Fue aprobada la Ley 26.364 de Prevención y Sanción de la Trata de Personas y Asistencia a sus Víctimas.[1152].
En diciembre de 2012 se crea la unidad especial de investigación Procelac dedicada a realizar y recibir denuncias, investigar y recuperar activos relacionados con crímenes económicos como el lavado de dinero, la evasión tributaria, el fraude bancario, el financiamiento del terrorismo, el contrabando y otros delitos contra la administración pública.[1153].
Creó la Comisión de Acceso a la Justicia integrada por jueces y fiscales con el objeto de agilizar la solución de conflictos por medios no judiciales.
Reform and unification of the Civil and Commercial Code
During the last year of his first term, he promoted the reform and unification of the Civil and Commercial Code, both drafted by Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield in 1869. At the beginning of 2011, by presidential decree 191/2011, the "Commission for the Preparation of the Draft Law for the Reform, Update and Unification of the Civil and Commercial Codes of the Nation" was established, made up of the president of the Supreme Court of the Nation. Argentina, Ricardo Lorenzetti, the Vice President of that body (Elena Highton de Nolasco) and the former member of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Province of Mendoza, Aída Kemelmajer de Carlucci. On August 8, 2012, an attached commission was formed with members from both chambers to analyze the reform and update both codes after more than 140 years in force. The new code has 2671 articles.[1154].
Different public hearings were held in several provinces with the aim of democratizing and broadening the debate on the changes.[1155] Among the most relevant changes presented are the incorporation of cohabitation, added to the figure of equal marriage, which grants its parties rights similar to those of marriage. The new Code determined that the marriage will not have to meet a minimum period to be dissolved through divorce, and it will be enough for one of the spouses to request a divorce for it to be carried out. Among other reforms, it introduced simplified divorce, the authorization of a prenuptial contract, the legalization of assisted fertilization: the possibility for a woman to undergo an assisted fertilization procedure will be contemplated in the new code, as well as the womb agreement for those women who cannot conceive, the improvement in adoption processes.[1156].
The incorporation of prenuptial agreements contemplating the possibility that couples can agree, before marriage, on the way in which assets will be distributed in the event of divorce. In addition, children may have both their mother's and their father's surname as their surname.
The adoption process was also accelerated to 90 days. The new code modifies the adoption statute, allowing access to the right for people who are alone or who are not legally married. It was also incorporated into the Parental Responsibility Law, which establishes that the relationship between parents and children must be subject to the best interests of the child. It enshrines the progressive participation of the minor in decisions about his person.[206].
Regarding the commercial part, with the new rules, it will be possible to form a sole proprietorship, made up of a single person, to favor SMEs and micro-entrepreneurs.[207] It incorporates Assisted Human Reproduction, where children born through these techniques will also be children of those who have given prior consent. It is also expected that the personal care tasks carried out by the parent who has assumed personal care of the child have an economic value. Very personal rights: The rights to dignity, privacy, honor and image, among others, are expressly recognized.[1157] The new Civil Code introduced strong changes so that a portion of the inheritance can be left to whoever is preferred regardless of the relationship.[1158] In addition to simplifying the buying and selling of cars
with the gradual elimination of automobile ownership records until all procedures are digitized.
It also legalizes surrogacy, for the first time in Argentina motherhood by altruistic surrogacy will be permitted, prohibiting its commercial nature, establishing the rights and duties of a woman carrying a baby in her womb, instead of another person who cannot have children, until she gives birth.[207] It incorporates indigenous community property, new regulations with a specific consumer protection regime. Modern forms of contracting are incorporated, such as arbitration contracts, commercial agency, commercial concession, franchises and leasing.[1159].
Judicial reform
In April 2013, six projects were sent to Congress.[1164][1165] One of the points reformed was the Council of the Judiciary "Consejo de la Magistratura (Argentina)"), where it was proposed that its members become elected by universal vote; The elections would take place during the Simultaneous and Mandatory Open Primaries (PASO) and the councilors had to be academics and professionals from some discipline or science (not just lawyers). The requirements to apply for the position of counselor were going to be the same as those required to apply for a candidate for deputy of the Nation. Democratic Entry to the Judiciary, the Public Prosecutor's Office and the Defense through the completion of prior entry exams and, if they pass them, the applicants will be included in a list of entrants to participate in an annual draw by the National Lottery "National Lottery (Argentina)") for entry as an employee of the Judiciary. The entire ladder of the judicial career will be respected to reach positions of greater responsibility and the positions of secretaries and assistant secretaries will be accessed by examination.[1166] The publicity of the acts of the Judiciary through the project contemplated that they be published on the Internet, so that they are available to the citizens, the state and the sentences of all the cases in the different courts throughout the country. In addition, it provides for the creation of a public registry of cases and is valid for the Supreme Court of Justice and the other chambers. One of the rules is the one that requires the publication of the decisions of the Supreme Court, the oral courts and chambers and a list of cases pending in all instances. The dissemination must be carried out through a digital newspaper that is free to access and the website of the high court.[1167] In addition to making the presentation of sworn statements from officials of the three branches of the State mandatory. These sworn statements will be public and freely accessible on the Internet.[1168].
In criminal matters, the current Argentine criminal system, which has a written and an oral process, began to be replaced by a completely oral adversarial process with juries, to speed up the simplest trials, modernize and restructure judicial institutions (courts, prosecutor's offices, defense offices), to make them more efficient and digitize the files, as well as carry out procedures and submit documents through the Internet and democratize entry to the judicial career through the application of the public competition "Opposition (examination)"). In addition to these proposals, an increase in the number of cassation chambers was also proposed to decongest the work of the Supreme Court of Justice. The publicity of judicial acts was also stimulated, encouraging each ruling and resolution to be published on the Internet, so that the citizens, the state and the sentences of all cases in the different courts throughout the country, the publication of the decisions of the Supreme Court, the oral courts and chambers and a list of cases in process of all instances. The dissemination must be carried out through a digital newspaper that is free to access and the website of the high court.[1166][1167][1169] In 2011, Law No. 20,959 was annulled, which grants senators and deputies of the Nation free station in any part of the territory, being seen as a privilege. The repeal also reached federal judges, however this last part was left without effect by agreement of the Supreme Court that maintained the privilege over its members. In parallel, preferential patents for judges and diplomatic personnel were eliminated.
Penal Code Reform, Update and Integration Project
In 2012, the opposition, civil society and legal specialists were called to form part of the Commission for the Preparation of the Draft Law for the Reform, Update and Integration of the National Penal Code, which sought to update and reform the Penal Code of 1921, which over the decades had been modified numerous times, losing internal coherence and proportionality. It sought to achieve adequate systematization and ordering of all criminal regulations.
The purpose of the development of a new criminal code was to produce a single regulatory body that concentrates all criminal regulations, systematize and unify the different provincial criminal measures, generate balance and proportionality between the criminal scales of the different crimes.
It establishes clear criteria for determining the sentence and reduces the margin of discretion of judges, while planning the implementation of oral and public trials.
Incorporate new types of crimes. It also protects the environment and adds genetic and cybercrimes, among other notable reforms. It incorporates new crimes against humanity, environmental crimes, genetic and cyber crimes, and those related to violence against women.
It includes crimes against humanity and typifies new punishable conduct in the context of road accidents.
Strengthen the prosecution of serious crimes: Toughen penalties for crimes related to drug trafficking, corruption, terrorism and its financing. Protect the rights of victims: Give them participation in the criminal process and expand their rights. Establish clear criteria for determining the sentence. Reduce judicial discretion and ensure a more homogeneous application of the law.
The project incorporated, among other modifications:
New types of crimes:
Crimes against humanity, crimes against the environment, cybercrimes, crimes related to gender violence and crimes related to non-consensual sexual activity are incorporated.
Greater protection of victims:
Mechanisms are established for the protection of crime victims and their rights and participation in the judicial process are expanded, along with the possibility of monitoring compliance with the sentence of their perpetrators.
The participation of victims in the criminal process is guaranteed.
Liability of legal persons: The liability of legal persons - companies, NGOs - is incorporated for crimes committed in their name or for their benefit.
In November 2015, Congress approved Law 27,210, which created the Corps of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence, and was promulgated by the Executive Branch two days later.[1170]
[1171].
Implementation of the accusatory criminal procedural system
Since 2010, technical and financial support was provided to 14 of the 23 provincial jurisdictions to implement reforms such as orality in civil processes, the incorporation of electronic files, video recording of criminal hearings and the adoption of the accusatory criminal procedural system, which implied the transition to an adversarial and adversarial system, seeking greater speed, orality, publicity and deformalization in judicial processes. The National Criminal Procedure Code, approved by Law No. 27,063, came into force progressively.
The implementation of the adversarial system represented a radical change in criminal justice, going from an inquisitorial system to one where the parties, the Prosecutor's Office and the defense, face each other on equal terms before an impartial judge. The new system is characterized by the oral nature of the hearings, judicial immediacy and the separation between the judge and the accusing and defending parties.
With legislative sanction, the judicial system must adopt the adversarial model, where the prosecutor directs the criminal process, investigates, accuses and produces evidence, while the judge becomes an impartial guarantor of the process. This transformation seeks to guarantee greater transparency and speed in cases.
This reform replaced the old inquisitorial and written system that had operated in Argentina since the mid-19th century, with an adversarial and oral system.
Implementation of jury trials
Although the administration of justice corresponds to the provinces, the national government provided help and encouraged the application of jury trials.
Support for the implementation of jury trials was conceived by the government as a way to restore society's confidence in the judicial system, as part of the democratization of justice and to promote bringing the administration of justice closer to the community, giving it a fundamental role in it, achieving greater transparency in judicial decisions and making justice more accessible to citizens.[1172].
The first province to implement the jury trial modality was Córdoba,
Neuquén in 2011, Buenos Aires in 2015, and Río Negro, later joined by Chaco, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, Catamarca, Chubut, Mendoza, San Juan, Santa Fe, CAba, La Rioja, Jujuy, Salta, among others, with a total of 15 provinces in 2025.
Pension justice
In 2011, a special commission was formed between the social security jurisdiction and the Anses to computerize data and expedite the trials of retirees to obtain greater speed in the pension processes. The agreement establishes a system for initiating lawsuits and electronic notifications, the digitization of judicial and pension documents.[1173]
In 1994, after privatizing social security, the neoliberal minister Domingo Cavallo froze retirements for the rest of the 1990s. Additionally, during the government of Fernando de la Rúa in 2001, social security minister Bullrich would establish a 13 percent reduction in pensions, which would lead to the opening of more than 2.3 million pre-trial lawsuits that would accumulate during the 1990s and 2001. In In 2005, the first plan to regularize the trials of retirees was launched, managing to regularize the situation of 1.37 million, in 2008 a new plan to regularize provisional trials would be launched again, managing to regularize another 900 thousand trials.
[1174].
In 2007 the domestic violence office was opened. A year later, Line 137 was established, a telephone service for people who are victims of sexual, grooming and family violence; Line 149, created in order to assist victims of crimes and their family groups with Law No. 27,372.
With the aim of combating gender violence, different programs were created, including Comprehensive Assistance to Victims of Gender-Based Violence; of Shelters and Comprehensive Protection Homes, of Comprehensive Addressing Cases of Femicides, Transvesticides, Transfemicides and Crimes against Sexual Integrity.
In 2007, the Care Program for Women Victims of Violence was created, with a telephone line linked to the Ministry of Security and Human Rights. During 2013, it promotes the Network Accompanying Program for Victims of Gender Violence. In 2009, the Directorate of the Observatory of Gender Violence and Inequalities was launched and in 2010 the National Directorate of Policies for the Prevention of Gender-Based Violence.
Electoral politics
On July 9, 2009, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner called for a broad process of political dialogue. Months later, as a result of these meetings, a bill was prepared that served to deal with more than one hundred linked projects, of which numerous contributions were incorporated, proceeding to the sanction of Law No. 26,571 on Democratization of Representation. This law implemented the system of open, simultaneous and mandatory primaries. It was sanctioned on December 2, 2009.[1175] The law established primary elections in which each political group presents its candidates, and may have one or more internal lines. Citizens will choose between the national candidates (president, senators and deputies) of the party groups they want. Political parties present all their pre-candidates for all their positions to be elected and citizens vote for their preferred pre-candidates to compete for said position. The new one established the mandatory banking of all contributions destined to political groups and for electoral campaigns to guarantee traceability of their contributions and transparency.
Likewise, the free distribution of electoral advertising on an equitable basis was established, which will be publicly drawn and the National Electoral Directorate of the Ministry of the Interior will distribute them among the political parties, distributing 50% of the spaces between all political parties and the remaining 50% in proportion to the number of votes obtained in the previous general election. The law had a total of 110 articles and pursued the objectives of generating greater democratization within political parties and their openness to society, providing institutional mechanisms and rules that contribute to the stability and representativeness of political parties, reducing asymmetries between political forces by regulating the financing mechanisms of parties and electoral campaigns, and rationalizing and modernizing some aspects of electoral administration.[1176].
On November 2, 2012, Cristina Kirchner signed the decree promulgating the modifications to Law 26,774 on Argentine Citizenship.[1177] The approved project, promoted by the President, modified seven laws: numbers 346, 17,671, 19,945, 23,298, 25,432, 26,215 and 26,571 in order to enable young people aged 16 and 17 to vote in national elections, establishes that the vote for these new voters will be optional, this law allowed expanding the right to vote for 500,000 young people who were enabled to exercise their vote,[1178] representing around 3 percent of the electoral roll.[1179] The approval of law 26,774 placed Argentina in the select group of countries and regions that allow 16 and 17 year old citizens to vote. Brazil, since 1988, and Ecuador, since 2007, Austria, Bolivia,[1180] Chile,[1181] the United Kingdom,[1182] Venezuela.[1183] Greece,[1184] and Spain.[1185] This law was approved with 131 votes in favor, 2 against and 1 abstention.
In 2015, among other measures to speed up the counting and guarantee greater transparency, the application of inviolable envelopes to transport telegrams, greater participation of prosecutors and real-time GPS tracking of trucks in the collection of ballot boxes were some of the measures that will be adopted for the first time to ensure transparency and "reaffirm the legitimacy" of that year's presidential election. It was established that party prosecutors have access to the necessary equipment to be able to follow the entire process in real time, and that they can be present at the reception, digitization and transmission centers of the scrutiny telegrams.[1186] In this sense, progress was made in the approval of fundamental laws such as: Law on Access to Public Information;[1187] Law on the Financing of Political Parties.[1188] The accountability of the Political Parties that established the periodicity in the presentation of their financial statements and make public the registry of their donors.[1189].
Debureaucratization and digitalization policy
With the objective of modernizing the State, reducing bureaucracy and simplifying administrative procedures, the State Simplification Secretariat was created in 2010, whose work was in the design of the policy of simplification and debureaucratization of the procedures and processes of the National Public Sector. In a context of diversification and generalization of the use of the Internet and mobile devices, technological innovation was instituted from various agencies, communication channels that previously did not exist: optimization of access to online procedures and procedures, digital fingerprint,[1190] Safe Visit Program to identify the identity of state agents who visit homes, among others.[1191] In 2012, the Trademark Law was approved Collective.[1192] Procedures in official registries such as automobile ownership, real estate, and criminal recidivism were also digitized.
Through the Secretary of Public Management of the Argentine Nation, the implementation of the electronic public procurement system, and the use of the Digital Signature in the public administration was promoted as the sanction of the General Collective Labor Agreement of the National Public Administration.
In December 2008, the introduction and generalization of the use of electronic invoices was carried out, the benefits of which lie in avoiding apocryphal billing and "benefits collection for the State coffers given the greater transparency. [25] It also implemented computer auditing, authentication services using Tax Code; Digital Signature in different cities, in the modernization and simplification of processes. We want the AFIP to be a true highway of the Electronic Government and that all the structures of the "National State and provincial and municipal agencies to simplify the lives of citizens." Modifications were carried out in the design of the passport, which included the novelty of a chip,[1193] making Argentina one of the first Latin American countries to implement the biometric passport.[1194].
In 2008 it was decided to withdraw the DNI booklet and a new modification was launched; With the new version of the DNI, each person will be able to have data from their medical history, ANSES, PAMI and SUBE card incorporated, which will simplify and improve procedures, avoiding paperwork and multiple identifications. According to the then Minister of the Interior, almost 38 million documents were made, 4 million passports, reaching the standards of the most developed countries in the world in terms of identity.[1195] A year later, the CUIL number (Unique Labor Identification Code) was incorporated on the back, which simplifies procedures and saves time.[1196] In addition, it was resolved to modify the resolution that establishes the guidelines that the photograph of the National Identity Document must have with the objective of guaranteeing respect for people's freedom of gender, religion and culture.[1197] The new system ended the stamp system in the DNI and was replaced by a bar code. It also serves to prevent identity changes and fraud and to clarify crimes because it is identified with fingerprints and facial impressions.[1198] The new DNI is entirely prepared by the State, it incorporated 30 digital and computer security measures and reduced the time of obtaining five days. As a security measure, in the new DNI the photograph is not glued to the paper, but printed. In addition, the notebooks have a holographic mark and fibers sensitive to infrared rays, in the style of passports.
In 2010, a new regime was announced for the modernization of fiscal controllers, the incorporation of digitalized information and will allow an average saving of up to 3 million pesos annually for large taxpayers, significantly reducing the costs of paper, storage and supplies, streamlining commercial operations.[86] During its management, the AFIP was the winner of the award for "Best Provision of Digital Services in the Public Sector", awarded by Datacenter Dynamics within the framework of the international competition "DCD Latin America Awards 2015.[87] In Customs, in order to limit discretion and reduce personal procedures, the Foreign Trade Electronic Window was launched in 2014. There are 319 procedures that correspond to foreign trade operations of 30 government agencies of different organizations. Of that number, 301 have already been digitized by the end of 2015, streamlining controls. Automation facilitated the traceability of the processes. time that allows management to be audited and measured, even in real time. It also reduces the possibility of disparate criteria being applied in similar cases and the eventual alteration of pre-established shifts and orders.
Since 2014, the use of a Customs Electronic Monitoring Seal (PEMA) has been incorporated in merchandise transits through the national territory. This device allowed the customs service and businessmen to know in real time the diversions, detentions, contingencies or alarms of the transportation of merchandise in order to avoid smuggling.[1199] As of January 1, 2010, Argentina acquired all the computer equipment so that 200 DGI agencies can take photos and scan the fingerprints and signature of 7 million taxpayers, launching a fully tax DNI. digital.[1200].
Since 2014, a new computer system was implemented to avoid the use of paper in customs procedures, which was intended to facilitate safe and transparent foreign trade by simplifying procedures without reducing control. The Malvina software is a development of the AFIP and Argentina is the first country in South America to have a system of these characteristics that, among other innovations, allows the image of the cargo scan to be available along with the export and import declaration.[1201] Technological advances were also incorporated and implemented aimed at providing greater transparency to foreign trade and that are framed within the strategic plan of Electronic Government such as the Bar Code to the Customs Declaration, to strengthen traceability of foreign trade, and self-management of the Tax Code through the fingerprint capture system, an online closed-circuit TV at Customs and Border Crossings, the “Digitized Certificate of Origin” and the digitization of documents under the “Faithful Depositary” scheme. The modalities through which electronic receipts must be issued were established in order to support the sales and purchase operations of movable things, locations and provision of services, locations of things and works and deposits or advances that freeze the price, in pursuit of a trend towards a more modern regime focused on the implementation of electronic invoices, and which currently reaches a good part of taxpayers. However, the deadlines set for the incorporation of this type of invoices.[1202] That same year, the possibility of presenting the Universal Child Allowance Booklet and the school certificate for the collection of the Annual School Aid was incorporated, by simply taking a photo and uploading it via a cell phone, the implementation of the "Electronic Document Management (GDE) and Digital Signature", 24 million digital documents and 2 million files have already been created electronics.
In June 2015, the replacement of the paper moving sheet with a digital systematization of the settlement of salaries to its staff began. Buenos Aires is the first jurisdiction to implement this system. In this regard, Echegaray stated that "We work every day to simplify processes because we believe that the AFIP is a true highway of Electronic Government so that it can be used by and all the structures of the national State and provincial agencies to simplify the lives of citizens."[1203] In August 2015, Argentina won an international award for the fight against evasion, the British newspaper The Telegraph highlighted Argentina as the second country in the world that fought the most against evasion. fiscal.[1204] At Anses, the social security system was reorganized and managed to improve the efficiency by incorporating modern management means.[1205].
On June 12, 2012, new modifications to the passport design were announced, which would include the novelty of an electronic chip,[1193] transforming Argentina into one of the first Latin American countries to implement the biometric passport and the Argentine passport into one of the most powerful in the world.[1194] Thanks to the modernization in 2015, the National Registry of Persons, the body in charge of the production of DNI and passports, was certified internationally in its quality management system under the criteria of the ISO 9001 Standard.[1206].
In 2013, a plan was launched to modernize some 400,000 fiscal controllers, significantly reducing the costs of paper, storage and supplies, streamlining commercial operations and safeguarding duplicate receipts.[1207] In 2015, the process of digitizing the Automotive Registries began along with the DNI 24 hours a day, where a person processes it in 15 minutes, and collects it within a day. next.[1208][1209] In 2015, the first automatic entry and exit doors to the country equipped with biometric technology were inaugurated at the Ezeiza airport, which made entry and exit from the country even easier, since it takes less than 30 seconds to complete the procedure, with the maximum parameters of biometric security, as the final stage of modernization of the immigration process initiated with the elimination of the Entry and Exit Cards (TES). manuals, and its replacement by much safer and more comfortable biometric technology.[1210] In 2014, a regulatory framework for securities transportation operations was approved, which contemplates a supervision and control regime.[1211][1212].
In December 2011, during the presidency of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, the Ministry of the Interior called a competition for the new headquarters on the grounds of the former Caseros Prison, in Parque Patricios. With support from the Central Society of Architects and FADEA"), which began construction in mid-2012.[1213].
In terms of administrative simplification, improvement in the efficiency of the State and rationalization, digital procedures were implemented, which allowed that since December 2009 the AFIP, which had 23,269 employees, will now have 22,732 workers in November 2015, which represented a rationalization of 537 positions.[1214].
Security policy
En 2010 se crea el Ministerio de Seguridad "Ministerio de Seguridad (Argentina)") siendo su primera titular Nilda Garré, quien fue sucedida por Arturo Puricelli (junio - diciembre de 2013) y luego por María Cecilia Rodríguez (diciembre de 2013-diciembre de 2015).
En 2010 con el objetivo de patrullar el espacio aéreo se desarrolló el Radar Primario Argentino 3D que permite realizar tareas de detección, vigilancia, identificación y control en el espacio aéreo, con un radio de cobertura 400 kilómetros.[1215][1216] en 2015 se estableció un nuevo radar en Las Lomitas, Formosa, que aumentaron a cinco hacia finales de 2015.[1217]Llevó adelante en 2012 la modificación del Código Penal para agravar las penas sobre delitos cometidos contra personas mayores de 70 o menores de 16 años de edad[1218] y sobre comisión de delito por violencia de género.[1219].
En 2012 el informe de la Oficina de la ONU contra la Droga y el Delito (Unodc) reveló que Argentina se encontraba entre los tres países de América latina con menor tasa de homicidios dolosos. Segúnel informe, “en la subregión de América del Sur, las tasas de homicidio en el Cono Sur (Argentina, Chile y Uruguay) se acercan a las tasas relativamente bajas que se registran en Europa”. El país con menor tasa en la región en Latinoamérica es Chile y Argentina con 5,5 homicidios por cada 100 mil habitantes.[1220].
En 2013 se lanza un plan de control en las principales estaciones de autobús del país, en las estaciones de trenes y aeropuerto un sistema de seguridad y vigilancia con 630 agentes suplementarios de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina y 140 de Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria, escáneres de rayos X, perros detectores de drogas, domos y cámaras fijas de alta definición.[1221][1222] A partir de octubre de 2013 se reforzó con unos 4.500 efectivos el operativo escudo norte, el Fortín II para operaciones de vigilancia y control del área geográfica de interés nacional, y de operaciones de ayuda humanitaria y apoyo a la comunidad". También se inició un despliegue radárico que cubre la vigilancia y el control de todo el espacio aéreo norteño con equipos nuevos fabricados por el Invap y se firmó un contrato de 1.000 millones de pesos para desarrollar otros 6 cubriendo la totalidad de la frontera norte. Lanzó el Programa Federal de Colaboración y Asistencia para la Seguridad, cuyo principal objetivo es poner a disposición de las jurisdicciones provinciales y de la ciudad de Buenos Aires aquellas herramientas y recursos que coadyuven al combate del delito y la criminalidad y permitan asimismo generar ámbitos de coordinación y relación interjurisdiccional.[1223].
En la segunda gestión de la Presidenta Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, se lanzó el Programa Federal de Colaboración y Asistencia para la Seguridad, cuyo principal objetivo es poner a disposición de las jurisdicciones provinciales y de la ciudad de Buenos Aires aquellas herramientas y recursos que coadyuven al combate del delito y la criminalidad y permitan asimismo generar ámbitos de coordinación y relación interjurisdiccional.[1223] En 2009 se dispone el despliegue de seis mil efectivos de la Gendarmería Nacional en el conurbano bonaerense para profundizar las actividades de prevención para resguardar la seguridad ciudadana, con una inversión de 150 millones de pesos.[1224] En 2013, lanzó el Programa Federal de Colaboración y Asistencia para la Seguridad, cuyo principal objetivo era poner a disposición de las jurisdicciones provinciales y de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires aquellas herramientas y recursos que coadyuven al combate del delito y la criminalidad, y permitan asimismo generar ámbitos de coordinación y relación interjurisdiccionales.[1223] Se lanzaron los radares RASIT, que se desplegaron en las provincias de Jujuy, Salta, Formosa, Chaco, Corrientes y Misiones, cubriendo la frontera y las principales avenidas de aproximación de Tránsitos Aéreos Irregulares. Los relevos de escuadrones aeromóviles se realizan aproximadamente cada 30 días[1225] para la vigilancia del territorio y la lucha contra las incursiones ilegales en el país, con motivo de atacar el tráfico de drogas en las fronteras.[1226] >Fernández de Kirchner promulga el Plan Nacional de Radarización y crea el Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia y Control Aeroespacial (SINVICA).[114] Para cumplir con este objetivo el Ministerio de Defensa y la Fuerza Aérea le encargaron a INVAP el desarrollo y la instalación de 13 radares en la frontera norte.[1227][1228] En 2011 se lanza la línea 137 para denunciar el acoso, que funcionaba para todo el país, las 24 horas los 365 días del año, que asiste y acompaña a personas que sufrieron violencia familiar y/o sexual que se encuentran en una situación crítica.[1229] En noviembre de ese año se lanza la Unidad Fiscal Especializada en ciberdelincuencia.
En 2011, el gobierno nacional adquiere para la policía Federal el H11 LQ-BXI Airbus Eurocopter EC135, primer helicóptero de este modelo adquirido a Eurocopter en 2009 y H12 LQ-CQN Airbus Eurocopter EC135 T2+. El segundo EC135 fue adquirido en 2009. Un tercer helicóptero EC135 fue adquirido a fines de 2009 equipada con sistemas de visión nocturna, cámara giro-estabilizada y faro de búsqueda, sistemas de Piloto Automático "Full IFR - Single Pilot" que le permiten volar con un solo piloto sin ninguna visibilidad y aterrizar en forma automática con los sistemas ILS de los aeropuertos, de la misma forma que un avión de aerolínea. Además está dotado con grúa de rescate, bamby buckett para la lucha contra incendios y transporte externo de cargas. Posteriormente nuevas aeronaves adquiridas en 2014 con capacidad multifunción como los H15 LQ-FQH Airbus Eurocopter EC145.
A mediados del año 2012, el gobierno nacional puso en circulación el AFA plus, un sistema biométrico de acceso de público a los estadios, con el objetivo de identificar a violentos para que no puedan ingresar a los estadios y disminuir así los episodios de violencia. Para asistir a un partido de fútbol de Primera División y del seleccionado argentino, cada aficionado deberá estar inscrito previamente en un Padrón Nacional de Aficionados. El empadronamiento se realizará como un trámite personal en las sedes de los clubes, donde cada persona que desee ir a la cancha deberá registrarse con su nombre, foto, domicilio, número de Documento Nacional de Identidad y sus huellas digitales. Se empadronaron 111 000 personas.[1230] A pocos días de asumir encabezó la negociación con España para adquirir cuatro radares tridimensionales AN-FPS 113/90 con un alcance de vigilancia de 400 kilómetros y 30 mil pies de altura, con el objetivo mayor seguridad aérea y control de vuelos furtivos en el NOA y NEA.[1231][1232] En noviembre de 2015, continuando con el programa de completa radarización de las fronteras Fernández de Kirchner inauguró el tercer Radar Primario Argentino 3D de largo alcance y la construcción de seis nuevos radares argentinos. La inversión acumulada para la radarización del país alcanzó los mil millones pesos, con radares de tecnología nacional, con un ochenta por ciento de componentes argentinos. Los radares primarios, de uso en defensa y seguridad. En el año 2004 solo cuatro aeropuertos argentinos contaban con radares, al año 27 aeropuertos cuentan con equipos que son radaresque fabrica el Invap, logrando cubrir el 95% de las rutas comerciales.[1232].
En cuanto a ciber seguridad en julio de 2011 se creó, el Programa Nacional de Infraestructuras Críticas de Información y Ciberseguridad, que tiene como finalidad impulsar la creación y adopción de un marco regulatorio específico que propicie la identificación y protección de las infraestructuras estratégicas y críticas del Sector Público Nacional, los organismos interjurisdiccionales y las organizaciones civiles y del sector privado.[952].
Según cifras del diario británico BBC, de 2015 hubo 6,6 homicidios cada 100 000 habitantes, una reducción del 12% desde 2003, cuando la violencia llegó a tope, en medio de una fuerte crisis económica.[1233] En 2011 comenzó la instalación de radares 3D construidos por el Invap y la incorporación de tres aviones de combate Pucará que patrullarán el Norte Argentino para detectar vuelos irregulares.[1234].
urban security
In 2013, the Federal Security Collaboration and Assistance Program was launched, with which new tools and resources were made available to provincial jurisdictions to combat crime and criminality, including coordination programs and interjurisdictional relations. trafficking in persons and/or drugs.[1247] In December 2007, the educational program was launched in federal prisons and prisons, causing the number of prisoners with complete primary education to increase from 23 percent of the prison population to 78 percent, and the number of persons deprived of liberty with an approved secondary degree to increase from 34 percent to 59. Along with this, more than 7,300 prisoners began a tertiary and university career.[1248].
Prison policy
Regarding penitentiary policy, the modernization of the penitentiary system was sought, through the construction of new units and the extension of technology such as electronic anklets, the digitization of penitentiary files, greater training for prison guards and external control and auditing of federal prisons. federal. This included modifications and modernization in legislation, detention practices, new rehabilitation programs and improvements and extension of training for prison staff.[1250].
The 2008 prison reform included the construction of new prisons, the improvement of existing facilities, the halving of prison overcrowding between 2008 and 2011, and improving the prison population's access to health and education through the inauguration of seven educational centers inside federal prisons and 16 first aid rooms. It sought to promote the social reintegration of inmates through new education and vocational training programs through the development of mechanics, bodywork and painting, electricity, carpentry, etc. workshops in all prisons in the country.[1251]
At the same time, we sought to involve civil society and justice organizations to guarantee transparency in the management of the prison system. [1252].
Gendarmerie and Naval Prefecture
With the aim of combating drug trafficking on the border, helicopters, planes, speed boats, trucks and motorcycles were incorporated, the Ministry of Defense under the mandate of Nilda Garre installed two radars in Las Lomitas, Formosa and Santiago del Estero, adding others to Chaco, Salta and Misiones that help detect planes that are about to land and 18 latest generation truck-scanners,[1269] backpack radios for a group of radars; PPS-15 ground radars; smart boards; meteorological equipment; GPS transmission systems; etc.[1270].
Gender equality and sexual identity
In November 2014, the national government announced the delivery of 1,000 anti-panic buttons at the disposal of justice for women victims of gender violence.[1286] A law was also approved in November 2012 that punishes crimes considered gender-based with life imprisonment, which also includes both women and trans people. Femicide was thus created as a new penal figure, and not as an aggravating circumstance to a simple one[863]. Likewise, the Reparatory Regime for Victims of Institutional Violence for reasons of Gender Identity was promoted and the Inter-American Convention to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Violence against Women, "Convention of Belem do Pará"), approved by the General Assembly of the Organization of American States in its twenty-fourth regular period and also the creation of the Gender Equality Ombudsman. In 2014, it was voted to eliminate the possibility of a rapist's sentence being extinct if his victim agrees to marry him, a figure known as compromise.
disarmament program
In 2007, a national emergency regarding the purchase and sale of firearms was declared and a National Program for the Voluntary Surrender of Firearms was implemented. The objective of the Program was the anonymous delivery of weapons - legal and illegal - by citizens in exchange for an economic incentive to render them useless and then destroy them through their foundry. which "places the country as a world leader in the disarmament of the civilian population."[1288].
Since his government took office, 151,174 weapons and 1,201,086 ammunition delivered anonymously by Argentine citizens since 2007 have been destroyed,[1289] According to Diego Fleitas, director of the Public Policy Association (APP) and author of the document “Arms collection plans in Latin America” published by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). “The Government had a clearer policy on the issue compared to previous governments, which adopted very limited actions.” In 2013, Argentina was awarded by the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs for this policy.[1290].
Federal Intelligence Agency
In March 2015, the National Intelligence Law (Law No. 25,520) was enacted and came into effect 120 days later. The reform created the Federal Intelligence Agency (AFI). New agents, both students and graduates from different careers, were summoned through the UNICEN university to join the new agency. The new Intelligence Law implemented the centralization of data banks through the creation of the Intelligence Data Protection and Archives Bank. In this way, the figure of an official responsible for the processing of this information was incorporated. On the one hand, it sought to professionalize the agency with the incorporation of agents who have a university degree, for the first time it incorporated a meritocratic system for the appointment of agents that became competitive, internal Intelligence activities were limited only to the investigation of complex federal crimes, complex criminal intelligence or attacks against the institutional order and the democratic system, the duration of the mandate of the director and deputy director of the agency was limited, both positions will be appointed by the Executive Branch but must have approval from the Senate. The reform also creates a Data Protection Bank and establishes penalties for those agents who carry out improper activities.[1291][1292][1293] This was created by Law 27,126[1294] which modifies the National Intelligence Law establishing that all employees of the Intelligence Secretariat must make sworn statements without distinction of grades, eliminating the so-called reserved funds thereof.[1295] Establishing as their specific function is the production of national intelligence and criminal intelligence referring to complex federal crimes, framed in respect for the rights and guarantees of citizens enshrined in the National Constitution and international treaties.
According to the Intelligence Law, reformed in February 2015, a bicameral commission for the Supervision of Intelligence Organizations and Activities was created whose purpose is to supervise the activities, personnel, documentation and data banks of the National Intelligence Agency (AFI). In addition to supervising and controlling all the expenses that were assigned to the components of the National Intelligence System, the evaluation of the execution of the National Intelligence Plan", the "consideration of the Annual Report on Intelligence Activities", among other tasks
The separation between internal security and national defense was established, the general limits that regulate intelligence activity were specified, among other issues it prevented the components of the intelligence system from carrying out repressive tasks, at the same time it prohibited any type of criminal investigation not authorized by justice and prohibited the production of intelligence on the data of race, religion, political opinion or social belonging of the investigated.
human trafficking
In June 2008, when Aníbal Fernández was Minister of Justice, Security and Human Rights, specific units were created in the National Security Forces, in order to carry out actions aimed at the prevention and investigation of the crime of human trafficking, and an interdisciplinary team was also created made up of psychologists, lawyers and social workers, which from the beginning is coordinated by Zaida Gatti, who will act in conjunction with the Security Forces.
Thanks to their efforts, the Chamber of Deputies repeals Law 26,364 on human trafficking, which was expanded by National Law 26,842. The new law eliminated the consent of the victim as an exculpatory element and extended the sentences in cases of trafficking.[1300] Thanks to their efforts, the government launched on July 19, 2011 a free telephone number for reporting that operates all year round and 24 hours a day, number 145, dependent on the Office of Rescue and Accompaniment for Persons Harmified by the Crime of Trafficking,
a hotline and the report can be made anonymously about cases of trafficking in persons and minors, but also to report media and Internet portals that advertise sexual offers.[1301].
In 2012, the National Rescue and Support Program for people affected by the crime of trafficking and the Office of the Prosecutor against Trafficking for Exploitation were created, promoted by Dr. Alejandra Magdalena Gils Carbó.
In 2013, work on the Comprehensive Refunctionalization program of the Churruca-Visca Medical Hospital Complex of the Federal Police began with the aim of expanding and improving the hospital used by the federal police.
Dr. Eva Giberti, who was part of the Ministry of the Interior since 2006, worked on drafting the Law against Human Trafficking, which seeks to ensure that victims are active and demand that the State arrest the rapist.[1302] On April 9, 2008, Congress passed Law 26,364 on the Prevention and Punishment of Human Trafficking and Assistance to its Victims. Victims.[1152] In August 2008, the Rescue and Accompaniment Office was created for people affected by the Crime of Trafficking.[1303][1304] Until 2008, official statistical figures on this crime did not exist in Argentina, so a statistical office was created.
In 2011, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner launched the free telephone number for reporting complaints that operates all year round and 24 hours a day, number 145, dependent on the Office of Rescue and Support for Persons Damaged by the Crime of Trafficking. This line is not only used to report cases of trafficking in persons and minors, but also to report media and Internet portals that advertise sexual offers.[1305] It is a direct line and without the intermediary of the police and the report can be made anonymously.[1306][1307] The Northern Shield operation covered the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Formosa, Chaco, Misiones, Corrientes, La Rioja, Catamarca, Córdoba and Santa Fe, and focused on the prevention and conspiracy of problems related to "illicit drug trafficking, human trafficking and smuggling of goods." To this end, it was part of the "internal security system", the use of radars and military means, as well as military personnel, was committed, in coordination with police institutions and, especially, with federal security forces.
Gender violence
In 2011, the Comprehensive Gender Center was created in the Argentine security forces.[843][844] The arrival of transsexual and transgender officers to the security forces was accepted, and federal police and security forces were instructed to respect the gender identity of both the agents of the different agencies and the detainees and of any citizen carrying out a procedure in their facilities.[833] The objective of this measure was to combat conduct. transphobic and homophobic, in order to raise awareness about gender issues and integrate transgender, transvestite and transsexual people in the workplace.[834][835]
By 2015, 1,000 new patrol cars with cutting-edge technology were incorporated for the Federal Police that guards the city of Buenos Aires.[1313].
road safety
In 2008, the National Road Safety Agency (ANSV) was created by the President of the Nation, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, through Law No. 26,363, which complemented the modernization of Traffic Law No. 24,449. Since that year, multiple prevention campaigns were launched; in addition, in 2010, the Training Center for Road Safety Policy and Management was launched. Electronic inspection, educational campaigns, and road design improvements were implemented.
Since the creation of the Agency at the initiative of the President of the Argentine Nation, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, according to official data and non-governmental organizations, the life accident rate was reduced by 9% between 2008 and 2009 in the first year of the Agency. Attributing the improvement in road figures to the increase in controls and investment in awareness carried out by the organization.
In 2010, the National Road Safety Agency, together with the development of CONICET, launched the interactive map on road safety statistics, which included the use of safety elements, traffic incidents and the areas with the highest accident rate in each Argentine municipality and province, managing to unify all the dispersed statistics of cities and municipalities into a single federal base.
In 2010, the National Strategic Road Safety Plan 2010–2015 established Argentina's priority policies to reduce deaths and serious injuries due to road accidents. The plan was framed in the Safe System approach and promotes the philosophy of Vision Zero, which maintains that no death in traffic is acceptable, establishing joint work between the national State, the provinces, the municipalities, civil society and citizens.
The Licensing Issuance Centers were strengthened, specific training updated, use of protective elements and certification of instructors. It was established that wearing a helmet was mandatory to refuel at service stations. This measure, known as "No helmet, no gas", sought to guarantee the safety of motorcyclists. A fund of 120 million pesos was established for municipalities to create local road safety plans, inter-jurisdictional collaborative networks. The Road Observatory of the National Road Safety Agency (ANSV) was established, which presents consolidated data on fatal road accidents that occurred in Argentina each year.
In December 2015, a law promoted by relatives of victims of traffic accidents was approved, toughening penalties from 3 to 6 years in prison for drivers who cause one or more deaths due to speeding, or driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs. This law would be promulgated in the official gazette two years later.
Computer crimes
Law 26,388, on Computer Crimes and Cybersecurity, was passed, which incorporates cybercrimes in Argentina for the first time. This law incorporated criminal modalities such as computer fraud, computer damage, violation of privacy and secrets, and crimes against public safety into the criminal system.
At the same time, the right to victims was incorporated, which was provided by a State lawyer for victims of gender violence or intentional crimes.
[1314].
gun control
Through the National Agency for Controlled Materials (ANMaC), the requirements and controls that manufacturers and dealers of weapons and ammunition had to comply with to enter or remain in the sector were tightened, establishing periodic controls and inspections by the police on retail commercial users, weapons repair workshops and weapons factories of different types. At the same time a record was created
commercial reloading of ammunition, workshops for repairing and assembling materials for armored vehicles, plants for the destruction of special-use materials and storage of weapons and/or ammunition and shooting entities with their own facilities, it is also established that people with criminal records may not be the owner of them or work there, keep a record of each weapon sold with a mandatory serial number.
In 2008, new requirements were established for weapon bearers, including a mandatory license, not presenting mental or physical abnormalities that disable the petitioner" and "proof of identity, real address and lawful means of livelihood, that they do not have a criminal record and the minimum age to purchase weapons was raised from 18 to 21 years.
Anti-money laundering regulations
In 2008, the “National Coordination Program to Combat Money Laundering and the Financing of Terrorism” was created within the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. Said decree also established that the aforementioned Ministry is the central authority of the National State to carry out inter-institutional coordination functions between all organizations and entities of the public and private sector, with jurisdiction in Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing[1315] In 2010, the AFIP established the exchange of information and to carry out reciprocal collaboration with the agencies of the United States of America (FinCEN), the Republic of Colombia (UIAF), the Republic of Paraguay (SEPRELAD), the Republic of Chile (UAF), the Republic of Panama (UAF), the Federative Republic of Brazil (COAF) and the Eastern Republic of Uruguay (UIAF).[1316].
In 2010, the Central Bank adjusted its controls on the opening of correspondent accounts that financial institutions can open in the country and abroad, following the recommendations of the FATF. The regulations were adapted and modernized by designing a strict policy for the regulation, prevention, detection, and punishment of crime; to become a member of the Financial Action Task Force (FATF). The FATF is an organization that promotes policies for the prevention and repression of money laundering at the international level. In 2014, penalties were increased for crimes related to the illicit trafficking and marketing of narcotics. the Crimes of weapons smuggling (Crimes related to the activities of an illicit association organized to commit crimes for political or racial purposes; and the penalty was doubled for the Crimes of fraud against the Public Administration.[1317] In 2008, through several resolutions, the Public Prosecutor's Office and the FIU decided to enable the freezing of assets and money of fugitive repressors tried for crimes against humanity.
In 2011, the Action Plan presented in February 2011 was launched, which allowed FATF to recognize that our country began to comply with international standards on the matter. Until 2010, Argentina respected only 2 of the 40 standards of anti-money laundering recommendations included in global financial control institutions. Two years later, it complied with 100% of the requirements.[1318].
In 2007, the crime of Financing of the Illicit Terrorist Association was classified in Art. 213 quater of the Penal Code under Title VIII “crimes against public order.” However, in 2011, in compliance with the requirements of international conventions and standards, the Law modified the crime of Money Laundering, classifying it this time as an autonomous crime in Art. 303 of the Penal Code under a new Title XIII "against the economic and financial order." In the same year 2011, for similar reasons, the Law also modified the crime of Financing of Terrorism, classifying it as an autonomous crime in Art. 306 of the Penal Code under the same Title XIII “against the economic and financial order”[1319].
Defense policy
Durante su presidencia se fortaleció el rol institucional del Ministerio de Defensa "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)") y ajustaron la doctrina de defensa a las transformaciones del escenario regional e internacional y sentaron las bases para la modernización integral del sector. Las autoridades civiles comenzaron a participar activamente de la definición, análisis y supervisión de los criterios que orientan la organización y el funcionamiento de las Fuerzas Armadas.[1330] Para el año 2015 el presupuesto militar de Argentina subió un 43% en comparación con el año 2013.[1331].
Basada en la premisa del gobierno civil de la Defensa como principio fundamental la política de defensa fue acompañada por una distinción entre las esferas de la Defensa y la seguridad interior y se busco afianzar en control civil sobre las fuerzas armadas.[1332] Durante su presidencia se fortaleció el rol institucional del Ministerio de Defensa "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)") y ajustaron la doctrina de defensa a las transformaciones del escenario regional e internacional y sentaron las bases para la modernización integral del sector. Las autoridades civiles comenzaron a participar activamente de la definición, análisis y supervisión de los criterios que orientan la organización y el funcionamiento de las Fuerzas Armadas.[1330] Basada en la idea de gobierno civil de la Defensa como principio fundamental la política de defensa fue acompañada por una distinción entre las esferas de la Defensa y la seguridad interior y se busco afianzar en control civil sobre las Fuerzas Armadas.[1332]
Durante su gestión tuvo como eje la modernización del ejército, llevando adelante la entrega de más de setenta vehículos nuevos y equipamiento modernizado al Ejército Argentino.[1333].
En primer lugar, se modifica el sistema de justicia militar a través de la Ley 26.394 de 2009 que derogó el Código de Justicia Militar. En el ámbito educativo, se estableció una la conducción civil del subsistema educativo de Defensa. A través de la Ley 26.396, de agosto del año 2008, se eliminó el fuero militar, donde los militares se juzgaban a sí mismos y se eliminó la pena de muerte cómo castigo militar, se rediseñó integralmente el sistema disciplinario militar adoptándolo a la Constitución y a los tratados internacionales, en materia de derechos humanos.[1334] 10La reforma en el sistema de justicia y disciplina militar argentina que estaba de 1951 se inscribio en procesos internacionales más amplios, que avanzan en el mismo sentido y llevaron a la supresión del fuero penal militar en países como Francia y Alemania entre otros. El Proyecto de Ley de Reforma Integral del Sistema de Justicia Militar, establecía entre otras reformas
“[…] abandonar definitivamente una legislación de raíz tan autoritaria que cae en el escándalo de que el militar argentino en tiempo de paz tiene menos garantías que el prisionero enemigo en tiempo de guerra; ya que el militar tiene derecho a defensor letrado.[1335].
También se procedió a la desmilitarización de organismos dependientes de las Fuerzas que pasaron a la órbita del Ministerio de Defensa en 2008: (Servicio Meteorológico Nacional, Servicio de Hidrografía Naval, Instituto Geográfico Nacional y la Administración Nacional de Aviación Civil). Asimismo, se creó la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria en 2005, dependiente del Ministerio de Seguridad.[1336] En 2011 se adquirió dos helicópteros MI 17 rusos con el fin de ser utilizados para la campaña antártica y otros fines con una inversión que demandó al Estado 15 millones de dólares, capaces de trasportar hasta 27 personas sentadas y cinco toneladas de peso, adaptado a climas polares.[1337].
En 2008 el Congreso aprobó la Ley N.º 26 394 derogando el Código de Justicia Militar y creó el Código de Disciplina de las Fuerzas Armadas.[1338] también se sancionó la ley para ampliar las competencias del Defensor del Pueblo sobre al área militar apuntando a mejorar la capacidad de reclamo y el respeto por los derechos humanos entre los miembros de la institución castrense.[1339] En 2008 se reglamenta dejar sin efecto los tribunales militares marciales a favor a los juicios civiles, ya que los tribunales marciales privaban a hombres y mujeres del debido proceso.[1340]
A partir del año 2009 Argentina a través del Regimiento mecanizado número 12 conformó el núcleo del Batallón de Infantería Mecanizado de la Fuerza de Paz Binacional Conjunta Combinada "Cruz del Sur" que junto a la República de Chile, se constituye la única Fuerza Combinada de la Región dispuesta para desplegar en misiones de paz donde la Organización de las Naciones Unidas lo requiera.
Training
In 2011, a course on Human Rights was included in the curricula of the Military School and of the other officer schools of the armed institutes in 2008 in matters of defense and human rights. With regard to military education, the Ministry of Defense carried out the inclusion of content related to human rights in the basic training curricula and, within the framework of the Joint Higher War School, in the training of officers of the Joint Major Army. With the aim of promoting the entry and permanence of women in the Armed Forces, the Observatory on the Integration of Women and the Gender Policy Council were created, promoting gender policies for peace operations, eliminating restrictions on access for women with children and reducing mandatory guards for pregnant and lactating women.
Starting in 2008, the goal was set to democratize access to the armed forces and pass it on merit. In 2008, the army federalized admission to its officer and non-commissioned officer schools so that the place of residence of the applicants does not impede their training. The possibility was also added for applicants to be able to stay in military units during the time that the academic and physical exams required for their entry are extended. The exams that had to be taken until 2008 in the City of Buenos Aires were federalized and could be taken in military high schools and other facilities in Salta Litoral, Jujuy, Tucumán, Misiones, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Córdoba, Santa Fe, Buenos Aires, Greater Buenos Aires and the Federal Capital.[1341]
[204] In 2015, the ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24) "ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24)"), a notice "Notice (vessel)") of the Argentine Navy of the class Project V92/I Neftegaz, was incorporated into the Navy, to fulfill patrol and supply functions for ships heading to the scientific bases of the Antarctica.[1342][1343] It was acquired by the Argentine government in 2014 after an agreement with the Russian government and a Russian state company with the Argentine Ministry of Defense "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)"), which led to the acquisition of the ARA Puerto Argentino, along with the current ARA Bahía Agradable, ARA Islas Malvinas and ARA Estrecho de San Carlos.[1342] It was also carried out a repair and modernization of the ARA Irizar ship awarded to Sener, this included the change of engines and generators for new ones of greater power, an increase in the personnel transport capacity from 245 to 313 seats and an increase in the area dedicated to research laboratories, from 74 to 415 m²[1344].
With the aim of improving the protection of the borders and their surveillance, the policy of modernizing and incorporating more troops continued between 2004 and 2014, the number of gendarmerie troops increased from 17,000 to 34,000 troops.[1345] On December 14, 2010, the Ministry of Security "Ministerio de Seguridad (Argentina)") was created, to which the Gendarmerie was assigned, among other forces.[1346].
Scientific-technological development
In 2009, it replaced the name of the Military Geographic Institute "Military Geographic Institute (Argentina)") with National Geographic Institute.[1352] Starting in 2013, incorporate the Armed Forces into the task of comprehensive development of the country's infrastructure with the recovery of the Tandanor and Domeq shipyards, and the cooperation agreement between the Ministry of the Interior and Transportation and the Ministry of Defense, which is the object of renewal. roads and works of the Belgrano Cargas route and logistics of the Sociedad Anónima Belgrano Cargas.
Fernández de Kirchner created the National Radarization Plan and the National Aerospace Surveillance and Control System (SINVICA).[114] The INVAP produced the Argentine Monopulse Secondary Radar (RSMA) capable of controlling air traffic.[1227][114] The development ended in 2007 and units were installed in Bariloche, Neuquén "Neuquén (city)"), Santa Rosa "Santa Rosa (La Pampa)"), Quilmes and Córdoba "Córdoba (Argentina)"), to which were later added Bahía Blanca, Morteros "Morteros (city)"), La Rioja "La Rioja (city)") and San Luis "San Luis (Argentina)").[1353].
In 2011, an AN-FPS-113/90 radar and the Posadas Aerospace Control Station were installed at the Posadas airport. In 2014, the first nationally manufactured RPA3DLA radar was installed in Las Lomitas, operated by the Las Lomitas Aerospace Surveillance Station. Another RPA3DLA was installed in Ingeniero Juárez.[1354] Also, the FF. AA. They provided security to the XLIII Mercosur Summit —Mendoza "Mendoza (Argentina)"), 2012— and the XLVII Mercosur Presidential Summit —Paraná "Paraná (Argentina)"), 2014—.[1355] In 2014 the Ministry of Defense created the Aerospace Command of the EMCFFAA, headed by a senior officer of the Force Air.[1356] Starting in October 2013, the northern shield operation, Fortín II, was reinforced with some 4,500 troops for surveillance and control operations in the geographic area of national interest, and for humanitarian aid and community support operations. A radar deployment was also initiated that covers the surveillance and control of the entire northern airspace with some new equipment manufactured by Invap and a contract worth 1 billion pesos was signed to develop another six radars that covered 70 percent of the northern border.[1357].
Through the state company DGFM, it began to renew the armament of the armed forces to provide since 2009 the basic types 7.62 mm (for FAL) and 9 mm (for pistol) for portable weapons intended for the annual training of the Armed Forces. The turnover of the Directorate went from 78 million pesos in 2006 to 125 million in 2009.[1215] Between 2011 and 2015 Fabricaciones Militares, based on the 2012-2016 Strategic Plan, grew significantly in investments, production and sales and developed new projects, products, plants and production lines.[1358][1215].
Works plan
In 2008, a plan was launched for a total of 4.5 billion pesos with the objective of modernizing the Army's infrastructure, including the Córdoba Base, III Corps and IV Brigade; Villa Martelli the Command of the V Brigade of Salta, Intelligence Company V; V Engineer Battalion, V Engineering Regiment; Salta Military Hospital, Communications Company.
In Cuyo the Logistics Support Base Salta; Mendoza: 8th Mountain Brigade Command; Mountain Communications Company 8; Intelligence Company 8; BAL Mendoza, Mendoza Military Hospital, Gral. Espejo Military High School. In the Navy: Posadas; Zarate; Santiago River; Indio Point; Río Grande and Ushuaia, and in the Air Force the Córdoba Air Garrison and the Río Gallegos Air Base.
Presence of women in the Armed Forces.
In 2006, the Minister of Defense Nilda Garré created the Observatory on the Integration of Women in the Armed Forces and in 2007 she created the Gender Policy Council, a unique institution in the world due to the fact that military women joined it. female students who became pregnant, as well as male soldiers who recognized their paternity and the obligation to request authorization from their superior to marry.[1369] At the end of 2007 In
In the 2007 Instruction Trip, female cadets from the Naval Academy embarked for the first time.[1370] In 2008, with the aim of promoting the role of women in the Armed Forces, the Observatory on the integration of women in the Armed Forces was created, to promote the integration of women into the military career, and the administrative interventions linked to the first measures aimed at gender equality that were materialized through Resolutions. Ministerial. That same year, subsection b of article 8 of the Voluntary Military Service Regulations was repealed, which prevented those who had children or dependents from accessing Voluntary Military Service, which mainly affected military women. The rules that prevented the entry and/or permanence, in the Military College and the Aviation School, of students who became pregnant were repealed, adapting the regulations of the Forces to the provisions of Law No. 25,808, which establishes that no institutional actions may be adopted that prevent the normal pursuit of studies by students in a state of pregnancy or during the period
breastfeeding, and to students as parents, in any type of educational establishment in the country. In June 2008 the Regulations were modified
for the Navy Personnel Administration, annulling the provision of October 1955 that required the situation of concubinage, the existence of non-marital children or pregnancies outside of marriage by military personnel to be subject to disciplinary consideration.[1371].
Regarding the roles developed by women, they were included in international missions, including the Argentine Mission in Cyprus and the Argentine Joint Battalion in Haiti.
With the aim of preventing women in the army from abandoning their careers, within the framework of the National Plan for daycare centers and responsible parenthood - MD Resolution No. 198/08 - the daycare center located in the San Telmo neighborhood was put into operation for workers of the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff of the Army.
In 2009, the deceased soldier and heroine of the fight for Independence Juana Azurduy was promoted post-mortem to general, thus becoming the first woman to reach that rank in the Argentine Army.[1372] In 2015, Colonel María Isabel Pansa was promoted to brigadier general, becoming the first woman to reach that rank in life.[1373] Also in 2015 María Inés Uriarte She was promoted to rear admiral, becoming the first woman to reach that rank. Unlike the other two weapons, until 2017 no woman had been promoted to the rank of brigadier in the Air Force, equivalent to rear admiral and brigadier general.
Army
In 2010, together with the Minister of Defense, Agustín Rossi "Agustín Rossi (politician)"), he carried out the logistics equipment program with an investment of 930 million pesos. 120,000 multi-camouflage uniforms, 50,000 modular belts, 23,000 Kevlar helmets, 30 REO M931" truck tractors with 25-ton semi-trailer, 18 M113 combat vehicles, 5 TAM family vehicles, completely repowered and reequipped, 10 REO 2.5 TON trucks, more than 100 were reequipped coupled trailers for transporting water, fuel, motorcycles and quadricycles, more than 100 Ford Ranger and F350 4×4 trucks, 5 Humvee all-terrain vehicles, the modernization of the FAL rifle, the TAM 2C, simulation systems, observation radars, were incorporated into the force, in addition, a Bell Huey II helicopter with accessories and cutting-edge equipment, and as part of the comprehensive repair and modernization of the vehicle park, were added 40 fully repowered Unimog 416s and 5 Mercedes Benz 230G jeeps").[1377].
In 2012, Argentina acquired military components for helicopters, warships, aircraft, guns and radars, as well as other types of communications equipment, strengthening the operational status of its Armed Forces. multiple CP-30s, PPCC modules, the SEMIL equipment and Bell 206 helicopters. TAM tanks, M113 armored vehicles—A1 to A2—, CITER 155 mm cannons, and FN FAL rifles were modernized.[1379].
Air Force
In 2011, the Air Force acquired four Saab 340B aircraft, a Learjet 35A, two Mi-171E helicopters, two Bell 412EP helicopters and indigenous radars in addition to AN-FPS-113/90"). remunerative.[1380].
In 2015, it carried out the incorporation of Kfir Block 60 supersonic aircraft to replace the old Mirage III from the 1970s, with an investment of 360 million dollars.[1381].
Navy
The Navy incorporated the oceanographic vessel ARA Austral (Q-21) "ARA Austral (Q-21)")[1382] and the notices ARA Puerto Argentino (A-21) "ARA Puerto Argentino (A-21)"), ARA Estrecho de San Carlos (A-22) "ARA Estrecho de San Carlos (A-22)"), ARA Bahía Agradable (A-23) "ARA Bahía Pleasant (A-23)") and ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24) "ARA Islas Malvinas (A-24)") in addition to UH-3H Sea King helicopters. The Panhard vehicles, the ARA Indómita (P-86) boat "ARA Indómita (P-86)"), the ARA Almirante Irízar (Q-5) icebreaker "ARA Almirante Irízar (Q-5)") were updated and mid-life maintenance of the ARA San Juan (S-42) submarine "ARA San Juan (S-42)") was carried out.[1379].
The ARA Puerto Deseado (Q-20) "ARA Puerto Deseado (Q-20)") investigated the continental shelf of the Argentine sea that was finally handed over on April 22, 2009 to the United Nations, with an oceanic territory of squares to be recognized as part of Argentina, as governed by the Convention on the Continental Shelf and the Convention on the Law of the Sea.[1383].
In 2009, the President led the inauguration of the new headquarters of the National Fluvial School, dependent on the national Navy, a training institute in the Buenos Aires neighborhood of Puerto Madero, accompanied by the Minister of Defense, Nilda Garre.
[1384][1385].
Works were also carried out to modernize and expand the Puerto Belgrano Naval Base, concentrating the work on Docks No. 1 and No. 2 that make up the Arsenal and allow various vessels belonging to the Navy to be housed for maintenance and repair. Three years later, the first stage of repair and modernization of Carena Dam No. 2 was completed with an investment of 100 million pesos. Other elements that make Dock No. 2 function were modernized.[362] At the end of 2011, the ARA Espora (P-41) "ARA Espora (P-41)") underwent repairs at the Río Santiago Shipyard.[1386] With the aim of modernizing it, the Granville corvette underwent repairs at the Puerto Belgrano Naval Arsenal.[1387] During 2014 the ship ARA Patagonia (B-1) "ARA Patagonia (B-1)") was modernized in the Carena Dock No. 2 of the Puerto Belgrano Naval Arsenal, which allowed it to maintain the operational level.[1388] In 2007 the shipyards that remained in the hands of the Navy were reorganized to pass into civilian hands, through Astilleros Río Santiago.
Two ships and a series of 5 units of Multipurpose Ocean Patrol Vessels (POM) were built. In addition to twelve barges to transport bulk cargo.[1389] On January 18, 2008, construction work began on the first block “Eva Perón”, one of the two oil tankers contracted by PDVSA.[1390] The "Eva Perón" became the largest double-hulled ship built in Argentina in the last 30 years, and was launched in 2012, with a capacity of 47,000 gross cargo tons (TPB). Likewise, a repair and modernization of the ARA Irizar ship was carried out at the Tandanor shipyard in Buenos Aires, with work scheduled to begin in November 2009, to end with ice tests in October 2011.[1391].
Joint operations
The Argentine Armed Forces developed specific, joint, specific-combined and joint-combined military operations. President Kirchner launched Operation Northern Shield in order to increase surveillance of land, river and air spaces on the borders of northwest and northeast Argentina. The Joint Chiefs of Staff "Joint Staff of the Armed Forces (Argentina)") created the Joint Task Force for the Control of Aerospace «Fortín II».[1354].
In 2013, the modernization of the Mar Chiquita Self-Propelled Projectile Launch and Experimentation Center (CELPA), an Argentine military suborbital flight launch site operated by the Argentine Air Force, was carried out.
As a result of the 2010 earthquake, the three hospitals in the Haitian capital collapsed, the Argentine establishment was initially the only functioning health complex.[1396] On the first morning of the day after the earthquake, 85 highly complex operations were performed there and 800 injured were treated. Since supplies ran out, on January 14, 2010, Argentina sent a C-130 Hercules with doctors, experts and about 12 tons of cargo, including satellite phones, tents and water treatment plants. White Helmets stretched their capabilities to help the survivors and wounded.[1398][1399] Three years later Fernández inaugurated a hospital in Haiti,[1400] with the capacity to care for 150,000 patients.[1401].
Between 2003 and 2015, during the governments of Néstor and Cristina Kirchner, Argentine rights over the Malvinas Islands were reaffirmed. One of the pillars of the policies on the matter was the support and recognition of the Veterans of the Malvinas War, the implementation of measures to improve the quality of life of the veterans, providing medical, psychological and economic assistance.
Benefits and pensions were also expanded.[1402] the first national census of veterans was carried out, the granting of honorary pensions was decreed, benefits were extended to relatives of fallen soldiers, April 2 was declared an immovable national holiday, among other measures. During the second government of Fernández de Kirchner, the Cenotaph was inaugurated in the Argentine Cemetery in the Malvinas Islands and on June 6, 2014, the Malvinas Museum was created in the city of Buenos Aires to promote the vindication of the Argentine sovereignty claim over the Malvinas and the South Atlantic Islands.[1403].
Antarctica
In ten years, the number of scientists who participated in the Antarctic Campaigns multiplied by three, going from 117 professionals in the period 2003-2004 to more than 320 in 2015, which translated into a constant increase in the production of specialized material and research for the country. This put Argentine science at the forefront of other nations. Of the 254 scientific articles about Antarctica published by Latin American countries, 146 were produced in Argentina.[1404].
In 2008, 4 operational SAAB 340B aircraft were acquired during Nilda Garré's Defense management with an investment of 30 million dollars with the objective of connecting the continent and the bases in Antarctica.[1405] In 2009, later the Minister of Defense, Agustín Rossi "Agustín Rossi (politician)"), carried out the reactivation and refunctionalization of a new permanent Base with a strategic activity in the logistics for research.
In 2010, Antarctic policy was characterized by the construction of new facilities at the Belgrano II Base and completed the construction of the new main building of the Belgrano II Base, along with greater emphasis on the monitoring of marine resources, and the signing of agreements with Uruguay to promote scientific exchanges in Antarctica.[1406][1407].
With the aim of adding more means to guarantee the security of the Antarctic bases, in April 2010, the contract for the acquisition of two Mi-171E helicopters was signed with an investment of 20 Million Euros, which in addition to the purchase of these machines, included the training of crews and mechanics.[1408][204] In 2011, an aerial photogrammetric survey was carried out in the Marambio Base and surrounding areas, an action that had not been carried out since 1978. The cartographic plans of that sector were updated.[1409] That same year, the seven Russian Ka-32C helicopters were added to the defense assets, acquired months before to operate in the 2011-2012 Argentine Antarctic campaign, intended to supply the five permanent Argentine Antarctic bases, the six temporary ones, and the scientific shelters. In demonstration of Argentine solidarity and peaceful purposes and international cooperation, the government decided to provide support to the Spanish Gabriel de Castilla base by supplying it with fuel, generators and medical supplies; transfer material to the Peruvian base Machu Picchu and cooperate with the Chilean base Frei Montalva by transferring its envoys there and help the Ecuadorian scientific base Maldonado. Bellingshausen.[1412].
In 2013, Dr. Fernández de Kirchner together with her counterpart Michelle Bachelet formed the Antarctic Combined Naval Patrol that guards the marine resources of both countries in the Antarctic seas.
In 2014, two MI-17 helicopters were acquired to operate in the Argentine Antarctic sector. These are multipurpose transport aircraft with the capacity to transport 26 passengers and up to 5 tons of cargo.[1413] In 2015, at the urging of the Minister of Defense Dr Agustín Rossi, the Petrel base, which is located on Dundee Island located in Antarctica, was converted into a permanent base. This meant that the base, which previously operated only in summer, became operational all year round since 2015. The decision implies an expansion of the Argentine presence in Antarctica and a greater effort in research and protection of the area.[40]
Territorial policy
Antarctic policy
During 2010/2011, an aerial photogrammetric survey was carried out at the Marambio Base and surrounding areas, something that had not been done since 1978, thus updating the cartographic plans of that sector.[1418] In 2011, a C-130 was used to launch loads to supply the Belgrano II Base, scientific equipment, spare parts for Antarctic vehicles, helium tubes for the launch of meteorological probes, and material for the laboratory.[1419][1420][1421][1422]
In 2013, from Puerto Deseado, it carried out plate research campaigns, species monitoring and digital mapping, taking advantage of its navigations to transport scientists to the Orcadas Base and supply the Decepción and Jubany bases. Air Force C-130 planes transported material to the Marambio and Frei bases.
The policy regarding the Argentine Sea was characterized by the defense of Argentine sovereignty in the surrounding Antarctica and the South Atlantic, the promotion of scientific research and the protection of the environment. In 2011, the Pampa Azul initiative was promoted for the sustainable development of the Argentine Sea. Argentina has a maritime coastline of 4,725 kilometers on the American continent, adding to 11,325 kilometers of the coasts of Argentine Antarctica and southern islands. The Argentine continental shelf has some 6,683,000 km2 that represent the Argentine continental, insular and Antarctic maritime spaces.[1423].
Expansion of sovereignty
Since his appointment Jorge Taiana, Chancellor of the presidents Dr. Néstor Kirchner and Cristina Fernández de Kirchner between 2006 and 2010. During his administration he promoted the extension of the Argentine continental shelf, where it is estimated that there are important resources in the soil and subsoil. Finally, Chancellor Taiana announced in December 2015 that the UN recognizes Argentine sovereignty in 1.7 million km² more incorporated into the sovereign territory, which validated the expansion of the Argentine continental shelf.[1424] Consequently, the country gained 1,782,000 square kilometers, which includes the islands of the South Atlantic and Antarctica, the surface of the seabed and subsoil on which there is legal security so that Argentina can explore and exploit its resources exclusively and exclusively
[1425][1426].
In 2009, it presented to the United Nations a request for the expansion of the continental shelf, which covers an area of 1,782,500 km², equivalent to more than half of the emerged territory, applying the rules established in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), in force for Argentina since 1995. In the presidential administrations since 2006, the government carried out hundreds of geological, geophysical, cartographic, and On April 21, 2009, he presented 40 volumes of documentation to the UN to establish that outer limit, which gives 1,700,000 km² more territory, and rights over the seabed and its resources.[1427] Several public organizations and universities collaborated in the work, professionals from different disciplines involved in the subject participated: geodesists, hydrographers, geologists, geophysicists, cartographers, oceanographers, systems experts of geographical information, lawyers and experts in international law. Finally, the working groups of the National Commission on the Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf (COPLA), formed in 2006, prepared the final report after about 100,000 hours of joint work.[1428] The work of the commission was praised by various political sectors, including some of the opposition, and criticized by the PRO and the Civic Coalition, who considered its work unnecessary and the spending on studies by the commission superfluous.
[1429][1430] The new official territory expanded the continental shelf and extends across two continents.[1431][1432][1433] The area also corresponds to the area in which the Malvinas Islands and other islands in the South Atlantic are located. In February 2016, after years of efforts, the United Nations unanimously approved the Argentine request doubling Argentine sovereignty over the continental shelf.[1434][1435].
Reaffirmation of sovereignty over the Malvinas Islands
Based on the constitutional imperative, the defense of Argentine sovereignty in the Malvinas Islands became a matter of State.
Hydrocarbons Law and its amendments prohibited the illegal exploitation of oil on the Argentine continental shelf and established the relevant sanctions for companies that operate without permission.
On December 6, 2011, in a statement unanimously approved by all the CELAC countries in Caracas, the heads of State and Government of Latin America and the Caribbean supported the Argentine position on the Malvinas and reiterated "their strongest support for the legitimate rights of the Argentine Republic in the sovereignty dispute over the Malvinas, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands and the surrounding maritime spaces." </ref>Celac supports the claim for Malvinas Argentina.ar - consulted on December 6, 2011</ref>In 2011 the Group of 77 made up of 134 nations - by number the most important negotiating bloc of the United Nations - issued for the first time that in its Final Declaration it dedicated an exclusive paragraph to the Malvinas Question, supporting the Argentine government.[1436] At the end of that same year in the Within the framework of the IX Mercosur Summit, unanimously, the presidents of the Mercosur member countries ratified "their support for the legitimate rights of the Argentine Republic in the sovereignty dispute."[1437] At the same time, they agreed to reject the passage of military ships flying the British flag.[1438].
After being a founding member of the regional integration and defense of democracy mechanism Unasur, Argentina received the support of the organization. In March 2012, in a statement unanimously approved, Unasur supported Argentine sovereignty in the Malvinas and urged Great Britain to end the "anachronistic colonial situation on American soil". regarding the arrogance of the Malvinas. The secretary general of the Organization of American States (OAS), José Miguel Insulza, supported the position and strategy of the Argentine president.[1442] Later in 2013 the Organization of American States - with the exception of the United States - issued a joint declaration of support for Argentine sovereignty over the South Atlantic Islands.[1443]
[1444] Luis Almagro would maintain the same position, recognizing Argentina's right to its full sovereignty over the islands.[1445].
At the end of Fernández de Kirchner's efforts, the vice president of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Jiang Shusheng"), stated that solidarity with Argentina regarding the Malvinas "constitutes an invariable position for China", while highlighting the role that Argentina played in the Pro Tempore presidency of the Group of 77, in its "work towards integration and world peace".[1446]
In March 2014, after a meeting between Dr. Fernández de Kirchner and Vladimir Putin, Russia, a member of the G7 and one of the five countries with veto power in the UN security council, granted unrestricted support to Argentine sovereignty over the Malvinas Islands and its diplomatic support.[1447] That same year.
International politics
During her administration she had a close relationship with Merkel Chancellor of Germany, Michele Bachelet President of Chile, with Ségolène Royal Hillary Clinton forming working groups to propose changes and a greater role for women in the UN, along with the rights of women and children in state policies.[1454]
On July 29, Fernández de Kirchner, accompanied by Foreign Minister Héctor Timerman, inaugurated a new Argentine embassy in Brazil in Brasilia.
In 2014, the 54 countries of the African Union published the "Malabo Declaration" signed in the capital of (Equatorial Guinea), approved unanimously and states:
Demographic policy
During his administration, Argentina continued the trend of accelerated demographic changes in a demographic transition. This period was characterized by a sharp drop in infant mortality and the number of births.
The increase in the internal market, the decrease in unemployment and the increase in installed capacity in the industry led to an acceleration in the incorporation of women into the workplace. Argentina had been leading this trend in Latin America since the mid-1940s. A demographic report on Argentine women highlighted the accelerated decrease in fertility and postponement of motherhood. The increase in the dissemination of contraceptive methods, the reduction of teenage pregnancy, social changes and the incorporation of women into the workplace and universities led to Argentine women becoming mothers at an older age and a tendency to have fewer and fewer children[1455] Significant changes occurred in the structure of the Argentine population with a marked decrease in the birth rate, the reduction in the number of large families, the increase in life expectancy and the aging of the population, a marked decrease in fertility and, at the same time, time, a more feminized and older social composition. The 2010 National Population Census showed that 92% of the population lived in cities, a figure that exceeds the world average, making the country one of the most urbanized in the world[1456]
During his government and especially since 2014, there was a sharp drop in birth rates. Among other factors, the changes in the role of women stand out, with greater access to education and the labor market, better access to a university degree and the implementation of public policies such as Comprehensive Sexual Education (ESI) and the Federal Plan for the prevention of unintentional pregnancy in adolescence, which contributed to significantly reducing the number of mothers under 19 years of age.
The mortality rate fell to historic lows, while there was a drop in birth and fertility rates, especially thanks to greater access to contraceptive methods and the late onset of motherhood. Population growth was moderated by the decrease in the fertility rate, although partially compensated by the increase in Immigration to Argentina.
Ministries and Secretaries of State
On Wednesday, November 14, 2007, the cabinet of ministers for his first government was announced. Of the 12 elected, 7 already held positions in Néstor Kirchner's government and 5 assumed the ministerial portfolio for the first time.
In 2014, with the aim of reducing public spending, the possibility of public officials accumulating miles for themselves on trips made on official flights was eliminated.[1458] Likewise, a law was promoted to make it mandatory for magistrates and prosecutors to present sworn statements.
In 2010, the highest denomination $100 bill was redesigned with the face of Eva Perón, Argentine first lady and promoter of women's suffrage and the rights of women, children and the elderly.[1459] The design of Eva Duarte's bill was awarded by the international industry during the Second International Conference on High Security Impressions in Bogotá (Colombia).[1460] Different associations specialized in international nunimastics, included the 100 peso bill with the image of Eva Perón on the cover. Previously, when it had been awarded, Martyn White, president of the organizing entity, noted "the attractive aesthetics of the paper currency", saying that the note was "first class" and that its presentation was "integrated and comprehensive." He also referred to the "historical context of the matter with which the Argentine population could easily identify."[1461].
On April 2, 2014, at the commemoration event for the anniversary of the Falklands War, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner presented the $50 bill on the occasion of the anniversary of the Argentine claim on those islands, and in tribute to Gaucho Rivero, at the Casa Rosada[1460] The bill was designed in blue and light blue tones and shows off the outline of the islands and a cormorant, a typical bird of the coasts. Atlantic. On the reverse, there is the figure of Gaucho Rivero on horseback raising the Argentine flag. Rivero was a field laborer who led the uprising against the British occupation in the Falklands in 1833 "British occupation of the Malvinas Islands (1833)").[1462][1463][1464].
Months later, in June 2014, during the commemoration of the death of Manuel Belgrano, Cristina Kirchner presented the redesign of the $10 bill, focusing on Belgrano's life, also paying tribute to Juana Azurduy, Pedro Ríos (soldier known as Tambor de Tacuarí) and the soldiers who swore an oath to the Argentine flag for the first time on the banks of the Paraná River in Rosario "Rosario (Argentina)").[1465][1466].
In April 2015, the government created a commission of experts together with senators and national deputies with the aim of investigating the origin, evolution and irregularities in the taking of external debt since the beginning of the dictatorship in 1976. prosecutor.[1204]
In 2014 the government promoted
and achieved the sanction of the law that established the mandatory nature of the four-year court. The sanction of Law No. 27,045 favored an increase in enrollment and attendance rates. National regulations, which forced the State to expand the offer, allowed progress with the inclusion of the hard core of students who were still outside the system, achieving in a few years that Argentina 91% of 4-year-old children attend kindergarten, until the sanction of the law only 83% attended: since 2014 they joined 100,000 students. The increase in coverage was accompanied by a reduction in assistance gaps by socioeconomic level and by province. In parallel, national and provincial investment were essential to increase kindergarten coverage, especially in 4- and 3-year-old classrooms.
While 5-year-old children who are enrolled in school reached 98%. Law No. 27,045 also established that the provinces had to guarantee the universalization of the 3-room, coverage grew from 38% in 2014 before the Law to 53% a decade later.[1469][1470][1471].
The increase in attendance levels in grades 3 and 4 was driven by the expansion of educational offerings and strengthening through state investment in kindergarten teaching teams. Since 2014 there has been a marked increase in 3 room and multi section sections and the expansion of sections throughout the kindergarten. The law managed to incorporate more than 100 thousand new students and reducing by 60% the number of children who arrive in class 5 without having attended class 4.[1472][1473] By 2015, the school situation of those 5,376,316 boys and girls between 5 and 13 years old, 98.7 percent attended class regularly.[1474].
In 2008 he promoted the update of Law 25,188 passed during the government of Dr Carlos Menem on Ethics in the Exercise of Public Function, establishing that public officials cannot receive gifts, donations or gifts. This applies to any type of good, service or thing, whether delivered on the occasion of their position or on the occasion of their performance, which previously covered only the President, vice president, ministerial authorities, secretaries and undersecretaries, was extended to all national public officials.
Image of the Government and the opposition
His government was classified as center-left, social-democratic[1475]and Latin Americanist[1476]forming part of the pink tide, a trend of progressive governments in the Latin American region since the beginning of the 21st century that share a vision that emphasizes the improvement in income distribution, the granting of new civil rights - in several cases with a strong presence of the feminist movement -, the protection of the environment and a fundamental role of the State.[1477][1478]It was also classified as developmentalism[1479].
During his administration, the presidential image fluctuated.[1480] On Thursday, September 19, 2008, the editor-in-chief of Clarín Julio Blanck maintained that Kirchnerism was "a political corpse that only needed to be given a burial date." That same week, dictator Jorge Rafael Videla asked the military "58 to 68 years old, who are still physically fit to fight, to prepare to fight to combat" President Cristina (Kirchner) and his henchmen." Videla stated that "I did it for the honesty of my public and private conduct, but also for the prudence of my decisions that were not lacking in firmness."[1481] after that he called for a coup d'état against Cristina.[1482]while the opposition deputy Elisa Carrió denounced that Julio Cobos would be seeking to destabilize the government to be president[1483].
The opposition had reached high rates of negative image.[1484][1485] At the end of November 2008, Cristina Kirchner was the preferred candidate for Argentines ―according to a survey by Channel 26 "Canal 26 (Argentina)").[1486] A survey by the CEOP pollster published in November 2009 places the positive image of the president between 46% and 52%. %.[1484] The CEOP pollster in its report published in November 2009 placed the positive image of the president between 46% and 52%.[1484] By 2010 her positive image exceeded 70 percent.[1487] By 2013 she maintained a positive image of 63 percent.[1488][1489].
In 2009, Fernández de Kirchner was considered by Forbes magazine as the eleventh among the hundred most powerful women in the world.[1490][1491] She rose two more positions compared to the previous year, 2008.[1492] In 2015 she was ranked 16th in said ranking.[1493].
In March 2011, a survey by Ipsos-Mora and Araujo, published in the newspapers Perfil of Argentina and El Mundo "El Mundo (España)") of Spain, found Fernández with a 68% positive image. votes, accessing a second presidential term in the period 2011-2015, being the president elected with the highest percentage of votes since 1983.[1496][1497] and a historic advantage over the second classified, which reached more than 40 points of difference, the largest since the victory of President Juan Domingo Perón over the radical Ricardo Balbín, in 1973.[1498] Cristina Kirchner not only became the first re-elected female president, but also marked a milestone in terms of the highest number of votes since the return of democracy and one of the largest in Argentine history together with Hipólito Yrigoyen in 1928 (57.4%) and Juan Domingo Perón in 1946 (52.4), again in her re-election in 1951 (62.5%) and in 1973 after returning from exile (61.8%). The elections were marked by the strong difference in votes, since no opposition candidate obtained more than 20 percent of the votes, the socialist Binner lost in his province of Santa Fe and a sharp fall for Carrió, a former competitor, going from almost 22 points to less than two percent of the votes. life.[1500][1501][1502].
During the opening of the 2015 ordinary sessions of the National Congress of Argentina, on March 1, 2015, he gave a review of his government to the National Congress of Argentina.[1503][1504]That day, from the morning, citizens arrived at the Plaza del Congreso to accompany the speech despite the drizzle, 400 thousand people crowded into the Plaza del Congreso.[1505].
The end of his mandate, in 2015, represented the highest level of support for an outgoing president since the return of democracy in 1983, with a massive demonstration in his support and with 62% of positive image.[1506]
[1507][1508]
By 2019, after four years of ending her mandate, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner appeared in first place in the survey of the most influential Argentines according to the survey carried out by Giacobbe & Asociados.[1509][1510][1511]
[1512][1513].
The administration would end on December 10, 2015. As a gesture of cordiality, a week before leaving power he ordered beds of yellow flowers, the favorite color of his successor Mauricio Macri, to be planted in front of the presidential villa.[1514].
The afternoon before the end of his term, a crowd of 700,000 people gathered in the historic Plaza de Mayo to honor and bid farewell to the government. There he would give a speech around midnight.[1515] The citizens brought white lilies, the president's favorite flower, as a sign of gratitude.[1516] The speech was followed from various provinces by citizens who gathered in the main squares to listen to the speech.[1517] In his farewell before the crowd gathered in Plaza de Mayo, he highlighted actions of his government and asked citizens to take care of their obtained rights.[1518].
• - CasaRosada.gov.ar (portal of the Presidency of the Argentine Nation).
• - CIDOB.org (biography on the CIDOB foundation site).
• - Senator.gov.ar (biography of Fernández de Kirchner on the website of the Senate of the Argentine Nation).
[12] ↑ Ricardo González-Leandri et Elda González Martínez, « El triunfo de Cristina Kirchner y el futuro de la Argentina », Cahiers des Amériques latines.
[14] ↑ LA INDUSTRIA ARGENTINA EN LA POSCONVERTIBILIDAD: REACTIVACIÓN Y LEGADOS DEL NEOLIBERALISMO. Daniel Azpiazu, Martín Schorr Revista Latinoamericana de Economía 2010 número 41. 161.
[40] ↑ a b c d «Informe económico de coyuntura», artículo en la revista CPCECABA, n.º 272, marzo de 2007; publicado en el sitio web Consejo.org.ar. Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «#1» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes.: http://www.consejo.org.ar/frames/index_iec.htm
[56] ↑ Mercado de Capitales Federico Bünsow, Ed.La Ley, año 2012, página 35 ISBN: 9789870322412. Buenos Aires.
[57] ↑ Schenkel, Erica y Almeida, Fernando. (2015).La política turística y la intervención del Estado. El caso de Argentina. Revista Perfiles Latinoamericanos. 11/12FLACSO, México.
[58] ↑ Schenkel, Erica y Almeida, Fernando. (2015).La política turística y la intervención del Estado. El caso de Argentina. Revista Perfiles Latinoamericanos. Page 17 FLACSO, México.
[80] ↑ «Programa de Acceso al Crédito y Competitividad (PACC)». Casa Rosada. Presidencia de la Nación. 16 de junio de 2011. Archivado desde el original el 26 de febrero de 2018. Consultado el 25 de febrero de 2018. • Cámara de Diputados de la Nación (28 de noviembre de 2007). «125.º Periodo Legislativo Ordinario. 17.º Sesión Tablas. 29.º Reunión Expediente 2843-D-06.». Cámara de Diputados de la Nación. Archivado desde el original el 5 de octubre de 2012. Consultado el 17 de junio de 2009.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180226091819/https://www.casarosada.gob.ar/informacion/archivo/25176-programa-de-acceso-al-credito-y-competitividad-pacc-
[83] ↑ «Programas de Asistencia Financiera para PyMES». Secretaría de la Pequeña y Mediana Empresa y Desarrollo Regional. p. 10. Archivado desde el original el 16 de mayo de 2017. Consultado el 8 de junio de 2018.
[89] ↑ Jorge Remes Lenicov (2015). «La Inversión Externa Directa en América Latina y en el mundo». Observatorio de la Economía Mundial - Boletín N.º 21. Escuela de Economía y Negocios - Universidad Nacional de San Martín. p. 5.: http://www.unsam.edu.ar/escuelas/economia/oem/pdf/oem21.pdf
[99] ↑ «Anunciado por Cristina: oficializan nuevo programa de crédito para el sector productivo», artículo del 29 de abril de 2014 en el diario Ámbito (Buenos Aires).: http://www.ambito.com/noticia.asp?id=738750
[106] ↑ http://diarioepoca.com/192157/El-canje-de-deuda-tuvo-una-adhesion-del-97 «El canje de deuda tuvo una adhesión del 97 %. Cristina Kirchner dio detalles del canje voluntario de préstamos garantizados por 15 100 millones de pesos. Se alivian los vencimientos de deuda de este año y el próximo»], artículo en el diario Época del 29 de enero de 2009.: http://diarioepoca.com/192157/El-canje-de-deuda-tuvo-una-adhesion-del-97
[114] ↑ a b c d Calderón, Tulio (2017). «Una década de radares argentinos: reseña del desarrollo de los radares nacionales». En Dvorkin, Eduardo, ed. ¿Qué ciencia quiere el país?. Colihue.
[120] ↑ Richard Musgrave: Hacienda Pública teórica y aplicada, cit., t. IV, § 2, pág. 14. En su obra, Richard Musgrave cita al gasto público como un instrumento para aumentar la demanda agregada y conducir la economía al pleno empleo.
[121] ↑ a b Technology and Industrial Policies in Semi-peripheral environments: Public Production of Medicins in Argentina (2007-2015) Lautaro Zubeldía Centro de Estudios de Historia de la Ciencia y la Técnica, Escuela de Humanidades.
[132] ↑ Pujadas, M.F.; Castagna, A.I., Woelflin, M.L. (2016). Economías extra-pampeanas en una provincia pampeana: las cadenas algodonera y arrocera en Santa Fe. Revista Pampa. 2016. Pp. 55.
[134] ↑ Radiografía del sector lácteo en Argentina, Natalia Marín, Revista de la Bolsa de Comercio de Rosario. Edición N° 2101 - Especial Ganadería - 02 de Junio de 2015.
[136] ↑ Premici, Sebastián; y Dellatorre, Raúl (2014): «A la Mesa de Enlace no hay trigo que le venga bien», artículo acerca de los récords de cosechas, publicado el 15 de enero de 2014 en el diario Página/12 (Buenos Aires).: http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/economia/2-237773-2014-01-15.html
[145] ↑ Quiroga, Anabella, «Polleros, frigoríficos y lácteas, en contra de los cortes de ruta» Archivado el 5 de abril de 2008 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario Clarín (Buenos Aires), 2 de abril de 2008.: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/04/02/elpais/p-1641986.htm
[146] ↑ «El Mocase, entre la distancia y la lejanía». En la senda del Che, revista de la Juventud Guevarista. Consultado el 28 de marzo de 2008.: http://www.actividadesjg.wordpress.com
[150] ↑ «El Frente Nacional Campesino pidió una profunda transformación de las condiciones de producción. Los productores invisibles», artículo en el sitio web del Frente Nacional Campesino, 3 de junio de 2008.: http://www.fisyp.org.ar/modules/news/article.php?storyid=58
[152] ↑ «Martín Lousteau renunció al Ministerio de Economía», (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última). La Voz, 25 de abril de 2008.: http://www2.lavoz.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=183933
[155] ↑ INDEC. Cuentas nacionales. Producto Interno Bruto (PIB). Informes de prensa. Informe de Avance del Nivel de Actividad. Cuadro 4.1. Datos para el año 2007INDEC. Archivado el 21 de febrero de 2016 en Wayback Machine.: http://www.indec.mecon.ar/
[160] ↑ «Cobos: "Solo me sacarán muerto"» Archivado el 21 de febrero de 2009 en Wayback Machine., artículo del periodista Joaquín Morales Solá en el diario La Nación del 28 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1075087
[170] ↑ La política agraria en tiempos de la grieta: Argentina (2003-2019) Lattuada, Mario JoseIcon 2021 Editorial: Teseo; ISBN: 978-987-723-283-7 pp 102/103.
[192] ↑ «Según el Banco Mundial, Argentina duplicó su clase media entre 2003 y 2009». Diario La Nación. 13 de noviembre de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 1 de julio de 2014. Consultado el 24 de marzo de 2013. «La Argentina duplicó entre 2003 y 2009 su clase media y es el país latinoamericano con el mayor porcentaje de crecimiento de ese segmento de población, según un informe difundido hoy por el Banco Mundial.
[209] ↑ CARMONA, R. (2014). Instrumentación de políticas públicas en el contexto argentino reciente. Un balance en materia político-institucional y administrativa durante el período kirchnerista (2003-2012). Revista de Políticas Públicas UFMA, São Luís, 18, 33-44.
[210] ↑ CEPAL-UNICEF (2009). “Maltrato infantil: una dolorosa realidad puertas adentro”. Desafíos. Boletín de la Infancia y la Adolescencia sobre el avance de los objetivos del Milenio.
[225] ↑ “Cultura, política y movimiento estudiantil secundario en la Argentina. En Propuesta Educativa, N.º 35, p. 41. Argentina, Buenos Aires, FLACSO. 2011.
[229] ↑ a b Danani, Claudia y Susana Hintze (coord., 2014): Proteccio- nes y desprotecciones (II): problemas y debates de la Seguridad Social en la Argentina. UNGS. Buenos Aires.
[231] ↑ La Argentina y el Envejecimiento Poblacional -Connotaciones estratégicas para la educación, la economía y el desarrollo-. Centro Argentino de Estudios Internacionales (CAEI), Programa de Ciencia y Tecnología, Working Paper nº 2, Buenos Aires 2011 http://caei.com.ar/es/programas/cyt/02.pdf.: http://caei.com.ar/es/programas/cyt/02.pdf
[232] ↑ «Políticas Sociales del Bicentenario - Tomo I - Un Modelo Nacional y Popular». Ministerio de Desarrollo Social de la Nación Argentina. 13 de junio de 2013.: http://cdi.mecon.gov.ar/bases/docelec/az2086.pdf
[235] ↑ a b c La Gaceta. Ya son más de 600 las comunidades indígenas registradas en todo el paísCOMUNIDADES INDIGENAS, Ley 26.160Ley Nº 24.430 Archivado el 7 de mayo de 2017 en Wayback Machine. Resolución 587/2007 Creáse el Programa Nacional de "Relevamiento Territorial de Comunidades Indígenas - Ejecución de la Ley Nº 26.160". 25 de octubre de 2007.: http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/640774/sociedad/ya-son-mas-600-comunidades-indigenas-registradas-todo-pais.html
[244] ↑ Del trabajo al trabajo de la casa un análisis de la implementación del subprograma “Ellas Hacen” Agustín Torres Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina (CONICET) Economía social y solidaria y género: aportes transdisciplinarios 2020, ISBN 9788413363356, págs. 313.
[251] ↑ «Cristina Fernández de Kirchner ante el Congreso de la Nación Argentina en la apertura del período de sesiones ordinarias 2013» Archivado el 23 de septiembre de 2015 en Wayback Machine., artículo del 1 de marzo de 2013 en el sitio web oficial Casa Rosada (Buenos Aires). Consultado el 4 de agosto de 2013.
[267] ↑ Pontoni, G.; Filipetto, S. y Trajtemberg, D. (2016): “Dinámica del empleo y las relaciones laborales en la Argentina”. Revista La Maquila N°3, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad de Chile. Santiago de Chile, Chile.
[290] ↑ «Finalizó la entrega de los Alstom Metrópolis». EnElSubte.com. 3 de marzo de 2009. Consultado el 21 de febrero de 2014. «La última formación Metrópolis ha sido entregada la semana pasada luego de las pruebas dinámicas correspondientes, para su puesta en servicio comercial.».: http://www.enelsubte.com/noticias/finalizo-la-entrega-los-alstom-metropolis-143
[296] ↑ «Renuevan todos los vagones de líneas Sarmiento y San Martín». Ámbito financiero. 10 de enero de 2013. «Randazzo junto a la Presidenta anunciaron un plan para renovar los vagones del Mitre y Sarmiento». Ministerio del Interior y Transporte. 10 de enero de 2013. Archivado desde el original el 10 de junio de 2016. Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2016.: http://www.ambito.com/670918-renovaran-todos-los-vagones-de-lineas-sarmiento-y-san-martin
[297] ↑ «Randazzo anunció la compra de 300 coches 0 km para renovar de manera completa la línea Roca». Ministerio del Interior y Transporte. 23 de mayo de 2013. Archivado desde el original el 10 de junio de 2016. Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2016. *«Randazzo anunció la compra de 300 vagones para la línea Roca». La Nación. 23 de mayo de 2013. Archivado desde el original el 12 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 2 de octubre de 2016.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160610065558/http://www.mininterior.gov.ar/prensa/prensa.php?i=1569
[336] ↑ «Ley 26466 - TRANSPORTE AEROCOMERCIAL - ACCIONES DE AEROLINEAS ARGENTINAS SA Y AUSTRAL LINEAS AEREAS CIELOS DEL SUR SA». Presidencia de la Nación Argentina. 22 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 9 de agosto de 2020.: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/normativa/nacional/ley-26466-148723
[337] ↑ EXÁMEN ESPECIAL LEY Nº 26.412 | AEROLÍNEAS ARGENTINAS S.A. - AUSTRAL LÍNEAS AÉREAS S.A. - CIELOS DEL SUR S.A. (PDF). Auditoría General de la Nación. 11 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 10 de agosto de 2020.: https://www.agn.gob.ar/sites/default/files/informes/2008_215info_0.pdf
[342] ↑ http://hostnews.com.ar/index.php/news/9968/16/Los-Nuevos-Airbus-A-330-200-de-Aerolineas- (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).
[410] ↑ a b «Cristina promulgó la ley Guinle de energías renovables». El diario de Madryn. 22 de octubre de 2015. Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «Cristina promulgó la ley Guinle de energías renovables» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes.: http://eldiariodemadryn.com/2015/10/cristina-promulgo-la-ley-guinle-de-energias-renovables/
[423] ↑ Viviana Pastor (2 de enero de 2012). «San Juan, capital de la energía solar». Tiempo de San Juan. • «San Juan será la mayor fuente de energía solar de América Latina». Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2012. • «Nueva planta solar fotovoltaica en San Juan». e>renova. INTI - Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial. Mayo de 2011. Archivado desde el original el 12 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 11 de julio de 2018.: https://www.tiempodesanjuan.com/sanjuan/2012/1/2/juan-capital-energia-solar-4238.html
[462] ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas Sin-nombre-p37g-1.
[463] ↑ Reyna, S.; Reyna, T.; Fulginitti, F.; Lábaque, M; Gióvine, L; Toselli, L. (noviembre de 2010). «Sistema Cóndor Cliff - La Barrancosa: diseño de presas y operación de embalses ajustados por condicionantes ambientales» (pdf). Neuquén. Consultado el 24 de abril de 2013. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://www.cadp.org.ar/docs/congresos/2010/51.pdf
[491] ↑ «Ingresó a Diputados el Decreto de Necesidad y Urgencia que dispone la intervención de YPF». Télam - Agencia Nacional de Noticias. 16 de abril de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 13 de noviembre de 2013. Consultado el 5 de enero de 2013.: https://web.archive.org/web/20131113224231/http://www.telam.com.ar/nota/22075/
[498] ↑ «Argentina's energy industry: Fill 'er up». The Economist (Londres). 19 de abril de 2012. Consultado el 15 de julio de 2025.: http://www.economist.com/node/21553070
[519] ↑ «¿Qué es el Programa de Estímulo al Pequeño Productor de Granos?». Ministerio de Economía y Finanzas Públicas - Secretaría de Comercio. Marzo de 2015. Archivado desde el original el 10 de julio de 2015.
[520] ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas peppg.
[533] ↑ Javier Disparti (24 de abril de 2013). «Inauguran obras hídricas en Junín e impulsan una bodega para contratistas». Este Online (Mendoza).: https://www.esteonline.com.ar/nota_5480.php
[546] ↑ «Microcentral hidráulica Salto de la Loma». SIEyE, Servicios de Ingeniería Eléctrica y Electromecánica. «Provincia de San Juan, cuenca del río Jáchal». Página de la Secretaría de Minería de la Nación Argentina. Archivado desde el original el 18 de abril de 2009.: http://www.sieye.com.ar/microcentral-hidraulica-salto-de-la-loma.html
[549] ↑ «El DPA finalizó trabajos en el Canal Principal de Río Colorado». Departamento Provincial de Aguas - Río Negro. 25 de agosto de 2014.: http://www.rionegro.gov.ar/?contID=17520
[569] ↑ Gobernanza del agua en América del Sur: dimensión ambiental, Alejandro Iza y Marta Della Rovere ISBN: 978-2-8317-0814-0 Unión Mundial para la Naturaleza, Departamento de Publicaciones – Facultad de Derecho de l universidad de Buenos AiresEditores del Puerto s.r.l.2014.
[577] ↑ «Ley de presupuestos mínimos para la protección de los glaciares y del ambiente periglacial» Archivado el 29 de agosto de 2019 en Wayback Machine., de la Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación.: http://www1.hcdn.gov.ar/dependencias/dsecretaria/Leyes/26418.pdf
[580] ↑ «Texto Ley 26631 de Presupuestos Mínimos de Protección Ambiental de los Bosques Nativos» (web). Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable. 2011. Archivado desde el original el 3 de septiembre de 2011. Consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011.
[585] ↑ Viviana Pastor (2 de enero de 2012). «San Juan, capital de la energía solar». Tiempo de San Juan. • «San Juan será la mayor fuente de energía solar de América Latina». Archivado desde el original el 21 de enero de 2012. • «Nueva planta solar fotovoltaica en San Juan». e>renova. INTI - Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Industrial. Mayo de 2011. Archivado desde el original el 12 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 11 de julio de 2018.: https://www.tiempodesanjuan.com/sanjuan/2012/1/2/juan-capital-energia-solar-4238.html
[599] ↑ Reserva nacional Pizarro Archivado el 4 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine. Página oficial (consultada el 10 de noviembre de 2015).: http://www.pizarro.gov.ar/
[626] ↑ Bueno, María del Pilar (2010). "Política exterior y medio ambiente en la Argentina. La influencia de los actores subnacionales y no estatales en la toma de decisiones entre 1989 y 2019", Universidad Nacional de Rosario.
[633] ↑ «Datos de los Sorteos». Administración Nacional de la Seguridad Social. 25 de enero de 2013. Consultado el 29 de enero de 2013.: http://procrear.anses.gob.ar/sorteo
[637] ↑ Presentación del proyecto de presupuesto para el año 2013 Archivado el 8 de abril de 2014 en Wayback Machine., del 14 de septiembre de 2012; publicado en el sitio web Parlamentario.com (Buenos Aires). Muestra el crecimiento del presupuesto en educación.: http://www.parlamentario.com/bank/uploads/0015-JGM-2012.pdf
[660] ↑ a b Flavia Terigi (Diciembre de 2016). «Políticas públicas en Educación tras doce años de gobierno de Néstor Kirchner y Cristina Fernández». Análisis (16). Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES). ISBN 978-987-46367-5-1.: http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/argentinien/13019.pdf
[688] ↑ UNICEF (Fondo de las Naciones Unidas para la Infancia) (2016), Estado mundial de la infancia 2015. La adolescencia. Una época de oportunidades, Nueva York: UNICEF. Tabla 11- Adolescentes -pag. 132.
[689] ↑ Situación de los y las adolescentes en la Argentina, Programa Nacional de la Salud Integral en la Adolescencia, UNICEF 2016, p. 37.
[692] ↑ «Cristina inaugura ciclo lectivo en Universidad de Avellaneda» Archivado el 26 de septiembre de 2013 en Wayback Machine., artículo anónimo del 29 de marzo de un año no especificado, en el sitio web Impulso Buenos Aires.: http://www.impulsobaires.com.ar/nota.php?id=113022
[693] ↑ «Inauguración de la Universidad de José C. Paz» Archivado el 17 de octubre de 2015 en Wayback Machine., discurso pronunciado por Cristina Fernández el 1 de octubre del 2010; publicado en el sitio web de la Casa Rosada (Buenos Aires).: http://www.casarosada.gob.ar/informacion/discursos/22684-blank-91624061
[697] ↑ «Ley de implementación efectiva de la responsabilidad del estado en el nivel de educación superior». Argentina.gob.ar. Consultado el 24 de agosto de 2020.: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/
[707] ↑ a b «Cristina anunció subas en planes para estudios». Ámbito Financiero. 12 de marzo de 2015. Consultado el 14 de marzo de 2015.: http://www.ambito.com/noticia.asp?id=782416
[709] ↑ «Entrega de becas Bec.Ar para posgrados en el extranjero» (web). cfkargentina.com. 2013. Consultado el 29 de julio de 2013.: http://www.cfkargentina.com/becar-posgrados/
[724] ↑ «La inauguración del Planetario marca un hito trascendente para la Ciudad». La Plata, Argentina: Diario El Día. 2013. Consultado el 30 de mayo de 2019. • universidad nacional de san martin archivoarq.clarin.com• Obras del pasado con vida nueva Archivado el 5 de marzo de 2018 en Wayback Machine. clarin.com, 24 OCT 2006• Lógica Material revista866.com.ar, 3 de julio de 2013.: https://www.eldia.com/nota/2013-3-16-la-inauguracion-del-planetario-marca-un-hito-trascendente-para-la-ciudad
[750] ↑ Ministerio de Salud de la Nación (Agosto de 2018). «5 Años de Implementación del Programa Nacional de Cardiopatías Congénitas integrado en el modelo de gestión del Programa SUMAR. Recorridos y aprendizajes de una política de articulación nacional». Sistema de Información de Tendencias Educativas en América Latina. Consultado el 17 de abril de 2023.: https://siteal.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/sit_accion_files/siteal_argentina_0900.pdf
[754] ↑ a b Social Epidemiology of Dengue in Argentina. Ocampo Mallou, Carolina Folguera, Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales Ecuador, ISSN: 1390-6631.
[755] ↑ a b Geographical Limits of the Southeastern Distribution of Aedes aegypti in Argentina, Díaz Nieto, Leonardo Martín Andrade, Public Library of Science, 2013 ISSN: 1885-7388.
[786] ↑ La salud bucal en la República Argentina. Análisis del sector, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, facultad de odontología Vol. 38 Núm. 80 (2019).
[799] ↑ ANDRIOTTI ROMANIN, E. Actores, Estado y políticas públicas reparatorias en relación al terrorismo de Estado en Argentina (2003-2007). Sudamérica, Mar del Plata, n. 4, p. 131, 2015.
[806] ↑ La orden de liberar a los procesados en la megacausa ESMA fue tomada por la Sala II de la Cámara de Casación Penal mediante las decisiones registradas bajo los números 13.684, 13.685, 13.686, 13.722 y 13.726. «Buscador de fallos. Fallos de la Cámara Nacional de Casación Penal del 17 y 18 de diciembre de 2008». Centro de Información Judicial. dic-2008. Consultado el 25 de julio de 2009. • «Ordenan liberar a Astiz, Acosta y a otros represores de la ESMA». Clarín. 19 de diciembre de 2008. Archivado desde el original el 8 de marzo de 2009. Consultado el 25 de julio de 2009.: http://www.cij.gov.ar/fallos-destacados.html
[807] ↑ «'Es un día de vergüenza para los argentinos'. Duro cuestionamiento de la presidenta a la decisión judicial». La Nación. 19 de diciembre de 2008. Consultado el 25 de julio de 2009.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1082340
[809] ↑ «El fallo de Casación es una cachetada en cada mejilla del pueblo argentino» Archivado el 8 de marzo de 2009 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario La Nación del 19 de diciembre de 2008; consultado el 25 de julio de 2009.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1082428
[811] ↑ a b «La Corte ordenó agilizar juicios por violaciones a los derechos humanos» Archivado el 30 de diciembre de 2008 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario Crítica de la Argentina del 29 de diciembre de 2008.: http://criticadigital.com/index.php?secc=nota&nid=16385
[833] ↑ a b «Los travestis vestirán uniformes femeninos en las Fuerzas de Seguridad». La Gaceta de Tucumán. 30 de noviembre de 2011. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2012.: http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/467493/tucumanos/
[845] ↑ «Ministerio de Salud Resolución 1507/2015». Consultado el 15 de mayo de 2017.
[846] ↑ «Ministerio de Salud Resolución 1507/2015». Consultado el 15 de mayo de 2017. • «Desde hoy, los homosexuales podrán donar sangre». 16 de septiembre de 2015. Consultado el 15 de mayo de 2017.: https://www.boletinoficial.gob.ar/#!DetalleNorma/132941/20150918
[849] ↑ «Estudio Nacional sobre Violencias contra las mujeres». Dirección Nacional de Política Criminal en Materia de Justicia y Legislación Penal. También lo hizo con respecto a las enunciaciones de los organismos internacionales, categorizándola como “toda conducta, acción u omisión, que de manera directa o indirecta, tanto en el ámbito público como en el privado, basada en una relación desigual de poder, afecte su vida, libertad, dignidad, integridad física, psicológica, sexual, económica o patrimonial, como así también su seguridad personal”.: http://www.jus.gob.ar/media/3128472/Encuesta%20de%20violencias%20contra%20las%20mujeres%20-%20FINAL%2026-10.pdf
[851] ↑ «Ley de protección integral para prevenir, sancionar y erradicar la violencia contra las mujeres en los ámbitos en que desarrollen sus relaciones interpersonales». Organización de los Estados Americanos. 1 de abril de 2009. Consultado el 10 de marzo de 2019.: https://www.oas.org/dil/esp/Ley_de_Proteccion_Integral_de_Mujeres_Argentina.pdf
[859] ↑ Busso, Anabella. «The axes of Cristina Fernández´s external action: changes towards a new horizon or changes to consolidate the course?». Revista de relaciones Internacionales n.º 50/2016 1 (140): 140.
[860] ↑ Protección integral a las mujeres en Argentina: de 1944 a la ley 26.485, Yuba, Gabriela Elena I. Pag 102 Editorial Rubial- Culzoni, 978-987-30-2248-7.
[877] ↑ KEMELMAJER de CARLUCCI, Aída R., "El derecho de familia en la República Argentina en los inicios del siglo XXI. Su inexorable proceso de constitucionalización y adecuación a los tratados internacionales de derechos humanos", Revista de Derecho Comparado, Derecho de Familia-II, nro. 10, Ed. Rubinzal-Culzoni, Buenos Aires, 2015. ISSN : 2341-2216.
[878] ↑ Zaffaroni R: Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación Comentado, Tomo IV, arts. 594 a 723, Rubinzal Culzoni Editores, Santa Fe, 2015, pág 39.
[880] ↑ Nejamkis, L. (2016). Políticas migratorias en la Argentina 1976-2010. De la “Doctrina de Seguridad Nacional” a la consolidación del Derecho Humano a la migración. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Prometeo.
[881] ↑ Kollmann, Raúl (9 de febrero de 2009). «En los últimos tres años, 700 000 personas pidieron la residencia. Desde Paraguay y Bolivia, y también de Estados Unidos». Página/12. Consultado el 9 de febrero de 2009.: http://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-119729-2009-02-09.html
[882] ↑ Varios (2002). Los trabajadores y las trabajadores migrantes (Educación Obrera N.º 129 edición). Ginebra: Organización Internacional del Trabajo.
[890] ↑ a b Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas DI.
[891] ↑ Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; no se ha definido el contenido de las referencias llamadas Benetton-Cué.
[892] ↑ Rodríguez Duch, Juan Manuel; García Laroca, Manuela; Garriga Olmo, Santiago; Aranguren, Luciano (2017). «Apuntes sobre propiedad comunitaria indígena». XVI Jornadas Interescuelas/Departamentos de Historia. Editorial Universitaria de la Patagonia. p. 44. - [http://www.uba.ar/archivos_ddhh/image/DOSSIER%20PROPIEDAD%20COMUNITARIA%20INDIGENA%20(Final).pdf](http://www.uba.ar/archivos_ddhh/image/DOSSIER%20PROPIEDAD%20COMUNITARIA%20INDIGENA%20(Final).pdf)
[895] ↑ Carolina Crespo Tiempos de Reparación. Reflexiones sobre las políticas de restitución de ancestros indígenas en la Patagonia Argentina,Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas Universidad de Buenos Aires. Instituto de Ciencias Antropológicas Buenos Aires, Argentina 000-0002-1186-1290.
[899] ↑ Endere, Martin. Entre Lonkos y ‘ólogos.’ La participación de la comunidad indígena rankülche de Argentina en la investigación arqueológica. Arqueología Suramericana 2, 71.
[917] ↑ BERGEL, Salvador (2015). Derechos y actos personalísimos: la inclusión de los temas bioéticos. En BERGEL, S.; FLAH, L.; HERRERA, M.; LAMM, E.; WIERZBA, S., Bioética en el Código Civil y Comercial. Buenos Aires.
[918] ↑ «BOLETIN OFICIAL REPUBLICA ARGENTINA - CENTRO INTERNACIONAL PARA LA PROMOCIÓN DE LOS DERECHOS HUMANOS - Decreto 578/2023». www.boletinoficial.gob.ar. Consultado el 18 de julio de 2025.: https://www.boletinoficial.gob.ar/detalleAviso/primera/297817
[922] ↑ Malvinas, Soberanía y Memoria: Los debates sobre la identificación de cuerpos en el Cementerio de Darwin y las identidades en disputa de los veteranos de guerra y los caídos en combate.: https://cdsa.aacademica.org/000-019/754.pdf
[926] ↑ «Reelaboran los pliegos para concursos públicos para la televisión digital abierta». Agencia de Noticias Télam. 24 de julio de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 28 de julio de 2012. Consultado el 1 de septiembre de 2012.: https://web.archive.org/web/20120728043626/http://telam.com.ar/nota/32703
[945] ↑ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1723503-confirman-el-apagon-de-la-tv-analogica-argentina-para-2019 Archivado el 16 de noviembre de 2018 en Wayback Machine. • «Televisión digital abierta – Arsat». www.arsat.com.ar. Archivado desde el original el 17 de julio de 2017. Consultado el 24 de julio de 2017.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1723503-confirman-el-apagon-de-la-tv-analogica-argentina-para-2019
[947] ↑ «Convenio OEI - Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios I». Archivado desde el original el 24 de noviembre de 2015. Consultado el 3 de marzo de 2018. • «Convenio OEI - Ministerio de Planificación Federal, Inversión Pública y Servicios II». Archivado desde el original el 24 de noviembre de 2015. Consultado el 3 de marzo de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20151124163946/http://www.oei.org.ar/forms/contratacion/documentos/LPN_04_2013.pdf
[959] ↑ Informe de la web oficial de Reporteros sin fronteras. Archivado el 23 de octubre de 2010 en Wayback Machine. Consultado el 26 de febrero de 2011. • Diario Tiempo Argentino: Elogios para la Argentina y críticas al Grupo Clarín. Archivado el 1 de marzo de 2011 en Wayback Machine. Consultado el 26 de febrero de 2011.: http://es.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html
[960] ↑ a b c Poder Ejecutivo Nacional (11 de septiembre de 2009). «Proyecto de Ley 0025-PE-2009». Cámara de Diputados de la Nación Argentina. Archivado desde el original el 7 de octubre de 2009. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009. «Cristina envió un proyecto para despenalizar calumnias e injurias» Archivado el 15 de septiembre de 2009 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el diario Clarín del 12 de septiembre de 2009; consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009.: https://web.archive.org/web/20091007043418/http://www1.hcdn.gov.ar/dependencias/dsecretaria/Periodo2009/PDF2009/TP2009/0025-PE-09.pdf
[961] ↑ Código Penal, Art. 112 (antes de su derogación): «El reo de calumnia o injuria equívoca o encubierta que rehusare dar en juicio explicaciones satisfactorias sobre ella, sufrirá del mínimum a la mitad de la pena correspondiente a la calumnia o injuria manifiesta».
[963] ↑ Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Nación Argentina. Fallos 314:1517.
[964] ↑ Cámara de Diputados de la Nación Argentina (28 de octubre de 2009). «Media sanción del proyecto de Ley 0025-PE-2009». Cámara de Diputados de la Nación Argentina. Archivado desde el original el 29 de diciembre de 2009. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009.
[965] ↑ «Diputados aprobó la despenalización de calumnias e injurias». La Nación. 28 de octubre de 2009. Consultado el 21 de noviembre de 2009.
[972] ↑ «El Senado Nacional convirtió en Ley el proyecto que declara de interés público la fabricación, comercialización y distribución de papel para diarios y además ratificó el marco que regula la norma». ARBIA - Asociación de Radiodifusoras Bonaerenses y del Interior de la República Argentina. 22 de diciembre de 2011.: http://www.arbia.org.ar/nov-detalle.php?nov=1125&Papel_para_diarios_es_Ley
[978] ↑ [https://web.archive.org/web/20090130121926/http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/11/15/um/m-01803397.htm Archivado el 30 de enero de 2009 en Wayback Machine. Inauguraron en Mendoza el observatorio de rayos cósmicos más grande del mundo, Diario Clarín 11 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/11/15/um/m-01803397.htm
[982] ↑ «Se presentó a la científica repatriada 1000», artículo del 7 octubre de 2013 publicado originalmente en el sitio web Raíces, del Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología (Buenos Aires). Desde diciembre de 2015, el sitio ha sido prácticamente desmantelado, aunque sus páginas borradas pueden encontrarse en el sitio web Archive (Islandia).: https://archive.today/20140209174733/http://www.raices.mincyt.gov.ar/noti_repatriada1000.htm
[983] ↑ «Retrocede la fuga de cerebros argentinos: el retorno al país de científicos argentinos como política de Estado», artículo de 2010, publicado en el sitio web de la OEI (Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos).: http://www.oei.es/divulgacioncientifica/reportajes_487.htm
[984] ↑ «Ley 25.922 - LEY DE PROMOCION DE LA INDUSTRIA DEL SOFTWARE - Definición, ámbito de aplicación y alcances. Tratamiento fiscal para el sector. Importaciones. Fondo Fiduciario de Promoción de la Industria del Software (FONSOFT). Infracciones y sanciones. Disposiciones generales».: http://www.agencia.mincyt.gob.ar/upload/ley_25922-2.pdf
[1002] ↑ «Desde 2004, el presupuesto del Conicet aumentó un 600%» Archivado el 9 de diciembre de 2011 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el sitio web Argentina.ar; consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011. • «Ciencia y tecnología: una inversión fundamental», artículo en el sitio web Argentina.ar; consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011.• «Desde 2007, el presupuesto de la CNEA aumentó más del 750%», artículo en el sitio web de la Cnea; consultado el 26 de agosto de 2011.• «Ya suman 768 los científicos repatriados» Archivado el 5 de octubre de 2011 en Wayback Machine., artículo en el sitio web Argentina.ar; consultado el 6 de octubre de 2011.: http://www.argentina.ar/_es/ciencia-y-educacion/C7868-el-conicet-aumento-su-presupuesto-600-por-ciento-desde-2004.php
[1014] ↑ a b «El Jefe de Proyecto del Arsat 1 explicó que la Argentina está en el grupo de ocho países que desarrollan satélites de telecomunicaciones». LRA Radio Nacional. 26 de agosto de 2014. Consultado el 30 de agosto de 2014. • «PRIMEROS SATÉLITES NACIONALES DE COMUNICACIONES, UN PROYECTO DE ARSAT E INVAP». minplan.gob.ar. Archivado desde el original el 6 de junio de 2013.: http://www.radionacional.com.ar/?p=24749
[1018] ↑ «El jefe de proyecto del Arsat 1 explicó que la Argentina está en el grupo de ocho países que desarrollan satélites de telecomunicaciones». LRA Radio Nacional. 26 de agosto de 2014. Consultado el 30 de agosto de 2014.: http://www.radionacional.com.ar/?p=24749
[1040] ↑ a b c «El Museo del Bicentenario que inauguró CFK». Diario Perfil. 24 de mayo de 2011 de 2011. Consultado el 20 de noviembre. Error en la cita: Etiqueta <ref> no válida; el nombre «perfil» está definido varias veces con contenidos diferentes.: http://www.perfil.com/contenidos/2011/05/24/noticia_0040.html
[1058] ↑ Sirven (17 DE JULIO DE 2011). «¿Por qué los actores quieren a Cristina?». La Nación. • «Otro empujón para el cine argentino». Página 12. 7 DE JUNIO DE 2014. • «Cristina defendió la ley del doblaje de películas extranjeras». Diario Popular. 17 de julio de 2013.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1390124-por-que-los-actores-quieren-a-cristina
[1059] ↑ Neveleff, Julio (2013). Historia del Festival Internacional de Cine de Mar del Plata. Volumen 1. Corregidor. ISBN 9789500520850.
[1063] ↑ La inauguración de una nueva sede de Radio Nacional en la provincia del Neuquén, artículo en el sitio web Radio Nacional (Buenos Aires).: http://www.radionacional.com.ar/?p=54081
[1075] ↑ «Concluyen las obras en el Salón Azul». El Parlamentario. 26 de septiembre de 2011. • Sergio Kiernan (9 de junio de 2012). «Un plan para el Congreso». Página/12. • «Ingeniería firmó un convenio para la restauración del Congreso». Diagonales (La Plata). 8 de junio de 2010. Archivado desde el original el 8 de agosto de 2014. Consultado el 9 de junio de 2018.: http://www.parlamentario.com/noticia-39583.html
[1108] ↑ chenkel, Erica y Almeida, Fernando. (2015).La política turística y la intervención del Estado. El caso de Argentina. Revista Perfiles Latinoamericanos. FLACSO, México.
[1111] ↑ «Argentina es el sexto país del mundo con mayor crecimiento en llegada de turistas entre enero y agosto del 2014, triplicando el incremento de la media mundial» Archivado el 14 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine., artículo del 25 de noviembre de 2014 en el sitio web Mensajero Web.: http://mensajeroweb.com.ar/post/44815/un-top-ten-que-enorgullece.html
[1130] ↑ «Claudio Morresi: “El deporte no es entretenimiento y negocio, es una herramienta más para el desarrollo humano”». Facultad de Periodismo y Comunicación Social de la Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Archivado desde el original el 20 de junio de 2018. Consultado el 11 de febrero de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20180620001741/http://perio.unlp.edu.ar/node/5651
[1136] ↑ «Georgina Bardach y otro logro: pileta olímpica para Córdoba». DXRV. 24 de octubre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 21 de agosto de 2016. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018. ; «Comenzó el Campeonato Nacional en la nueva pileta olímpica del Kempes». Gobierno de Córdoba. 13 de diciembre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 16 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160821052748/http://dxtv.gob.ar/noticias/georgina-bardach-y-otro-laurel-mas-pileta-olimpica-para-cordoba/
[1145] ↑ «Georgina Bardach y otro logro: pileta olímpica para Córdoba». DXRV. 24 de octubre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 21 de agosto de 2016. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018. ; «Comenzó el Campeonato Nacional en la nueva pileta olímpica del Kempes». Gobierno de Córdoba. 13 de diciembre de 2014. Archivado desde el original el 16 de septiembre de 2018. Consultado el 15 de septiembre de 2018.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160821052748/http://dxtv.gob.ar/noticias/georgina-bardach-y-otro-laurel-mas-pileta-olimpica-para-cordoba/
[1148] ↑ «Remo. 'Es un sueño hecho realidad'». Club Náutico Zárate. 2011. Archivado desde el original el 22 de agosto de 2016. Consultado el 20 de agosto de 2016. «María Laura Ábalo describió: “Se compraron catorce botes alemanes de última generación para las catorce pruebas, cada uno tiene el suyo. Antes, nosotras remábamos en botes de varones de 90 kilos que nos quedaban enormes. Ahora utilizamos los que son específicamente para mujeres, de un peso de entre 65 y 75 kilos. En Río, en donde logré la medalla de bronce, competimos con un bote que pesaba 89, quince kilos más de lo normal”.».: https://web.archive.org/web/20160822120345/http://www.clubnauticozarate.com.ar/remo/%E2%80%9Ces-un-sueno-hecho-realidad%E2%80%9D/
[1164] ↑ «Conocé los seis proyectos para la reforma judicial que propone Cristina». La Voz del Interior. 8 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013. • «Primer paso hacia la reforma del Poder Judicial». Diario Página/12. 11 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013.
[1165] ↑ «Cristina presentó la reforma judicial». La Mañana de Neuquén. 9 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013. • «Cristina presentó su plan de reforma judicial». Diario Río Negro. 9 de abril de 2013. Consultado el 25 de abril de 2013.
[1174] ↑ D'Elia, Vanesa Valeria (2009). «Determinantes del traspaso de los afiliados a capitalización al régimen previsional de reparto: evidencia para la Argentina». Revista Internacional de Seguridad Social 62 ISSN 1752-1734.
[1176] ↑ Tullio, Alejandro; Álvarez Travieso, María Florencia (2015). El desafío de la reforma política: reglas que cambian el juego electoral (1ª edición). Prometeo Libros. ISBN 9789875747357.
[1183] ↑ AN aprobó bajar de 18 a 16 años edad para votar Archivado el 3 de octubre de 2008 en Wayback Machine., FM Center, 11 de octubre de 2007.: http://www.fmcenteresnoticia.com.ve/node/1912
[1189] ↑ El federalismo electoral argentino. Sobrerrepresentación, reforma política y gobierno dividido en la Argentina, con Ernesto Calvo (comps.). EUDEBA, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 2001. ISBN 9502311736. Pp. 278.
[1204] ↑ a b LPO. «Echegaray ganó un premio internacional de lucha contra la evasión». www.lapoliticaonline.com. Consultado el 12 de marzo de 2018.: http://www.lapoliticaonline.com/nota/92932/
[1237] ↑ «Garré creó las mesas barriales y zonales para controlar a la Federal». Zona Policial. 11 de junio de 2011. Consultado el 4 de julio de 2012. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://www.zonapolicial.com.ar/ver_noticias.php?id_nota=256
[1241] ↑ «Garré inauguró Nuevo Centro de Monitoreo en Balvanera». Ministerio de Seguridad. 26 de abril de 2012. Consultado el 20 de agosto de 2012. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://m.minseg.gob.ar/garré-inauguró-nuevo-centro-de-monitoreo-en-balvanera
[1258] ↑ «Los militares lucharán contra el narcotráfico» Archivado el 31 de enero de 2018 en Wayback Machine., artículo del 21 de julio de 2011 en el diario La Nación (Buenos Aires). Consultado el 1 de julio de 2012• «Operativo Escudo Norte» Archivado el 4 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine., artículo publicado en el sitio web del Ministerio de Seguridad. Consultado el 1 de julio de 2012.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1391188-cont-militares-contra-el-narcotrafico
[1279] ↑ «Histórico: Garré designó mujeres al mando de Comisarías de la Federal». Zona Policial. 2 de junio de 2011. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2012. (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial, la primera versión y la última).: http://www.zonapolicial.com.ar/ver_noticias.php?id_nota=238
[1284] ↑ «Los travestis vestirán uniformes femeninos en las Fuerzas de Seguridad». La Gaceta de Tucumán. 30 de noviembre de 2011. Consultado el 30 de julio de 2012.: http://www.lagaceta.com.ar/nota/467493/tucumanos/
[1296] ↑ «La Presidenta presentó el SIBIOS». Políticos Online. 7 de noviembre de 2011. Consultado el 5 de septiembre de 2012.: http://www.politicosonline.com/link/46054
[1304] ↑ a b «Programa Nacional de Rescate y Acompañamiento a las Personas Damnificadas por el Delito de Trata». Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos.: http://www.jus.gob.ar/noalatrata.aspx
[1314] ↑ Gottero, Laura (enero-junio de 2015). «Construcciones y alcances del derecho Plan Nacional de Acción en Derechos Humanosprioridades de agenda y lineamientos de política pública desde un enfoque de derechos humanos». Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (92): 167-192. Consultado el 13 de mayo de 2025.: https://www.corteidh.or.cr/tablas/r39665.pdf
[1316] ↑ DAMARCO, J. (2013). El delito de lavado de activos provenientes de delitos y su relación con algunos aspectos fiscales. Revista de Tributación. Asociación Argentina de Estudios Fiscales.
[1317] ↑ FERNANDEZ, J. R. (2009). Lavado de dinero, paraísos fiscales y secreto bancario.XIX Encuentro Anual Internacional de Administraciones Tributarias. Instituto de las Finanzas Públicas Argentinas. Buenos Aires: Revista Criterios Tributarios N.º 157.
[1319] ↑ BURKÚN, M. E. (2009). Las nuevas formas de control del fraude fiscal en la globalización. Documento presentado en el XIX Encuentro Anual Internacional de Administraciones Tributarias. Instituto de las Finanzas Públicas Argentinas. Buenos Aires: Revista Criterios Tributarios N° 157.
[1330] ↑ a b La modernización del sistema de Defensa en la Argentina del control civil de las fuerzas Armadas al gobierno político del sector IVÁN POCZYNOK, RAMIRO CORTESE UBACYT (2016).
[1332] ↑ a b Diamint, Ruth (2012), La institucionalidad democrática de la Defensa, Atlas Comparativo de la Defensa en América Latina y Caribe, RESDAL, Buenos Aires.
[1335] ↑ Ciudadanización y profesionalización militar. La reforma del sistema de justicia y disciplina de las Fuerzas Armadas. Argentina, 2006-2008, Germán Soprano.Revista Historia y Justicia [En línea], 6 | 2016, Publicado el 30 abril 2016, p 3.
[1336] ↑ Ugarte, Juan Manuel (2012), La política de Defensa argentina actual: del fortalecimiento normativo institucional a la construcción de una capacidad de Defensa eficaz en el marco de la cooperación regional, trabajo presentado en las VII Jornadas de Sociología, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Buenos Aires.
[1339] ↑ Matías Bailone, “El Código de Justicia Militar en la Argentina: crónica de una muerte anunciada”, Urbe et Ius, Revista de Opinión Jurídica, Newsletter nº 25, 2008, p. 5.
[1344] ↑ Gallo, Daniel. “La reparación de un buque único” Archivado el 21 de agosto de 2011 en Wayback Machine., La Nación, Buenos Aires, 29 de mayo de 2011.• https://www.infodefensa.com/latam/2009/08/29/noticia-la-fuerza-aerea-argentina-incorpora-tres-nuevos-saab-340.html.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1377180-la-reparacion-de-un-buque-unico
[1360] ↑ «Marcha atrás en otra privatización. Reestatizan una fábrica de aviones» Archivado el 22 de marzo de 2009 en Wayback Machine., La Nación, 18 de marzo de 2009.: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1109695
[1403] ↑ Malvinas, nación e identidad en los discursos de Néstor Kirchner”. Jorge Arriaga, Revista Contemporánea: historia y problemas del siglo XX vol. 10, núm. 10, 2019, págs. 131.
[1452] ↑ CORIGLIANO, F. (2008). Híbridos teóricos y su impacto en la política exterior: El caso de los gobiernos de Néstor y Cristina Kirchner, en Boletín ISIAE, 47, CARI, Buenos Aires.
[1453] ↑ «El límite más extenso de la Argentina y nuestra frontera con la humanidad». COPLA. 2016. • «Límite exterior de la plataforma continental. Presentación argentina». Presidencia de la Nación Argentina. 2009.
[1454] ↑ Ricardo González-Leandri y Elda González Martínez, Las relaciones exteriores del gobierno Cristina Kirchner Cahiers des Amériques latines, 103. 2011.
[1455] ↑ Tendencias demográficas en el nuevo siglo. Nathalson Mariel ISSN-e 1851-703X, ISSN 1853-550X, Vol. 4, Nº. 6 (Primer semestre de), 2010 Flacso.
[1456] ↑ Tendencias demográficas en el nuevo siglo. Nathalson Mariel ISSN-e 1851-703X, ISSN 1853-550X, Vol. 4, Nº. 6, 2010 Flacso.
[1457] ↑ «Cristina Kirchner le tomó juramento a Débora Giorgi como nueva ministra de la Producción» Archivado el 26 de enero de 2009 en Wayback Machine., Clarín, 26 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.clarin.com/diario/2008/11/26/um/m-01810721.htm
[1494] ↑ Javier Calvo (27 de marzo de 2011). «Cristina sube y se acerca a la misma adhesión que tenía cuando asumió». Diario Perfil. Archivado desde el original el 24 de agosto de 2011. Consultado el 7 de abril de 2011.
[1501] ↑ «Los carteles, los cantitos y los videos», artículo del 9 de noviembre de 2011 en el diario Página/12 (Buenos Aires). Consultado el 25 de enero de 2013.
[1515] ↑ Nicolás Lantos (10 de diciembre de 2015). «“Podemos mirar a los ojos a todos los argentinos”». Página/12. • «Cristina Kirchner se despidió ante una multitud en Plaza de Mayo: "A las 12 me convierto en calabaza"». Infobae. 9 de diciembre de 2015.: https://www.pagina12.com.ar/diario/elpais/1-287943-2015-12-10.html
[1518] ↑ Roberto Álvarez Mur (10 de diciembre de 2015). «“Tomen su bandera y sean los dirigentes de sus destinos”». Diario Contexto. • «Cristina dio su último discurso como Presidenta de la Nación». Bariloche Opina. 9 de diciembre de 2015. • «Cristina se despidió ante una multitud en Plaza de Mayo». 2261 - Noticias de Lobería. 10 de diciembre de 2015. • «Cristina ante una multitud: "En mi vida pensé que iba a ver un presidente cautelar durante 12 horas en mi país"». Minuto1. 9 de diciembre de 2015.: https://www.diariocontexto.com.ar/tomen-su-bandera-y-sean-los-dirigentes-de-sus-destinos/
In 2014, the CNV launched the stock market promissory note, a new financing instrument, specially designed to improve the competitiveness of small and medium-sized companies with longer terms than the deferred payment check.[53].
During his administration, Capital Market Law 26,831 was promoted, approved by a large majority in the National Congress (opposed only by the Pro bloc).[50].
This key law had the following effects:.
• - Increased the supervisory powers of the National Securities Commission (CNV) and expanded legal security for the capital market.
• - Promoted the interconnection and demutualization of markets with a federal criterion, linking exchanges in different cities (La Plata, Rosario, Mendoza, etc.) so that operators act interchangeably.
• - It made it possible to streamline investments, double the volume of operations in dollars and reduce financing costs for Argentine companies.
• - It included new guarantees to protect small investors and applied consumer protection laws to financial and stock investments.[54][55].
As a result of the high standards of regulation and supervision achieved with the new law, the International Organization of Securities Commissions accepted that the CNV of Argentina signed the Multilateral Memorandum of Information Exchange in June 2014.[51] Additionally, in 2011 the stock market authorization for small investors and foreign capital was simplified through the electronic submission of documents.[56].
Through law 23,449
Financial autonomy and autarky was granted and the resources of the Financial Information Unit were increased, entrusting it with the analysis, processing and transmission of information for the purposes of preventing and impeding the laundering of assets from a series of serious crimes including drug trafficking, human trafficking, etc. Through Law No. 26,268 on illicit terrorist associations and financing of terrorism, sanctioned by the National Congress.
In 2009, the National Development Fund for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (Fonapyme) was launched, a state trust to finance productive investment projects of SMEs (up to $7 million in 2015).[82] The same year, the Rate Bonus Regime was created to subsidize the interest on bank loans to SMEs in industry, commerce, construction and services.[83].
The Monotributo Social" (2010) was implemented to facilitate the formal inclusion of entrepreneurs in the social economy, granting them access to social work and the pension system. These measures were expanded in 2012, exempting social monotributists from the tax on gross income.[84][85].
In terms of tax modernization, the use of electronic invoices was generalized and the computer audit, Tax Code and Digital Signature were implemented.[25] In addition, tax controllers were modernized, allowing significant savings for large taxpayers.[86][87].
The promotion of the Software Industry Promotion Law was updated and extended. Ten years later, the sector had a total of 298,955 jobs and $6,405 million in exports, being the third sector that contributes the most foreign exchange to the country.[88].
• - In La Rioja, the paving of National Route 40 on the "Cuesta de Miranda" was completed (2011).
• - The paving of National Route 41 in Santa Cruz was completed and progress was made in the road plan for the south, including the expansion of National Route 3.
• - The total paving of National Route 23 in Río Negro was completed (2013), which links the Atlantic and the Andes, facilitating the connection of the Upper Valley.
• - In Mendoza, the double track was inaugurated between Anchoris and Tunuyán (2015) and sections of Route 40/145 (Paso Pehuenche), streamlining trade with Chile.[288].
• - Road Financing: The National Road Law was passed, creating the National Road Fund for road financing.[289].
• - Buenos Aires Subway: The modernization of the subway began with the purchase of new Alstom Metrópolis formations (2008-2009).[290].
• - Roads Case: In 2013, the Roads Case arose.[291].
• - Puerto Antonio Morán (Comodoro Rivadavia): Since 2011, the expansion was planned with the recovery of 16 hectares reclaimed from the sea, a second dock, and the expansion of the dock to operate with 6 ships and ship repair services of up to 90 meters.[361].
• - Puerto Belgrano (2015): Elements of Dock No. 2 were modernized, allowing the Navy to repair ships up to 220 meters in length, in conjunction with Dock No. 1. The recovery of Dock 2 was paralyzed in 2017 due to budget cuts.[362][363].
• - Contessi Naval Shipyard (Mar del Plata): It had a great boost during this decade.[364].
• - Market Share (2015): At the beginning of 2015, YPF led the fuel market, with a 62.5% share in premium gasoline and 55.7% in super gasoline. By the end of that year, the company reached 71% overall market share. [471].
Finally, in 2015, Pampa Energía formalized the purchase of Petrobras Argentina for US$892 million, including nearly 100 service stations.[513][514].
Until 2015, through the Renewable Energy in Rural Markets program, more than 25,000 residential users had access to solar electric energy, reaching small productive enterprises, groups of isolated homes, health posts, police detachments and rural schools.[588].
Likewise, in 2014, the cleaning and recovery of the Reconquista River Basin began, which covers 175,000 hectares and includes the municipalities of: Moreno, Merlo, Luján, General Rodríguez, General Las Heras, Marcos Paz. Malvinas Argentinas, San Miguel, General San Martín, Tres de Febrero, Morón, Ituzaingó, José C. Paz, Hurlingham. Tigre, Vicente López, San Isidro, San Fernando. Among the works carried out was the Camino del Borde, sidewalks, public lighting, bike paths, bridges at stream crossings, ditches and railway tracks will be built, along 12 kilometers, from Panamericana to Route 8, and which will target more than 100,000 inhabitants in situations of social and environmental vulnerability in the municipalities of San Martín, San Isidro and Tres de Febrero.
The basin includes 134 water courses that run 606 km, of which 82 correspond to the Reconquista River.
Different studies show that the PCI has contributed considerably to reducing the digital divide by guaranteeing access to a computer in all homes with public secondary school students. During the first two years of implementation (2010 and 2011) the netbook was the first computer in the home for 29% of PCI beneficiary students, and five years after the program was launched, 16% of the students surveyed stated that the PCI netbook was the only computer in their home. Furthermore, the PCI netbook was the only one in a quarter of the homes of students from schools in the least advantaged strata (strata 3 and 7).
On the other hand, the PCI has not only made it possible to reduce the so-called digital divide, but, through its appropriation in schools, it mobilized technological and intersubjective knowledge. Likewise, the PCI enabled a reconfiguration of recognition networks within schools: students who until then did not have a personal computer began to be placed on a par with those who did, producing a strong reduction in the digital divide that was not only reflected in quantitative terms through the delivery of technological, educational and social equipment but also in terms of symbolic equalization.[663] The Kirchnerist program received various awards abroad and from different international organizations, including them. a distinction from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and by the Ibero-American Summit, among others.[664][665] The United Nations highlighted the Argentine government's plan and its Silvina Gvirtz, Executive Director of the project, who received an international award.[666] Being considered as an example for the rest of Latin America[667][668].
In 2015, he promoted and achieved the approval of Law 27,214, establishing the bases for Road Safety Education, which includes promoting knowledge, practices and habits for safe circulation and transit on public roads. At the same time, the Road Safety Education Observatory was created to develop curricular programs to promote road safety education in schools.[672].
The ESI program allowed eight out of every 10 boys, girls and adolescents who suffered sexual abuse to report their situation thanks to the learning acquired in sexual education classes taught in schools[687] It also reduced the adolescent fertility rate, which was 35.3 per thousand women in 2011, the rate dropped to 33.7 per thousand until 2014 and to 29.7 per thousand in 2015.[688] with a decrease of 43 percent in children under 14 years of age.[689][690].
The Argentine Student Support Program (PROG.R.ES.AR) was launched on January 22, 2014[704] The initiative generates opportunities for social and labor inclusion for young people who wish to begin or finish their studies, continue higher education and/or undertake training and job training experiences.[705] As of November, 550,000 young people were registered.[706] In March 2015, the number of students was expanded. young people covered by the program to 1,280,000.[707] Aimed at young people between 18 and 24 years old who do not have a job, work informally or receive a salary less than the vital and mobile minimum and whose family group is in equal conditions. As of November 2014, PROGRESAR had more than 550,000 young people receiving the benefit and 1,284,809 registered.[706] In March 2015, the expansion of the number of young people covered by the program to 1,280,000 was announced.[707].
The University Volunteer Program was created, which before 2010 had financed more than 2,000 projects, in order to integrate the theoretical and practical knowledge learned in the cloisters of the Public University with the most urgent problems in the country.[708].
In July 2013, 264 scholarships were awarded from the Bec.Ar" program, which aims to specialize Argentine professionals in universities abroad in areas such as biotechnology, nanotechnology and ICTs, among others. The program has an initial duration of four years and plans to specialize one thousand professionals in areas called "strategic" for the development of the country.[709][710].
In addition to an increase in resources allocated to other universities, such as the University of La Matanza, whose budget grew by 820%.[713] This increase was reflected in the formation of new research institutes.
On February 18, 2011, the Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly and Sebastián Ceria, CEO of a New York software company and graduate of the UBA, met with President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner to present the proposal for the construction of an annex for the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences called "Zero plus infinite" on a 17,200-square-meter property of the largest university headquarters in the city.[714] At the beginning of 2013, the UBA and CONICET began the construction of the Center for Research on the Sea and the Atmosphere (CIMA), an extension on the first floor of the INGEIS pavilion.[715] In addition, a new building of the Faculty of Economic Sciences of the University of Buenos Aires was built with a ground floor and six floors, including a multipurpose room on the first level, totaling 8,200 m² of covered surface.[716] In 2015, construction began on the new building for the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters of the UBA, intended to concentrate the Research Institutes of the aforementioned study house, given that some of them are located in different locations of the faculty. The Faculty's academic research, postgraduate, extension and transfer activities require more flexible spaces with access to appropriate technological devices. The building has two basements, nine floors and a total area of 6,250 m².[717].
At the same time, the National University of La Plata experienced a period of growth, improvements and advances in building matters. A Works Plan carried out in stages that addressed the remodeling of several of the existing faculties, the construction of new pavilions, extensions and brand new buildings. Among these works, the construction of the Department of Surveying of the Faculty of Engineering "Facultad de Ingeniería (UNLP)") (inaugurated in 2011) stood out; redacted)") (inaugurated in 2007 and expanded in 2012);[720] the Faculty of Journalism and Social Communication "Facultad de Periodismo y Comunicación Social (UNLP)") (inaugurated in 2008 and expanded in 2012);[721] the Baccalaureate of the Faculty of Fine Arts "Facultad de Bellas Artes (UNLP)") (inaugurated in 2013)
In April 2013, in addition, the University Train began operating, a transport line with three cars specially developed to connect the La Plata Train Station "Estación La Plata (Roca)") of the General Roca Line with the University Campus&action=edit&redlink=1 "University Campus (UNLP) (not yet written)").[725] At the National University of General San Martín, the Biosafety Laboratory and the Institute of Environmental Engineering and the Institute were built. of Biotechnological Research (IIB-INTECH).[726] In 2015, together with Governor Sergio Urribarri, he inaugurated the new building of the Faculty of Social Work of the National University of Entre Ríos.[727][728] and the headquarters building of the National Technological University in Río Gallegos.[729] the inauguration of the Piñeyro headquarters of the National University of Avellaneda in March 2013, the new building in the Faculty of Engineering of the National University of Rosario (UNR) of three thousand square meters covered.[730] In Tandil, the university residence of the University of the Center of the province of Buenos Aires (Unicen) was built where around 10,000 students, who constitute 60% of the students of this university, carry out their undergraduate and postgraduate studies.
In March 2013, the Piñeyro headquarters of the National University of Avellaneda[731] and a new building of the Arturo Jauretche National University, by Florencio Varela, were inaugurated; at the National University of Formosa, the Néstor Kirchner Faculty of Humanities was inaugurated; in Lanús, the University of Lanús, the Macedonio Fernández building; in Santiago del Estero, the Central Laboratory; in Río Negro, the first part of the National University of Viedma is inaugurated; in Luján, the expansion of the San Fernando Building.
On July 3, 2013, Law 26,877, promoted by the nation's Minister of Education, Dr. Daniel Filmus, was approved and sanctioned, which established the creation and operation of student centers in secondary, higher and adult educational institutions in Argentina. This law recognized student centers as democratic bodies of student representation, promoting student participation and the institutionalization of student centers.[732].
In order to combat bullying, avoid online harassment, the national program on the safe use of the Internet was created in 2012 within the scope of the National Directorate for Personal Data Protection, and cyberbullying. Develops prevention content and works to train young people and teachers in the responsible use of information and communication technologies. This being a space for communication, advice and participation of children and adolescents on issues linked to new technologies and the protection of personal data.[733][734].
In April 2013, construction began on a new building block at the Garrahan Hospital, the largest children's hospital in Latin America, which serves 30% of children throughout the country who suffer from oncological and hematological diseases, totaling 4,800 m22, 25 offices, hospitalization rooms with 40 beds for chemotherapy administration, 10 isolation rooms with bathroom, specialized dental office, three meeting spaces, three offices for doctors, living room and nursing dining room, among other amenities.[797].
In 2012 Cristina Fernández was awarded in Sweden for her contribution to the rights and equality of homosexual people by the International Association of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Trans and Intersex") (Ilga), giving her the distinction in Stockholm.[839].
In 2012, Congress approved the Gender Identity Law "Gender Identity Law (Argentina)") by which the State recognizes the right to choose one's own identity, this being an "internal and individual experience of gender as each person feels it, which may or may not correspond to the sex assigned at the time of birth, including the personal experience of the body." Among other things, this law allows the person to request a new rectified identity document, the same being opposable to third parties from its issuance.[840] It allows trans people (transvestites, transsexuals and transgenders) to be registered in their personal documents with the name and sex of their choice, and also orders that all medical treatments for adaptation to gender expression be included in the Mandatory Medical Program"), which guarantees coverage of practices throughout the health system, both public as well as private.[841] It is the only gender identity law in the world that, in accordance with trends in the matter, does not pathologize the trans condition. The rule states that the applicant must be over 18 years of age, and that the procedures for updating their documents will be free and without the need for judicial intervention. Likewise, public hospitals and social works must cover hormonal treatments and genital reassignment surgeries without having to wait years for a judge to authorize it.[842].
The Comprehensive Gender Center was created in the security forces of Argentina, with the objective of creating "spaces for guidance and advice in order to strengthen the integration of women and other gender issues and contemplate the difficulties that may arise from their labor insertion".[843][844] In 2014, the National Sexual Diversity Coordination was created in order to promote public policies to promote and guarantee the rights of LGBT populations. In 2015, the ban on donating blood based on a person's sexual orientation was lifted.[845] In 2015, Resolution No. 1507/2015 of the Ministry of Health lifted the ban on donating blood based on a person's sexual orientation.[846] In 2014, March 18 of each year is designated as the "Day for the Promotion of the Rights of Trans People", with the objective to make visible and promote the rights of trans people, promoting their rights. This project was approved by law 15049.
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was recognized by the International Association (ILGA) for "commendable achievements" in terms of equality and expansion of rights, giving her a prize in Stockholm.[847].
The Respected Childbirth Law was also regulated and Law 25,929 protects you from obstetric violence, which recognizes the rights that every woman has during pregnancy, labor, delivery and postpartum, and the Humanized Childbirth Law, which promotes and defends the rights of the mother and her baby during the birth process.
Another transversal feature was the incorporation of the DD issue. HH. at a level of regional and international projection through the country's active participation in international organizations. An example of this were the joint presentations to the UN Human Rights Commission by Argentina and France of the “International Convention for the Protection of All Persons against Forced Disappearances”, which came into force in December 2010, and by Argentina and Switzerland, which proposed the establishment of a mandate for the creation of a new rapporteur: the Special Rapporteur for the Promotion of Truth, Justice, Reparation and Guarantees of Non-Recurrence, which promotes technical assistance and development of law, in the case of regulatory gaps, and good practices. The initiative was approved by resolution 18/7 of the HRC in 2011. In foreign policy it showed a continuity of the policy of its predecessor, with a marked autonomist nature that was reinforced by the choice of the alliance with Brazil, in strategic terms along with the deepening of Mercosur and the relationship with the associated countries, Chile and Bolivia, which were made priorities, on the basis of balanced and egalitarian relations between the countries.
In turn, Argentina presented, in March 2009 and October 2010, two projects within the scope of the UN HRC (Resolutions 10/26 and 15/5) with the objective of encouraging States to use forensic genetics and scientific advances in order to identify the remains of victims of serious human rights violations.[859]In 2011
The incorporation of articles 700 bis, 701 bis and 702 bis to the Civil and Commercial Code of the Nation "Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación (Argentina)") was approved on the deprivation of parental responsibility to those convicted of the crime of intentional homicide against the father or mother of the sons or daughters in common with the victim.[860].
In 2015, a reform was promoted to the Organic Law of the Public Prosecutor's Office, creating specialized attorney offices that would have attorney offices and specialized personnel on a permanent basis, among them: the Attorney General's Office for Administrative Investigations, for Defense of the Constitution, for Crimes against Humanity, for Economic Crime and Money Laundering, for Narcocriminality, for Human Trafficking and Exploitation, and for Road Safety.
In 2015, Law 27,234 was approved, establishing at the national level that the State must organize educational days against gender violence once a year in primary, secondary and tertiary schools throughout the country. Through the “Educate in Equality” program, students from public and private schools received training each year to prevent and eradicate gender violence. It had been created in 2015 to be applied in schools at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, within the framework of policies to expand rights and equality. It was promoted by Kirchnerism and sanctioned by Congress unanimously during the government of Cristina Kirchner.[861]Based on the request made by civil society in which it was sanctioned on November 24, 2015, which provides for the creation of the Body of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence (Law No. 27,210).[862]and the national establishment of the femicide registry in 2015.
After including it in the electoral platform, I sent Congress a bill to the Chamber of Deputies, which unanimously approved in November 2012 the law that punishes crimes considered gender-based with life imprisonment, which also includes both women and trans people. During the debate in the Chamber of Deputies there was consensus that the State incorporate other actions in addition to criminal ones. Precisely, the radical deputy María Luisa Storani argued that: "what follows is to take away the parental rights of men who have killed their partners."[863].
But the norm would undergo modifications in the Senate. Approved unanimously by the 47 senators who were present, the law maintained the sentence of life imprisonment "for a man who kills a woman or a person who perceives himself as having a female gender identity and mediates gender violence." Femicide was thus created as a new penal figure, and not as an aggravating circumstance to a simple homicide.[863].
On July 5, 2011, Decree 936/2011 was sanctioned, which promotes the eradication of the dissemination of messages and images that stimulate and/or encourage exploitation. It prohibits all dissemination of stereotypical messages and images through any mass media that directly or indirectly promotes the exploitation of women or their images, insults, defames, discriminates, dishonors, humiliates or threatens the dignity of women.[864].
• - In April 2019, the figure of street harassment was incorporated as a form of gender violence, modifying articles 6, 9 and 11.[865].
[897]
[898] In 2011, Argentina signed and ratified the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, incorporating the right of indigenous peoples to have their language respected and that aboriginal children receive primary and secondary education in their native language, thereby contemplating the recognition of the individual and collective rights of the members of minority linguistic groups.
In 2012, the restitution of almost 53,000 hectares to indigenous territory took place, at the same time the recognition of indigenous festivals was incorporated into the non-working holidays for the Curtoni native peoples and the obligation of burials in public cemeteries respecting indigenous beliefs.[899] The Columbus Day that celebrated the arrival of Columbus to America was replaced by Day of Respect for Cultural Diversity through the Decree of Necessity and Urgency 1584/2010 issued by President Cristina Fernández commemorating the ethnic diversity of Argentina and honoring the native peoples.[900] In May 2015, the New San Roque General Hospital in Salta was inaugurated, of medium complexity and 14 thousand square meters to serve the entire vulnerable area where the native peoples are located to receive close medical care and managed to decompress the health delays in Oran and Tartagal, becoming the third largest hospital in the province.[901][902][903] A series of documentaries were broadcast from the public channel remembering and investigating the various massacres of indigenous peoples, including the Napalpí Massacre that occurred in 1924 under the government of MT de Alvear.[888].
In 2011, the government, together with the Front for Victory bench, promoted and achieved the approval of the reform to article 63 of the Argentine Federal Penal Code on the prescription periods for sexual abuse in childhood identified as law number 26,705, modified the Penal Code in 2011 to extend the prescription periods for child sexual abuse with the aim that they do not prescribe, extending the prescription period for child sexual abuse begins to run from the age of majority of the victim.[904] In 2015 the law was modernized again In 2015, when it was replaced by the Law
27,206 and known as the Law of Respect for the Time of Victims. This new law establishes that the statute of limitations begins to run when the victim, already of legal age, approaches the court to file a complaint.[905].
On April 2, 2012, Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner announced that the government would carry out the tasks of recognizing the 123 unidentified soldiers who died in combat in the Malvinas Islands, with the help of the Red Cross, for which she made a formal request to the head of the international entity, Yves Daccord. The president then maintained that "these soldiers deserve to have a plaque with their name and surname, so that their families can honor them, mourn them and put a flower on them."[906] In parallel, Argentina also offered to identify the remains of British soldiers.[907].
In 2009, Cristina Kirchner announced the creation of the Argentine Digital Terrestrial Television System with the aim of generating the transition from analogue to digital television in 10 years. All the satellite investment, terrestrial antennas and fiber optics necessary for this process were borne by the State. As of December 2015, 92 terrestrial antennas had been installed and 80,000 decoders had been distributed to beneficiaries of social plans or minimum pensions.[944] It was also established that by 2019 all national free-to-air TV channels (América TV "América Televisión (Argentina)"), Public TV "Televisión Pública (Argentina)"), Channel 9 "Canal 9 (Buenos Aires)"), Telefe and Channel 13 "Canal 13 (Argentina)") must transmit using the Digital Terrestrial Television standard that the country adopted in 2009 (the ISDB-T standard).
In 2012, Open Digital Television was launched, consisting of the services of Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT) or Digital Satellite Television (TDS), allowing access from anywhere in the country, either by land or through ARSAT-1, to the digital television system that Argentina has.[945].
In 2012, the Knowledge Access Center[946] (NAC) was launched, a program implemented as a public policy of the Argentine State, which consists of installing spaces for digital inclusion and approach to new technologies in different parts of the country.[947] Each of the NAC consists of a training room (equipped with between 10 and 20 latest generation computers), a Microcinema, a Digital Entertainment room (equipped with video games) and a Digital Access Point (PAD), which allows wireless Internet connection. As of 2015, 277 establishments of this type were operating in the country and there is at least one of them in each province.[948] At the end of 2007, there were 894,004 broadband connections and 598,618 that were connected by modem and 31 percent of the population had access to the internet.[949].
At the beginning of 2010, Internet availability reached 64.4%[950] of the population, with more than 26 million users, and broadband connections in December 2010 reached 4,507,703[951] By 2012, according to the International Telecommunications Union, the percentage of individuals using the Internet in Argentina amounted to 55.8%, an increase of 10% compared to 2010, and 45% higher than ten years ago, in 2002.[952] By May 2015, more than 30 million Argentines had internet in their homes.[953] According to data from research by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) that analyzed Internet access of users worldwide, Argentina is the country in Latin America that uses the most internet with 69.4 percent and highlighting Argentina as one of the most connected countries.[954] Argentina was at the top in the region, with 69.4 percent of individuals accessing the Internet, followed by Uruguay with 64.6 percent and Chile (64.29%).[955] Between 2010 and 2015, the number of mobile internet subscriptions grew by 802.5% and that of fixed connections by 68.9%. cent.[956].
In 2010, the production, marketing and distribution of basic input for newspapers was declared of public interest. The law obliges the only producer of pulp and paper for newspapers in the country to cover 100% of Argentina's internal demand and to sell its input at the same price for all newspapers regardless of their ideology.[973] In 2012 the Senate turned into law the project to reduce the value added tax (VAT) from 10.5 to 2.5 to graphic media in terms of the cover price and the sale of advertising space. But the rule will apply only to those newspapers with a turnover of less than 126 million pesos per year, which was approved with 59 votes in favor and only two abstentions, it will benefit small and medium-sized businesses.[974] In 2014, Kirchner presented a bill to Congress that proposed reducing the payment of VAT for small and medium-sized media companies. The project aimed to ensure the survival of small communication companies, which tends to benefit plurality and diversity in the media, and was finally approved by both chambers. The rule established that small media outlets with an annual turnover of up to 63 million pesos pay a 2.5% VAT rate, while medium-sized media outlets that bill between 63 million and 126 million pesos would have a rate of 5%.[975].
The law led to the creation of 1,008 new radio and television licenses, generating around 100,000 jobs. The most beneficiaries were cooperatives, community radio stations, indigenous peoples, national universities, educational institutions, cooperatives and SMEs received 98 new licenses. In the radio area: 250 licenses were granted to FM radio stations and four to AM radio stations. The most notable correspond to the 34 FM granted to the native peoples, the Catholic Church with 25 FM and one AM, the educational institutes with 168 FM and the universities with six.
In September 2014, CONAE received 70 million dollars from the CAF-Development Bank of Latin America to finance the project of another new satellite, this time Argentine-Brazilian called SABIA-Mar. In the satellite field, the private company Satellogic also stands out, which launched the Captain Beto nanosatellite in 2013[1031] and in 2014 the satellite BugSat 1.[1032][1033][1034].
In 2012, the law was sent to Congress to exempt from taxes translations and theatrical adaptations made by Argentines, Argentine adapters - or foreigners with no less than 5 years of residence in the country, known as Law 14,467 of Dr. Kirchner.[1116].
In March 2015, the Actors and Performers Bill was sent to Congress, which aimed to recognize the labor, pension and social security rights of workers in the sector.
With the new regime, around 14,000 actors will be protected, asking to obtain pension coverage for a group that was characterized by its labor discontinuity and to frame its workers within collective agreements, accessing all labor rights.[1117] The objective of the law was to guarantee labor rights to workers in the artistic sector, recognize the labor, pension and social security rights of workers in the sector and actors.[1118] The law was drafted in jointly with the Argentine Association of Actors and several artists who have been fighting for years for a law that recognizes their labor rights.[1119] The bill will guarantee workers in the artistic sector the possibility of having a retirement, paid vacation, bonus and access to family allowances, sick leave, etc. The Argentine integrated pension system will incorporate people who are dedicated to acting activity and will begin to receive employer pension contributions. The project was regulated and presented at Casa Rosada along with renowned actors such as Alejandra Darín and Luis Alí, Jorge Marrale and Osvaldo Santoro, Nora Cárpena and Andrea Del Boca, Gerardo Chendo and Carolina Peleritti, Pepe Novoa and Patricio Contreras, Susú Pecoraro and Jean-Pierre Nohe[1120] In October 2015, the Incorporating initiative was sanctioned such as law 27,203 that was approved unanimously in the Senate, promoted by the Argentine Association of Actors, chaired by Alejandra Darín. The ministries of Labor, Culture and Social Development, together with the ANSES and the AFIP, participated in the text of the regulations. Through this law, every actor or worker in the theater or television industry is assured coverage of all social security subsystems: Health, Family Allowances, Unemployment, Occupational Risks and the right to retirement, also retirement due to disability and pension. dance".[1122][1123].
In April 2008, after more than 73 years of delay, Argentine actors and dancers finally achieved the Interpreter Law, which was regulated that same month by Fernández de Kirchner.[1124] Thanks to the law, actors and dancers will receive payment for the broadcast and repetition of each program or film in which they have participated, whether through open TV, cable TV, satellite TV, in air transport companies and land and in hotels. The regulation of article 56 of Law 11,723 on intellectual property ends up recognizing the image rights of actors, who until now did not receive any payment from producers or programmers for the repetition of programs or films in which they worked.
[1125] In 2008p he inaugurated the completion of the first stage of the renovation works of the Casa del Teatro, a historic cultural and theater center inaugurated by actors in 1938 together with renowned actors such as China Zorrilla, Jorge Luz, Nelly Omar, Nacha Guevara, Lydia Lamaison, Juan Palomino, Claribel Medina and the actor Lito Cruz among dozens of other actors in
[1126][1127].
During his management, different international festivals, competitions and renowned sporting events came to the country, among them the Dakar Rally left Africa, after negotiations with Argentina to move the international competition, which since 2008 meant an important source of income not only for tourists, but also for money for the country and the provinces.[1128] Since 2014, the Lollapalooza festival was also established, the first edition of which was held in April 2014 in the town of San Isidro and since Therefore, it has been held almost annually, being the first Latin American country to host said festival.[1129] At the same time, the Argentine capital became the main venue for congresses and conventions in Latin America, since 2006 it has ranked first in Latin America for the 13th consecutive year and was the 16th city with the most events in the world, becoming the only one in the region in the top 20 globally.
In 2011, through a decree, the National Government created the Office for Monitoring the Publication of Notices of Sexual Trade Offers (OM), within the orbit of the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. In July 2011, the government passed a decree that prohibited the publication of graphic advertisements for sexual offers in the media as a measure to prevent trafficking.[1308][1304] The law was also approved that increased the penalty for the murder of a woman or trans person when motivated by their gender.
In December 2012, the Trafficking Law was reformed, which increased penalties for exploiters. At the end of 2012, the 2008 law was expanded and improved to Law 26842.[1309] This law sets penalties of 3 to 15 years in prison,[1310] although there may be aggravating factors that extend the sentences. The reform incorporated that penalties for rape or sexual abuse be enforceable regardless of the case. That same year, the Federal Council against Human Trafficking and the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights of the Nation were created, which enabled the toll-free line 145 to receive complaints from anywhere in the national territory 24 hours a day. Since the first sanction of Law 26,364 in 2008 at the beginning of 2014, 6,339 victims of labor and sexual exploitation were rescued in the country.[1311] In 2015, Law 27,046 was enacted, which requires the placement of an anti-trafficking legend in airports, bus terminals, border crossings, and means of public transportation.[1312].
In 2015, the modification of the Flagrancia law was approved, which enabled abbreviated criminal trials in cases of red-handed detention for cases related to human trafficking, drug trafficking and armed robberies.
In 2014, the Cybercrime Law was approved, which criminalizes computer crimes and incorporated the standards of the Budapest Convention into the legal system.
In 2011 Cristina Fernández sent to Congress a law to reform the Penal Code approved by the Argentine Congress on June 13, 2007 within the framework of the FATF recommendations to prevent money laundering as a source of financing international terrorism. It was modified on December 22, 2011 for the purposes of preventing and impeding: 1- The crime of money laundering. At the end of 2010, the President of the Nation issued decree No. 1936/2010, which ordered the reorganization of the entire anti-money laundering prevention system, assigning the Financial Information Unit to represent our country before the Financial Action Task Force (FATF/FATF), the Financial Action Group of South America (GAFISUD) and the Inter-American Commission Against Drug Abuse of the Organization of American States (LAVEX-CICAD-OAS). Likewise, said Unit was granted management powers on this issue with respect to public organizations at the national, provincial and municipal levels.[1320].
In June 2011, Law 26,683 was passed, which modified the criminal offense of money laundering, creating a special title to our Penal Code, referring to crimes against the economic and financial order. This norm also introduced innovative changes, such as the establishment of criminal liability of legal entities and the establishment of new rules for the confiscation of assets without the need for a conviction, completely innovative tools for our legislation. That same year, the President of the Nation sent two projects to reform the Penal Code to Parliament, which were sanctioned in the month of December: one on crimes with terrorist purposes and financing of terrorism (law 26,734), and another that incorporates the figures of market manipulation and improper use of privileged information, created for the new criminal type of money laundering (law 26,733).[1321] This means that it will investigate the following crimes:
• - Trafficking and illicit marketing of narcotics (Law 23,737);
• - Weapons smuggling (Law 22,415);
• - Activities of qualified illicit association (Art. 210 bis Penal Code) or illicit terrorist association (Art. 213 ter Penal Code);
• - of illicit criminal associations with political or racial purposes (Art. 210 Penal Code);
• - Fraud against public administration (Art. 174, section 5, Penal Code);
• - Crimes against the public administration (Chapter VI to IX bis of Title XI, Book II, Penal Code);
• - Crimes of prostitution of minors and child pornography (Art. 125, 125 bis, 127 bis and 128 Penal Code);.[1322]'[1323].
The UBACYT Project was carried out: “Design of new legal and institutional mechanisms for the recovery of economic funds for the State: search for an integrated model to neutralize economic crime.” In 2014, the Financial Information Unit (UFI) reported that the assets of 17 people accused of crimes against humanity and who are absconding, will be frozen and any movement of these must be reported to the corresponding organizations, however this measure was annulled by Judge Claudio Bonadio.[1324] De Marchi and Olivera, convicted of crimes against humanity committed in San Juan during the last dictatorship, escaped from the Military Hospital in July, leaving the questioned judge in charge of the investigation. The UIF froze the assets of several people close to the fugitives because it considered that they could provide cover for the former military, but Bonadío annulled that decision, arguing that the UIF lawyers, led by José Sbatella, "They do not understand the concept of division of powers" and said that he is "astonished by the ignorance of positive law."[1325] In 2014, agreements were signed with Hong Kong and Jamaica. The agreements negotiated by Echegaray commit the signatory countries to exchange tax information. In the case of the agreement with Jamaica, the agreement includes all taxes levied or administered by that country while in the case of Argentina, the agreement covers Income Tax, Value Added Tax, Personal Property Tax and Minimum Presumed Income Tax.[1326].
In 2009, the law was passed that grants financial autonomy to the FIU Financial Information Unit and the OA Anti-Corruption Office. In 2008 it had a budget of 6 million pesos with 6,911 open cases.[1327] Its budget in 2010 was 15 million pesos with 7,563 open cases in the year.
[1328][1329]
In 2010, the Argentine Drug Observatory (OAD) was created, whose basic function is the study and evaluation of the problem of drug abuse and drug trafficking. It also supposes the existence of an effective instrument in decision-making by those responsible for the Federal Plan for the Comprehensive Prevention of Drug Addiction and Control of Illicit Drug Trafficking.
With the aim of providing medical care to military personnel, Obra Social de las Fuerzas Armadas created a social work "Obra social (Argentina)") in 2013 that provides service to the Armed Forces, the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Naval Prefecture. It operates under the supervision and control of the Ministry of Defense "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)").[1349]
Its mission is to provide medical and assistance coverage services to military personnel who until then did not have medical coverage.[1350] The number of beneficiaries is approximately 638,000, among members of the Armed Forces, the Gendarmerie, the Prefecture, as well as their families.[1351].
Based on the four existing factories, five business units were promoted, focused on both military and civil demand: Defense and Security; Mining and oil; Chemicals and fertilizers; Metalworking and transportation; and Energy. The business strategy was based on developing activities that, based on military demand, also had an impact on the civilian market. On the other hand, Military Fabrications went through a process of comprehensive restructuring and modernization in each of its areas, which allowed it to generate exports of more than 50 million dollars in military material.[1215]
In 2013, the so-called “multi-threat vests” RB2 and RB3 with bulletproof and anti-stab protection, of our own design, were developed for the first time in the “Fray Luis Beltrán” factory, province of Buenos Aires. Through an agreement with the Federal Security Council, in 2014 it supplied the federal police and security forces and the police of eleven provinces.[1359].
In 2009 the Government renationalized the Córdoba Military Aircraft Factory "Córdoba (Argentina)." In 2015, a technology demonstrator was presented to the public.[3].
In 2010, the Ministry of Defense created by Resolution No. 1,484/2010 the SARA project (Argentine Robotic Air System), whose contract was signed on December 10, 2014 between the Ministry of Defense and the company INVAP and had the participation of FAdeA and Fabricaciones Militares.[1362].
The Pampa III project was launched, which allowed the generation of 400 direct jobs at FADEA (for engineers, technicians and operators) and another 150 new ones in the 25 SMEs that participated.[1363] In 2009, new Saab 340 aircraft were incorporated, which have the maximum technological update available on the market for aircraft of their type, in a ceremony presided over by the Minister of Defense, Nilda. Garré.[1364][1365][1366].
In 2010, the Army already registered a total of 4,974 women, equivalent to 11.15% of the total, including training institutes, but that percentage was reduced to 2% of the officers and non-commissioned officers of the Command Corps, due to the prohibition existing at that time on women entering the Infantry and Cavalry arms. That year the Navy registered a total of 1,799 women, equivalent to 8.5% of the total, including training institutes, but that percentage was reduced to 2% of the Command Corps officers. The Air Force registered a total of 2,562 women, equivalent to 17% of the total, including the training institutes, resulting in a considerably higher percentage than the other two forces, although this percentage was reduced to 0.76% of the Command Corps officers, the lowest of the three forces.[1374].
In 2011, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner publicly complained about the fact that the Army did not allow women to enter the Infantry and Cavalry arms, oriented towards close combat.[1375] Finally two years later, the Army eliminated by Resolution No. 1143/2013 the prohibition on women entering the Infantry and Cavalry arms, which is why months later it was achieved for the first time in the history that six women entered the Cavalry arm and five entered the Infantry arm.[1375].
In April 2014, by resolution of the MD "Ministry of Defense (Argentina)"), the Joint Aerospace Command (COCAES) was created, based in the Aerospace Surveillance Center and reporting to the Joint Chiefs of Staff "Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas (Argentina)") (EMCO), to coordinate all air operations in peacetime.[1376].
During his mandate, a strong investment plan was initiated in the Navy with different projects that cover the modernization and construction of new ships in the country, including the modernization of the ARA icebreaker “Almirante Irizar” and the ARA fast boat “Indómita” in charge of the state company TANDANOR and Astillero Río Santiago, the major repair of the ARA patrol boat “King”, a Navy patrol unit.[1392].
In May 2015, the modernization plan for the ship "Frigata Libertad" was established at the Río Santiago Shipyards, where restoration and modernization work on the ship began in dry dock.
In 2010, the modernization of the Coast Guard System was carried out, including the incorporation of new satellite technology, which significantly increased the effectiveness of sea surveillance. Through the new system, data from multiple sources was integrated, including vessel positioning, crew records, and electronic nautical charts for the detection and control of illegal activities in its Argentine maritime jurisdiction. [1395].
[1414] At the same time, the six Argentine bases were reequipped: Orcadas, Marambio, Carlini, Esperanza, San Martín and Belgrano II; and with seven bases of temporary activity: Brown, Matienzo, Primavera, Cámara, Melchior, Decepción, and Petrel, the last one has been permanent since 2015.
At the end of 2014, the Argentine Ministry of Defense decided to acquire four Neftegaz class marine trailers, investing 8 million dollars. By the summer of 2015 they were ready for use in polar waters. In parallel with the modernization of the Armed Forces, Russian Su-24 bombers were acquired.[1331] Work was also carried out to establish the new limit of the submarine platform of the Argentine Sea. The Ministry of Defense together with the National Commission of the Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf collaborated according to Law No. 24,815 promoted by the Front for Victory, to establish the outer limit of the Argentine continental shelf in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Law No. 23,968 on Maritime Spaces.[1415] In mid-2015, the approval of Law No. 27,167 was promoted, creates the National Program for Research and Productive Innovation in Argentine Maritime Spaces (PROMAR) whose objective is to promote scientific knowledge of the Argentine sea as a basis for conservation and management policies, as well as to promote technological development and innovation in marine areas according to the Argentine government.[1416][1417].
In 2014, Parlasur - the parliament of the South American countries - voted unanimously to support the Argentine claim of sovereignty over the Malvinas. South Sandwich and the surrounding maritime spaces.[1449][1450] At the end of that year the 54 countries of the African Union published the "Malabo Declaration" (Equatorial Guinea), approved unanimously that recognizes the legitimate sovereignty rights of Argentina over the Malvinas, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, and the surrounding maritime spaces.
In 2015, after several years of Foreign Minister Hector Timmerman's management, in a joint declaration by the members of the Commonwealth of the Caribbean such as Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago, they signed a document and later a declaration in which they expressed full support for the legitimate rights of Argentina over the Islands. Malvinas.[1451].
In 2014, the CNV launched the stock market promissory note, a new financing instrument, specially designed to improve the competitiveness of small and medium-sized companies with longer terms than the deferred payment check.[53].
During his administration, Capital Market Law 26,831 was promoted, approved by a large majority in the National Congress (opposed only by the Pro bloc).[50].
This key law had the following effects:.
• - Increased the supervisory powers of the National Securities Commission (CNV) and expanded legal security for the capital market.
• - Promoted the interconnection and demutualization of markets with a federal criterion, linking exchanges in different cities (La Plata, Rosario, Mendoza, etc.) so that operators act interchangeably.
• - It made it possible to streamline investments, double the volume of operations in dollars and reduce financing costs for Argentine companies.
• - It included new guarantees to protect small investors and applied consumer protection laws to financial and stock investments.[54][55].
As a result of the high standards of regulation and supervision achieved with the new law, the International Organization of Securities Commissions accepted that the CNV of Argentina signed the Multilateral Memorandum of Information Exchange in June 2014.[51] Additionally, in 2011 the stock market authorization for small investors and foreign capital was simplified through the electronic submission of documents.[56].
Through law 23,449
Financial autonomy and autarky was granted and the resources of the Financial Information Unit were increased, entrusting it with the analysis, processing and transmission of information for the purposes of preventing and impeding the laundering of assets from a series of serious crimes including drug trafficking, human trafficking, etc. Through Law No. 26,268 on illicit terrorist associations and financing of terrorism, sanctioned by the National Congress.
In 2009, the National Development Fund for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (Fonapyme) was launched, a state trust to finance productive investment projects of SMEs (up to $7 million in 2015).[82] The same year, the Rate Bonus Regime was created to subsidize the interest on bank loans to SMEs in industry, commerce, construction and services.[83].
The Monotributo Social" (2010) was implemented to facilitate the formal inclusion of entrepreneurs in the social economy, granting them access to social work and the pension system. These measures were expanded in 2012, exempting social monotributists from the tax on gross income.[84][85].
In terms of tax modernization, the use of electronic invoices was generalized and the computer audit, Tax Code and Digital Signature were implemented.[25] In addition, tax controllers were modernized, allowing significant savings for large taxpayers.[86][87].
The promotion of the Software Industry Promotion Law was updated and extended. Ten years later, the sector had a total of 298,955 jobs and $6,405 million in exports, being the third sector that contributes the most foreign exchange to the country.[88].
• - In La Rioja, the paving of National Route 40 on the "Cuesta de Miranda" was completed (2011).
• - The paving of National Route 41 in Santa Cruz was completed and progress was made in the road plan for the south, including the expansion of National Route 3.
• - The total paving of National Route 23 in Río Negro was completed (2013), which links the Atlantic and the Andes, facilitating the connection of the Upper Valley.
• - In Mendoza, the double track was inaugurated between Anchoris and Tunuyán (2015) and sections of Route 40/145 (Paso Pehuenche), streamlining trade with Chile.[288].
• - Road Financing: The National Road Law was passed, creating the National Road Fund for road financing.[289].
• - Buenos Aires Subway: The modernization of the subway began with the purchase of new Alstom Metrópolis formations (2008-2009).[290].
• - Roads Case: In 2013, the Roads Case arose.[291].
• - Puerto Antonio Morán (Comodoro Rivadavia): Since 2011, the expansion was planned with the recovery of 16 hectares reclaimed from the sea, a second dock, and the expansion of the dock to operate with 6 ships and ship repair services of up to 90 meters.[361].
• - Puerto Belgrano (2015): Elements of Dock No. 2 were modernized, allowing the Navy to repair ships up to 220 meters in length, in conjunction with Dock No. 1. The recovery of Dock 2 was paralyzed in 2017 due to budget cuts.[362][363].
• - Contessi Naval Shipyard (Mar del Plata): It had a great boost during this decade.[364].
• - Market Share (2015): At the beginning of 2015, YPF led the fuel market, with a 62.5% share in premium gasoline and 55.7% in super gasoline. By the end of that year, the company reached 71% overall market share. [471].
Finally, in 2015, Pampa Energía formalized the purchase of Petrobras Argentina for US$892 million, including nearly 100 service stations.[513][514].
Until 2015, through the Renewable Energy in Rural Markets program, more than 25,000 residential users had access to solar electric energy, reaching small productive enterprises, groups of isolated homes, health posts, police detachments and rural schools.[588].
Likewise, in 2014, the cleaning and recovery of the Reconquista River Basin began, which covers 175,000 hectares and includes the municipalities of: Moreno, Merlo, Luján, General Rodríguez, General Las Heras, Marcos Paz. Malvinas Argentinas, San Miguel, General San Martín, Tres de Febrero, Morón, Ituzaingó, José C. Paz, Hurlingham. Tigre, Vicente López, San Isidro, San Fernando. Among the works carried out was the Camino del Borde, sidewalks, public lighting, bike paths, bridges at stream crossings, ditches and railway tracks will be built, along 12 kilometers, from Panamericana to Route 8, and which will target more than 100,000 inhabitants in situations of social and environmental vulnerability in the municipalities of San Martín, San Isidro and Tres de Febrero.
The basin includes 134 water courses that run 606 km, of which 82 correspond to the Reconquista River.
Different studies show that the PCI has contributed considerably to reducing the digital divide by guaranteeing access to a computer in all homes with public secondary school students. During the first two years of implementation (2010 and 2011) the netbook was the first computer in the home for 29% of PCI beneficiary students, and five years after the program was launched, 16% of the students surveyed stated that the PCI netbook was the only computer in their home. Furthermore, the PCI netbook was the only one in a quarter of the homes of students from schools in the least advantaged strata (strata 3 and 7).
On the other hand, the PCI has not only made it possible to reduce the so-called digital divide, but, through its appropriation in schools, it mobilized technological and intersubjective knowledge. Likewise, the PCI enabled a reconfiguration of recognition networks within schools: students who until then did not have a personal computer began to be placed on a par with those who did, producing a strong reduction in the digital divide that was not only reflected in quantitative terms through the delivery of technological, educational and social equipment but also in terms of symbolic equalization.[663] The Kirchnerist program received various awards abroad and from different international organizations, including them. a distinction from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), and by the Ibero-American Summit, among others.[664][665] The United Nations highlighted the Argentine government's plan and its Silvina Gvirtz, Executive Director of the project, who received an international award.[666] Being considered as an example for the rest of Latin America[667][668].
In 2015, he promoted and achieved the approval of Law 27,214, establishing the bases for Road Safety Education, which includes promoting knowledge, practices and habits for safe circulation and transit on public roads. At the same time, the Road Safety Education Observatory was created to develop curricular programs to promote road safety education in schools.[672].
The ESI program allowed eight out of every 10 boys, girls and adolescents who suffered sexual abuse to report their situation thanks to the learning acquired in sexual education classes taught in schools[687] It also reduced the adolescent fertility rate, which was 35.3 per thousand women in 2011, the rate dropped to 33.7 per thousand until 2014 and to 29.7 per thousand in 2015.[688] with a decrease of 43 percent in children under 14 years of age.[689][690].
The Argentine Student Support Program (PROG.R.ES.AR) was launched on January 22, 2014[704] The initiative generates opportunities for social and labor inclusion for young people who wish to begin or finish their studies, continue higher education and/or undertake training and job training experiences.[705] As of November, 550,000 young people were registered.[706] In March 2015, the number of students was expanded. young people covered by the program to 1,280,000.[707] Aimed at young people between 18 and 24 years old who do not have a job, work informally or receive a salary less than the vital and mobile minimum and whose family group is in equal conditions. As of November 2014, PROGRESAR had more than 550,000 young people receiving the benefit and 1,284,809 registered.[706] In March 2015, the expansion of the number of young people covered by the program to 1,280,000 was announced.[707].
The University Volunteer Program was created, which before 2010 had financed more than 2,000 projects, in order to integrate the theoretical and practical knowledge learned in the cloisters of the Public University with the most urgent problems in the country.[708].
In July 2013, 264 scholarships were awarded from the Bec.Ar" program, which aims to specialize Argentine professionals in universities abroad in areas such as biotechnology, nanotechnology and ICTs, among others. The program has an initial duration of four years and plans to specialize one thousand professionals in areas called "strategic" for the development of the country.[709][710].
In addition to an increase in resources allocated to other universities, such as the University of La Matanza, whose budget grew by 820%.[713] This increase was reflected in the formation of new research institutes.
On February 18, 2011, the Uruguayan architect Rafael Viñoly and Sebastián Ceria, CEO of a New York software company and graduate of the UBA, met with President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner to present the proposal for the construction of an annex for the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences called "Zero plus infinite" on a 17,200-square-meter property of the largest university headquarters in the city.[714] At the beginning of 2013, the UBA and CONICET began the construction of the Center for Research on the Sea and the Atmosphere (CIMA), an extension on the first floor of the INGEIS pavilion.[715] In addition, a new building of the Faculty of Economic Sciences of the University of Buenos Aires was built with a ground floor and six floors, including a multipurpose room on the first level, totaling 8,200 m² of covered surface.[716] In 2015, construction began on the new building for the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters of the UBA, intended to concentrate the Research Institutes of the aforementioned study house, given that some of them are located in different locations of the faculty. The Faculty's academic research, postgraduate, extension and transfer activities require more flexible spaces with access to appropriate technological devices. The building has two basements, nine floors and a total area of 6,250 m².[717].
At the same time, the National University of La Plata experienced a period of growth, improvements and advances in building matters. A Works Plan carried out in stages that addressed the remodeling of several of the existing faculties, the construction of new pavilions, extensions and brand new buildings. Among these works, the construction of the Department of Surveying of the Faculty of Engineering "Facultad de Ingeniería (UNLP)") (inaugurated in 2011) stood out; redacted)") (inaugurated in 2007 and expanded in 2012);[720] the Faculty of Journalism and Social Communication "Facultad de Periodismo y Comunicación Social (UNLP)") (inaugurated in 2008 and expanded in 2012);[721] the Baccalaureate of the Faculty of Fine Arts "Facultad de Bellas Artes (UNLP)") (inaugurated in 2013)
In April 2013, in addition, the University Train began operating, a transport line with three cars specially developed to connect the La Plata Train Station "Estación La Plata (Roca)") of the General Roca Line with the University Campus&action=edit&redlink=1 "University Campus (UNLP) (not yet written)").[725] At the National University of General San Martín, the Biosafety Laboratory and the Institute of Environmental Engineering and the Institute were built. of Biotechnological Research (IIB-INTECH).[726] In 2015, together with Governor Sergio Urribarri, he inaugurated the new building of the Faculty of Social Work of the National University of Entre Ríos.[727][728] and the headquarters building of the National Technological University in Río Gallegos.[729] the inauguration of the Piñeyro headquarters of the National University of Avellaneda in March 2013, the new building in the Faculty of Engineering of the National University of Rosario (UNR) of three thousand square meters covered.[730] In Tandil, the university residence of the University of the Center of the province of Buenos Aires (Unicen) was built where around 10,000 students, who constitute 60% of the students of this university, carry out their undergraduate and postgraduate studies.
In March 2013, the Piñeyro headquarters of the National University of Avellaneda[731] and a new building of the Arturo Jauretche National University, by Florencio Varela, were inaugurated; at the National University of Formosa, the Néstor Kirchner Faculty of Humanities was inaugurated; in Lanús, the University of Lanús, the Macedonio Fernández building; in Santiago del Estero, the Central Laboratory; in Río Negro, the first part of the National University of Viedma is inaugurated; in Luján, the expansion of the San Fernando Building.
On July 3, 2013, Law 26,877, promoted by the nation's Minister of Education, Dr. Daniel Filmus, was approved and sanctioned, which established the creation and operation of student centers in secondary, higher and adult educational institutions in Argentina. This law recognized student centers as democratic bodies of student representation, promoting student participation and the institutionalization of student centers.[732].
In order to combat bullying, avoid online harassment, the national program on the safe use of the Internet was created in 2012 within the scope of the National Directorate for Personal Data Protection, and cyberbullying. Develops prevention content and works to train young people and teachers in the responsible use of information and communication technologies. This being a space for communication, advice and participation of children and adolescents on issues linked to new technologies and the protection of personal data.[733][734].
In April 2013, construction began on a new building block at the Garrahan Hospital, the largest children's hospital in Latin America, which serves 30% of children throughout the country who suffer from oncological and hematological diseases, totaling 4,800 m22, 25 offices, hospitalization rooms with 40 beds for chemotherapy administration, 10 isolation rooms with bathroom, specialized dental office, three meeting spaces, three offices for doctors, living room and nursing dining room, among other amenities.[797].
In 2012 Cristina Fernández was awarded in Sweden for her contribution to the rights and equality of homosexual people by the International Association of Lesbians, Gays, Bisexuals, Trans and Intersex") (Ilga), giving her the distinction in Stockholm.[839].
In 2012, Congress approved the Gender Identity Law "Gender Identity Law (Argentina)") by which the State recognizes the right to choose one's own identity, this being an "internal and individual experience of gender as each person feels it, which may or may not correspond to the sex assigned at the time of birth, including the personal experience of the body." Among other things, this law allows the person to request a new rectified identity document, the same being opposable to third parties from its issuance.[840] It allows trans people (transvestites, transsexuals and transgenders) to be registered in their personal documents with the name and sex of their choice, and also orders that all medical treatments for adaptation to gender expression be included in the Mandatory Medical Program"), which guarantees coverage of practices throughout the health system, both public as well as private.[841] It is the only gender identity law in the world that, in accordance with trends in the matter, does not pathologize the trans condition. The rule states that the applicant must be over 18 years of age, and that the procedures for updating their documents will be free and without the need for judicial intervention. Likewise, public hospitals and social works must cover hormonal treatments and genital reassignment surgeries without having to wait years for a judge to authorize it.[842].
The Comprehensive Gender Center was created in the security forces of Argentina, with the objective of creating "spaces for guidance and advice in order to strengthen the integration of women and other gender issues and contemplate the difficulties that may arise from their labor insertion".[843][844] In 2014, the National Sexual Diversity Coordination was created in order to promote public policies to promote and guarantee the rights of LGBT populations. In 2015, the ban on donating blood based on a person's sexual orientation was lifted.[845] In 2015, Resolution No. 1507/2015 of the Ministry of Health lifted the ban on donating blood based on a person's sexual orientation.[846] In 2014, March 18 of each year is designated as the "Day for the Promotion of the Rights of Trans People", with the objective to make visible and promote the rights of trans people, promoting their rights. This project was approved by law 15049.
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner was recognized by the International Association (ILGA) for "commendable achievements" in terms of equality and expansion of rights, giving her a prize in Stockholm.[847].
The Respected Childbirth Law was also regulated and Law 25,929 protects you from obstetric violence, which recognizes the rights that every woman has during pregnancy, labor, delivery and postpartum, and the Humanized Childbirth Law, which promotes and defends the rights of the mother and her baby during the birth process.
Another transversal feature was the incorporation of the DD issue. HH. at a level of regional and international projection through the country's active participation in international organizations. An example of this were the joint presentations to the UN Human Rights Commission by Argentina and France of the “International Convention for the Protection of All Persons against Forced Disappearances”, which came into force in December 2010, and by Argentina and Switzerland, which proposed the establishment of a mandate for the creation of a new rapporteur: the Special Rapporteur for the Promotion of Truth, Justice, Reparation and Guarantees of Non-Recurrence, which promotes technical assistance and development of law, in the case of regulatory gaps, and good practices. The initiative was approved by resolution 18/7 of the HRC in 2011. In foreign policy it showed a continuity of the policy of its predecessor, with a marked autonomist nature that was reinforced by the choice of the alliance with Brazil, in strategic terms along with the deepening of Mercosur and the relationship with the associated countries, Chile and Bolivia, which were made priorities, on the basis of balanced and egalitarian relations between the countries.
In turn, Argentina presented, in March 2009 and October 2010, two projects within the scope of the UN HRC (Resolutions 10/26 and 15/5) with the objective of encouraging States to use forensic genetics and scientific advances in order to identify the remains of victims of serious human rights violations.[859]In 2011
The incorporation of articles 700 bis, 701 bis and 702 bis to the Civil and Commercial Code of the Nation "Código Civil y Comercial de la Nación (Argentina)") was approved on the deprivation of parental responsibility to those convicted of the crime of intentional homicide against the father or mother of the sons or daughters in common with the victim.[860].
In 2015, a reform was promoted to the Organic Law of the Public Prosecutor's Office, creating specialized attorney offices that would have attorney offices and specialized personnel on a permanent basis, among them: the Attorney General's Office for Administrative Investigations, for Defense of the Constitution, for Crimes against Humanity, for Economic Crime and Money Laundering, for Narcocriminality, for Human Trafficking and Exploitation, and for Road Safety.
In 2015, Law 27,234 was approved, establishing at the national level that the State must organize educational days against gender violence once a year in primary, secondary and tertiary schools throughout the country. Through the “Educate in Equality” program, students from public and private schools received training each year to prevent and eradicate gender violence. It had been created in 2015 to be applied in schools at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, within the framework of policies to expand rights and equality. It was promoted by Kirchnerism and sanctioned by Congress unanimously during the government of Cristina Kirchner.[861]Based on the request made by civil society in which it was sanctioned on November 24, 2015, which provides for the creation of the Body of Lawyers for Victims of Gender Violence (Law No. 27,210).[862]and the national establishment of the femicide registry in 2015.
After including it in the electoral platform, I sent Congress a bill to the Chamber of Deputies, which unanimously approved in November 2012 the law that punishes crimes considered gender-based with life imprisonment, which also includes both women and trans people. During the debate in the Chamber of Deputies there was consensus that the State incorporate other actions in addition to criminal ones. Precisely, the radical deputy María Luisa Storani argued that: "what follows is to take away the parental rights of men who have killed their partners."[863].
But the norm would undergo modifications in the Senate. Approved unanimously by the 47 senators who were present, the law maintained the sentence of life imprisonment "for a man who kills a woman or a person who perceives himself as having a female gender identity and mediates gender violence." Femicide was thus created as a new penal figure, and not as an aggravating circumstance to a simple homicide.[863].
On July 5, 2011, Decree 936/2011 was sanctioned, which promotes the eradication of the dissemination of messages and images that stimulate and/or encourage exploitation. It prohibits all dissemination of stereotypical messages and images through any mass media that directly or indirectly promotes the exploitation of women or their images, insults, defames, discriminates, dishonors, humiliates or threatens the dignity of women.[864].
• - In April 2019, the figure of street harassment was incorporated as a form of gender violence, modifying articles 6, 9 and 11.[865].
[897]
[898] In 2011, Argentina signed and ratified the Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, incorporating the right of indigenous peoples to have their language respected and that aboriginal children receive primary and secondary education in their native language, thereby contemplating the recognition of the individual and collective rights of the members of minority linguistic groups.
In 2012, the restitution of almost 53,000 hectares to indigenous territory took place, at the same time the recognition of indigenous festivals was incorporated into the non-working holidays for the Curtoni native peoples and the obligation of burials in public cemeteries respecting indigenous beliefs.[899] The Columbus Day that celebrated the arrival of Columbus to America was replaced by Day of Respect for Cultural Diversity through the Decree of Necessity and Urgency 1584/2010 issued by President Cristina Fernández commemorating the ethnic diversity of Argentina and honoring the native peoples.[900] In May 2015, the New San Roque General Hospital in Salta was inaugurated, of medium complexity and 14 thousand square meters to serve the entire vulnerable area where the native peoples are located to receive close medical care and managed to decompress the health delays in Oran and Tartagal, becoming the third largest hospital in the province.[901][902][903] A series of documentaries were broadcast from the public channel remembering and investigating the various massacres of indigenous peoples, including the Napalpí Massacre that occurred in 1924 under the government of MT de Alvear.[888].
In 2011, the government, together with the Front for Victory bench, promoted and achieved the approval of the reform to article 63 of the Argentine Federal Penal Code on the prescription periods for sexual abuse in childhood identified as law number 26,705, modified the Penal Code in 2011 to extend the prescription periods for child sexual abuse with the aim that they do not prescribe, extending the prescription period for child sexual abuse begins to run from the age of majority of the victim.[904] In 2015 the law was modernized again In 2015, when it was replaced by the Law
27,206 and known as the Law of Respect for the Time of Victims. This new law establishes that the statute of limitations begins to run when the victim, already of legal age, approaches the court to file a complaint.[905].
On April 2, 2012, Argentine President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner announced that the government would carry out the tasks of recognizing the 123 unidentified soldiers who died in combat in the Malvinas Islands, with the help of the Red Cross, for which she made a formal request to the head of the international entity, Yves Daccord. The president then maintained that "these soldiers deserve to have a plaque with their name and surname, so that their families can honor them, mourn them and put a flower on them."[906] In parallel, Argentina also offered to identify the remains of British soldiers.[907].
In 2009, Cristina Kirchner announced the creation of the Argentine Digital Terrestrial Television System with the aim of generating the transition from analogue to digital television in 10 years. All the satellite investment, terrestrial antennas and fiber optics necessary for this process were borne by the State. As of December 2015, 92 terrestrial antennas had been installed and 80,000 decoders had been distributed to beneficiaries of social plans or minimum pensions.[944] It was also established that by 2019 all national free-to-air TV channels (América TV "América Televisión (Argentina)"), Public TV "Televisión Pública (Argentina)"), Channel 9 "Canal 9 (Buenos Aires)"), Telefe and Channel 13 "Canal 13 (Argentina)") must transmit using the Digital Terrestrial Television standard that the country adopted in 2009 (the ISDB-T standard).
In 2012, Open Digital Television was launched, consisting of the services of Digital Terrestrial Television (DTT) or Digital Satellite Television (TDS), allowing access from anywhere in the country, either by land or through ARSAT-1, to the digital television system that Argentina has.[945].
In 2012, the Knowledge Access Center[946] (NAC) was launched, a program implemented as a public policy of the Argentine State, which consists of installing spaces for digital inclusion and approach to new technologies in different parts of the country.[947] Each of the NAC consists of a training room (equipped with between 10 and 20 latest generation computers), a Microcinema, a Digital Entertainment room (equipped with video games) and a Digital Access Point (PAD), which allows wireless Internet connection. As of 2015, 277 establishments of this type were operating in the country and there is at least one of them in each province.[948] At the end of 2007, there were 894,004 broadband connections and 598,618 that were connected by modem and 31 percent of the population had access to the internet.[949].
At the beginning of 2010, Internet availability reached 64.4%[950] of the population, with more than 26 million users, and broadband connections in December 2010 reached 4,507,703[951] By 2012, according to the International Telecommunications Union, the percentage of individuals using the Internet in Argentina amounted to 55.8%, an increase of 10% compared to 2010, and 45% higher than ten years ago, in 2002.[952] By May 2015, more than 30 million Argentines had internet in their homes.[953] According to data from research by the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) that analyzed Internet access of users worldwide, Argentina is the country in Latin America that uses the most internet with 69.4 percent and highlighting Argentina as one of the most connected countries.[954] Argentina was at the top in the region, with 69.4 percent of individuals accessing the Internet, followed by Uruguay with 64.6 percent and Chile (64.29%).[955] Between 2010 and 2015, the number of mobile internet subscriptions grew by 802.5% and that of fixed connections by 68.9%. cent.[956].
In 2010, the production, marketing and distribution of basic input for newspapers was declared of public interest. The law obliges the only producer of pulp and paper for newspapers in the country to cover 100% of Argentina's internal demand and to sell its input at the same price for all newspapers regardless of their ideology.[973] In 2012 the Senate turned into law the project to reduce the value added tax (VAT) from 10.5 to 2.5 to graphic media in terms of the cover price and the sale of advertising space. But the rule will apply only to those newspapers with a turnover of less than 126 million pesos per year, which was approved with 59 votes in favor and only two abstentions, it will benefit small and medium-sized businesses.[974] In 2014, Kirchner presented a bill to Congress that proposed reducing the payment of VAT for small and medium-sized media companies. The project aimed to ensure the survival of small communication companies, which tends to benefit plurality and diversity in the media, and was finally approved by both chambers. The rule established that small media outlets with an annual turnover of up to 63 million pesos pay a 2.5% VAT rate, while medium-sized media outlets that bill between 63 million and 126 million pesos would have a rate of 5%.[975].
The law led to the creation of 1,008 new radio and television licenses, generating around 100,000 jobs. The most beneficiaries were cooperatives, community radio stations, indigenous peoples, national universities, educational institutions, cooperatives and SMEs received 98 new licenses. In the radio area: 250 licenses were granted to FM radio stations and four to AM radio stations. The most notable correspond to the 34 FM granted to the native peoples, the Catholic Church with 25 FM and one AM, the educational institutes with 168 FM and the universities with six.
In September 2014, CONAE received 70 million dollars from the CAF-Development Bank of Latin America to finance the project of another new satellite, this time Argentine-Brazilian called SABIA-Mar. In the satellite field, the private company Satellogic also stands out, which launched the Captain Beto nanosatellite in 2013[1031] and in 2014 the satellite BugSat 1.[1032][1033][1034].
In 2012, the law was sent to Congress to exempt from taxes translations and theatrical adaptations made by Argentines, Argentine adapters - or foreigners with no less than 5 years of residence in the country, known as Law 14,467 of Dr. Kirchner.[1116].
In March 2015, the Actors and Performers Bill was sent to Congress, which aimed to recognize the labor, pension and social security rights of workers in the sector.
With the new regime, around 14,000 actors will be protected, asking to obtain pension coverage for a group that was characterized by its labor discontinuity and to frame its workers within collective agreements, accessing all labor rights.[1117] The objective of the law was to guarantee labor rights to workers in the artistic sector, recognize the labor, pension and social security rights of workers in the sector and actors.[1118] The law was drafted in jointly with the Argentine Association of Actors and several artists who have been fighting for years for a law that recognizes their labor rights.[1119] The bill will guarantee workers in the artistic sector the possibility of having a retirement, paid vacation, bonus and access to family allowances, sick leave, etc. The Argentine integrated pension system will incorporate people who are dedicated to acting activity and will begin to receive employer pension contributions. The project was regulated and presented at Casa Rosada along with renowned actors such as Alejandra Darín and Luis Alí, Jorge Marrale and Osvaldo Santoro, Nora Cárpena and Andrea Del Boca, Gerardo Chendo and Carolina Peleritti, Pepe Novoa and Patricio Contreras, Susú Pecoraro and Jean-Pierre Nohe[1120] In October 2015, the Incorporating initiative was sanctioned such as law 27,203 that was approved unanimously in the Senate, promoted by the Argentine Association of Actors, chaired by Alejandra Darín. The ministries of Labor, Culture and Social Development, together with the ANSES and the AFIP, participated in the text of the regulations. Through this law, every actor or worker in the theater or television industry is assured coverage of all social security subsystems: Health, Family Allowances, Unemployment, Occupational Risks and the right to retirement, also retirement due to disability and pension. dance".[1122][1123].
In April 2008, after more than 73 years of delay, Argentine actors and dancers finally achieved the Interpreter Law, which was regulated that same month by Fernández de Kirchner.[1124] Thanks to the law, actors and dancers will receive payment for the broadcast and repetition of each program or film in which they have participated, whether through open TV, cable TV, satellite TV, in air transport companies and land and in hotels. The regulation of article 56 of Law 11,723 on intellectual property ends up recognizing the image rights of actors, who until now did not receive any payment from producers or programmers for the repetition of programs or films in which they worked.
[1125] In 2008p he inaugurated the completion of the first stage of the renovation works of the Casa del Teatro, a historic cultural and theater center inaugurated by actors in 1938 together with renowned actors such as China Zorrilla, Jorge Luz, Nelly Omar, Nacha Guevara, Lydia Lamaison, Juan Palomino, Claribel Medina and the actor Lito Cruz among dozens of other actors in
[1126][1127].
During his management, different international festivals, competitions and renowned sporting events came to the country, among them the Dakar Rally left Africa, after negotiations with Argentina to move the international competition, which since 2008 meant an important source of income not only for tourists, but also for money for the country and the provinces.[1128] Since 2014, the Lollapalooza festival was also established, the first edition of which was held in April 2014 in the town of San Isidro and since Therefore, it has been held almost annually, being the first Latin American country to host said festival.[1129] At the same time, the Argentine capital became the main venue for congresses and conventions in Latin America, since 2006 it has ranked first in Latin America for the 13th consecutive year and was the 16th city with the most events in the world, becoming the only one in the region in the top 20 globally.
In 2011, through a decree, the National Government created the Office for Monitoring the Publication of Notices of Sexual Trade Offers (OM), within the orbit of the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights. In July 2011, the government passed a decree that prohibited the publication of graphic advertisements for sexual offers in the media as a measure to prevent trafficking.[1308][1304] The law was also approved that increased the penalty for the murder of a woman or trans person when motivated by their gender.
In December 2012, the Trafficking Law was reformed, which increased penalties for exploiters. At the end of 2012, the 2008 law was expanded and improved to Law 26842.[1309] This law sets penalties of 3 to 15 years in prison,[1310] although there may be aggravating factors that extend the sentences. The reform incorporated that penalties for rape or sexual abuse be enforceable regardless of the case. That same year, the Federal Council against Human Trafficking and the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights of the Nation were created, which enabled the toll-free line 145 to receive complaints from anywhere in the national territory 24 hours a day. Since the first sanction of Law 26,364 in 2008 at the beginning of 2014, 6,339 victims of labor and sexual exploitation were rescued in the country.[1311] In 2015, Law 27,046 was enacted, which requires the placement of an anti-trafficking legend in airports, bus terminals, border crossings, and means of public transportation.[1312].
In 2015, the modification of the Flagrancia law was approved, which enabled abbreviated criminal trials in cases of red-handed detention for cases related to human trafficking, drug trafficking and armed robberies.
In 2014, the Cybercrime Law was approved, which criminalizes computer crimes and incorporated the standards of the Budapest Convention into the legal system.
In 2011 Cristina Fernández sent to Congress a law to reform the Penal Code approved by the Argentine Congress on June 13, 2007 within the framework of the FATF recommendations to prevent money laundering as a source of financing international terrorism. It was modified on December 22, 2011 for the purposes of preventing and impeding: 1- The crime of money laundering. At the end of 2010, the President of the Nation issued decree No. 1936/2010, which ordered the reorganization of the entire anti-money laundering prevention system, assigning the Financial Information Unit to represent our country before the Financial Action Task Force (FATF/FATF), the Financial Action Group of South America (GAFISUD) and the Inter-American Commission Against Drug Abuse of the Organization of American States (LAVEX-CICAD-OAS). Likewise, said Unit was granted management powers on this issue with respect to public organizations at the national, provincial and municipal levels.[1320].
In June 2011, Law 26,683 was passed, which modified the criminal offense of money laundering, creating a special title to our Penal Code, referring to crimes against the economic and financial order. This norm also introduced innovative changes, such as the establishment of criminal liability of legal entities and the establishment of new rules for the confiscation of assets without the need for a conviction, completely innovative tools for our legislation. That same year, the President of the Nation sent two projects to reform the Penal Code to Parliament, which were sanctioned in the month of December: one on crimes with terrorist purposes and financing of terrorism (law 26,734), and another that incorporates the figures of market manipulation and improper use of privileged information, created for the new criminal type of money laundering (law 26,733).[1321] This means that it will investigate the following crimes:
• - Trafficking and illicit marketing of narcotics (Law 23,737);
• - Weapons smuggling (Law 22,415);
• - Activities of qualified illicit association (Art. 210 bis Penal Code) or illicit terrorist association (Art. 213 ter Penal Code);
• - of illicit criminal associations with political or racial purposes (Art. 210 Penal Code);
• - Fraud against public administration (Art. 174, section 5, Penal Code);
• - Crimes against the public administration (Chapter VI to IX bis of Title XI, Book II, Penal Code);
• - Crimes of prostitution of minors and child pornography (Art. 125, 125 bis, 127 bis and 128 Penal Code);.[1322]'[1323].
The UBACYT Project was carried out: “Design of new legal and institutional mechanisms for the recovery of economic funds for the State: search for an integrated model to neutralize economic crime.” In 2014, the Financial Information Unit (UFI) reported that the assets of 17 people accused of crimes against humanity and who are absconding, will be frozen and any movement of these must be reported to the corresponding organizations, however this measure was annulled by Judge Claudio Bonadio.[1324] De Marchi and Olivera, convicted of crimes against humanity committed in San Juan during the last dictatorship, escaped from the Military Hospital in July, leaving the questioned judge in charge of the investigation. The UIF froze the assets of several people close to the fugitives because it considered that they could provide cover for the former military, but Bonadío annulled that decision, arguing that the UIF lawyers, led by José Sbatella, "They do not understand the concept of division of powers" and said that he is "astonished by the ignorance of positive law."[1325] In 2014, agreements were signed with Hong Kong and Jamaica. The agreements negotiated by Echegaray commit the signatory countries to exchange tax information. In the case of the agreement with Jamaica, the agreement includes all taxes levied or administered by that country while in the case of Argentina, the agreement covers Income Tax, Value Added Tax, Personal Property Tax and Minimum Presumed Income Tax.[1326].
In 2009, the law was passed that grants financial autonomy to the FIU Financial Information Unit and the OA Anti-Corruption Office. In 2008 it had a budget of 6 million pesos with 6,911 open cases.[1327] Its budget in 2010 was 15 million pesos with 7,563 open cases in the year.
[1328][1329]
In 2010, the Argentine Drug Observatory (OAD) was created, whose basic function is the study and evaluation of the problem of drug abuse and drug trafficking. It also supposes the existence of an effective instrument in decision-making by those responsible for the Federal Plan for the Comprehensive Prevention of Drug Addiction and Control of Illicit Drug Trafficking.
With the aim of providing medical care to military personnel, Obra Social de las Fuerzas Armadas created a social work "Obra social (Argentina)") in 2013 that provides service to the Armed Forces, the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Naval Prefecture. It operates under the supervision and control of the Ministry of Defense "Ministerio de Defensa (Argentina)").[1349]
Its mission is to provide medical and assistance coverage services to military personnel who until then did not have medical coverage.[1350] The number of beneficiaries is approximately 638,000, among members of the Armed Forces, the Gendarmerie, the Prefecture, as well as their families.[1351].
Based on the four existing factories, five business units were promoted, focused on both military and civil demand: Defense and Security; Mining and oil; Chemicals and fertilizers; Metalworking and transportation; and Energy. The business strategy was based on developing activities that, based on military demand, also had an impact on the civilian market. On the other hand, Military Fabrications went through a process of comprehensive restructuring and modernization in each of its areas, which allowed it to generate exports of more than 50 million dollars in military material.[1215]
In 2013, the so-called “multi-threat vests” RB2 and RB3 with bulletproof and anti-stab protection, of our own design, were developed for the first time in the “Fray Luis Beltrán” factory, province of Buenos Aires. Through an agreement with the Federal Security Council, in 2014 it supplied the federal police and security forces and the police of eleven provinces.[1359].
In 2009 the Government renationalized the Córdoba Military Aircraft Factory "Córdoba (Argentina)." In 2015, a technology demonstrator was presented to the public.[3].
In 2010, the Ministry of Defense created by Resolution No. 1,484/2010 the SARA project (Argentine Robotic Air System), whose contract was signed on December 10, 2014 between the Ministry of Defense and the company INVAP and had the participation of FAdeA and Fabricaciones Militares.[1362].
The Pampa III project was launched, which allowed the generation of 400 direct jobs at FADEA (for engineers, technicians and operators) and another 150 new ones in the 25 SMEs that participated.[1363] In 2009, new Saab 340 aircraft were incorporated, which have the maximum technological update available on the market for aircraft of their type, in a ceremony presided over by the Minister of Defense, Nilda. Garré.[1364][1365][1366].
In 2010, the Army already registered a total of 4,974 women, equivalent to 11.15% of the total, including training institutes, but that percentage was reduced to 2% of the officers and non-commissioned officers of the Command Corps, due to the prohibition existing at that time on women entering the Infantry and Cavalry arms. That year the Navy registered a total of 1,799 women, equivalent to 8.5% of the total, including training institutes, but that percentage was reduced to 2% of the Command Corps officers. The Air Force registered a total of 2,562 women, equivalent to 17% of the total, including the training institutes, resulting in a considerably higher percentage than the other two forces, although this percentage was reduced to 0.76% of the Command Corps officers, the lowest of the three forces.[1374].
In 2011, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner publicly complained about the fact that the Army did not allow women to enter the Infantry and Cavalry arms, oriented towards close combat.[1375] Finally two years later, the Army eliminated by Resolution No. 1143/2013 the prohibition on women entering the Infantry and Cavalry arms, which is why months later it was achieved for the first time in the history that six women entered the Cavalry arm and five entered the Infantry arm.[1375].
In April 2014, by resolution of the MD "Ministry of Defense (Argentina)"), the Joint Aerospace Command (COCAES) was created, based in the Aerospace Surveillance Center and reporting to the Joint Chiefs of Staff "Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas (Argentina)") (EMCO), to coordinate all air operations in peacetime.[1376].
During his mandate, a strong investment plan was initiated in the Navy with different projects that cover the modernization and construction of new ships in the country, including the modernization of the ARA icebreaker “Almirante Irizar” and the ARA fast boat “Indómita” in charge of the state company TANDANOR and Astillero Río Santiago, the major repair of the ARA patrol boat “King”, a Navy patrol unit.[1392].
In May 2015, the modernization plan for the ship "Frigata Libertad" was established at the Río Santiago Shipyards, where restoration and modernization work on the ship began in dry dock.
In 2010, the modernization of the Coast Guard System was carried out, including the incorporation of new satellite technology, which significantly increased the effectiveness of sea surveillance. Through the new system, data from multiple sources was integrated, including vessel positioning, crew records, and electronic nautical charts for the detection and control of illegal activities in its Argentine maritime jurisdiction. [1395].
[1414] At the same time, the six Argentine bases were reequipped: Orcadas, Marambio, Carlini, Esperanza, San Martín and Belgrano II; and with seven bases of temporary activity: Brown, Matienzo, Primavera, Cámara, Melchior, Decepción, and Petrel, the last one has been permanent since 2015.
At the end of 2014, the Argentine Ministry of Defense decided to acquire four Neftegaz class marine trailers, investing 8 million dollars. By the summer of 2015 they were ready for use in polar waters. In parallel with the modernization of the Armed Forces, Russian Su-24 bombers were acquired.[1331] Work was also carried out to establish the new limit of the submarine platform of the Argentine Sea. The Ministry of Defense together with the National Commission of the Outer Limit of the Continental Shelf collaborated according to Law No. 24,815 promoted by the Front for Victory, to establish the outer limit of the Argentine continental shelf in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and Law No. 23,968 on Maritime Spaces.[1415] In mid-2015, the approval of Law No. 27,167 was promoted, creates the National Program for Research and Productive Innovation in Argentine Maritime Spaces (PROMAR) whose objective is to promote scientific knowledge of the Argentine sea as a basis for conservation and management policies, as well as to promote technological development and innovation in marine areas according to the Argentine government.[1416][1417].
In 2014, Parlasur - the parliament of the South American countries - voted unanimously to support the Argentine claim of sovereignty over the Malvinas. South Sandwich and the surrounding maritime spaces.[1449][1450] At the end of that year the 54 countries of the African Union published the "Malabo Declaration" (Equatorial Guinea), approved unanimously that recognizes the legitimate sovereignty rights of Argentina over the Malvinas, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, and the surrounding maritime spaces.
In 2015, after several years of Foreign Minister Hector Timmerman's management, in a joint declaration by the members of the Commonwealth of the Caribbean such as Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad and Tobago, they signed a document and later a declaration in which they expressed full support for the legitimate rights of Argentina over the Islands. Malvinas.[1451].