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Introduction

Córdoba is a Spanish city and municipality in Andalusia, capital of the homonymous province "Province of Córdoba (Spain)"), located in a depression on the banks of the Guadalquivir and at the foot of the Sierra Morena. It houses a population of (INE "National Institute of Statistics (Spain)") 2025), being the third largest and most populated city in Andalusia after Seville and Malaga, and the twelfth in Spain. Its metropolitan area "Metropolitan Area of Córdoba (Spain)") comprises the municipalities of the capital along with those of Almodóvar del Río, Guadalcázar "Guadalcázar (Spain)"), La Carlota "La Carlota (Spain)"), Obejo, Villafranca de Córdoba, Villaharta and Villaviciosa de Córdoba, housing a total population of in 2022, the twenty-third most populated in Spain.[5].

Founded by the Romans in the middle of the century BC. C., it became the capital of Hispania Ulterior in times of the Roman Republic, in addition to the Baetic province, being one of the most prosperous and cultured cities of the Roman Empire. After the Muslim invasion of Hispania in the s. , the city rose as the capital of the Emirate of Córdoba, while in the century during the Caliphate of Córdoba it became one of the main cities in the world both in population and for its medical, mathematical, artistic, philosophical, literary, scientific advances, etc. It had an important Christian and Jewish community that dwindled over time due to repression by the Muslim authorities.[6][7][8] With the Castilian reconquest of 1236 by Ferdinand III, Córdoba returned to medieval Christian faith and customs.

Currently, Córdoba is one of the cities with the most elements declared "World Heritage" worldwide, having four elements included in the UNESCO World List: The historic center of Córdoba, the caliphal city of Medina Azahara, the Patios Córdoba festival.[9] and first of all, the Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba was included in 1984 on the renowned list. Element that would be expanded in 1994 to the entire historic center that surrounds it.[10] The Festival of the Cordoba Patios was designated Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in December 2012,[11] and in July 2018 the palatine city of Medina Azahara, on the outskirts of the urban center, was also declared a World Heritage Site. It has one of the largest historic centers in Europe, with 246.73 hectares with monuments dating back to Roman times. Although the population settlement in the area dates back to the Upper Chalcolithic (about 5000 years) in the primitive settlement of the Quemados hill (current Cruz Conde park and Ciudad de los Niños) where some archaeological remains remain.

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Introduction

Geography

Contenido

El término municipal de Córdoba ocupa 1245 km², aproximadamente el 9 % del total de la provincia.[21] Siendo el núcleo principal de población la zona más poblada, existen seis pedanías: El Higuerón "El Higuerón (Córdoba)"), Alcolea "Alcolea (Córdoba)"), Santa Cruz "Santa Cruz (Córdoba)"), Cerro Muriano, Villarrubia "Villarrubia (Córdoba)") y Santa María de Trassierra y una Entidad Local Menor, Encinarejo, nacidas bien como asentamientos agrarios o bien como núcleos residenciales.[22] El núcleo principal de Córdoba se encuentra situado en los márgenes del río Guadalquivir que la atraviesa de este a oeste formando varios meandros. Al norte del término municipal se encuentra Sierra Morena y al sur una extensa campiña. De este modo la altitud del municipio varía entre los 78 m en la ribera del Guadalquivir y los 692 m (cerro Torre Árboles) en la sierra de Córdoba, perteneciente a Sierra Morena. La ciudad se alza a 123 m sobre el nivel del mar.

Orography

Within the municipal area, two areas can be delimited by its orography: the countryside and the mountains. To the north of Córdoba are the foothills of the Sierra Morena with steep slopes that allow you to ascend from approximately 100 m above sea level of the main core to 692 m above the Torre Arboles hill, the highest elevation of the municipality.[2] The average altitude of these mountain ranges is around 400 m, alternating large valleys carved by seasonal streams and tributaries of the Guadalquivir River over soft materials.

To the south of the river and in a narrow strip to the north of it, there are low lands with slight undulations of the terrain that form what is generically called countryside. This region was born as a consequence of the sedimentation associated with geological processes derived from the folding of the Betic mountain ranges and the sedimentation derived from the action of the large water courses themselves. For this reason, the countryside itself and the river terraces are differentiated in this area, with the average altitude of the former being between 200 and 300 m, highlighting the Cerro de las Pilillas, with 361 m above sea level, and that of the latter being between 100 and 150 m.[23].

Hydrography

The entire municipal area of Córdoba is located within the Guadalquivir basin, a river that completely crosses it and acts as a recipient of all the minor channels of the municipality. The Guadiato and Guadalmellato tributaries originate in the mountains, with flow all year round and numerous seasonal streams. All of these watercourses exert a strong erosive action on the land due to the large slope that they must overcome before pouring their waters into the Guadalquivir. The Guadalmellato River dams its waters in the San Rafael de Navallana reservoir. To the south of the term is the Guadajoz tributary with numerous seasonal streams that form a complex network in the countryside.[24].

Geology

The municipal area of Córdoba is located on the sedimentation basin associated with the Guadalquivir River that separates the Iberian Plateau of Paleozoic origin from the Betic mountain ranges formed during the Alpine folding.

The sedimentary basin had its origin during the Quaternary era when materials from the nearby mountain ranges were deposited in the Betic groove, a depression formed after its uplift, and its subsequent consolidation. The materials present are of different nature, highlighting marls, limestones and conglomerates.[25] Two zones are differentiated in this sedimentation basin, on the one hand the countryside has sedimentary materials of marine origin and with great power deposited in the first moments of the Alpine orogeny, on the other hand the area of the Guadalquivir River plain has sedimentary materials of fluvial origin resulting from transport and accumulation and more modern and in continuous movement.[26] To the north of the term. Rocks belonging to the foothills of Sierra Morena emerge. There is great complexity in the rocks present, limestone, schist and conglomerates and the metamorphic rocks stand out especially, mainly amphibolites corresponding to the so-called Badajoz-Córdoba Shear Band and which extends 400 kilometers to the north from the northwest of the municipality. These allochthonous formations are related to various units in the north of the peninsula and were formed towards the Cambrian by a mechanism of subduction and rapid ascent that caused a strong crystallization of eclogites.[27].

natural environment

Biogeographically, the municipality participates in two chorological provinces with different types of potential vegetation. The mountain area corresponds to the Luso-Extremadura province and its typical forests would be holm oak and cork oak forests. Due to the complicated orogeny of the area and the low economic value of the land they occupy, it is still possible to find valuable plant communities in the area. The plains and countryside of Córdoba belong to the Bética province and its potential vegetation would be holm oaks and poplars in the areas close to the river. However, the strong anthropic action developed for centuries in this region due to the great agronomic potential of the soil has completely disappeared any trace of natural vegetation that could exist in the area.[28].

Climate

It has a Mediterranean climate. According to the Köppen climate classification, Córdoba's climate is Mediterranean type Csa. The winters are mild, although with some frosts that have sometimes become strong, due to its distance from the sea. Summers are very hot, with significant daily temperature fluctuations and maximum temperatures that, on average, are the highest in Europe, exceeding 40 °C on several occasions every year and have even exceeded 45 °C. Although the minimum temperatures are cooler, the average temperature exceeds 28 °C in July and August, which are also among the highest in Europe. Precipitation is concentrated in the coldest months, due to the aforementioned Atlantic influence, since it is produced by the entry of storms from the west, a situation that occurs more in the period from December to February. It has a strong summer drought, typical of Mediterranean climates. Annual rainfall reaches 573 mm, although there is significant interannual irregularity. According to the Köppen climate classification, the city's climate is defined as Csa.[29].

The maximum temperature recorded at the Córdoba airport observatory (located 6 km from the city) is 46.9 °C, from July 14, 2017 and August 14, 2021. The lowest minimum corresponds to –8.2 °C on January 28, 2005.

History

Prehistory

A settlement from the millennium BC is known on the outskirts of the city of Córdoba, on the Quemados hill, although it is unknown if the Turdetana city remained in time. It is known that the oldest materials at this site come from the Early and Middle Bronze Age, from the excavations in Luzon and Mata. There is evidence of a town occupied between the millennium and the millennium BC (Bronze Age) in the Campo de la Verdad, on the other side of the river, which could have been occupied at the same time as the settlement on the Quemados hill. There is evidence of other settlements from the millennium BC in the area around the urban center, such as one identified as Cañito María Ruiz.

In addition, remains are known from the beginning of the Copper Age, towards the end of the millennium BC. The best known is in the Alcolea neighborhood, next to the bridge. The most recent discovery is that of Arruzafa-Tablero Alto, which has provided a grave with four people buried simultaneously, near Brillante, a town about which hardly anything is known.[34].

Antique

Although there is archaeological evidence that a settlement existed on the Quemados hill (Cruz Conde park) at least since Tartessian times, Córdoba is a city founded by Romans. In (according to some historians), the proconsul Claudius Marcellus "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul 166 BC)") established Corduba as a permanent settlement to control the passage between Turdetania and the Plateau, populated by the Celtiberians, frequently in rebellion against Rome. He populated the city with patrician families brought from Italy and belonging to the Turdetan nobility. Thanks to its great development, mainly due to the mining activity of the Sierra Morena, the sheep farming of the countryside and the export of olive oil, Corduba became the capital of Hispania Ulterior (one of the two provinces created by Rome in Hispania in ), attracting a large population from both Italy and the rest of the province.

Due to its strategic position, Corduba became the center of operations for the Roman armies in the Later period in their campaigns against the Lusitanians and Celtiberians. The city played a very relevant role in the different Roman civil wars fought during the 19th century. to. C. During the Sertorian War (80-), an extension in Hispania of the Roman civil war fought between Sulla and Marius, the city was the headquarters of Quintus Caecilius Metellus, a proconsul sent by the Silanian side to combat the Sertorians, former supporters of Marius. During the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great (49-), the population of Corduba was divided between Caesarians and Pompeians, although the latter seem to have been the majority. Despite this, the city soon came under Caesarian control, but the abuses of Caesar's legate, Cassius Longinus, caused a popular uprising and the troops under his command changed sides. Corduba became a refuge for the Pompeians defeated in the Battle of Munda (March 17, ), but after a harsh four-month siege, Julius Caesar's troops took the city in August of that year, putting to the sword around 22,000 supporters of the Pompeian side. After razing the city, Julius Caesar settled numerous Roman citizens brought from Italy in Corduba and granted it the status of a colony, with the name Colonia Patricia Corduba, converting all its free inhabitants into Roman citizens.

The great rise of Corduba occurred from the principality of Augustus (-), who, following the policy of his adoptive father, greatly benefited the city. With the new provincial division of Hispania, Corduba remained the capital of Baetica, the richest province of Hispania and one of the most prosperous and Romanized in the empire. The perimeter of the republican city (the vetus urbs) was extended to the bank of the Betis River (Guadalquivir), which led to the city having about 50,000 inhabitants. Numerous public buildings of great monumentality were built, such as temples, baths and fountains, a new forum was built to accommodate the numerous political, religious and economic activities of the brand new capital of Baetica, and the city was provided with leisure buildings such as the amphitheater, the circus and the theater, being the largest in the empire, only surpassed by those of Rome itself.

Corduba also stood out for its great culture. Already at the time of Sertorius's war, the legacy of Caecilius Metellus was praised by local poets, indicating a deep degree of Romanization. From the second half of the s. to. C., Corduba was the cradle of important personalities of Roman culture such as Marcus Anneus Seneca the rhetor, his son Lucius Anneus Seneca the philosopher, his nephew Lucanus (author of the epic poem La Pharsalia), as well as poets such as Sextilius Ena, or the rhetor Marcus Porcio Ladrón, many of whom developed their professional careers in the capital, Rome.

The s. d. C., coinciding with the principality of the Hispanics Trajan and Hadrian, was a moment of great splendor for Corduba, which went into relative decline from the second half of the century. In 171, like all of Baetica, it suffered plunder by the Moors (mauri) from Mauritania Tingitana. During the principality of Septimius Severus, many main families of Corduba suffered the expropriation of their property for having supported Albinus, a claimant to the throne defeated in 197. At the end of the 19th century. (around 296-297), Baetica was once again threatened by Mauritanian incursions, which led Emperor Maximian to build a large imperial palace from which to direct military operations.

Despite the general situation of crisis in which the Empire plunged from the 19th century onwards. , Corduba continued to be one of its most important cities, also after the Christianization of society. Hosius, bishop of Cordoba, became the right-hand man of Emperor Constantine and presided over the Council of Nicaea (325) which established the doctrinal foundations of the early Church.

With the barbarian invasions of the s. , Corduba, like the rest of Hispania, broke away from the Western Roman Empire, which would end up falling in 476. Later it could have been part of the province of Spania of the Byzantine Empire, although this fact is not proven.[35] It was part of the Visigothic Kingdom from the 2nd century, until in 712 when the invading Muslim army that had crossed the Strait of Gibraltar a year before arrived at the city gates. After a fierce fight, the last Christian defenders of Corduba, a handful of knights, locked themselves in a church, being burned alive by the Mohammedan invaders, who became the new owners of the city.

Middle Ages

In the year 711, the Arab and Berber armies invaded the Iberian Peninsula, and in less than seven years almost the entire territory came to be occupied by Muslims.[36] Córdoba was the capital of the Independent Emirate and the Western Umayyad Caliphate, a time in which it reached its greatest height, reaching between 250,000 and 300,000 inhabitants, being one of the largest cities in the century. in the world,[37][38] in Europe only surpassed by Constantinople, as well as a cultural, political and economic node. Recent archaeological finds in urban areas that were considered to be occupied by almunias and orchards, such as the meander of the Guadalquivir River between the Levante neighborhood, the Fátima neighborhood "Fátima (Córdoba)") and the Polígono de las Quemadas"), make the margin of the 300,000 to one million inhabitants that Muslim chronicles speak of around the year 1000 uncertain. Constantinople, in the middle of the century there was no similar city in Western Europe in terms of built surface, since at that time none exceeded 30,000 people.[39] Leopoldo Torres Balbás put the population of the city around the century at more than 100,000 inhabitants,[40][41] while other sources speak of 200,000 or 300,000. José Calvo Poyato has considered the figure of one million inhabitants an exaggeration and an error.[42].

During the government of Abderramán I, the great mosque of Córdoba began to be erected, currently converted into a Catholic cathedral and called the Cathedral of Santa María Madre de Dios, (completed in the 19th century) on the basis of the Basilica of San Vicente Mártir, a temple shared by Muslims and Christians until that date. From then on, the Christians had to build their church on the outskirts of Córdoba. Likewise, the city had a famous university and a public library that contained some 400,000 volumes. There were twenty-seven free schools to teach poor children, and the literacy level of both boys and girls was very high. Young people who belonged to the nobility of the Catholic kingdoms of northern Spain received their education at the Moorish court, and the rich women of France ordered their most elegant suits in Córdoba. The city was adorned with gardens, waterfalls and artificial lakes, and by means of an aqueduct, fresh water was supplied in abundance to the fountains and public baths, of which, according to a Muslim chronicler, there were seven hundred. Sumptuous palaces could be seen throughout the city, one of which, Al-Zahra (Medina Azahara), on the outskirts of Córdoba, required twenty-five years and the hard work of 10,000 workers to complete. Its ruins still testify today to its former greatness.[43].

However, the death of Almanzor unleashed anarchy in Córdoba and an open dispute for power, which in the first years of the millennium gave rise to the looting and pillaging of Córdoba and Medina Azahara. The former jewel in the crown was relegated in a few years to a city of secondary importance in the peninsular, Muslim and European context.

Contemporary Age

In September 1804, a focus of yellow fever was detected in the city, an epidemic that ended the lives of more than 1,500 Cordobans in just a few months. The outbreak began on Almonas Street, possibly coming from the port of Malaga, a city that in the summer of 1804 suffered a strong outbreak with more than 11,400 deaths. The infection will soon jump to Córdoba, affecting the capital and several surrounding municipalities such as Espejo "Espejo (Córdoba)"), Montilla or La Rambla "La Rambla (Córdoba)"). In the municipality of Córdoba, from the Axerquía area "Axerquía (Córdoba)") it spread to the rest of the city, although walls were raised and several streets were cut off. The gates of the city remained closed, except for the Rincón gates "Torre de la Puerta del Rincón (Córdoba)") and Nueva gate "Puerta Nueva (Córdoba)"), where bailiffs and a doctor were stationed to carry out health control. At the end of November 1804, the end of the epidemic was declared, which was celebrated with parties and joy.[44].

At the beginning of the Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814) the city suffered the systematic looting "Sacking of Córdoba (1808)") by the French imperial forces, after having briefly occupied it in June 1808. The city would be occupied by them again in 1810, during the campaign of General Jean-de-Dieu Soult in Andalusia, remaining under French control until the withdrawal of 1812.

In 1836, during the course of the first Carlist war, it was briefly occupied by General Miguel Gómez Damas.

In the middle of the century the arrival of the railway to Córdoba took place, with the inauguration of the Córdoba-Seville line in 1859.[45] In the following years, other routes were inaugurated: the Córdoba-Málaga line (1865),[46] the Manzanares-Córdoba line (1866),[47] the Córdoba-Belmez line (1873) or the Marchena-Valchillón (1885). As a result, the capital of Córdoba became an important railway junction, moving a large amount of passenger and merchandise traffic. A station was built, the well-known "central station" "Estación Central (Córdoba)"), which maintained connections with Seville "Estación de Sevilla-Plaza de Armas (MZA)"), Alcázar de San Juan and Madrid. Some years later, another station was built nearby, Cercadilla, the head of the routes to Málaga and Belmez.[48] The connection with the Marchena line was made through the Valchillón railway junction, located to the south of the city. A large complex of railway facilities was built around the stations, with large tracks, locomotive depots, "Rotunda (railway)" roundabouts, workshops, goods docks-warehouses, etc.[48].

Currently it is one of the best preserved cities in Spain, with a very extensive historic center, declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO on December 17, 1984. Likewise, the city presents areas of reference for the modern Córdoba of the century, such as the neighborhoods of Zoco and Plan Renfe for their urban quality.

Heritage

Historic architecture

Córdoba, an ancient city, has the second largest historic center in Europe, the largest urban space in the world declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. It is precisely there where a large part of the city's historic buildings are gathered. It is worth highlighting the most important building and symbol of the city, the Córdoba mosque and current cathedral which, together with the Roman bridge, form the best-known facet of the city. From the Roman period you can find, in addition to the bridge, the Roman temple located on Claudio Marcelo street and dedicated in its time to the imperial cult, the Roman theater located under the Archaeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba; It is the largest known in all of Hispania, the Roman mausoleum "Roman Mausoleum (Córdoba)") dedicated to a wealthy family of the time, the colonial forum, the forum adiectum"), the amphitheater and the remains of the palace of Emperor Maximian Herculeus in the archaeological site of Cercadilla.[51] The Roman villa in the Santa Rosa neighborhood, the Roman tombs near the Puerta de Sevilla, or the thermal baths. located in the basements of a building on Concepción Street. In addition to several sections of wall in chapter streets, Alfaros and Ronda de los Tejares.

Near the mosque-cathedral is the old Jewish quarter made up of a multitude of irregular streets, such as Calleja de las Flores and Calleja del Pañuelo, where you can visit the synagogue and the house of Sefarad. At the southwestern end of the old town is the Alcazar de los Reyes Cristianos, former accommodation of the kings and headquarters of the Inquisition, and adjacent to it are the Royal Stables, birthplace of the Andalusian horse in 1567. Near the stables are the old caliphal baths next to the wall. In the south of the old town and to the east of the mosque, located in the Plaza del Potro "Plaza del Potro (Córdoba)"), is the Posada del Potro, mentioned in literary works such as Don Quixote and La Feria de los Discretos. Both the medieval inn and the square receive their name from the fountain of the century located in the center of the square, which represents a foal. Not far from this square is the Portillo arch, the gate of the internal fence that separated the neighborhoods of the Medina from the neighborhoods of Axerquía.

Along the bed of the Guadalquivir are the Guadalquivir mills "Molinos del Guadalquivir (Córdoba)"), buildings from the Muslim era #Muslim_Epoca "History of Córdoba (Spain)") that took advantage of the power of the current to grind flour, such as the Albolafia mill, the Alegría mill or the Martos mill.[52].

Surrounding the extensive historic center is the old Roman wall, of which some paintings are preserved; the Almodóvar Gate, the Seville Gate "Puerta de Sevilla (Córdoba)") and the Bridge Gate "Puerta del Puente (Córdoba)"), which are the only three gates that remain of the thirteen that the city had; some towers such as the Malmuerta tower, the Belén tower and the Puerta del Rincón tower; and the fortresses of the Calahorra tower and the Donceles tower.

Scattered throughout the old town are numerous stately homes and palatial buildings such as the Viana palace "Palacio de Viana (Córdoba)"), the Merced palace, the Orive palace, the Aguayos palace"), the Luna palace "Palacio de los Luna (Córdoba)"), the palace of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, the palace of the Marquises of Carpio "Palacio de los Marquises del Carpio" (Córdoba)"), the palace of the Venegas, the palace of the Marquis of Benamejí, the palace of Torres Cabrera, that of the Dukes of Hornachuelos, the palace of the Counts of Las Quemadas, the palace of the Hoces (today the municipal archive), the palace of the Sigler of Espinosa and the Palace of the Fernández of Córdoba (both hotels today), the Palace of the Muñices (today a school), the palace of the Páez de Castillejo (Archaeological Museum), that of the Duke of Rivas (headquarters of the municipal housing company, Vimcorsa and for exhibitions), the baroque Palace of the Guzmanes (In the Realejo), etc.

From others we have only received their beautiful covers such as the Palace of the Marquis of Boil (Gondomar Street) or the Palace of the Marquis of Fuensanta del Valle (today a music conservatory).

On the outskirts of the city is the archaeological complex of the city of Medina Azahara (Madinat Al-Zahra) which, together with the Alhambra of Granada, constitutes the summit of Hispano-Muslim architecture.

And near the archaeological complex of Medina Azahara is the late medieval Monastery of San Jerónimo de Valparaíso (in private hands and visitable only a few days a year).

Other monuments are:

• - Cuesta del Bailío.

• - The minaret of San Juan, from an old mosque in the square of the same name, and the minaret or minaret of Santa Clara (today the tower of the former convent of the same name) are preserved from the caliphal era.

• - Arab baths. There are (at least) four Arab baths in the city of Córdoba, both from the Caliphate and later Almohad periods. They are the baths of the Caliphal Alcázar "Califal Baths (Córdoba)") (visitable), the baths of Santa María "Arab Baths of Santa María (Córdoba)") (visitable, they house a hospitality business), the baths of San Pedro (under rehabilitation, year 2025) and the bathrooms of the Fish Market "Arab Baths of Santa María (Córdoba)") (not yet visitable). There are also several baths in the caliphal city of Medina Azahara. And from the Christian medieval period (century) the baths of the Alcázar of the Christian Kings (visitable), and the Bishop's baths (buried on the site of the old provincial library, and not visible) are preserved.

• - Fernandinas Churches

Church of Santa Marina "Iglesia de Santa Marina (Córdoba)"), built in the century after the Christian conquest of the city.

The Fernandina churches are twelve Romanesque/Gothic churches, and are those Christian temples that were ordered to be erected in Córdoba (many were transformations of mosques that, in turn, had been churches during the Visigothic period) by Fernando III "the Saint" after the reconquest of the city in 1236. The mission of each of these churches was twofold: on the one hand, to be spiritual centers of the city, functioning as churches; and on the other hand, being the administrative centers of the city of Córdoba, each of the churches being the heads of the neighborhoods or collations into which the city was divided from the Middle Ages until the 20th century. Some of those that are preserved are:[53].

• - Church of San Nicolás de la Villa "Church of San Nicolás de la Villa (Córdoba)"). Located on Concepción Street.

• - Church of San Nicolás de la Ajerquía&action=edit&redlink=1 "Church of San Nicolás de la Ajerquía (Córdoba) (not yet written)"). Disappeared church. Formerly located on Paseo de la Ribera. Most of his belongings are currently in the church of San Francisco "Iglesia de San Francisco (Córdoba)").

• - Church of San Miguel "Iglesia de San Miguel (Córdoba)"). Located in the Plaza de San Miguel.

• - Church of San Juan and All Saints "Church of San Juan and All Saints (Córdoba)"). Located on Lope de Hoces street.

• - Church of Santa Marina de Aguas Santas "Iglesia de Santa Marina (Córdoba)"). Located in the Plaza de Santa Marina.

• - Church of San Agustín "Church of San Agustín (Córdoba)"). Located in the Plaza de San Agustín.

• - Church of San Andrés "Church of San Andrés (Córdoba)"). Located on Realejo street.

• - Church of San Lorenzo "Iglesia de San Lorenzo (Córdoba)"). Located in the Plaza de San Lorenzo.

• - Church of Santiago "Iglesia de Santiago (Córdoba)"). Located on Agustín Moreno Street.

• - Saint Peter's Basilica "Church of Saint Peter (Córdoba)"). Located in San Pedro Square. There is the silver urn with the relics of the Holy Martyrs of Córdoba, a source of great devotion in the city and holders of the Brotherhood of Mercy "Brotherhood of Mercy (Córdoba)") It was declared a Minor Basilica by Pope Benedict XVI in 2006.

• - Church of La Magdalena "Church of La Magdalena (Córdoba)"). Located on Ronda de Andújar avenue. Currently the church is not an object of Catholic worship, but is a cultural facility used above all by the CajaSur foundation.

• - Church of San Pablo "Iglesia de San Pablo (Córdoba)"). With main entrance through Capitulares and side entrance through San Pablo Street. It is part of the San Pablo Block, which consists of a large orchard, now converted into a park, overlooking several palaces and stately homes, including the Orive palace "Palacio de los Villalones (Córdoba)")[54] (also called the Villalones palace), which is why the orchard is also known as the Orive gardens "Jardines de Orive (Córdoba)"). In this orchard, the ruins of the ancient Roman circus were discovered in the 1990s.[55].

urban sculpture

Scattered throughout the city are the so-called Triunfos de San Rafael "Triumph of San Rafael (Córdoba)"), monuments that show devotion to the archangel Raphael, custodian of the city. Most are found at the entrances to the city such as the Roman bridge "Triunfo de San Rafael (Puente Romano de Córdoba)") (1651) or the gate of the Bridge "Triunfo de San Rafael (Puerta del Puente)") (1781) or in the old train station "Triunfo de San Rafael (Glorieta del conde de Guadalhorce)") (1743), since he is the patron saint of travelers. In addition, there were also outdoor altarpieces, of which only the Altar to San Rafael "Altar a San Rafael (Córdoba)") (1801) on Lineros Street is currently preserved.[56].

In the western part of the historic center there is the statue of Seneca (next to the Almodóvar Gate), the statue of Averroes (next to the Moon Gate), and that of Maimonides (in Tiberíades Square) in homage to these three great Córdoba philosophers. Further south, next to the gate of Seville "Puerta de Sevilla (Córdoba)"), are the sculpture to the poet Ibn Zaydun and the sculpture to the writer and poet Ibn Hazm and, inside the Alcázar, the monument to the Catholic Monarchs and Christopher Columbus.

• - Statue to Seneca.

• - Statue to Maimonides.

• - Statue to Averroes.

• - Statue to Alhakén II.

• - Statue to Ibn Hazm.

There are also several sculptures placed in the many squares of the old town. In the central Plaza de las Tendillas there is the equestrian statue of the Great Captain, in the Plaza de Capuchinos there is the Cristo de los Faroles, in the Plaza de la Trinidad there is the statue of Luis de Góngora, in the Plaza del Cardenal Salazar there is the bust of Al-Gafequi, in the Plaza de Capuchinas there is the statue of Bishop Osio, in the Plaza del Conde de Priego you can see the monument in honor of Manolete and in the Campo Santo de Los Mártires is the statue of Alhakén II and the monument to the lovers.

Other recent sculptures are those in homage to Diario Córdoba and the famous playwright, poet and writer Antonio Gala (inaugurated in 2024), both on the Gran Capitán boulevard. Also the sculpture tribute to the Andalusian flag, inaugurated at the beginning of 2025 on one side of the central Plaza de las Tendillas.

In the Agriculture Gardens "Jardines de la Agricultura (Córdoba)") you can see the monument to the painter Julio Romero de Torres "Monumento a Julio Romero de Torres (Córdoba)"), the bust of the sculptor Mateo Inurria, the bust of the poet Martínez Rücker and the sculpture dedicated to the gardener Aniceto García Roldán who was murdered in said park. Further south, in the gardens of the Duke of Rivas, is the statue of the writer and poet Ángel de Saavedra, Duke of Rivas, made by the famous sculptor Mariano Benlliure.

• - Equestrian statue of the Great Captain "Monument to the Great Captain (Córdoba)").

Bridges

The city of Córdoba currently has seven bridges:

• - Roman bridge: located over the Guadalquivir River as it passes through Córdoba, which connects the Campo de la Verdad area with the Cathedral neighborhood "Barrio de la Catedral (Córdoba)"). It was the only bridge that the city had for twenty centuries, until the construction of the San Rafael bridge, in the middle of the century. On January 9, 2008, the largest renovation that the Roman bridge has had in its history was inaugurated. Built at the beginning of the century AD. C., during the time of Roman domination in Córdoba, on the Guadalquivir River (probably replacing a more primitive wooden one), it has a length of about 331 m and is composed of 16 arches, although it originally had 17. It was an important means of entry to the city from the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula as it was the only point to cross the river without using any type of boat. Probably the Via Augusta that went from Rome to Cádiz passed through it. On one side of the bridge is the Calahorra tower "Torre de la Calahorra (Córdoba)") and on the other is the Bridge gate "Puerta del Puente (Córdoba)"). Throughout its history it has undergone numerous reconstructions, mainly one in the caliphal era, one after the Reconquista and another at the beginning of the century. These arrangements were more aesthetic than structural in nature. In fact, only arch number 14 and number 15 (starting from the Bridge gate) are original. The restoration was not without controversy due to the ambitious nature of the project, which wanted to return the bridge to an appearance as similar as possible to the original. To do this, the cutwaters were cleaned, the original ashlars were discovered, the cobblestones were replaced with a smooth granite floor and an existing niche dedicated to San Acisclo and Santa Victoria "Victoria (martyr)") was rehabilitated. Likewise, the original level of the northern end of the bridge was recovered, flush with the Bridge gate and the Ribera promenade.

• - San Rafael Bridge: it is made up of eight arches with a span of 25 m and a length between abutments of 217 m. The width is 18.5 m between parapets, distributed over 12 m of paved road for four circulations and two cement paved sidewalks. This bridge was inaugurated on April 29, 1953 by the dictator Franco, with Antonio Cruz Conde being mayor of the city. This bridge was the second bridge that Córdoba had after the Roman bridge connecting Avenida del Corregidor with Plaza de Andalucía. In January 2004, the commemorative plaques on the bridge disappeared, reading: “H.E. The Head of State and Generalissimo of the Armies, Francisco Franco Bahamonde, inaugurated this Guadalquivir bridge on April 29, 1953", which were located at each of the bridge's entrances, each one in its own direction.

• - Andalucía Bridge: it is located on the Guadalquivir River in Córdoba. It is a cable-stayed type, 444 m long, 30 m wide and 114 m maximum span. It was built in 2003 and designed by Javier Manterola. This bridge is part of the western ring road of Córdoba, formed on the river side by a suspension bridge.

Gardens, parks and natural environments

The city has more than 5.1 million square meters of urban public green areas, which gives a ratio of more than 15 m²/inhabitant. (recommended by the WHO). If the Los Villares and Sotos de la Albolafia peri-urban park is considered, the total surface area amounts to 10.2 million square meters (31 m²/inhabitant).

With 12.80% of green area and urban trees, Córdoba is at the head of Andalusia and fourth nationally (2019), although this figure will increase in the coming years with the opening of new parks proposed between 2020 and 2022.[62] Among its urban trees, the 21,000 orange trees that run through the streets of the city stand out.[63] Below are They show the main parks of Córdoba, although there are some more not mentioned.

• - The Victory Gardens "Jardines de la Victoria (Córdoba)"): located in the center of the city, it is worth highlighting two recently remodeled facilities within the gardens; This is the old Círculo de la Amistad Booth, today Mercado Victoria, the first gastronomic market in Andalusia, and the bandstand, as well as a small modernist fountain "Modernism (art)") from the beginning of the century. In the northern part, called Duque de Rivas gardens, in honor of the famous writer and politician from Córdoba, a neoclassical-style pergola stands out, the work of architect Carlos Sáenz de Santamaría, used as an exhibition hall as well as a cafeteria-bar.

• - The Agricultural Gardens "Jardines de la Agricultura (Córdoba)"): located between the Victoria Gardens and the Paseo de Córdoba, they are crossed by numerous paths that converge radially into small round squares, within each of which there is a fountain or pond. One of them is the duck pond, a pond in the center of which is an island with small buildings in which these animals live and which is why these gardens are popularly known as Duck Park. Scattered throughout the garden there are numerous sculptures such as the sculptural group in memory of Julio Romero de Torres "Monument to Julio Romero de Torres (Córdoba)"), the sculpture to the composer Martínez-Rücker and the bust of Mateo Inurria. In the northern part is the future state public library.

• - Miraflores Park "Parque de Miraflores (Córdoba)"): is located on the south bank of the Guadalquivir River. Inaugurated in 2003, it was designed by architect Juan Cuenca Montilla as a series of terraces that descend towards the river from above. It has, among other points of interest, a sculptural group by Agustín Ibarrola, the Salam and the Miraflores bridge itself "Puente de Miraflores (Córdoba)").

• - Cruz Conde park: located to the southwest of the city, it is an open, barrier-free park in the style of Anglo-Saxon landscape gardens.[64] It has a jogging circuit and the Axerquía theater "Teatro de la Axerquía (Córdoba)").

• - The Paseo de Córdoba or Vial Norte: located on the underground train tracks, it is a promenade several kilometers long with more than 434,000 m². The walk has numerous fountains that make up for the absence of large forest masses that are not possible due to the structure of the surface. The most notable are six fountains formed by a portico from which water falls like a waterfall into a pond with four staggered levels. Near its western end is a large area provided with dozens of fountains that flow from the ground itself and, without any type of architectural barrier, allows pedestrians to walk among them seeking refreshment from its waters. Integrated into the promenade, a water settling pond from Roman times is preserved, as well as the building of the old Renfe station "Estación Central (Córdoba)"), today converted into offices of Canal Sur.

Economy

jewelry industry

The jewelry industry has had a very marked presence in Córdoba since the 19th century. It is at the beginning of that century that the tendency of silversmiths to group together in guilds to defend their interests against the City Council is documented, which culminates with the founding of the Brotherhood of San Eloy in 1503, which was consolidated as the only professional group to this day. Silversmiths were considered artists of gold and silver, who needed knowledge of chemistry, mathematics and even architecture to develop their work. The professionalism of the silversmiths of Córdoba led the guild to impose strict quality controls on materials to maintain the reputation of the Córdoba industry, imposing harsh punishments on those professionals who skipped them. Silversmiths had the status of nobles, and enjoyed a good economic and social position.[77].

Currently, the Cordoban jewelry sector is the third largest jewelry exporter nationwide, behind Madrid and Barcelona, and the first in Andalusia. Its annual exports amount to 100 million euros, 60% of Andalusia's total, bringing together 50% of the exporting companies in the autonomous community.[78][79] It is made up of more than a thousand small workshops, which employ .[80][81][82].

With the aim of strengthening and modernizing the sector, creating synergies and creating a safe environment where jewelers could carry out their activity, the Jeweler Park was created in 2005.[83] 170 companies are located in this complex, which provides more than 1,000 direct and 2,000 indirect jobs, and which represents the largest concentration of companies in the jewelery sector in Europe.[80] In addition, in this center there is more than a School of Jewelry, which is a national reference in training in the sector.[82][84].

Tourism

In 2022, the city attracted , ranking as the tenth most popular city among tourists nationwide. The average length of stay per visitor was 1.69 days, indicating a recovery to pre-pandemic levels in 2019. However, the average revenue per room was €47.1, significantly lower than the national average of €74.5, representing a 2.4% decrease compared to 2019 data.

In Córdoba, this sector employs 837 people (2022), but is still far from recovering from the considerable impact it suffered during the COVID-19 Pandemic, resulting in the loss of more than half of the jobs (936 in 2019 compared to 432 in 2020).

The hotel capacity is made up of 108 establishments that offer 7,574 beds, of which 45 are classified as pensions, 40 as one to three-star hotels, 21 as four-star hotels, and two five-star hotels. The average occupancy rate stood at 52.5%, below the data recorded between 2014 and 2019. During that period, the occupancy rate experienced a constant increase, going from 56% to 61.8%, which was interrupted in 2020.

In the field of congresses, conventions and events, the year 2022 recorded a total of 64 meetings, with the participation of 8,417 delegates, which represents an increase of 86.8% compared to the year 2021. The frequency of these events corresponds to congresses (50%), followed by conferences (48.44%) and conventions (1.56%). Regarding temporal distribution, the periods with the highest number of meetings occur in spring and autumn. In terms of location, most events take place at universities (48%), followed by the Córdoba Congress Center (13%) and hotels (9%).[92].

Others

• - Agriculture: irrigated crops in the meadows and dry land in the countryside (olive groves, cereals...).

• - Other services: linked to its character as the provincial capital and to being a very important regional communications hub.

Trade

As in the majority of the country, small and medium commerce is the one with the most representation. Thanks to the good size of the city, it has a wide variety of companies and commercial chains that favor competition and the consumer. Despite this, commercial density is lower than the average in Spain.

• - El Arcángel shopping center. Located in the El Arcángel neighborhood "El Arcángel (Córdoba)"), it was inaugurated in 1994 and has more than 34,000 m² spread over two floors, plus underground parking. It is popularly known as "Eroski", since this company occupied 13,386 m² on the second floor of the center, which it also owned, until it decided to close it in November 2016 after selling its stake in the shopping center in July, as part of Eroski's divestment plan.[93] C&A, Toys "R" Us and Primark are some of the tenants that occupy the most surface area.

• - La Sierra shopping center. With a total constructed area of 109,000 m² spread over five floors, it was built in 1994. In 2016, it underwent a profound makeover of more than 18 million euros.[94] It houses a large number of shops, the most notable of which are Carrefour "Carrefour (multinational)"), Zara and the other stores of the Inditex group, and H&M.

• - Ronda de los Tejares shopping center, part of the El Corte Inglés chain. It is the most central shopping center in the city, which was inaugurated in 1995 in its current location on Avd. Ronda de los Tejares, replacing the old Galerías Preciados.[95].

• - Souk shopping center. Located on Manolete Avenue. Led by the company Deza.

• - Zahira shopping center. Located on the Madrid highway and the East ring road. Belonging to the Carrefour company "Carrefour (multinational)").

• - Ronda de Córdoba shopping center, owned by the El Corte Inglés group, which also houses a Hipercor center on the first floor. Opened in 2012 after an investment of 125 million euros, it is the newest center built in Córdoba. It has an area of 142,000 m², employing more than 3,000 employees, of which 800 are direct.[96].

Energy

The transport of high-voltage electrical energy from the plants that supply the city's consumption is operated by Red Eléctrica Española. In Córdoba it has first category (220 kV) and second category voltage lines with which they transport energy to the city, and second category with which they distribute the energy to the 16 local substations, from which access is given to the distribution company.[97] Endesa Distribución is the company that distributes the energy to the final consumer, through its own network.

The total electrical energy consumption in the city in 2016 was 1,308,399 MWh, of which 584,294 MWh are residential consumption.[98].

Services

Drinking water

The supply of drinking water to Córdoba is carried out by the Municipal Water Company of Córdoba (EMACSA), created in 1969.[99].

The water supplied by EMACSA is impounded in several reservoirs:

• - Guadalmellato Reservoir: 145 hm³.

• - San Rafael de Navallana Reservoir: 156.47 hm³.

• - Guadanuño Reservoir: 1.60 hm³.

Water purification is carried out in drinking water treatment stations (ETAP), where the water is treated so that it becomes suitable for human consumption. The main DWTP is Villa Azul, which uses the Guadalmellato reservoir, and serves more than 328,000 inhabitants. In addition, there are two more DWTPs: Guadanuño and Trassierra, which supply 5,400 inhabitants.[100].

Wastewater purification is carried out in wastewater purification stations (WWTP), where contamination is removed from the water for its return to the environment in suitable conditions. There are three WWTPs: La Golondrina, Cerro Muriano and Santa Cruz.[101].

Waste and cleaning of public roads

Sadeco is the Municipal Sanitation Company of Córdoba.[102] It was created in 1986 with the objectives of urban waste collection, treatment and final destination of waste; especially dedicated to recycling and composting, street cleaning, cleaning of schools and municipal public buildings, health and pests, technical services and maintenance, educational and support service (inspection, prevention and others).[102].

Cemeteries

CECOSAM (Cemeteries and Municipal Funeral Services of Córdoba, S.A.), is the company owned by the Córdoba City Council whose objective is to provide various funeral services.[103].

Its facilities are:

• - Nuestra Señora de la Salud Cemetery, the oldest, dating back to 1811.

• - San Rafael Cemetery "Cementerio de San Rafael (Córdoba)"), which came to alleviate space problems, inaugurated in 1835.

• - Nuestra Señora de la Fuensanta Cemetery, located on the outskirts, much more modern and inaugurated in 1988. The funeral home, the crematorium and the company headquarters are located here.

• - Santa Cruz Cemetery.

Education

Thanks to its good size, Córdoba has an extensive educational offer, among which we find nurseries, primary schools (CEIP), secondary education institutes (IES), etc.[104].

In addition, there are various Vocational Training centers (including, for example, the IES Galileo Galilei Center of Excellence)[105] and others of a special nature such as Zalima (administrative training center), the Higher School of Dramatic Art, Arts and Crafts, the Higher Conservatory of Music, the Professional Conservatory of Music, the Professional Conservatory of Dance or the Córdoba Jewelry School Consortium.

It has two Universities, the University of Córdoba "Universidad de Córdoba (Spain)") and the Loyola Andalusia University. The UCO "University of Córdoba (Spain)") is the main university in the city by size. In its academic offer of 43 degrees, 61 master's degrees and doctoral programs, 21,000 students are enrolled.[106] The teaching, research and administrative activity is carried out in the Rectorate, the former Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, and 4 campuses: two urban ones (Humanities and Legal and Social Sciences Campus, integrated and distributed throughout the city; Health Sciences Campus, next to the Reina Sofía University Hospital "Reina Sofía Hospital (Córdoba)")); Rabanales Campus, 6 km east of the city; and Belmez Campus, in the north of the province, created in 1923.[107] It has more than 1,200 teachers and 700 non-teaching workers.

Loyola Andalucía University is a private Catholic University belonging to the Society of Jesus. It had its origin in ETEA, Faculty of Economics and Business Sciences attached to the UCO, in 1963. Since then it has undergone various expansions, until in 2011 it became the first private University in Andalusia. It has three Campuses, in Córdoba, Seville and Dos Hermanas.[108].

Health

The city has an extensive health system, both publicly owned (through the Andalusian Health Service, SAS) and privately owned. The regulation of the sector corresponds to the autonomous community, which through the Andalusian Health Law extends free public health coverage to all Spaniards and foreigners, even if they are in an irregular situation in the country. Likewise, it divides health care into primary and hospital care. Primary care is that provided by family doctors, pediatricians and nursing staff in health centers and offices and at home.[109] Hospital care includes care provided by specialists both in specialty centers and in hospitals.[110].

The health network in Córdoba is made up of four public hospitals and three private hospitals; several specialty centers, 14 health centers and 9 offices in peripheral districts. In addition, we can find more than 1,400 health establishments of various types, such as pharmacies (191), opticians (90), dental clinics (198), assisted reproduction centers (3), dialysis centers, orthopedics, etc. The city also has a Regional Blood Transfusion Center (for blood, plasma and bone marrow) and a sectoral tissue bank.

Public primary care in Andalusia is organized into 17 Primary Care Districts, which serve one or several municipalities. In Córdoba, the Córdoba Primary Care district is responsible for the management and administration of health care activities, health promotion and disease prevention, care for health recovery, and monitoring of environmental and food risks; in the municipality.

It is made up of thirteen health centers, located in the urban core of the city; and by nine health clinics and one auxiliary clinic, located in the peripheral neighborhoods.

The Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía hospital complex "Hospital Reina Sofía (Córdoba)"), operated by the Andalusian Health Service (SAS), is the main hospital in the city. With regional category (the highest), this public center covers all the specialties offered by the National Health System "Sistema Nacional de Salud (Spain)"). It has more than 1,450 beds, 204 outpatient clinics, 32 operating rooms, 36 emergency rooms, 8 delivery rooms, and complete equipment. It is made up of different centers:[111].

The San Juan de Dios Hospital, in a private charitable center founded in 1935, property of the San Juan de Dios Hospital Order, after reforms in the 1990s and in 2013, has been modernized to take on the status of a general hospital. It covers more than 35 specialties, has 133 beds, ICU, 24-hour emergency room (general, pediatric and gynecological), 8 operating rooms, two delivery rooms, laboratory and clinical analysis services, among others. In 2016, it treated 54,000 patients, with a growth of 12% compared to the previous year, and 23.55% compared to 2012.

The Red Cross Hospital of Córdoba is another private charitable center founded in 1933, owned by the Spanish Red Cross. The SEP certification has been recognized, which certifies that it is a center of excellence.

The basic function of social services is to guide and collaborate with the population in any type of problematic situation in which they may find themselves, no matter how extreme it may be. Applying the principles of solidarity, inclusion, respect for diversity, multiculturalism and promotion of human development, municipal social services provide different resources for the population: orientation to problems, information about resources or, also, financial aid.

For groups, the SSMs provide advice on the creation and operation of groups that intervene in the resolution of some social problem or subsidies for projects of social interest.

Each intervention of municipal social services has several types of beneficiaries. First would be the direct beneficiaries, who would be the main recipients of our intervention. In addition to these, when a person overcomes a problematic situation, their immediate environment is also favored and, finally, the entire population advances socially by eliminating the effects and, where appropriate, the causes of different social problems.[115].

The work of social inclusion, in addition to being beneficial for the people who participate in the programs and activities, is profitable for society as a whole, since in the economically less favored sectors and in the new neighbors of multicultural origin lies an enormous productive potential that can be made profitable. The challenge is to mobilize these capabilities and apply them productively.

The municipal social services of the Córdoba city council comprise a series of blocks:

• - A central, administrative and management block.

• - A deconcentrated block of social work areas, 9 in total.

• - A block of services for the elderly, from which the home care service and the autonomy and dependency care system (SAAD) are coordinated. This section includes the Guadalquivir municipal residence for seniors. In addition to these main blocks, there is the Municipal Shelter and Social Emergency House as a resource for homeless people and those in a situation of social emergency.[116].

The municipality has a specialized staff, which is basically made up of social workers, community educators, administrative and administrative assistants, orderlies and clinical assistants, who are joined by several general administration technicians and mid-level technicians, or geriatricians, psychologists or sociologists. Regarding facilities, the Social Work Zones (ZTS) have community social services centers (CSSC), which are located in the network of municipal civic centers or in buildings for specific use. For their part, the Day Centers are distributed in their own network of municipal senior centers.[117].

Communications

Córdoba is located in a good geographical position, which places it as a logistical hub of the State Highway Network that connects western Andalusia and Málaga "Málaga (province, Spain)") with highways to central and northern Spain; and on the Córdoba highway with the north of its province, Ciudad Real, Toledo and the north of Extremadura. Its roads are divided into highways and highways, with no highways or tolls.

• - The Southern Highway E-5 A-4, inaugurated in 1992, connects the 296 km that separate Córdoba and Madrid to the north with a 401 km route, which makes it possible to travel between these two cities in less than four hours; and to the southwest it allows the connection with Seville on a route of 145 km passing through Écija, and with Cádiz and Jerez on 265 km and 235 km, respectively. This highway crosses the municipal area between points 382 and 424.

• - The Málaga A-45 Highway, opened in 2009, connects Córdoba with Málaga and other towns in the south of the province of Córdoba "Province of Córdoba (Spain)") with a length of 163 km.

• - The national highway N-432, which connects Badajoz and Granada passes through Córdoba, with a distance of 264 km to Badajoz and 204 km to Granada.

• - The national highway N-331, which connects Córdoba with Málaga on a route that runs parallel to the Málaga Highway A-45. After the commissioning of the A-45, it has been relegated to connecting between neighboring properties in the south of the province and crossing the towns through which it passes.

There are also roads in the Andalusian road network, which only pass through said community and are not included in the State Highway Network because they are managed by the Andalusian Government.

• - A-431: Córdoba - Villarrubia Highway "Villarrubia (Córdoba)"): Córdoba - Villarrubia "Villarrubia (Córdoba)").

• - CO-30: Córdoba Ring Road that includes:.

• - CO-32: Western variant of Córdoba.

There are 211,803 registered cars, which represents a rate of 65 per 100 inhabitants. This places the city above other larger cities such as Madrid, Barcelona or Zaragoza, whose rates are 60, 55 and 52 vehicles respectively per 100 inhabitants.

Of these, 68% (144,674) are passenger cars, with an average age of less than 10 years. Motorcycles account for 11% (23,746) while mopeds account for 7.97% (16,888), which gives an index of 5 mopeds per 100 inhabitants, compared to a national average of 1 per 100. Trucks and vans, with 11,000 and 13,000 units respectively, complete the list, with the latter being the ones with the longest average age (12 years) of the entire Córdoba mobile fleet.[118].

The building of the current Córdoba bus station is the work of architect César Portela and was awarded the National Architecture Prize in 1999. The emblematic building preserves archaeological remains of notable interest inside, mainly of Roman origin and several sculptures by Agustín Ibarrola and Sergio Portela.[119] Currently the companies Carrera&action=edit&redlink=1 "Carrera (company) (not yet written)"), Alsa, Rafael operate. Ramírez, Secorbús, Socibús, Autotransportes López, Unionbús and Linesur with a multitude of both regional and national destinations.

Culture

Libraries and Archives

The city of Córdoba has a wide network of public libraries.

Directly dependent on the City Council is the municipal network of libraries of Córdoba, made up of a Central library and a network of 11 branch libraries spread throughout the municipal area that cover a large percentage of the population.[123].

The Central Library of Córdoba is located in the Ronda del Marrubial (part of the old military barracks of Lepanto from the 16th century) and has a large area and sections for information and reference, newspaper archive, knowledge, local collections, biographies, literary works, art, music, cinema, computing, a comic room and a children's section.[124]

The Provincial Library of Córdoba is a State Public Library that emerged from the funds belonging to the convents, monasteries and churches that were being confiscated between the years 1835 and 1837. It has a fund of around 180,000 documents, including books, magazines, sound recordings, video recordings and other types of documents. Its important ancient collection stands out, with 78 incunabula and 647 manuscripts, as well as an excellent collection of books from the 19th century. In total it has more than 13,000 works prior to 1900.[125] In addition to this, the Ministry of Culture is building a second State Public Library on Avenida de América, popularly known as "de los Patos", due to the park around it "Jardines de la Agricultura (Córdoba)"). With a budget that has risen to 10 million, it is scheduled to be completed after a period of two years after the recovery of the works at the beginning of 2019.[126].

Apart from the municipal and provincial libraries, there are university libraries in the city in the different faculties of the city and various thematic libraries dependent on the Provincial Council or the diocese of Córdoba. of the Roger Garaudy Foundation, arises with the objective of disseminating the importance of classical Andalusian culture and its contributions to universal culture.[128] Likewise, the University of Córdoba "Universidad de Córdoba (Spain)") has scientific libraries in the different faculties in which it has a large number of specialized references such as more than 170,000 books, 4,076 scientific journals, theses read at the University, resources electronics, etc.

The Historical Archive of Viana located in the Viana palace "Palacio de Viana (Córdoba)") is an important nobility archive that stores more than 300,000 documents on the Spanish nobility. In addition to the information related to noble titles, it keeps 877 wills and estates from the 19th century, 868 parchments that refer to the Spanish monarchy since the Middle Ages and 39 lead seals referring to kings of Spain and popes, among others.[129].

• - Municipal Archive of Córdoba (located in the Casa Manor of the Hoces and then the Guzmanes), recently rehabilitated in 2025, has an outstanding collection of manuscripts, historical documents and old photographs.

• - Archive of the Provincial Council of Córdoba.

• - Provincial Archive (located on Pompeyos Street, in a baroque manor house and part of the disappeared Santo Domingo church, of which a chapel with Gothic vaults remains). It has a large documentary collection, historical press, planimetry, photographic collections, etc.

Museums and Exhibition Centers

• - The Archaeological and Ethnological Museum of Córdoba is one of the most complete in Spain, with pieces ranging from Prehistory to the Middle Ages.[130] Under the palace of the Páez de Castillejo "Palacio de los Páez de Castillejo (Córdoba)"), where the museum is located, are the remains of the Roman theater of Córdoba, the largest in Roman Hispania and one of the largest in the Empire Roman.[131].

• - The Provincial Museum of Fine Arts, located in the old Hospital de la Caridad "Hospital de la Caridad (Córdoba)"), houses an important collection of paintings and sculptures, mostly from the confiscations of the years 1835 and 1868.[132].

• - The Diocesan Museum of Fine Arts located in the old Episcopal Palace and in front of the Mosque. It contains paintings, tapestries and sculptures that cover periods from the Middle Ages to the present day.[133].

• - The Living Museum of al-Andalus"), also called the Museum of the Three Cultures, located in the Calahorra tower. It is an audiovisual museum about the coexistence of Christian, Jewish and Muslim cultures in the Middle Ages.[134].

• - The Caliphal Baths, built by Alhakén II and which were the most important in the city, house a museum where you can learn about the different rooms that made up the traditional Arab baths.[135].

• - The Bullfighting Museum, which contains pieces of the great bullfighters of Córdoba.

• - The Casa de Sefarad, located in the heart of the Jewish quarter and in front of the synagogue, is a museum about Sephardic culture, history and tradition.[136].

• - La Casa Andalusí"), a typical Moorish house from the 19th century, contains collections of ancient coins and a model of the first paper-making machines to arrive in the West.

• - The Viana Palace Museum "Palacio de Viana (Córdoba)") which houses Flemish, Gobelin and Goyesque tapestries; oil paintings from the Brueghel school; a collection of guadameciles and cordobanes; a gallery of battle paintings and a library of 7,000 volumes among others.[137].

• - The Water Museum, located in the Martos mill, shows the history of the uses of water in mills of this type for the manufacture of cereal flour and fabrics and skins.[138].

• - The Carbonell Oil Museum dedicated to the history and manufacture of oil.[139].

• - The CajaSur museum exhibition hall.

• - The Museum of the Umayyad Guadamecí) is an exhibition of Umayyad guadamecíes, artistic manifestations in leather that emerged in the city in the century during the caliphate.[140].

• - The Córdoba Visitor Reception Center. Located around the Bridge Gate. Place where there will be a general overview of what visitors will see in the city. It has an exhibition on the history of the city and the river.

Theaters and other cultural spaces

The theater with the largest capacity in Córdoba is the Teatro de la Axerquía, located outdoors and with a capacity of 3,500 people.[145] The other two large theaters in the city are:.

• - The Great Theater of Córdoba, built in the 19th century. Italian style, with a horseshoe-shaped hall and a capacity of about 1,000 seats,[146].

• - The Góngora Theater, built between 1929 and 1932 and with capacity for 1,050 people, is one of the few remains of architectural rationalism left in Córdoba.

• - Avanti Theater. Private theater with extensive programming all year round, focused especially on young audiences.

• - Teatro El Brillante"), inaugurated in 2021 within the La Salle school with a capacity of 500 seats.

In addition to these theaters, the Andalusian Film Library is also located in Córdoba, located in part of the old San Sebastián hospital "Hospital de San Sebastián (Córdoba)"), dedicated to the conservation, study and dissemination of the cinematographic heritage of Andalusia.

The Old Main Comic Theater is today used for all types of exhibitions, as is the Vimcorsa room.

As for cultural spaces dedicated to the natural world, the Córdoba Zoo "Zoológico de Córdoba (Spain)"), opened to the public in 1967, which has more than 102 species and an area of 4.5 hectares, and the Royal Botanical Garden of Córdoba, located on the banks of the Guadalquivir, stand out: it includes the Museum of Ethnobotany and the Museum of Paleobotany, which contains an exhibition of plant fossils of all ages. geological, unique in Europe.[147].

Cordoban Gastronomy

Given the strategic location of the city of Córdoba, Córdoba gastronomy is nourished mainly by products from the countryside: from its fertile plain, its countryside, from Sierra Morena and Pedroches (where its sheep and cattle herd comes from) as well as from the southern part (Subbética) of its internationally recognized olive oil. The combination of all these ingredients, all of them top quality, makes Córdoban cuisine a varied cuisine, where stews and stews stand out.

The province of Córdoba has 7 protected designations of origin, which are:

• - Extra Virgin Olive Oil:

Montoro-Adamuz

Priego de Córdoba

Baena

Lucena.

• - Wine:

Montilla-Moriles.

• - Iberian Ham

The Pedroches.

• - Vinegar:

Montilla-Moriles.

On the other hand, there are signs of Muslim influence in Cordoba gastronomy, such as the use of spices (oregano, mint, tarragon), or the use of foods introduced by the Arabs, such as rice, spinach, eggplant, or bitter orange.

As typical dishes of Cordoba gastronomy we can highlight the salmorejo, the flamenquines, the oxtail, the lamb with honey, the chopped oranges, the mazamorra, the fried eggplants with cane honey, the Moorish pinchitos, the artichokes a la montillana, the fried beans with ham, the Sephardic lamb, the maimones, etc. and as the most typical dessert we can highlight the Cordoban cake, it consists of a dough puff pastry filled with candied citron called angel hair "Cabello de angel (sweet)"),[148] as well as porridge, sopaipas, pestiños, flores, turrolates (Subbética), Mantecados and Anises (Rute) or Mazapanes (Montoro).

Also notable are the stews and different preparations of small game meat (rabbit, hare, partridge) and Sierra Morena large game meat (wild boar, deer).

In addition, all these dishes can be accompanied by excellent wines from the Montilla-Moriles protected designation of origin. Dry, aromatic, sweet, amontillado wines, etc., typical of the region and that have been grown in various municipalities of the Cordoba countryside since Roman times.

Craft

Since ancient times, Córdoba has had an important goldsmith tradition, dating back to Roman times. Currently, the jewelry sector in Córdoba continues to be very important with more than a thousand companies that represent 20% of the industrial sector of the province.[149] The Jewelry Park of Córdoba has 148 factories and 202 commercial premises, being the largest jewelry factory in the world.[150][151].

Córdoba is famous for its tanning and for all types of leather crafts, checkered horse saddles, screens or small furniture, perhaps the most typical product being cordoban. Currently there are few artisans who dedicate themselves to it, as is the case with the rest of the artisan products.[152].

• - Production of Flamenco and Classical Guitars. There are several workshops in the city with some of the best luthiers in the world.

• - Hat stores. The Cordoban hat is famous throughout the world. There are still some traditional workshops in the city, highlighting the century-old Russi Hat Shop.

• - Espartería. Work with the dried esparto plant is famous in the city, making all kinds of objects, from baskets, footwear or blinds. Some artisans still survive in the center and Plaza Mayor de la Corredera.

Literary setting

The city of Córdoba has been the setting for numerous novels:[153].

Parties

The Carnival of Córdoba consolidates itself year after year as a very popular festival, which reaches more people every year. It begins with the traditional Gala of the Sultan and the Sultana, which takes place on the Gran Capitán boulevard in front of the Gran Teatro. Months before, the troupes practice for the Group Competition that takes place at the Gran Teatro, where they will carry out a battle of couplets or chirigotas in which they mock and ridicule in the form of humorous criticism of current social issues. After the Grand Final, the street party begins with the proclamation.

It is a religious and cultural festival in which for a week, from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday, the brotherhoods walk the streets of Córdoba remembering some of the scenes of the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus or, in other words, remembering his last days, accompanied by Nazarenes and penitents. The brotherhoods are mostly accompanied by musical bands, but there are brotherhoods of silence. This holiday is celebrated in the months of March and April. Easter is the Sunday immediately after the first full Moon after the spring equinox, and must be calculated using the astronomical full Moon. Therefore it can be as early as March 22, or as late as April 25.

At this time Córdoba has a total of 6 pro-brotherhoods that process on the eve of Holy Week between Passion Thursday and Passion Saturday and 38 Brotherhoods that from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday head towards the official race located around the mosque-cathedral of Córdoba, starting at the Puerta del Puente "Puerta del Puente (Córdoba)") located in the Plaza del Triunfo "Triunfo de San Rafael (Córdoba)") and continuing along Torrijos Street, Cardenal Herrero Street, Patio de los Naranjos, interior of the cathedral, Plaza de Santa Catalina and Magistral González Francés Street. The areas most traveled by the brotherhoods are San Fernando Street "San Fernando Street (Córdoba)") (or Feria Street), Ribera and San Pedro.

May is the big month in Córdoba. During this month, Córdoba's main festivals are celebrated and for which it is widely known.

The Battle of the Flowers is a parade of floats in which the people inside, dressed in typical costumes such as gypsy or flamenco costumes, throw flowers, usually carnations, to the public who in turn return them. This festival takes place on May 1 around twelve noon and is considered the opening of the month of Cordoba, which is May.[155].

At the beginning of May, the May Crosses are celebrated, a festival in which crosses of about three meters are placed in the main streets and squares of Córdoba, completely decorated with flowers and surrounded by beautiful plants in pots and a traditional decoration that reflects the characters of the area, normally in the center of every cross. The visit of these beautiful crosses is usually accompanied by a bar where you can consume drinks and typical food of the land.

The tasting festival is held at the end of April. All the Córdoba wineries meet in the Mayo de Córdoba to offer us their best wines. The wines of the Montilla-Moriles Denomination of Origin are the protagonists of this Cordoba festival. Fino wine, Amontillado, Oloroso, Cream, Pedro Ximénez, Young White and Pedro Ximénez white are the different varieties that can be tasted in the tasting.

Sport

The city has the following sports facilities:[167].

Here are some of the sporting events that have taken place in Córdoba.

The city has the following sports entities: