The railway
The railway, born in the 19th century, is one of the great protagonists of the Industrial Revolution.
In the beginning, animal power was used as a means of locomotion, the rails were made of wood and their use was limited to mines for the transportation of coal.[note 2] In a book published in 1797, Carz claimed to have been the first to think of replacing wood with iron.[53] The first concession from the Parliament of England for the construction of a railway – powered by horses – dates back to 1801; It was a line between Wandsworth and Croydon about 13 kilometers long and costing £60,000. The great railway revolution began in 1814, when George Stephenson used the steam engine as a means of locomotion. His invention was a success and immediately began to be used in the mines, being able to transport eight 30-ton wagons at a speed of 7 km/h. These results were enough to expand the use of the machine to other services. It was in 1821 that Parliament authorized the construction of the first steam-powered railway line between Stockton and Darlington. The line was inaugurated in 1825 with an engine maneuvered by Stephenson himself pulling 34 wagons at a speed of between 10 and 12 miles per hour (16–19 km/h);[54] The newspaper The Times described this feat as follows:.
In the following 5 years, Parliament authorized the construction of 23 new railway lines, among which was the famous line between Manchester and Liverpool, its builders being the first to offer passenger transport services on the railway. At that time there was distrust of the safety that locomotives could offer, but the reception was very good, improving the benefits derived from this service by 10%, although income from the transport of cotton, fabrics, coal and livestock still remained the majority. This success was also discussed by George Porter, who in his book The Progress of the Nation says:.
It was on this occasion Stephenson himself who won the bid on this line, making his Rocket the one in charge of towing a 12-ton train at 22 km/h.[56] The first mail by rail was sent on November 11, 1830.[55] Arrival times were considerably reduced, with mail arriving between London and Manchester in approximately 18 hours. In England, following the slogan laissez faire, the State did not intervene in the construction or subsidization of the railway but limited itself to granting licenses and permits for construction and exploitation;[56] in this way, enormous fortunes were spent in order to obtain the different permits; For example, the Great Western cost 89,000 pounds in preliminary expenses and others like the London and Birmingham 62,000.[57].
The railways were initially narrow gauge and only allowed speeds between 15 and 20 kilometers per hour, but in 1840 the tracks had been widened and speeds of almost 40 km/h could be achieved.
The first continental country to follow the English example was Belgium with two lines Brussels-Mechelen and Mechelen-Antwerp in 1835. The first year they transported 70,000 passengers. The cost was very low and the Brussels-Antwerp ticket cost only one franc.[58] The invention entered France with some delay, because while young people, engineers and followers of Saint-Simonism demanded its construction, they encountered the rejection and distrust of many, in addition to the lack of iron. The French government, seeing the potential of the device, ordered a study for a national railway plan. The study was completed in 1837 and the capitalists, impatient, pressured the government to carry out the project in order to speculate with the works and the land. The plan consisted of seven lines centered in Paris, which would link the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Rhine. Unlike in England and Belgium, the state took charge, at least in part, of their construction and operation, contributing 150,000 francs per kilometer of track and building the necessary infrastructure.[58] Meanwhile, private companies contributed 100,000 francs for buildings and material.[59] After 40 years of private administration and operation, the system would pass to the State. Romantic and conservative socialists were opposed to the project, the former demanding that the system be part of the state from day one and the latter considering it too expensive.[59] Finally the plan was approved, but some agreements were revised and in practice the construction and operation was carried out almost exclusively by the private sector.[59] In 1857 the network was consolidated and was owned by 6 large companies. Due to the obligation to transfer the property to the State after 40 years of exploitation, its care and maintenance was greatly neglected, so the French government was forced to extend the term by 99 more years, even committing to pay the obligations when they expire.[59].
In Germany, the first line was built in 1835 with an extension of seven kilometers between Nuremberg and Fürth, but it was in 1839 when the first important line was built between Dresden and Leipzig, promoted by the professor of political economy List, one of the main promoters of the Nuremberg-Fürth line. The railroad was soon seen as a powerful political weapon; At the time of the railway's appearance, Germany was divided into more than 300 small states and autonomous cities. Since the construction of the Dresden-Leipzig line, all German cities wanted to unite with their neighbors, which in addition to a great economic boost did a great service for the triumph of the Zollverein.[60] Unlike in the rest of the countries, in Germany the administration was in charge of monitoring or managing all the railways.[61] In 1850 the Zollverein already had 5,800 kilometers, almost double that of the entire France. Hannover, Bremen, Hamburg, Berlin, and Frankfurt formed a great line that ran over the main industrial centers and linked Germany to Switzerland through Basel and to Austria through Moravia and Silesia.
Beginning in the 1820s, railroads and steamships spread to the United States and soon conquered public opinion. Stevens carried out a first test in Hoboken "Hoboken (New Jersey)" that caused great interest among Pennsylvania businessmen, who bought a locomotive from England.[62] As in Great Britain, the accumulation of capital made possible only a year later the beginning of the construction of a first line between Washington and Winchester "Winchester (Massachusetts)"). In 1830 a locomotive called Best Friend exploded while traveling on the Charleston (West Virginia)-Hamburg line because the engineer had sat on the exhaust valve due to the discomfort he felt due to the hissing of the steam when leaving. But far from backing down, the country progressed at a frenetic pace and by the mid-1830s it was already producing its own locomotives at the West foundry. Point[63] ensuring a solid national industry. Since then the United States laid rails across its vast territory at a much greater speed than Europe. If in 1830 it had only 65 kilometers of route - compared to 316 Europeans, 276 of them in Great Britain -, 10 years later it already surpassed Europe with 4,509 kilometers compared to 3,543 Europeans.[62] In 1850 the railways already added up. 14,400 kilometers. One of the problems posed by the railways was the track gauge,[note 3] which varied in width in different countries, which forced numerous transfers to the delight of hoteliers. But apart from the travel time, in just a few years it did not take more than 20 hours to travel from Boston to New York by train when before it took about 80.[62].
In Italy, d'Azeglio's predictions that the railways would sew the boot did not go beyond simple promises, since until 1845 there were only small isolated lines such as the Milan-Monza, Padua-Venice, Leghorn-Pisa line or the Campania line that Ferdinand of Naples built for his recreation and private use.[64] In Hungary there was only a small track around Budapest and in Russia tsarism had to impose the construction of the Moscow-St. years under the direction of the English engineer Locke, its inauguration was on October 28, 1848, a journey of 28 km and 600 m that was completed in 35 minutes.[note 4] In 1851, the second Spanish railway that covered the Madrid-Aranjuez line, whose concession had been granted in 1844 with an extension to Cádiz, made its first trip. In 1850 the construction of the first Spanish locomotive began, completed in 1852.[64].
Exceptions aside, in the period between 1820 and 1840, Great Britain was clearly ahead of the rest of the world.[64] It was the only one that had a good transportation network between its main cities. He worked with real frenzy between 1840 and 1847 despite the latent rivalry between the opposition, the financial groups, the Turnpike trusts and the population, whose means of subsistence continued to be the roads. A similar situation occurred in Belgium, which in 1843 had even more kilometers than France and public opinion very favorable to the railway.[64]
There were many who saw the railway as a great danger, even mortal. Since the 19th century, when they were launched in England, there have been voices, including from the British Royal Academy of Sciences, suggesting that at speeds above 40 km/h passengers would suffocate, go blind and cattle would go mad. There were also fears of the destruction of farmland or that people and goods would be thrown from the device due to its "devilish" speeds.[65].
After the first half of the century, the following half century between 1851 and 1901, known as Railway Age, saw the peak and definitive reign of the railroad. But mechanical traction on rails is above all the work of the West. In 1860, Europe and the US shared more or less 198,000 equally, while the rest of the world did not have more than 15,000 kilometers, most of them located in European colonies.[66] In 1910, more than a million kilometers had already been built, of which 380,000 were in the US and 330,000 in Europe.[66] Its construction It required an enormous effort, mobilizing large amounts of capital, workers and stimulating the metallurgical industry and the construction of gigantic work workshops, in addition to giving its maximum splendor to the steam engine.[66]
In addition to the wagons and locomotives, the rails on which they circulated also evolved. The steel rail replaced the iron one and the wood of the sleepers began to be injected with zinc chloride to prevent it from rotting. The railway also required a large infrastructure that had to be developed, such as tunnels, which were excavated at the cost of workers' suffering at very high temperatures with the use of compressed air drills and the lining of the galleries with cast iron, replacing wood; Ventilation was achieved with blowers. Some successes must be highlighted, among which are the tunnel that crosses Mont Cenis, built over 15 years and with an extension of 13,600 m at 1,300 meters high.[67] Others such as the Saint Gotthard of more than 15,000 meters were completed in less than 10 years using the automatic drilling machine, the working conditions being dire: the workers worked at a temperature of 86 degrees.[67] Outside Europe, the Americans built a tunnel under the Hudson River. Scandinavia is linked to Germany through the ferry-boats between Rügen and Malmö.
While in the first half of the century the locomotive had barely gained speed without ever exceeding 40 km/h, it made decisive progress based on the idea of the English engineer Crampton of placing the driving wheels behind the boiler (and not below), wheels that are coupled, transferring the rotation movement. In 1850 the average speed, which was 27 km/h, rose in 1880 to 74 km/h in England and 59 km/h in the United States.[68] In 1890 the Empire-State-Express exceeded 100 km/h for the first time in history between New York and Buffalo "Buffalo (New York)").[68] To cross France from one end to the other. railway only needed 14 hours. In this second part of the century the cost of the ticket decreased between 50 and 70%.[69].
The locomotive's performance increased steadily. The handbrake was replaced by a new compressed air hydraulic brake.[68] Passenger carriages were fitted with shale oil-based gas lighting or electric lighting at the end of the century, with the London-Brighton line being the first to incorporate it.[68] The steam engine, the heart of the machine, also provides heating in the carriages. The so-called Boggie or multi-axle frame allowed the convoy to make much more pronounced curves, reducing the risks, as it adapted to the curvature of the track.[68] The so-called palace-cars were also created on the longest lines for rich families in which they enjoyed all kinds of comforts and without having to mix with the rest of the passengers.[68] In 1880, a printing car was installed on the Pacific line in which A daily newspaper was published with the news received telegraphically at the stations.[68].
With the exception of Great Britain, Belgium, and some parts of Spain and Germany, railways did not form networks anywhere before 1860.[70] In France, a serious effort was finally made from the Second Empire and at the dawn of the Third Republic. In this second half of the century, the backbone of European railways began to be seen.[70] Its limits extended from northern France to Upper Silesia from east to west and from Germany to northern Italy from north to south; In the center, Switzerland distributes traffic throughout the continent. On the other hand, most of Italy, the Iberian Peninsula and the eastern countries were left out.[70] Great achievements continue to be made in the United States. In 1869, the first transcontinental train that connected the country from east to west was completed. The construction was directed by the ruthless General Grenville M. Dodge as if it were a military campaign. He used demobilized soldiers, Irish immigrants and even Chinese in California as labor.[70] But this triumph was not achieved easily; Indians, the irregular relief and especially the competition between the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific made the situation extremely difficult. But enthusiasm prevails and in 1893 there were already 5 other transcontinental lines in operation, being used as a means of colonization in the American West or in British Columbia as a means of pressure to achieve its accession to the Union.[70].
Although late, the Russian effort is presented, achieved thanks to loans from the West.[70] Firstly, the Transcaspian was built, which from 1905 was complemented by the Transaralian. In Siberia the difficulties were enormous: ice, water infiltrations, immense rivers, weak human density, enormous distances, without forgetting the irregular relief. But the old routes and roads were no longer enough and the longest railway in the world was started in 1891 and reached its destination, Vladivostok, thanks to an agreement with China, in 1902.[70].
Thus, the railroad not only served to revolutionize the world of transportation, both material and human, but was used as an excellent instrument of unity.[71] It served well in the reconciliation and annexation of new territories to the United States and the German Empire knew how much it owed the railroad to leave it in private hands. In Italy it facilitated the hegemony of the House of Savoy. The same did not happen in France or Great Britain, where they were mostly in private hands, although in England they provided unparalleled service, elevating the nascent British Empire to world hegemony. By 1850 the railway had carried between 400 and 500 million travelers and between 200 and 300 million tons of goods since its birth. Five decades later, in 1905 alone it transported between 4,000 and 5,000 million travelers.[71].
Roads and canals
The effort to build and improve highways (or roads) began in many parts of Europe before the Industrial Revolution. Since the end of the Napoleonic Wars at the beginning of the century and in the absence of other more effective means of communication, roads were extensively improved. At the beginning of the century, the most advanced country in this matter was France with a network of 33,000 kilometers of high quality that extended to Germany, Switzerland and Italy. The Netherlands, the Kingdom of Prussia and Switzerland had also experienced a great improvement in communications. At the other extreme were places like Sicily, which did not begin construction until well into the 19th century, Tsarist Russia, which would not have its first road between Moscow and Saint Petersburg—its main cities—until 1834, or Spain, which had only 6,000 kilometers of roads before the middle of the century, which were also narrow and full of irregularities and deficiencies. In Great Britain, the rapid development of railways and canals makes their construction less important, but even so, expansions and modernizations of the battered British network continue, counting in 1850 with more than 50,000 kilometers of route, 18,000 more than twenty years ago.[74].
The technique in the construction of these communication routes also improves. In each country they are built differently, but the classic problems derived from these constructions such as water leaks, maintenance or infrastructure were solved in the 1820s and 1830s based on the improvements introduced by Mac Adam or Telford. in the transport of passengers, goods and mail.[76] It was not until the beginning of the century when, thanks to the internal combustion engine and the development of the automobile, massive use was given to these routes.
The first canals began to be built in Great Britain in the century with the aim of connecting the industrial centers of northern Britain with the seaports of the south and London. Canals were the first technology that allowed easy and relatively fast transportation of goods throughout the country, being able to transport several dozen times more tonnage per trip than with land transportation. Added to this was the country's completely flat relief, which allowed the canals to be built quickly and at a low price. By the early 1820s, a consolidated national network already existed. The English example was copied in France, which with a relief similar to the British one, was able to develop its own system, which in the middle of the century had 8,500 kilometers of tracks. In Germany, thanks to its large rivers such as the Rhine and the Elbe, navigation was greatly favored, as was trade, which experienced great development. In other countries like Spain, the construction of canals did not go beyond a project due to the difficult relief and lack of capital. Outside the continent, the Americans with their entrepreneurial drive and their numerous lakes and large rivers managed to quickly develop their own system, which, like the railroad, helped in the colonization and exploitation of the country's vast lands. By early 1835 the US already had 7,000 kilometers of canals that paved the way for the introduction of the steamboat into the country even faster than the ever-innovative Great Britain.[77].