urban architecture

Since the time of the Mahajanapadas (600-320 BC), walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-story buildings that consistently used arched windows and doorways, and which made extensive use of wooden architecture, are important features of Indian architecture.[6]​ The Sanchi reliefs, dating from the century BC. C. to the century AD. C., already show representations of cities such as Kushinagar or Rajagriha that show them as splendid walled cities during the time of Buddha (century BC), as in the Royal procession that leaves Rajagriha or the war over the relics of Buddha. Those views of ancient Indian cities were based on the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture. Archaeologically, that period corresponds in part with the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.[7] Geopolitically, the Achaemenid Empire began occupying the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from ca. 518 BC C.[8][9]​.

Various types of individual dwellings from the time of Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BC), resembling huts with doors decorated with chaitya, are also described in the Sanchi reliefs. Particularly, the Jetavana at Sravasti), shows the Buddha's three favorite residences: the Gandhakuti, the Kosambakuti and the Karorikuti, with the Buddha's throne in front of each. The Jetavana garden was presented to the Buddha by the rich banker Anathapindika"), who bought it for so many pieces of gold that it would cover the surface of the ground. Therefore the foreground of the relief is shown covered with ancient Indian coins (karshapanas"), as shown in a similar relief in Bharhut.[10] Although the Sanchi reliefs date back to the century BC. C., the scene portrayed takes place during the time of the Buddha, four centuries before, which is considered an important indication of the construction of traditions in those early times.[11]​.

religious architecture

During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BC), Buddhist monks also had the custom of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave), southwest of Rajgir, Bihar. (paranirvana).[12]​[15]​[16]​ The Buddha himself also used the Indrasala Cave") for meditation, beginning a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made, as religious retreats, which would last over a millennium.[17]​.

The earliest monasteries, such as the Jivakarama vihara in Rajgir, Bihar, were built from the time of the Buddha, in the 6th or 5th centuries BC. C.[18][19][20] The initial monastery of Jivakarama was made up of two long parallel and elongated corridors, large dormitories where the monks could eat and sleep, in accordance with the original regulations of the samgha, without private cells.[18] Other rooms were later built, mostly elongated and oblong buildings, reminiscent of the construction of several of the Barabar caves.[18][21]​ It is said that Buddha was once treated at the monastery, after being wounded by Devadatta.[18][22]​.

Religious buildings in the form of a Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, began to be used in India as memorials associated with the preservation of sacred relics of Buddha.[23]​ The relics of Buddha were divided among eight stupas, at Rajagriha, Vaishali "Vaishali (ancient city)"), Kapilavastu&action=edit&redlink=1 "Kapilavastu (ancient city) (not yet drafted)"), Allakappa"), Ramagrama"), Pava, Kushinagar and Vethapida").[24]​ The Piprahwa stupa") also appears to have been one of the first to be built.[24]​ Protective railings—consisting of posts, cross bars and a coping—became a safety feature surrounding a stupa.[6]​ Buddha himself had left instructions on how to pay homage at stupas: "And whoever puts garlands or place sweet perfumes and colors there with a devout heart, you will reap benefits for a long time.”[25]​ This practice would lead to the decoration of stupas with stone carvings of flower garlands in the Classic period.[25]​.

Monumental stone architecture

The next wave of construction, based on the first examples of true stone architecture, appears with the beginning of the Classic period (320 BC-550 AD) and the rise of the Mauryan Empire. The capital city of Pataliputra was an urban wonder described by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. The remains of monumental stone architecture, with strong Achaemenid and Greek influence, can be seen in the numerous artifacts recovered from Pataliputra, such as the Pataliputra capital. This cross-fertilization between different artistic currents that converged on the Indian subcontinent produced new forms that, while preserving the essence of the past, managed to integrate selected elements of new influences.

The Indian emperor Ashoka (r. 273-232 BC) established Ashoka Pillars throughout his kingdom, usually next to Buddhist stupas. According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka had recovered Buddha's relics from previous stupas (except from the Ramagrama stupa) and erected new stupas to distribute the relics throughout India. Indeed, many stupas are thought to date originally from Ashoka's time, such as at Sanchi or Kesariya"), where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly at Bharhut, Amaravati") or Dharmarajika"), in Gandhara.[24]

Ashoka also built the early Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya around the Bodhi tree, including masterpieces such as the Diamond Throne (Vajrasana). He is also said to have established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire in 230 BC.[26] One of Ashoka's edicts reads: "Everywhere, King Piyadasi [Ashoka] erected two types of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be purchased and planted. "[27] Indian art and culture have absorbed foreign impacts to varying degrees and are much richer for that exposure.

During the Mauryan Empire (ca. 321-185 BC), many fortified cities with stupas, viharas and temples were built.[6] Architectural creations of the Mauryan period, such as the city of Pataliputra or Ashoka's Pillars, stand out among their achievements, and are often compared favorably with the rest of the world at the time. Commenting on Mauryan sculpture, archaeologist John Marshall "John Marshall (archaeologist)") noted the "extraordinary precision and accuracy which characterizes all Mauryan works, and which has never been, we dare say, surpassed even by the most refined workmanship of Athenian buildings."[28]​[29]​.

decorated stupas

Stupas were soon richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, after the first attempts at Sanchi Stupa No. 2" (125 BC). Sculptural decorations and scenes from the life of Buddha were used at Bharhut (115 BC), Bodh Gaya (60 BC), Mathura (125–60 BC), and again at Sanchi[43] for the elevation of the stupas. toranas (1st century BC - 1st century AD) and then Amaravati") (1st-2nd century).[44] The decorative ornament of stupas also had considerable development in the northwest of the Gandhara area, with decorated stupas such as the Butkara stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 1st century BC)[45]​ or the Loriyan Tangai stupas") (1st century BC). Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became a prominent Buddhist monument used to enshrine sacred relics.[23] The Indian entrance arches, the torana, arrived in East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.[46] Some scholars maintain that the torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (17th century BC–17th century).[47]

Exempt temples

The temples—built on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were initially built using bricks and wood.[6] Some wooden temples with wattle and bush") may have preceded them, but none remain to this day.[50]

Some of the earliest free-standing temples may have been of the circular type, such as the Bairat temple, in Bairat), Rajasthan, consisting of a central stupa surrounded by a circular colonnade and a surrounding wall. It was built during the time of Emperor Ashoka and two of Ashoka's minor rock edicts were found near it. Ashoka also built the Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya ca. 250 BC, also a building. circular, to protect the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha would have found enlightenment. Depictions of this early temple building are found in a relief from 100 BC carved on the railing of the stupa at Bhārhut, as well as at Sanchi. From that period remains the Diamond Throne, an almost intact slab of sandstone decorated with reliefs, which Ashoka had established at the foot of the tree. Bodhi.[52]​[53]​ These circular type temples were also found in later rock-cut caves, such as in the Tulja Caves) or Guntupalli Caves.[50]​.

Another early free-standing temple in India, this time apsidal in form), appears to be Sanchi Temple No. 40, which also dates back to the 1st century BC.[56] It was a wooden apsidal temple built on a tall rectangular stone platform, of , with two flights of stairs arranged on the east and west sides. The temple was burnt down sometime in the century BC.[57][58]​ This type of apsidal building It was also adopted in most caves (Chaitya-grihas"), as in the Barabar caves"), from the century BC, and in most later caves, with side, and then frontal entrances. (Maharashtra).[59]​.

The temple in the form of a truncated pyramid is thought to have derived from the design of the stepped stupas that had developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya is an example of this type, adapting the Gandhara design of a succession of steps with niches housing images of Buddha, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, as seen in the Jaulian stupas. The building is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa crowned by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped gandhara stupas.[60]​.

Although the current building of the Mahabdhodi temple dates back to the Gupta period (1st century AD), the so-called "Mahabhodi Temple plaque" - discovered at Kumrahar - and dated between 150 and 200 AD based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and the combined finds of Huvishka coins - suggests that the pyramidal building already existed in the 1st century AD.[60] This was confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.[60]​.

This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa, dedicated to the cult of relics, to the iconic temple in which there were already numerous images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.[60] This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples.[61]​.

End of the classical period

This period ends with the destructive invasions of the Alchon Huns in the 19th century. During the rule of the Hunnic king Mihirakula, more than a thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, writing in 630, explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of the monks. He reported that Buddhism had declined drastically. and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. Gandhara Buddhist art, particularly Greco-Buddhist art, essentially died out in that period. The invasions marked the beginning of the decline of Buddhism in India.

Although it only lasted a few decades, the invasions had long-term effects on India, and, in a sense, put an end to classical India.[67] Shortly after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by those invasions and with the rise of many local rulers, ended as well.[68] After these invasions and the collapse of the Guptas, a time of some disorder followed in northern India, with the emergence of numerous other Indian powers. small.[69]​.

Temple architecture in South India already appears as a distinct tradition during the 19th century.[71]​.

Māru-Gurjara temple architecture originated sometime in the century in and around the areas of Rajasthan. Māru-Gurjara architecture displays the deep understanding of constructions and refined skills of Rajasthani craftsmen of the bygone era and has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According to M. A. Dhaky, the Maha-Maru style developed mainly in Marudesa, Sapadalaksha") and Surasena and in parts of Uparamala, while the Maru-Gurjara would have originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and in some areas of Gujarat.[72] Scholars such as George Michell, M.A. Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely Western and that it differs quite a bit from North Indian temple architecture.[73] There is a connection between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture. In both styles, the architecture is treated in a sculptural manner.[74] Regional styles include Karnataka architecture, Kalinga architecture, Dravidian architecture, Indian architecture. the Western Chalukyas") and the architecture of the Badami Chalukyas").

The temple of southern India consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary surmounted by a superstructure, tower or spire, and a portico or hall with adjoining pillars (maṇḍapa or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular courtyard. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and have niches that house sculptures. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of floors that gradually retreat in a pyramidal shape. Each floor is outlined by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vaulted ceilings in the center.

The temples of northern India already in the century showed greater elevation of the walls and had elaborate towers.[75] Richly decorated temples were built in central India, including those in the complex at Khajuraho.[75] Indian traders brought Indian architecture to Southeast Asia through various trade routes.[76] Characteristics of temple architecture in India were the grandeur of construction, beautiful sculptures, delicate carvings, tall domes, the gopuras and the wide patios. Prominent examples are the Lingaraj temple"), in Bhubaneshwar (Odisha), the Suria temple (Konark)Suria templeSuria_temple&action=edit&redlink=1 "Suria temple (Konark)Suria temple (not yet drafted)"), in Konark (Odisha) or the Brihadeeswarar temple"), in Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu).

vijaynagara architecture

The architecture of the Vijayanagara period (1336–1565) was a notable style of construction developed by the Vijayanagara empire which ruled most of southern India from its capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.[87]​ The architecture of the temples built during the Vijayanagara period had elements of political authority.[88]​ This led to the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture that It stood out not only in temples but also in administrative buildings throughout the Deccan.[89]​ The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the styles of the Chalukya, Hoysalas, Pandya and Cholas that evolved at the beginning of the centuries in which these empires dominated and are characterized by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.[90]​.

Early Indo-Islamic architecture

After the Muslim conquests and their establishment in the region, the first examples of Indo-Islamic architecture came to light. Few examples survive from the period, most notably the Qutb complex, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993. The complex consists of the Qutab Minar, begun in 1193 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak – the first Muslim ruler in the Delhi area, and founder of the Delhi Sultanate – but who was only able to complete its base. His successor, Iltusmish, added three more floors. The work was completed in 1368 by Firuz Shah Tughluq, and since then, with its 72.5 m height, it has been the tallest brick minaret in the world. Other monuments built by successive sultans of Delhi remain,[91]​ such as the Alai Minar, a minaret intended to double the size of the Qutb Minar and which was commissioned by Alauddin Khilji"), although it was never completed.

Other examples include the Tughlaqabad Fort") and the Hauz Khas Complex").

Rajput architecture

Rajput architecture represents different types of buildings, which can generally be classified as secular or religious. The buildings that are preserved, of various scales, are temples, forts, baoris, gardens and palaces. The forts were built especially for military and defense purposes due to Islamic invasions.

During the 19th century, Mughal architecture and Mughal painting influenced the art and architectural styles of the native Rajputs.[92]​.

The hill forts of Rajasthan (Amber, Chittor), Gagron, Jaisalmer, Kumbhalgarh, Ranthambore), a group of six forts built by various Rajput kingdoms and principalities during the medieval period, are among the best examples of Rajput architecture. The complex has also been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2013. Other notable forts are the Mehrangarh Fort and the Jaigarh").

Most of the population of Rajasthan is Hindu, and historically there has been a sizeable Jain minority; This mix is ​​reflected in the numerous temples in the region. Māru-Gurjara architecture), or "Solaṅkī style", is a distinctive style that originated in Rajasthan and neighboring Gujarat around the 17th century, and which has been recovered and brought to other parts of India and the world by both Hindus and Jains. This represents the region's main contribution to Hindu temple architecture. The Jain temples of Dilwara on Mount Abu, built between the 11th and XIII, are the best known examples of this style. Mughal architecture greatly influenced native Rajput artistic and architectural styles.[94]​.

The walled city of Jaipur") was founded in 1727 by the Rajput ruler Kacchwaha Jai ​​Singh II") and is "a unique example of traditional Hindu urban planning",[97]​ following the precepts established in numerous Hindu texts. Later, the City Palace (Jaipur), the Hawa Mahal, the Rambagh Palace, the Jal Mahal and the Albert Hall Museum were also built. Udaipur also has several palaces, including the Bagore-ki-Haveli), now a museum, built in the 19th century.

Rajput architecture continued well into the 2nd centuries, as the rulers of the princely states of British India commissioned vast palaces and other buildings, such as the Albert Hall Museum, Lalgarh Palace, and Umaid Bhawan Palace. These large buildings usually also incorporated European styles, a practice that eventually led to the Indo-Saracenic style.

Some architectural elements that innovated and influenced Rajasthani architectural styles are:.

Buddhist architecture

Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent with three types of buildings associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: viharas (monasteries), places to venerate relics (stupas) and shrines or prayer halls (chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which were later called temples in some places. The initial function of a stupa was the veneration and protection of the relics of Gautama Buddha. The earliest surviving example of a stupa is at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (prayer halls). This is exemplified by the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves (Maharashtra) complexes. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar is another well-known example. The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa.

Latest Indo-Islamic architecture

In the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Five Deccan Sultanates developed the Deccan Indo-Islamic architectural styles. The most notable examples are Charminar, Mecca Masjid, Qutb Shahi tombs, Mahmud Gawan Madrasa and Gol Gumbaz.[109]

Within the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region developed a distinct regional style under the independent Bengal Sultanate. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North India,[110] which combined with indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex terracotta ornamentation. A characteristic of the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.[111] At this time many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic mihrabs with "Niche (architecture)" niches, were built throughout the region.[111] The great mosque of Bengal was the 19th-century Adina Mosque, the largest mosque on the Indian subcontinent. Built of stone from demolished temples, it had a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first giant vault of this type used in the subcontinent. The mosque was inspired by the imperial Sassanian style of Persia. mausoleums in northern India.[113]​.

Maratha architecture

The Marathas ruled much of the Indian subcontinent from the middle to the beginning of the century.[114] Their religious activity took full shape and soon the skies over Maharashtrian cities were dominated by the spiers of temples. The old ways returned with this 'renewal' of Hindu architecture, infused by the Sultanate and later by Mughal traditions. The architecture of the Maratha period was planned with courtyards adapted to tropical climates. Maratha architecture is known for its simplicity, for its visible logic and austere aesthetics, enriched by beautiful details, rhythm and repetition. Corridors and archways, pierced by delicate niches, doors and windows, create a space in which the articulation of open, semi-open and covered areas appears effortless and charming. The materials used during those times for construction were thin bricks, lime mortar, lime plaster, wooden columns, stone bases, basalt stone floors and brick pavements.

Maharashtra is famous for its caves and rock-cut architectures. The varieties found in Maharashtra are said to be greater than the caves and rock-cut architectures of Egypt, Assyria, Persia and Greece. Buddhist monks started these caves in the century BC. C., in search of a serene and peaceful environment for meditation, and they found it in these caves on the slopes.

Sikh architecture

Sikh architecture is a style of architecture characterized by the values ​​of progressiveness, exquisite complexity, austere beauty and logical flowing lines. Due to its progressive style, it is constantly evolving in many newly developed branches with new contemporary styles. Although Sikh architecture was initially developed within Sikhism, its style has been used in many non-religious buildings due to its beauty. 300 years ago, Sikh architecture was distinguished by its many curves and straight lines; Shri Keshgarh Sahib") and the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) are the best examples.

Sikh architecture is heavily influenced by Mughal and Rajput styles of architecture. The use of onion domes, frescoes, multi-leaf arches, paired pilasters, resting work, are of Mughal origin, while chattris, oriel windows and ornate friezes are a Rajput influence.[115]​.

Contenido

Al igual que ocurrió con los mogoles, bajo el dominio colonial europeo, la arquitectura se convirtió en un emblema del poder, diseñada para respaldar al poder ocupante. Numerosos países europeos invadieron la India y crearon estilos arquitectónicos que reflejan sus hogares ancestrales y adoptados. Los colonizadores europeos crearon una arquitectura que simbolizaba su misión de conquista, dedicada al estado o la religión.[116]​.

Los británicos, franceses, neerlandeses y portugueses fueron las principales potencias europeas que colonizaron partes de la India.[117]​[118]​.

British colonial era (1615-1947)

The British arrived in 1615 and, over the centuries, gradually overthrew the Maratha and Sikh empires and other small independent kingdoms. The British were present in India for over three hundred years and their legacy still remains through some buildings and infrastructure that remain in their former colonies.[119]​ The main cities colonized during this period were Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore"), Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad "Hyderabad (India)"),[120][118]​ which saw the rise of Renaissance architecture. Indo-Saracenic"). Black Town described in 1855 as 'the secondary streets, occupied by the natives, are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and poorly ventilated... a sumptuous square, the rooms opening onto a courtyard in the centre."[121] Garden houses were originally used as weekend homes for recreational use by upper-class Britons. However, the garden house became an ideal full-time home, leaving the fort in the 19th century.[122]​

Mumbai (then known as Bombay), has some of the most notable examples of British colonial architecture, some in the neo-Gothic style (Victoria Terminus Station), Mumbai University, Rajabai Clock Tower, High Court, BMC Building), Indo-Saracenic (Prince of Wales Museum, India Gate, Taj Mahal Palace, Hotel Taj Mahal), or art deco (Eros Cinema, New India Assurance Building).

Calcutta–Madras and Calcutta were similarly surrounded by water and the division of India in the north and the British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 that "the banks of the river are, as may be said, absolutely full of elegant mansions called here, as in Madras, garden houses." The esplanade row is in front of the forts with palaces lined up.[124]​[125]​ The Indian towns in these areas consisted of clay and thatch houses that were later transformed into brick and stone metropolises.[126]​.

Indo-Saracenic architecture evolved by combining Indian architectural features with European styles. Vincent Esch") and George Wittet") were pioneers in this style.

The Victoria Memorial") in Calcutta is the most effective symbolism of the British Empire, built as a monument in homage to the reign of Queen Victoria. The plan of the building consists of a large central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner supports a smaller dome and is paved with a marble base. The monument stands on a 26-hectare garden plot surrounded by reflecting ponds.[136]

Neoclassicism gained prominence during the British colonial period, appearing at the end of the century and flourishing throughout the century and beginning of the century. The British East India Company and later the British Crown exerted significant influence over architectural practices in India during their rule. Neoclassical architecture was favored by British architects and administrators because it symbolized power, authority and civilization, aligning with the colonial ideology of superiority. The most outstanding characteristics of neoclassical architecture in India are, as in the rest of the world: symmetrical facades and balanced proportions, with central entrances and flanking wings or pavilions; use of columns and pediments inspired by ancient Greek and Roman temples, with porticos protecting advanced entrances supported by shallow decorative columns and pilasters attached to the walls. But the extensive use of stucco and plasterwork to imitate the appearance of stone or marble is a characteristic of neoclassical buildings in India, allowing for intricate details and ornamentation.

In India, neoclassical architecture was used in many government buildings, legislative palaces, law courts or town halls, such as the Secretariat Building in New Delhi and the City Hall in Bangalore") (1935). It was also used in palaces and residences, such as the Raj Bhavan") (1799-1803) (formerly 'Government House'), Calcutta, official residence of the Governor of Bengal, the British Residency") (1803-1805) and the Falaknuma Palace") (1893) in Hyderabad "Hyderabad (India)"), and in the Rashtrapati Bhavan (1912-1929), in New Delhi, lit. 'President's House', as it is the official residence of the President of India, which was designed by Edwin Lutyens as the residence of the British Viceroy (previously 'Viceroy's House') and . It was also used in the buildings of educational institutions such as universities and colleges, such as the Rajabai Clock Tower of the University of Mumbai and the Senate House of the University of Madras. Very few churches were built, such as St. Andrews Church in Madras") (1821).[137]​.

The Art Deco movement of the early part of the century spread rapidly to large parts of the world. The Indian Institute of Architects"), founded in Bombay in 1929, played a leading role in the spread of the movement. The New India Assurance Building"), Eros Cinema") and the buildings along Marine Drive in Mumbai are the best examples.[123]​.

Other colonial powers

The Portuguese had colonized parts of India, including Goa and Mumbai. The Madh Fort"), the Church of St. John the Baptist (Mumbai)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Church of St. John the Baptist (Mumbai) (not yet drafted)") and the Castella de Aguada in Mumbai are remnants of Portuguese colonial rule. The Churches and Convents of Goa, a group of seven churches built by the Portuguese in Goa, are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[138]​.

En los últimos tiempos ha habido un movimiento de población desde las áreas rurales a los centros urbanos industriales, lo que ha llevado a un aumento de los precios de las propiedades en varias ciudades de la India.[140]​ Las viviendas urbanas en la India equilibran las restricciones de espacio y están destinadas a servir a la clase trabajadora.[141]​ La creciente conciencia de la ecología ha influido en la arquitectura en la India durante los tiempos modernos.[142]​

La arquitectura sensible al clima ha sido durante mucho tiempo una característica de la arquitectura de la India, pero últimamente ha ido perdiendo su importancia.[143]​ La arquitectura india refleja sus diversas sensibilidades socioculturales que varían de una región a otra.[143]​ Tradicionalmente, se considera que algunas áreas pertenecen a mujeres.[143]​ Las aldeas en la India tienen características como patios, logias, terrazas y balcones.[141]​ Calico&action=edit&redlink=1 "Calico (textil) (aún no redactado)"), chintz, y palampore") —de origen indio—, destacan la asimilación de los textiles indios en el diseño de interiores global.[144]​ Roshandans"), que son tragaluces-ventiladores, son una característica común en los hogares indios, especialmente en el norte de la India.[145]​[146]​.

20th century

At independence in 1947, India had only about 300 trained architects for a population then 330 million, and only one training institution, the Indian Institute of Architects. So the first generation of Indian architects were educated abroad.

Some of the early architects were traditionalists, such as Ganesh Deolalikar"), whose design for the Supreme Court imitated the Lutyens-Baker buildings down to the last detail, and B.R. Manickam, who designed the Vidhana Soudha") in Bangalore reminiscent of Indo-Saracenic architecture.

In 1950, French architect Le Corbusier, a pioneer of the Modern Movement, was commissioned by Jawaharlal Nehru to design the city of Chandigarh. His plan included residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the center was the Capitol), a complex of three government buildings: the Assembly Palace (1955), the High Court &action=edit&redlink=1 "High Court (Punjab and Haryana) (not yet drafted)") and the Secretariat "Secretariat (Chandigarh)").[147] He also designed the Sanskar Kendra") in Ahmedabad. Le Corbusier inspired the next generation of Indian architects to work in modern, rather than revivalist, styles.[151]

Other notable examples of modern architecture in India include Louis Kahn's IIM Ahmedabad (1961), Achyut Kanvinde's IIT Kanpur (1963), B. V. Doshi's IIM Bangalore (1973), Fariborz Sahba's Lotus Temple in Delhi (1986) and Jawahar Kala Kendra (1992) and Vidhan Bhawan Bhopal (1992). (1996), by Charles Correa.[151]​.

21st century

Ongoing projects in India include Amaravati City, Museum of Modern Art, Calcutta, Sardar Patel Stadium, World One, and IIT Hyderabad.

The temples carved into the rock are artificial caves - or natural, but carved, like those of Ajantā - arranged with generally flat roofs and thick columns, strangely molded, which in their general structure recall the wooden assembly constructions, which must have been the primitive ones in India. Analogous to these Indian sanctuaries and of the same type of art are the monolithic constructions, temples excavated and carved in an open-air rock that are also decorated with a multitude of mythological reliefs inside and outside of them: their type is the Kailash temple, in Ellora, which measures 84 meters long by 48 wide and 32 high and which, according to researchers, dates back to the 19th century.

The stupa (a word from the Sanskrit language that means tomb or mound) is a circular building, finished in a hemispherical shape and intended to store relics of Buddha or an Indian saint. They were built of brick and stone and were usually situated on circular platforms, accessible by two ramps and surrounded by columns or a palisade. Near these buildings, chapels were built for the contemplative anaas, who must have been like the custodians of the stupa and over time these chapels were increased, decorated with statues of Buddha and joined together, forming authentic convents or viharas. In these viharas of variable shapes the unmistakable Greek influence can be seen, to the point of many of them constituting a special art that today is called Indo-Hellenic, and which is dominant in the regions of Kashmir "Kashmir (region)") and Gandara, and which survived until the century of our era.

The modern pagoda is the development of the Indian stupa, a mound-shaped structure where sacred relics were kept. The architectural form of the stupa spread throughout Asia, taking various forms by incorporating specific details from each locality.

Due to their height, the pagodas attract lightning, which reinforced their perception as spiritually charged places. Many pagodas have a structure on their roof that functions as a lightning rod, called a "finial". In addition to its physical function, the finial has a symbolic meaning in Buddhism (it usually represents the mani or fifth element), and is sometimes decorated with lotus flower designs.

The gopuras are monumental entrances to the pagoda or underground temple enclosure, which consist of a door crowned by a complex tower, stepped in the style of the pagoda. There are also monumental square doors and loose columns, all of them full of mythological sculptures that are intended to commemorate some important event.

Since the 19th century, Indian art began to merge with Arab art, constituting a new genre. But that does not mean that pagodas of an exclusively Indian type stopped being built, which with more or less alterations has remained to this day. The Arab conquest of India did not culminate until the century and was generally tolerant of local worship.

Judging Indian art in architecture, it must be stated that it is not difficult to discover visible reminiscences of Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian art, nor is it lacking influences from Greek art, especially in Buddhist monuments. Its buildings lack slenderness, are heavy and are overloaded with excessive sculptures, without offering true unity or architectural simplicity and are filled with enormous symbolism.

urban architecture

Since the time of the Mahajanapadas (600-320 BC), walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-story buildings that consistently used arched windows and doorways, and which made extensive use of wooden architecture, are important features of Indian architecture.[6]​ The Sanchi reliefs, dating from the century BC. C. to the century AD. C., already show representations of cities such as Kushinagar or Rajagriha that show them as splendid walled cities during the time of Buddha (century BC), as in the Royal procession that leaves Rajagriha or the war over the relics of Buddha. Those views of ancient Indian cities were based on the understanding of ancient Indian urban architecture. Archaeologically, that period corresponds in part with the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.[7] Geopolitically, the Achaemenid Empire began occupying the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent from ca. 518 BC C.[8][9]​.

Various types of individual dwellings from the time of Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BC), resembling huts with doors decorated with chaitya, are also described in the Sanchi reliefs. Particularly, the Jetavana at Sravasti), shows the Buddha's three favorite residences: the Gandhakuti, the Kosambakuti and the Karorikuti, with the Buddha's throne in front of each. The Jetavana garden was presented to the Buddha by the rich banker Anathapindika"), who bought it for so many pieces of gold that it would cover the surface of the ground. Therefore the foreground of the relief is shown covered with ancient Indian coins (karshapanas"), as shown in a similar relief in Bharhut.[10] Although the Sanchi reliefs date back to the century BC. C., the scene portrayed takes place during the time of the Buddha, four centuries before, which is considered an important indication of the construction of traditions in those early times.[11]​.

religious architecture

During the time of the Buddha (c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BC), Buddhist monks also had the custom of using natural caves, such as the Saptaparni Cave), southwest of Rajgir, Bihar. (paranirvana).[12]​[15]​[16]​ The Buddha himself also used the Indrasala Cave") for meditation, beginning a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made, as religious retreats, which would last over a millennium.[17]​.

The earliest monasteries, such as the Jivakarama vihara in Rajgir, Bihar, were built from the time of the Buddha, in the 6th or 5th centuries BC. C.[18][19][20] The initial monastery of Jivakarama was made up of two long parallel and elongated corridors, large dormitories where the monks could eat and sleep, in accordance with the original regulations of the samgha, without private cells.[18] Other rooms were later built, mostly elongated and oblong buildings, reminiscent of the construction of several of the Barabar caves.[18][21]​ It is said that Buddha was once treated at the monastery, after being wounded by Devadatta.[18][22]​.

Religious buildings in the form of a Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped monument, began to be used in India as memorials associated with the preservation of sacred relics of Buddha.[23]​ The relics of Buddha were divided among eight stupas, at Rajagriha, Vaishali "Vaishali (ancient city)"), Kapilavastu&action=edit&redlink=1 "Kapilavastu (ancient city) (not yet drafted)"), Allakappa"), Ramagrama"), Pava, Kushinagar and Vethapida").[24]​ The Piprahwa stupa") also appears to have been one of the first to be built.[24]​ Protective railings—consisting of posts, cross bars and a coping—became a safety feature surrounding a stupa.[6]​ Buddha himself had left instructions on how to pay homage at stupas: "And whoever puts garlands or place sweet perfumes and colors there with a devout heart, you will reap benefits for a long time.”[25]​ This practice would lead to the decoration of stupas with stone carvings of flower garlands in the Classic period.[25]​.

Monumental stone architecture

The next wave of construction, based on the first examples of true stone architecture, appears with the beginning of the Classic period (320 BC-550 AD) and the rise of the Mauryan Empire. The capital city of Pataliputra was an urban wonder described by the Greek ambassador Megasthenes. The remains of monumental stone architecture, with strong Achaemenid and Greek influence, can be seen in the numerous artifacts recovered from Pataliputra, such as the Pataliputra capital. This cross-fertilization between different artistic currents that converged on the Indian subcontinent produced new forms that, while preserving the essence of the past, managed to integrate selected elements of new influences.

The Indian emperor Ashoka (r. 273-232 BC) established Ashoka Pillars throughout his kingdom, usually next to Buddhist stupas. According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka had recovered Buddha's relics from previous stupas (except from the Ramagrama stupa) and erected new stupas to distribute the relics throughout India. Indeed, many stupas are thought to date originally from Ashoka's time, such as at Sanchi or Kesariya"), where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly at Bharhut, Amaravati") or Dharmarajika"), in Gandhara.[24]

Ashoka also built the early Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya around the Bodhi tree, including masterpieces such as the Diamond Throne (Vajrasana). He is also said to have established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire in 230 BC.[26] One of Ashoka's edicts reads: "Everywhere, King Piyadasi [Ashoka] erected two types of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be purchased and planted. "[27] Indian art and culture have absorbed foreign impacts to varying degrees and are much richer for that exposure.

During the Mauryan Empire (ca. 321-185 BC), many fortified cities with stupas, viharas and temples were built.[6] Architectural creations of the Mauryan period, such as the city of Pataliputra or Ashoka's Pillars, stand out among their achievements, and are often compared favorably with the rest of the world at the time. Commenting on Mauryan sculpture, archaeologist John Marshall "John Marshall (archaeologist)") noted the "extraordinary precision and accuracy which characterizes all Mauryan works, and which has never been, we dare say, surpassed even by the most refined workmanship of Athenian buildings."[28]​[29]​.

decorated stupas

Stupas were soon richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, after the first attempts at Sanchi Stupa No. 2" (125 BC). Sculptural decorations and scenes from the life of Buddha were used at Bharhut (115 BC), Bodh Gaya (60 BC), Mathura (125–60 BC), and again at Sanchi[43] for the elevation of the stupas. toranas (1st century BC - 1st century AD) and then Amaravati") (1st-2nd century).[44] The decorative ornament of stupas also had considerable development in the northwest of the Gandhara area, with decorated stupas such as the Butkara stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 1st century BC)[45]​ or the Loriyan Tangai stupas") (1st century BC). Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became a prominent Buddhist monument used to enshrine sacred relics.[23] The Indian entrance arches, the torana, arrived in East Asia with the spread of Buddhism.[46] Some scholars maintain that the torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (17th century BC–17th century).[47]

Exempt temples

The temples—built on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were initially built using bricks and wood.[6] Some wooden temples with wattle and bush") may have preceded them, but none remain to this day.[50]

Some of the earliest free-standing temples may have been of the circular type, such as the Bairat temple, in Bairat), Rajasthan, consisting of a central stupa surrounded by a circular colonnade and a surrounding wall. It was built during the time of Emperor Ashoka and two of Ashoka's minor rock edicts were found near it. Ashoka also built the Mahabodhi temple in Bodh Gaya ca. 250 BC, also a building. circular, to protect the Bodhi tree under which the Buddha would have found enlightenment. Depictions of this early temple building are found in a relief from 100 BC carved on the railing of the stupa at Bhārhut, as well as at Sanchi. From that period remains the Diamond Throne, an almost intact slab of sandstone decorated with reliefs, which Ashoka had established at the foot of the tree. Bodhi.[52]​[53]​ These circular type temples were also found in later rock-cut caves, such as in the Tulja Caves) or Guntupalli Caves.[50]​.

Another early free-standing temple in India, this time apsidal in form), appears to be Sanchi Temple No. 40, which also dates back to the 1st century BC.[56] It was a wooden apsidal temple built on a tall rectangular stone platform, of , with two flights of stairs arranged on the east and west sides. The temple was burnt down sometime in the century BC.[57][58]​ This type of apsidal building It was also adopted in most caves (Chaitya-grihas"), as in the Barabar caves"), from the century BC, and in most later caves, with side, and then frontal entrances. (Maharashtra).[59]​.

The temple in the form of a truncated pyramid is thought to have derived from the design of the stepped stupas that had developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya is an example of this type, adapting the Gandhara design of a succession of steps with niches housing images of Buddha, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars, as seen in the Jaulian stupas. The building is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa crowned by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped gandhara stupas.[60]​.

Although the current building of the Mahabdhodi temple dates back to the Gupta period (1st century AD), the so-called "Mahabhodi Temple plaque" - discovered at Kumrahar - and dated between 150 and 200 AD based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and the combined finds of Huvishka coins - suggests that the pyramidal building already existed in the 1st century AD.[60] This was confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.[60]​.

This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa, dedicated to the cult of relics, to the iconic temple in which there were already numerous images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.[60] This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples.[61]​.

End of the classical period

This period ends with the destructive invasions of the Alchon Huns in the 19th century. During the rule of the Hunnic king Mihirakula, more than a thousand Buddhist monasteries throughout Gandhara are said to have been destroyed. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, writing in 630, explained that Mihirakula ordered the destruction of Buddhism and the expulsion of the monks. He reported that Buddhism had declined drastically. and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins. Gandhara Buddhist art, particularly Greco-Buddhist art, essentially died out in that period. The invasions marked the beginning of the decline of Buddhism in India.

Although it only lasted a few decades, the invasions had long-term effects on India, and, in a sense, put an end to classical India.[67] Shortly after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by those invasions and with the rise of many local rulers, ended as well.[68] After these invasions and the collapse of the Guptas, a time of some disorder followed in northern India, with the emergence of numerous other Indian powers. small.[69]​.

Temple architecture in South India already appears as a distinct tradition during the 19th century.[71]​.

Māru-Gurjara temple architecture originated sometime in the century in and around the areas of Rajasthan. Māru-Gurjara architecture displays the deep understanding of constructions and refined skills of Rajasthani craftsmen of the bygone era and has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According to M. A. Dhaky, the Maha-Maru style developed mainly in Marudesa, Sapadalaksha") and Surasena and in parts of Uparamala, while the Maru-Gurjara would have originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and in some areas of Gujarat.[72] Scholars such as George Michell, M.A. Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely Western and that it differs quite a bit from North Indian temple architecture.[73] There is a connection between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture. In both styles, the architecture is treated in a sculptural manner.[74] Regional styles include Karnataka architecture, Kalinga architecture, Dravidian architecture, Indian architecture. the Western Chalukyas") and the architecture of the Badami Chalukyas").

The temple of southern India consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary surmounted by a superstructure, tower or spire, and a portico or hall with adjoining pillars (maṇḍapa or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular courtyard. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and have niches that house sculptures. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of floors that gradually retreat in a pyramidal shape. Each floor is outlined by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the corners and rectangular with barrel-vaulted ceilings in the center.

The temples of northern India already in the century showed greater elevation of the walls and had elaborate towers.[75] Richly decorated temples were built in central India, including those in the complex at Khajuraho.[75] Indian traders brought Indian architecture to Southeast Asia through various trade routes.[76] Characteristics of temple architecture in India were the grandeur of construction, beautiful sculptures, delicate carvings, tall domes, the gopuras and the wide patios. Prominent examples are the Lingaraj temple"), in Bhubaneshwar (Odisha), the Suria temple (Konark)Suria templeSuria_temple&action=edit&redlink=1 "Suria temple (Konark)Suria temple (not yet drafted)"), in Konark (Odisha) or the Brihadeeswarar temple"), in Thanjavur (Tamil Nadu).

vijaynagara architecture

The architecture of the Vijayanagara period (1336–1565) was a notable style of construction developed by the Vijayanagara empire which ruled most of southern India from its capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka.[87]​ The architecture of the temples built during the Vijayanagara period had elements of political authority.[88]​ This led to the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture that It stood out not only in temples but also in administrative buildings throughout the Deccan.[89]​ The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the styles of the Chalukya, Hoysalas, Pandya and Cholas that evolved at the beginning of the centuries in which these empires dominated and are characterized by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.[90]​.

Early Indo-Islamic architecture

After the Muslim conquests and their establishment in the region, the first examples of Indo-Islamic architecture came to light. Few examples survive from the period, most notably the Qutb complex, which was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993. The complex consists of the Qutab Minar, begun in 1193 by Qutb-ud-din Aibak – the first Muslim ruler in the Delhi area, and founder of the Delhi Sultanate – but who was only able to complete its base. His successor, Iltusmish, added three more floors. The work was completed in 1368 by Firuz Shah Tughluq, and since then, with its 72.5 m height, it has been the tallest brick minaret in the world. Other monuments built by successive sultans of Delhi remain,[91]​ such as the Alai Minar, a minaret intended to double the size of the Qutb Minar and which was commissioned by Alauddin Khilji"), although it was never completed.

Other examples include the Tughlaqabad Fort") and the Hauz Khas Complex").

Rajput architecture

Rajput architecture represents different types of buildings, which can generally be classified as secular or religious. The buildings that are preserved, of various scales, are temples, forts, baoris, gardens and palaces. The forts were built especially for military and defense purposes due to Islamic invasions.

During the 19th century, Mughal architecture and Mughal painting influenced the art and architectural styles of the native Rajputs.[92]​.

The hill forts of Rajasthan (Amber, Chittor), Gagron, Jaisalmer, Kumbhalgarh, Ranthambore), a group of six forts built by various Rajput kingdoms and principalities during the medieval period, are among the best examples of Rajput architecture. The complex has also been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2013. Other notable forts are the Mehrangarh Fort and the Jaigarh").

Most of the population of Rajasthan is Hindu, and historically there has been a sizeable Jain minority; This mix is ​​reflected in the numerous temples in the region. Māru-Gurjara architecture), or "Solaṅkī style", is a distinctive style that originated in Rajasthan and neighboring Gujarat around the 17th century, and which has been recovered and brought to other parts of India and the world by both Hindus and Jains. This represents the region's main contribution to Hindu temple architecture. The Jain temples of Dilwara on Mount Abu, built between the 11th and XIII, are the best known examples of this style. Mughal architecture greatly influenced native Rajput artistic and architectural styles.[94]​.

The walled city of Jaipur") was founded in 1727 by the Rajput ruler Kacchwaha Jai ​​Singh II") and is "a unique example of traditional Hindu urban planning",[97]​ following the precepts established in numerous Hindu texts. Later, the City Palace (Jaipur), the Hawa Mahal, the Rambagh Palace, the Jal Mahal and the Albert Hall Museum were also built. Udaipur also has several palaces, including the Bagore-ki-Haveli), now a museum, built in the 19th century.

Rajput architecture continued well into the 2nd centuries, as the rulers of the princely states of British India commissioned vast palaces and other buildings, such as the Albert Hall Museum, Lalgarh Palace, and Umaid Bhawan Palace. These large buildings usually also incorporated European styles, a practice that eventually led to the Indo-Saracenic style.

Some architectural elements that innovated and influenced Rajasthani architectural styles are:.

Buddhist architecture

Buddhist architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent with three types of buildings associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism: viharas (monasteries), places to venerate relics (stupas) and shrines or prayer halls (chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which were later called temples in some places. The initial function of a stupa was the veneration and protection of the relics of Gautama Buddha. The earliest surviving example of a stupa is at Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (prayer halls). This is exemplified by the Ajanta Caves and Ellora Caves (Maharashtra) complexes. The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar is another well-known example. The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa.

Latest Indo-Islamic architecture

In the southern regions of the Indian subcontinent, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Five Deccan Sultanates developed the Deccan Indo-Islamic architectural styles. The most notable examples are Charminar, Mecca Masjid, Qutb Shahi tombs, Mahmud Gawan Madrasa and Gol Gumbaz.[109]

Within the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region developed a distinct regional style under the independent Bengal Sultanate. It incorporated influences from Persia, Byzantium and North India,[110] which combined with indigenous Bengali elements, such as curved roofs, corner towers and complex terracotta ornamentation. A characteristic of the sultanate was the relative absence of minarets.[111] At this time many small and medium-sized medieval mosques, with multiple domes and artistic mihrabs with "Niche (architecture)" niches, were built throughout the region.[111] The great mosque of Bengal was the 19th-century Adina Mosque, the largest mosque on the Indian subcontinent. Built of stone from demolished temples, it had a monumental ribbed barrel vault over the central nave, the first giant vault of this type used in the subcontinent. The mosque was inspired by the imperial Sassanian style of Persia. mausoleums in northern India.[113]​.

Maratha architecture

The Marathas ruled much of the Indian subcontinent from the middle to the beginning of the century.[114] Their religious activity took full shape and soon the skies over Maharashtrian cities were dominated by the spiers of temples. The old ways returned with this 'renewal' of Hindu architecture, infused by the Sultanate and later by Mughal traditions. The architecture of the Maratha period was planned with courtyards adapted to tropical climates. Maratha architecture is known for its simplicity, for its visible logic and austere aesthetics, enriched by beautiful details, rhythm and repetition. Corridors and archways, pierced by delicate niches, doors and windows, create a space in which the articulation of open, semi-open and covered areas appears effortless and charming. The materials used during those times for construction were thin bricks, lime mortar, lime plaster, wooden columns, stone bases, basalt stone floors and brick pavements.

Maharashtra is famous for its caves and rock-cut architectures. The varieties found in Maharashtra are said to be greater than the caves and rock-cut architectures of Egypt, Assyria, Persia and Greece. Buddhist monks started these caves in the century BC. C., in search of a serene and peaceful environment for meditation, and they found it in these caves on the slopes.

Sikh architecture

Sikh architecture is a style of architecture characterized by the values ​​of progressiveness, exquisite complexity, austere beauty and logical flowing lines. Due to its progressive style, it is constantly evolving in many newly developed branches with new contemporary styles. Although Sikh architecture was initially developed within Sikhism, its style has been used in many non-religious buildings due to its beauty. 300 years ago, Sikh architecture was distinguished by its many curves and straight lines; Shri Keshgarh Sahib") and the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) are the best examples.

Sikh architecture is heavily influenced by Mughal and Rajput styles of architecture. The use of onion domes, frescoes, multi-leaf arches, paired pilasters, resting work, are of Mughal origin, while chattris, oriel windows and ornate friezes are a Rajput influence.[115]​.

Contenido

Al igual que ocurrió con los mogoles, bajo el dominio colonial europeo, la arquitectura se convirtió en un emblema del poder, diseñada para respaldar al poder ocupante. Numerosos países europeos invadieron la India y crearon estilos arquitectónicos que reflejan sus hogares ancestrales y adoptados. Los colonizadores europeos crearon una arquitectura que simbolizaba su misión de conquista, dedicada al estado o la religión.[116]​.

Los británicos, franceses, neerlandeses y portugueses fueron las principales potencias europeas que colonizaron partes de la India.[117]​[118]​.

British colonial era (1615-1947)

The British arrived in 1615 and, over the centuries, gradually overthrew the Maratha and Sikh empires and other small independent kingdoms. The British were present in India for over three hundred years and their legacy still remains through some buildings and infrastructure that remain in their former colonies.[119]​ The main cities colonized during this period were Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore"), Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad "Hyderabad (India)"),[120][118]​ which saw the rise of Renaissance architecture. Indo-Saracenic"). Black Town described in 1855 as 'the secondary streets, occupied by the natives, are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and poorly ventilated... a sumptuous square, the rooms opening onto a courtyard in the centre."[121] Garden houses were originally used as weekend homes for recreational use by upper-class Britons. However, the garden house became an ideal full-time home, leaving the fort in the 19th century.[122]​

Mumbai (then known as Bombay), has some of the most notable examples of British colonial architecture, some in the neo-Gothic style (Victoria Terminus Station), Mumbai University, Rajabai Clock Tower, High Court, BMC Building), Indo-Saracenic (Prince of Wales Museum, India Gate, Taj Mahal Palace, Hotel Taj Mahal), or art deco (Eros Cinema, New India Assurance Building).

Calcutta–Madras and Calcutta were similarly surrounded by water and the division of India in the north and the British in the south. An Englishwoman noted in 1750 that "the banks of the river are, as may be said, absolutely full of elegant mansions called here, as in Madras, garden houses." The esplanade row is in front of the forts with palaces lined up.[124]​[125]​ The Indian towns in these areas consisted of clay and thatch houses that were later transformed into brick and stone metropolises.[126]​.

Indo-Saracenic architecture evolved by combining Indian architectural features with European styles. Vincent Esch") and George Wittet") were pioneers in this style.

The Victoria Memorial") in Calcutta is the most effective symbolism of the British Empire, built as a monument in homage to the reign of Queen Victoria. The plan of the building consists of a large central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner supports a smaller dome and is paved with a marble base. The monument stands on a 26-hectare garden plot surrounded by reflecting ponds.[136]

Neoclassicism gained prominence during the British colonial period, appearing at the end of the century and flourishing throughout the century and beginning of the century. The British East India Company and later the British Crown exerted significant influence over architectural practices in India during their rule. Neoclassical architecture was favored by British architects and administrators because it symbolized power, authority and civilization, aligning with the colonial ideology of superiority. The most outstanding characteristics of neoclassical architecture in India are, as in the rest of the world: symmetrical facades and balanced proportions, with central entrances and flanking wings or pavilions; use of columns and pediments inspired by ancient Greek and Roman temples, with porticos protecting advanced entrances supported by shallow decorative columns and pilasters attached to the walls. But the extensive use of stucco and plasterwork to imitate the appearance of stone or marble is a characteristic of neoclassical buildings in India, allowing for intricate details and ornamentation.

In India, neoclassical architecture was used in many government buildings, legislative palaces, law courts or town halls, such as the Secretariat Building in New Delhi and the City Hall in Bangalore") (1935). It was also used in palaces and residences, such as the Raj Bhavan") (1799-1803) (formerly 'Government House'), Calcutta, official residence of the Governor of Bengal, the British Residency") (1803-1805) and the Falaknuma Palace") (1893) in Hyderabad "Hyderabad (India)"), and in the Rashtrapati Bhavan (1912-1929), in New Delhi, lit. 'President's House', as it is the official residence of the President of India, which was designed by Edwin Lutyens as the residence of the British Viceroy (previously 'Viceroy's House') and . It was also used in the buildings of educational institutions such as universities and colleges, such as the Rajabai Clock Tower of the University of Mumbai and the Senate House of the University of Madras. Very few churches were built, such as St. Andrews Church in Madras") (1821).[137]​.

The Art Deco movement of the early part of the century spread rapidly to large parts of the world. The Indian Institute of Architects"), founded in Bombay in 1929, played a leading role in the spread of the movement. The New India Assurance Building"), Eros Cinema") and the buildings along Marine Drive in Mumbai are the best examples.[123]​.

Other colonial powers

The Portuguese had colonized parts of India, including Goa and Mumbai. The Madh Fort"), the Church of St. John the Baptist (Mumbai)&action=edit&redlink=1 "Church of St. John the Baptist (Mumbai) (not yet drafted)") and the Castella de Aguada in Mumbai are remnants of Portuguese colonial rule. The Churches and Convents of Goa, a group of seven churches built by the Portuguese in Goa, are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[138]​.

En los últimos tiempos ha habido un movimiento de población desde las áreas rurales a los centros urbanos industriales, lo que ha llevado a un aumento de los precios de las propiedades en varias ciudades de la India.[140]​ Las viviendas urbanas en la India equilibran las restricciones de espacio y están destinadas a servir a la clase trabajadora.[141]​ La creciente conciencia de la ecología ha influido en la arquitectura en la India durante los tiempos modernos.[142]​

La arquitectura sensible al clima ha sido durante mucho tiempo una característica de la arquitectura de la India, pero últimamente ha ido perdiendo su importancia.[143]​ La arquitectura india refleja sus diversas sensibilidades socioculturales que varían de una región a otra.[143]​ Tradicionalmente, se considera que algunas áreas pertenecen a mujeres.[143]​ Las aldeas en la India tienen características como patios, logias, terrazas y balcones.[141]​ Calico&action=edit&redlink=1 "Calico (textil) (aún no redactado)"), chintz, y palampore") —de origen indio—, destacan la asimilación de los textiles indios en el diseño de interiores global.[144]​ Roshandans"), que son tragaluces-ventiladores, son una característica común en los hogares indios, especialmente en el norte de la India.[145]​[146]​.

20th century

At independence in 1947, India had only about 300 trained architects for a population then 330 million, and only one training institution, the Indian Institute of Architects. So the first generation of Indian architects were educated abroad.

Some of the early architects were traditionalists, such as Ganesh Deolalikar"), whose design for the Supreme Court imitated the Lutyens-Baker buildings down to the last detail, and B.R. Manickam, who designed the Vidhana Soudha") in Bangalore reminiscent of Indo-Saracenic architecture.

In 1950, French architect Le Corbusier, a pioneer of the Modern Movement, was commissioned by Jawaharlal Nehru to design the city of Chandigarh. His plan included residential, commercial and industrial areas, along with parks and transportation infrastructure. In the center was the Capitol), a complex of three government buildings: the Assembly Palace (1955), the High Court &action=edit&redlink=1 "High Court (Punjab and Haryana) (not yet drafted)") and the Secretariat "Secretariat (Chandigarh)").[147] He also designed the Sanskar Kendra") in Ahmedabad. Le Corbusier inspired the next generation of Indian architects to work in modern, rather than revivalist, styles.[151]

Other notable examples of modern architecture in India include Louis Kahn's IIM Ahmedabad (1961), Achyut Kanvinde's IIT Kanpur (1963), B. V. Doshi's IIM Bangalore (1973), Fariborz Sahba's Lotus Temple in Delhi (1986) and Jawahar Kala Kendra (1992) and Vidhan Bhawan Bhopal (1992). (1996), by Charles Correa.[151]​.

21st century

Ongoing projects in India include Amaravati City, Museum of Modern Art, Calcutta, Sardar Patel Stadium, World One, and IIT Hyderabad.

The temples carved into the rock are artificial caves - or natural, but carved, like those of Ajantā - arranged with generally flat roofs and thick columns, strangely molded, which in their general structure recall the wooden assembly constructions, which must have been the primitive ones in India. Analogous to these Indian sanctuaries and of the same type of art are the monolithic constructions, temples excavated and carved in an open-air rock that are also decorated with a multitude of mythological reliefs inside and outside of them: their type is the Kailash temple, in Ellora, which measures 84 meters long by 48 wide and 32 high and which, according to researchers, dates back to the 19th century.

The stupa (a word from the Sanskrit language that means tomb or mound) is a circular building, finished in a hemispherical shape and intended to store relics of Buddha or an Indian saint. They were built of brick and stone and were usually situated on circular platforms, accessible by two ramps and surrounded by columns or a palisade. Near these buildings, chapels were built for the contemplative anaas, who must have been like the custodians of the stupa and over time these chapels were increased, decorated with statues of Buddha and joined together, forming authentic convents or viharas. In these viharas of variable shapes the unmistakable Greek influence can be seen, to the point of many of them constituting a special art that today is called Indo-Hellenic, and which is dominant in the regions of Kashmir "Kashmir (region)") and Gandara, and which survived until the century of our era.

The modern pagoda is the development of the Indian stupa, a mound-shaped structure where sacred relics were kept. The architectural form of the stupa spread throughout Asia, taking various forms by incorporating specific details from each locality.

Due to their height, the pagodas attract lightning, which reinforced their perception as spiritually charged places. Many pagodas have a structure on their roof that functions as a lightning rod, called a "finial". In addition to its physical function, the finial has a symbolic meaning in Buddhism (it usually represents the mani or fifth element), and is sometimes decorated with lotus flower designs.

The gopuras are monumental entrances to the pagoda or underground temple enclosure, which consist of a door crowned by a complex tower, stepped in the style of the pagoda. There are also monumental square doors and loose columns, all of them full of mythological sculptures that are intended to commemorate some important event.

Since the 19th century, Indian art began to merge with Arab art, constituting a new genre. But that does not mean that pagodas of an exclusively Indian type stopped being built, which with more or less alterations has remained to this day. The Arab conquest of India did not culminate until the century and was generally tolerant of local worship.

Judging Indian art in architecture, it must be stated that it is not difficult to discover visible reminiscences of Egyptian, Assyrian and Persian art, nor is it lacking influences from Greek art, especially in Buddhist monuments. Its buildings lack slenderness, are heavy and are overloaded with excessive sculptures, without offering true unity or architectural simplicity and are filled with enormous symbolism.