In business administration, project management is the discipline that studies planning, organization, motivation and control of resources with the purpose of achieving one or more objectives. A project is a temporary undertaking designed to produce a single product, service or result[1] with a defined beginning and end (usually limited in time, cost and/or deliverables), which is undertaken to achieve unique objectives[2] and which will result in positive change or add value.
The temporary nature of projects contrasts with the normal operations of any organization,[3] which are repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional activities that make products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems are often very different, and require the development of different technical skills and management strategies.
The first challenge for project management is to achieve the project goal,[4] and objectives within known constraints.[5] The primary constraints or constraints are scope (project management), time, quality, and budget. The secondary challenge, and the most ambitious of all, is to optimize the resource allocation of the necessary inputs and integrate them to achieve the predefined objectives. There are many more limitations that depend on the nature of the project, security, related to the environment, related to the business opportunity and many other strategic types of the company.
The success of a project corresponds to the achievement of the scope, deadlines, cost and quality objectives through their integrated management.[6].
In project management, return on time invested (ROTI) is a metric to evaluate the efficiency of project execution. Projects often operate under time constraints, making time a valuable resource. Effective project management practices, such as clearly defining objectives, rigorous planning, and agile methodologies, maximize ROTI by ensuring that time spent leads to successful results. Monitoring ROTI allows project managers to reallocate time to improve overall project performance.
History
Until 1900 civil engineering projects were managed by creative architects, engineers and senior master builders, for example Vitruvius (1st century BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723), Thomas Telford (1757–1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859).[7] It was in the 1950s that organizations began to systematically apply project management tools and techniques to civil engineering projects. very complex engineering.[8].
Integrated project audit
Introduction
In business administration, project management is the discipline that studies planning, organization, motivation and control of resources with the purpose of achieving one or more objectives. A project is a temporary undertaking designed to produce a single product, service or result[1] with a defined beginning and end (usually limited in time, cost and/or deliverables), which is undertaken to achieve unique objectives[2] and which will result in positive change or add value.
The temporary nature of projects contrasts with the normal operations of any organization,[3] which are repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional activities that make products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems are often very different, and require the development of different technical skills and management strategies.
The first challenge for project management is to achieve the project goal,[4] and objectives within known constraints.[5] The primary constraints or constraints are scope (project management), time, quality, and budget. The secondary challenge, and the most ambitious of all, is to optimize the resource allocation of the necessary inputs and integrate them to achieve the predefined objectives. There are many more limitations that depend on the nature of the project, security, related to the environment, related to the business opportunity and many other strategic types of the company.
The success of a project corresponds to the achievement of the scope, deadlines, cost and quality objectives through their integrated management.[6].
In project management, return on time invested (ROTI) is a metric to evaluate the efficiency of project execution. Projects often operate under time constraints, making time a valuable resource. Effective project management practices, such as clearly defining objectives, rigorous planning, and agile methodologies, maximize ROTI by ensuring that time spent leads to successful results. Monitoring ROTI allows project managers to reallocate time to improve overall project performance.
History
Until 1900 civil engineering projects were managed by creative architects, engineers and senior master builders, for example Vitruvius (1st century BC), Christopher Wren (1632–1723), Thomas Telford (1757–1834) and Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859).[7] It was in the 1950s that organizations began to systematically apply project management tools and techniques to civil engineering projects. very complex engineering.[8].
As a discipline, project management developed several fields of application, among which are civil construction, engineering, heavy defense.[9] The two precursors of project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques,[10] who is famous for the use of the Gantt chart as a tool in project management (also known as Harmonogram, first proposed by Karol Adamiecki[11]); and Henri Fayol for the creation of the five management functions that are the cornerstone of the body of knowledge related to management projects and programs.[12] Both Gantt and Fayol studied and analyzed Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories on scientific organization. His work is the precursor to various modern project management tools such as the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s ushered in the era of modern project management where several fundamental fields of engineering began to work as one. Project management was recognized as a unique discipline that emerged with engineering models.[13] In the United States, before the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis, primarily using the Gantt chart and other informal tools. At that time, two mathematical models were developed to project times. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed through collaborations between the DuPont Corporation and the Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. Likewise the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT (in its acronym in English, it was developed by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the United States Army submarine program (in conjunction with Lockheed Corporation));[14] These mathematical techniques quickly became popular in other private endeavors.
Simultaneously, as project time management models were developed, technology for estimating project costs, cost management, and engineering economics evolved, with the innovative work of Hans Lang among others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now known as AACE International; Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering), was formed by early practitioners of project management and specialties associated with planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost control/scheduling (project control). The AACE continued its pioneering work until in 2006 it published the first integrated process framework for portfolio, program and project management (total cost management).
The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,[15] as a federation of several national project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and accepts members from all continents. IPMA offers a four-level certification that is based on the IPMA Core Competency Pillars (ICB).[16] The certification covers technical, contextual and behavioral competencies.
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the United States.[17] PMI publishes "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge" (PMBOK Guide), which describes the most common practices for "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers various certifications.
The development of digital society 3.0 is revolutionizing the form and procedures of management. This development has allowed interactivity and participation in project management by very diverse professionals. Through digital communication on Linkedin, very active groups have been created, such as the Strategic Project Management Group with more than 7,500 members from all over the world.[18].
Main features:
• - Single view of the customer, including service history, contacts and addresses.
• - Intelligent search and seizure service parts based on flexible compliance logic.
• - Technical support escalates and alerts customers to user-defined triggers (order status, SLA, DOA, product history, severity, etc.).
• - Sophisticated response time rules, prioritization and assignment.
• - Universal queue of service requests to capture a variety of customer needs.
• - Solve problems collaboratively through the creation, delegation and monitoring of projects and tasks.
• - Streamline problem resolution through embedded knowledge management functionality.
• - Interactive programming and real-time sending of resources.
Main Benefits:
• - Solve problems more efficiently and effectively.
• - Reduce average call handling times.
• - Increase customer satisfaction.
• - Get the right technician in the right place at the right time.
Approaches
Contenido
Existen varios enfoques para la gestión de actividades de un proyecto,[19] incluyendo enfoque lean (producción esbelta), reiterativo, incremental y en fase.
Sin importar la metodología utilizada, se deben considerar cuidadosamente los objetivos totales del proyecto, los tiempos, los costos, así también como los roles y responsabilidades de cada participante (Interesados o stakeholders).
Traditional
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to follow. In the "traditional approach",[20] five development components are distinguished (four steps and one control):
Initiation.
Planning and design.
Execution (realization) and construction.
Monitoring and control systems.
Closing (delivery).
Not all projects will have all the stages, some projects are canceled before reaching closure, some projects do not follow a structured plan or are not monitored, and some projects may repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 several times.
Many industries use variations of these stages. For example, when working on the design and construction of rigging "Rigging (construction)"), typically the project will progress through stages such as pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, development design, construction drawings (or contracts), and construction management. For software development, this approach is known as a waterfall model.[21] This is a series of tasks concatenated one after the other in linear sequence. For software development, organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this approach, although RUP does not explicitly require or recommend this practice. The waterfall model works well in small, well-defined projects, but usually fails in larger projects of a more ambiguous nature. The cone of uncertainty explains that this is what happens in project planning with high degrees of uncertainty since it means the creation of a totally new product.
In projects where the requirements "Requirement (systems)") have not been finalized and may change, requirements management is used to develop a complete and accurate definition of software behavior that can serve as a basis for development.[22] Although the terms may vary between different types of industry, the stages follow common steps to solve problems - "define the problem, weigh the options, choose the path, implement and evaluate."
Within this approach, the most implemented model is that of the Project Management Institute (PMI), which includes professional certifications for project managers (PMP).
PRINCE2
PRINCE2 is a structured approach to project management that was published in 1996 as a generic method for project management.[23] It combines the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the PRINCE method) with IBM's MITP (total project implementation management). This approach provides a management method within a very defined framework.
PRINCE2 focuses on defining and delivering products, particularly the quality of requirements. As such, it defines that a project is successful when it is delivery-oriented (not activity- or task-oriented) through the creation of a set of agreed deliverables[24] that define the scope of the project and provide a basis for planning and control. That is, how people and activities are coordinated, how to design and monitor the delivery of the product, and what is done if the product and therefore the scope of the project needs to be adjusted if it does not go as planned.
In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and with the specific goals and activities in order to deliver the result of the project as defined in the Business Case. This allows for continuous evaluation and adjustments when deviations from the business case occur.
PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in a project. The PRINCE2 governance framework - roles and responsibilities - are fully described and need to be adapted to the complexity of the organization's projects and capabilities.[24].
Project Management by Critical Chain
Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) is an intrinsic management method. It takes into account the limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, management and capacity) necessary to carry out the project.
CCPM is an application of the theory of constraints (TOC) in projects. The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization (throughput or volume of work). Once the first three correlative points of TOC implementation have been implemented, the limitations of the system can be identified for all projects, as well as the resources. To take advantage of limitations, critical chain tasks are prioritized above the rest of the activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that resources are available when a critical chain task must begin, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.
The project plan must undergo resource leveling, and the largest sequence of resource-constrained tasks is considered the critical chain. In some cases, such as when managing outsourced sub-projects, it is recommended to use a simplified approach without resource leveling.
In multi-project environments, resource leveling must cut across all projects. However, it is enough to identify (or select) a single "drum". The resource that acts as a constraint across all projects, which are staggered based on the availability of that resource alone, is called a drum.
You can also use a "virtual drum" by selecting a task or group of tasks (usually integration points) and limiting the number of projects in the completion stage.
Project control systems
Project control should be established as an independent function of project management. In essence, it consists of implementing control and verification processes during the development of a project in order to reinforce predefined performance objectives. Project control also includes the following tasks:.
• - The creation of an infrastructure that allows those responsible for control to have adequate and updated information on the project at all times.
• - The establishment of communication channels to report deviations in the planned project milestones.
• - Establish a system with key performance indicators.
• - The establishment of methods that guarantee an adequate structure and allocation of resources in the project, the organization of workflows, and the creation of good governance codes.
• - Allocate resources for the training of project members[25] in those areas that require it, mainly to avoid the most common errors in project management.[26].
• - Guarantee transparency in the execution of all the tasks that make up the project.
The fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved through the use of specific tools and methods, such as the following:.
• - Investment analysis.
• - Cost-benefit analysis.
• - Expert surveys.
• - Simulations.
• - Analysis of the trend in the achievement of milestones.
• - Cost trend analysis.
• - Implementation review.
Effective control of a project allows it to be on track and executed on time and on budget.[27] It begins in the early stages of planning and ends with the review phase, once the project has concluded. Projects can be audited or reviewed during their development. Formal audits typically look at compliance with planning or the risks being taken. Project managers are usually the ones who set the objectives of said audit. The review may include a comparison between the approved processes for managing the project and how it is actually being managed.[28] Each project should be evaluated according to the level of control needed: too much control consumes time, while laxity can carry too many risks.
International standard
The international standard ISO 21500, Guide to Project Management, developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) describes the concepts and principles of project management. The latest version was published in 2012 as ISO 21500:2012.
[2] ↑ * La guía definitiva de la gestión de proyectos (FT/PH). Nokes, Sebastian. 1º Ed.n. Londres (Financial Times / Prentice Hall): 2006. ISBN 978-8483223215.
[3] ↑ Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects done right! John Wiley and Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7113-8.
[4] ↑ Lewis R. Ireland (2006) Project Management. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-147160-X. p.110.
[5] ↑ Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. ISBN 0-07-223062-2 p.354.
[7] ↑ Dennis Lock (2007) Project Management (9th ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2007. ISBN 0-566-08772-3.
[8] ↑ Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). "A brief History of Project Management". En: The story of managing projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 1-56720-506-2.
[9] ↑ David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global Project Management Handbook. "Chapter 1: "The evolution of project management". McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4.
[10] ↑ Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways. Association for Project Management. APM Publishing Limited, 2002
[11] ↑ Edward R. Marsh (1975). "The Harmonogram of Karol Adamiecki". In: The Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jun., 1975), p. 358. (online).: http://www.jstor.org/pss/255537
[12] ↑ Morgen Witzel (2003). Fifty key figures in management. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-36977-0. p. 96-101.
[13] ↑ David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global Project Management Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4. p.1-4 states: "Fue en los años 50 cuando la gestión de proyectos fue formalmente reconocida como una contribución distintiva que surgía de las disciplinas de gestión.".
[17] ↑ F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced project management: a structured approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 0-566-07822-8. p.34.
[18] ↑ Dirigido por José Luis Portela, profesor del IE Business School y co-autor del libro: Linkedin 200 millones: EL CEO se ha quedado obsoleto, 2012, Edita CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Madrid, ISBN 978-1481089760.
[21] ↑ Winston W. Royce (1970). "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems" Archivado el 15 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine. in: Technical Papers of Western Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon) August 25–28, 1970, Los Angeles, USA.: http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/spring2003/cmsc838p/Process/waterfall.pdf
[27] ↑ Lewis, James (2006). The Project Manager's Desk Reference. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0071464642.
[28] ↑ Snyder, Cynthia (2006). Introduction to IT Project Management. Management Concepts. ISBN 978-1567261783.
As a discipline, project management developed several fields of application, among which are civil construction, engineering, heavy defense.[9] The two precursors of project management are Henry Gantt, called the father of planning and control techniques,[10] who is famous for the use of the Gantt chart as a tool in project management (also known as Harmonogram, first proposed by Karol Adamiecki[11]); and Henri Fayol for the creation of the five management functions that are the cornerstone of the body of knowledge related to management projects and programs.[12] Both Gantt and Fayol studied and analyzed Frederick Winslow Taylor's theories on scientific organization. His work is the precursor to various modern project management tools such as the work breakdown structure (WBS) and resource allocation.
The 1950s ushered in the era of modern project management where several fundamental fields of engineering began to work as one. Project management was recognized as a unique discipline that emerged with engineering models.[13] In the United States, before the 1950s, projects were managed on an ad hoc basis, primarily using the Gantt chart and other informal tools. At that time, two mathematical models were developed to project times. The "Critical Path Method" (CPM) was developed through collaborations between the DuPont Corporation and the Remington Rand Corporation for managing plant maintenance projects. Likewise the "Program Evaluation and Review Technique" or PERT (in its acronym in English, it was developed by Booz Allen Hamilton as part of the United States Army submarine program (in conjunction with Lockheed Corporation));[14] These mathematical techniques quickly became popular in other private endeavors.
Simultaneously, as project time management models were developed, technology for estimating project costs, cost management, and engineering economics evolved, with the innovative work of Hans Lang among others. In 1956, the American Association of Cost Engineers (now known as AACE International; Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering), was formed by early practitioners of project management and specialties associated with planning and scheduling, cost estimating, and cost control/scheduling (project control). The AACE continued its pioneering work until in 2006 it published the first integrated process framework for portfolio, program and project management (total cost management).
The International Project Management Association (IPMA) was founded in Europe in 1967,[15] as a federation of several national project management associations. IPMA maintains its federal structure today and accepts members from all continents. IPMA offers a four-level certification that is based on the IPMA Core Competency Pillars (ICB).[16] The certification covers technical, contextual and behavioral competencies.
In 1969, the Project Management Institute (PMI) was formed in the United States.[17] PMI publishes "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge" (PMBOK Guide), which describes the most common practices for "most projects, most of the time." PMI also offers various certifications.
The development of digital society 3.0 is revolutionizing the form and procedures of management. This development has allowed interactivity and participation in project management by very diverse professionals. Through digital communication on Linkedin, very active groups have been created, such as the Strategic Project Management Group with more than 7,500 members from all over the world.[18].
Main features:
• - Single view of the customer, including service history, contacts and addresses.
• - Intelligent search and seizure service parts based on flexible compliance logic.
• - Technical support escalates and alerts customers to user-defined triggers (order status, SLA, DOA, product history, severity, etc.).
• - Sophisticated response time rules, prioritization and assignment.
• - Universal queue of service requests to capture a variety of customer needs.
• - Solve problems collaboratively through the creation, delegation and monitoring of projects and tasks.
• - Streamline problem resolution through embedded knowledge management functionality.
• - Interactive programming and real-time sending of resources.
Main Benefits:
• - Solve problems more efficiently and effectively.
• - Reduce average call handling times.
• - Increase customer satisfaction.
• - Get the right technician in the right place at the right time.
Approaches
Contenido
Existen varios enfoques para la gestión de actividades de un proyecto,[19] incluyendo enfoque lean (producción esbelta), reiterativo, incremental y en fase.
Sin importar la metodología utilizada, se deben considerar cuidadosamente los objetivos totales del proyecto, los tiempos, los costos, así también como los roles y responsabilidades de cada participante (Interesados o stakeholders).
Traditional
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to follow. In the "traditional approach",[20] five development components are distinguished (four steps and one control):
Initiation.
Planning and design.
Execution (realization) and construction.
Monitoring and control systems.
Closing (delivery).
Not all projects will have all the stages, some projects are canceled before reaching closure, some projects do not follow a structured plan or are not monitored, and some projects may repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 several times.
Many industries use variations of these stages. For example, when working on the design and construction of rigging "Rigging (construction)"), typically the project will progress through stages such as pre-planning, conceptual design, schematic design, development design, construction drawings (or contracts), and construction management. For software development, this approach is known as a waterfall model.[21] This is a series of tasks concatenated one after the other in linear sequence. For software development, organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this approach, although RUP does not explicitly require or recommend this practice. The waterfall model works well in small, well-defined projects, but usually fails in larger projects of a more ambiguous nature. The cone of uncertainty explains that this is what happens in project planning with high degrees of uncertainty since it means the creation of a totally new product.
In projects where the requirements "Requirement (systems)") have not been finalized and may change, requirements management is used to develop a complete and accurate definition of software behavior that can serve as a basis for development.[22] Although the terms may vary between different types of industry, the stages follow common steps to solve problems - "define the problem, weigh the options, choose the path, implement and evaluate."
Within this approach, the most implemented model is that of the Project Management Institute (PMI), which includes professional certifications for project managers (PMP).
PRINCE2
PRINCE2 is a structured approach to project management that was published in 1996 as a generic method for project management.[23] It combines the original PROMPT methodology (which evolved into the PRINCE method) with IBM's MITP (total project implementation management). This approach provides a management method within a very defined framework.
PRINCE2 focuses on defining and delivering products, particularly the quality of requirements. As such, it defines that a project is successful when it is delivery-oriented (not activity- or task-oriented) through the creation of a set of agreed deliverables[24] that define the scope of the project and provide a basis for planning and control. That is, how people and activities are coordinated, how to design and monitor the delivery of the product, and what is done if the product and therefore the scope of the project needs to be adjusted if it does not go as planned.
In the method, each process is specified with its key inputs and outputs and with the specific goals and activities in order to deliver the result of the project as defined in the Business Case. This allows for continuous evaluation and adjustments when deviations from the business case occur.
PRINCE2 provides a common language for all participants in a project. The PRINCE2 governance framework - roles and responsibilities - are fully described and need to be adapted to the complexity of the organization's projects and capabilities.[24].
Project Management by Critical Chain
Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) is an intrinsic management method. It takes into account the limited availability of resources (physical, human skills, management and capacity) necessary to carry out the project.
CCPM is an application of the theory of constraints (TOC) in projects. The goal is to increase the flow of projects in an organization (throughput or volume of work). Once the first three correlative points of TOC implementation have been implemented, the limitations of the system can be identified for all projects, as well as the resources. To take advantage of limitations, critical chain tasks are prioritized above the rest of the activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that resources are available when a critical chain task must begin, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.
The project plan must undergo resource leveling, and the largest sequence of resource-constrained tasks is considered the critical chain. In some cases, such as when managing outsourced sub-projects, it is recommended to use a simplified approach without resource leveling.
In multi-project environments, resource leveling must cut across all projects. However, it is enough to identify (or select) a single "drum". The resource that acts as a constraint across all projects, which are staggered based on the availability of that resource alone, is called a drum.
You can also use a "virtual drum" by selecting a task or group of tasks (usually integration points) and limiting the number of projects in the completion stage.
Project control systems
Project control should be established as an independent function of project management. In essence, it consists of implementing control and verification processes during the development of a project in order to reinforce predefined performance objectives. Project control also includes the following tasks:.
• - The creation of an infrastructure that allows those responsible for control to have adequate and updated information on the project at all times.
• - The establishment of communication channels to report deviations in the planned project milestones.
• - Establish a system with key performance indicators.
• - The establishment of methods that guarantee an adequate structure and allocation of resources in the project, the organization of workflows, and the creation of good governance codes.
• - Allocate resources for the training of project members[25] in those areas that require it, mainly to avoid the most common errors in project management.[26].
• - Guarantee transparency in the execution of all the tasks that make up the project.
The fulfillment and implementation of these tasks can be achieved through the use of specific tools and methods, such as the following:.
• - Investment analysis.
• - Cost-benefit analysis.
• - Expert surveys.
• - Simulations.
• - Analysis of the trend in the achievement of milestones.
• - Cost trend analysis.
• - Implementation review.
Effective control of a project allows it to be on track and executed on time and on budget.[27] It begins in the early stages of planning and ends with the review phase, once the project has concluded. Projects can be audited or reviewed during their development. Formal audits typically look at compliance with planning or the risks being taken. Project managers are usually the ones who set the objectives of said audit. The review may include a comparison between the approved processes for managing the project and how it is actually being managed.[28] Each project should be evaluated according to the level of control needed: too much control consumes time, while laxity can carry too many risks.
International standard
The international standard ISO 21500, Guide to Project Management, developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) describes the concepts and principles of project management. The latest version was published in 2012 as ISO 21500:2012.
[2] ↑ * La guía definitiva de la gestión de proyectos (FT/PH). Nokes, Sebastian. 1º Ed.n. Londres (Financial Times / Prentice Hall): 2006. ISBN 978-8483223215.
[3] ↑ Paul C. Dinsmore et al (2005) The right projects done right! John Wiley and Sons, 2005. ISBN 0-7879-7113-8.
[4] ↑ Lewis R. Ireland (2006) Project Management. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-147160-X. p.110.
[5] ↑ Joseph Phillips (2003). PMP Project Management Professional Study Guide. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2003. ISBN 0-07-223062-2 p.354.
[7] ↑ Dennis Lock (2007) Project Management (9th ed.) Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2007. ISBN 0-566-08772-3.
[8] ↑ Young-Hoon Kwak (2005). "A brief History of Project Management". En: The story of managing projects. Elias G. Carayannis et al. (9 eds), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2005. ISBN 1-56720-506-2.
[9] ↑ David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global Project Management Handbook. "Chapter 1: "The evolution of project management". McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4.
[10] ↑ Martin Stevens (2002). Project Management Pathways. Association for Project Management. APM Publishing Limited, 2002
[11] ↑ Edward R. Marsh (1975). "The Harmonogram of Karol Adamiecki". In: The Academy of Management Journal. Vol. 18, No. 2 (Jun., 1975), p. 358. (online).: http://www.jstor.org/pss/255537
[12] ↑ Morgen Witzel (2003). Fifty key figures in management. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0-415-36977-0. p. 96-101.
[13] ↑ David I. Cleland, Roland Gareis (2006). Global Project Management Handbook. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2006. ISBN 0-07-146045-4. p.1-4 states: "Fue en los años 50 cuando la gestión de proyectos fue formalmente reconocida como una contribución distintiva que surgía de las disciplinas de gestión.".
[17] ↑ F. L. Harrison, Dennis Lock (2004). Advanced project management: a structured approach. Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2004. ISBN 0-566-07822-8. p.34.
[18] ↑ Dirigido por José Luis Portela, profesor del IE Business School y co-autor del libro: Linkedin 200 millones: EL CEO se ha quedado obsoleto, 2012, Edita CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, Madrid, ISBN 978-1481089760.
[21] ↑ Winston W. Royce (1970). "Managing the Development of Large Software Systems" Archivado el 15 de marzo de 2016 en Wayback Machine. in: Technical Papers of Western Electronic Show and Convention (WesCon) August 25–28, 1970, Los Angeles, USA.: http://www.cs.umd.edu/class/spring2003/cmsc838p/Process/waterfall.pdf