The Baroque was a period in the history of art typical of Western culture, originated by a new way of conceiving art (the "baroque style") and which, starting from different historical-cultural contexts, produced works in numerous artistic fields: literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music, opera, dance, theater, etc. It manifested itself mainly in Western Europe, although due to colonialism it also occurred in numerous colonies of European powers, mainly in Latin America. Chronologically, it covered the entire century and the beginning of the 20th century, with a greater or lesser extension in time depending on each country. It is usually placed between Mannerism and Rococo, in an era characterized by strong religious disputes between Catholic and Protestant countries, as well as marked political differences between absolutist and parliamentary States, where an incipient bourgeoisie began to lay the foundations of capitalism.[8]​.

The century was generally a time of economic depression "Depression (economy)"): poor harvests led to an increase in the price of wheat and other basic products, with subsequent famines; The poor economic situation was aggravated by the plague that devastated Europe in the middle of the century, which especially affected the Mediterranean area.[note 3] Another factor that generated misery and poverty were wars, mostly caused by the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants, as is the case of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). All these factors caused serious impoverishment of a large part of the population.[9]​.

On the other hand, hegemonic power in Europe shifted from imperial Spain to absolutist France, which after the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659) consolidated itself as the most powerful state on the continent, practically undisputed until the rise of England in the 20th century. Thus, the France of the Louis and papal Rome were the main centers of baroque culture, as centers of political and religious power – respectively – and centers of dissemination of absolutism and counter-reformationism. Spain, although in political and economic decline, nevertheless had a splendorous cultural period—the so-called Golden Age—which, although marked by its religious aspect of incontrovertible counter-reform proselytism, had a marked popular component, and took both literature and the plastic arts to levels of high quality. In the rest of the countries where the baroque culture arrived (England, Germany, the Netherlands), its implementation was irregular and with different seals peculiar to their distinctive national characteristics.[10]​.

During the Baroque era, gardening had extensive development, both technical and theoretical, and evolved from the simple adaptation of a natural space adapted to the habitability of human beings to high degrees of design and planning, organization of space and integration of the natural element with elaborate artistic programs capable of generating sets of refined sensory and intellectual evocation. Gardening was elevated at this time to a full-fledged art, almost inextricably associated with the figure of the architect, since its design entails an elaborate, rational and professional project. The conception of the garden is planned globally with the rest of the arts, especially architecture, but also sculpture, scenography, hydraulic design, etc. Thus, at this time gardening became "the art of ordering nature according to architectural principles."[11]​.

The archetypal model of the Baroque garden, the French garden, was largely nourished by the theoretical and technical contributions of the Italian Renaissance garden, especially the conception developed by Leon Battista Alberti of the house and the garden as an artistic unit based on geometric forms (De Re Aedificatoria, IX, 1443-1452), as well as the model exposed by Francesco Colonna in his Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499), which introduced the use of flower beds and the use of topiary art to give whimsical shapes to trees. The design of the eras based on axial forms, exposed by Sebastiano Serlio in Tutte l'opere d'architettura (1537), also influenced the baroque garden.[12]​.

The evolution of the Italian model to the French one was marked by various factors, especially in relation to the political rise of France and the spread of its programmatic values, such as centralism, absolutism and rationalism, which accentuated the dramatic aspects of the Renaissance style.[13] Thus, although French gardening assumed the geometric concept of the Italian one, it drifted towards new forms, due on the one hand to a new conception of the garden as an element of social prestige and on the other hand to the economic and social development of the state. French, which after its continuous conflicts and divisions until practically the beginning of the century began a new stage of national consolidation, which brought about an economic boom and a vision of promoting the fine arts as a hallmark of French culture on the one hand, and as a prestige product for the national economy on the other. On the other hand, the environmental factor set the guidelines for a differentiation of both garden typologies: just as in Italy the terrain is more rugged, the climate is hotter and the rainfall is lower, in France the terrain is usually flatter, and the climate is more stable and with abundant rainfall. frequent use in architecture of the castle typology—.[15] All these factors led to the differentiation between both styles: the greater use of flowers in French gardening led to the development of flower beds, while greater use of hydraulic resources favored the increase of fountains, ponds and canals; Together with the proliferation of statues and other ornamental details thanks to the impulse given to the arts, they were the main points of characterization of the new French garden.[16]​.

A turning point between the Renaissance and the Baroque gardens were the theories of Olivier de Serres, who elevated gardening to the category of art and introduced it to courtly circles. In Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et Mesnage des Champs (1600) he compared the design of flower beds with pictorial composition, and defended the conception of the garden based on aesthetic canons, unrelated to mere agricultural technique. Serres pointed out four main types of gardens: aromatic, fruit, herbal and recreational.[17] Another important treatise of the time was * Traité du jardinage selon les raisons de la nature et de l'art. Ensemble divers desseins de parterres, pelouzes, Bosquets et autres ornements* (1638), by Jacques Boyceau de la Barauderie, the first in which gardening is approached from both an aesthetic and practical aspect. Boyceau made numerous designs for flower beds, which had a notable influence on the work of Le Nôtre.[note 4]​[18]​ At this point of intersection we can also place the work of Étienne Dupérac, who, although he did not put his ideas into writing, had a notable influence on the achievements of his time. Dupérac had studied in Italy, where he illustrated numerous archaeological remains and ancient monuments, and upon his return he worked as an architect for Henry IV, for whom he designed the gardens of Fontainebleau, The Tuileries and Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Dupérac defended the unitary design for the flower bed, without falling into solely aesthetic or artificial conceptions, and his approaches had a rapid diffusion in his time.[19]​.

The foundations of the baroque garden were laid first by André Mollet, premier jardinier du roi of Louis XIV, author of the famous treatise Le Jardin de Plaisir (1651). André was the son of Claude Mollet, creator of the flower beds of the Castle of Anet "Anet (Eure et Loir)") and of the Gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (with Étienne Dupérac), and author of Théâtre des plans et jardinages (1652), one of the first theoretical works aimed at what would become the baroque garden. André established the principles of classicism in gardening, and his ideas were very well received in England, where he influenced architectural Palladianism. He was the introducer of the patte d'oie ("goose's foot"), a design of avenues established from a circular square, bordered by boxwood hedges or other shrubs. Apart from his work in France, in England he participated in Saint James's Park and Wimbledon "Wimbledon (London)," and was gardener-in-chief of the city of London.[20]​.

The great innovator of the French garden was André Le Nôtre, who, although he did not leave his theories in writing, his practical innovations set the precedents for the baroque garden, which would soon spread from France to the rest of Europe. He had an artistic training, since he was a disciple of the painter Simon Vouet; He later inherited the position of jardinier en chef du roi from his father, Jean Le Nôtre, and at the age of 24 he was already in charge of the Tuileries Gardens. After working in the Luxembourg Garden and Fontainebleau, his designs for Vaux-le-Vicomte enthused Louis Diversity was the basis of the wealth of the whole. The main element in these sectors was the embroidered parterre (broderie), and at the intersection between axes, ponds were located, which could be circular or octagonal. This scheme, sumptuously developed in Versailles, had great success in most European courts, which quickly developed similar programs in their cities and palaces.[21]​.

The main theorist of the baroque garden was Antoine Joseph Dezallier d'Argenville, who presented his ideas in La Théorie et la Pratique du Jardinage (1710), one of the most influential treatises of his time on the art of gardening, to the point of being described as "the Bible of the art of gardening." Although his work was largely based on the contributions made by Le Nôtre, he was the first to systematize rules for the composition of gardens, which is why his work was very relevant. Dezallier highlighted the idea of ​​the garden as a place of recreation, of relaxation, whose design should provide above all pleasure. He pointed out five fundamental aspects when conceiving a garden: healthy location, good terrain, presence of water, landscape perspective and comfort. For the correct appreciation of the garden, visual obstacles, such as walls, fences or hedges, had to be avoided, for which he proposed the delimitation of the surface of the garden through moats called "ahas". avenues arranged in a fan that crossed the hedges in the shape of a crescent.[22]​.

For Dezallier, the most important parts of the garden were the flower beds and the groves, which to be better appreciated had to be contrasted. His ideal model was the following: seen when leaving the palace into the garden and walking away; First would come an area of ​​flower beds, which had to be the most cared for area as it was closest to the palace; Then there would be a transverse axis lined with yew trees, with a pond in the middle; Next would appear an area of ​​groves arranged in a semicircle, with paths drawn diagonally; The next cross section would be formed by a water channel, with a fountain of newts "Triton (mythology)") located at the intersection with the main road, which would give way to a final area of ​​forests. In this scheme, the main element to be considered was the design of the flower beds, of which he distinguished four types: the "broderie* flowerbed" ("embroidery"), composed of grass and boxwood and chiseled with geometric shapes; the "compartment parterre", made up of grass and flowerbeds with sand on its inner surface, and a fountain in the center; the "parterre à l'anglaise", made with a board of grass (boulingrin, from the English bowling green, "lawn for playing bowling") with decorative routes; and the "floral parterre" (parterre de pièces coupées pour des fleurs), based on hedges of low shrubs that delimit areas of floral plants. Finally, in the gaps or angles between flower beds, trees pruned into topiary are placed, preferably boxwoods or yews. Despite this schematic and rational arrangement, Dezallier insisted on the landscape element of gardening and defended the predominance of nature over the intervention of man, thus opening the door to the English landscape garden that became fashionable in the 19th century.[23]​.

As for vegetation, Dezallier details in his work the most suitable species according to the terrain and for each season: for spring he recommends the tulip, the anemone, the ranunculus, the narcissus, the hyacinth, the iris "Iris (plant)"), the cyclamen, the crown, the bear's ear, the liverwort, the pansy, the carnation, the primrose, the violet, the wallflower, the chrysanthemum and the lily of the valley; for summer he mentions the lily, the martagon, the peony, the tuberose, the speedwell "Veronica (plant)"), the morning glory, the sainfoin, the dittany, the scabious, the marjoram, the broom, the poppy, the delphinium, the balsamine, the sunflower, the heliotrope, the nightshade, the aconite and the immortelle; and for autumn it highlights castor bean, calendula, marigold, amaranth, valerian, hollyhock, nasturtium, passionflower and geranium. Also point out woody plants suitable for borders and flower beds, such as elderberry, marshmallow, honeysuckle and shrimp. For hedges, boxwood, yew and cypress are ideal. Finally, groves can be made of any type of tree typical of the area, and Dezallier distinguishes six types of grove: the forêt et grand bois de haute futaie, appropriate for the countryside and large areas of land, with large and densely populated trees; the bois taillis, like the previous one for large spaces or animal parks, carved every nine years; the bosquet de moyenne futaie à hautes palissades, a recreational grove with pruned beech, oleander or maple hedges, next to medium-height trees; the forest découvert et à compartment, a small forest like the previous one, but without thickets, with avenues lined with linden or chestnut trees; the forest I planted in quinconces, another type of grove, planted in the shape of quincunx —like the five on dice—; and the bois vert, an evergreen forest, the rarest given its slow growth.[24]​.

In addition to the plant elements, Dezallier gave special importance to other types of ornamental details, such as pergolas, sculptures, stairs and fountains. The pergolas or berceaux could be of several types: berceau artificiel (also called treillage), formed with wooden slats in the form of a lattice "Lattice (architecture)"), through which bushes or climbing plants climbed; berceau naturel, made by linking branches of several trees with wire, in the form of arches, trellises or rodrigones; or a combination of both, the berceau de treillage. The statues were placed, in conjunction with garden vases, on pedestals located in the high hedges next to the flower beds, or in arbors, oleander niches, crossroads, between trees, in the center of grove halls, in arcades or at the beginning of a patte d'oie. They were generally of mythological allusion, and Dezallier recommends that they be of artistic quality, and if not, dispense with their placement. The stairs were used to overcome unevenness, but they were still an ornamental element, which was complemented by constructions such as arches, exedras, waterfalls and artificial grottoes; For Dezallier, the optimal solution for unevenness was the amphitheater, which brought together steps of various shapes, ramps, fountains and jets, plant ornaments and sculptures. As for the fountains, which for Dezallier are the soul of the gardens after the vegetation, he established a series of guidelines for their correct distribution, since water is a scarce commodity, in such a way that it always seems that there are more than those that actually appear. He pointed out that the height of the fountain must be proportional to the size of the basin, and that all the water columns must be visible at the same time. The fountains are complemented by other water resources such as ponds, canals and waterfalls, and are recommended to house swans, ducks and geese. He also dedicated special studies to hydraulic techniques, and carefully analyzed the detection of sources and their conduction problems, as well as the procedures for their pumping and distribution.[25]​.

On the other hand, it is worth highlighting the importance that botany gained as a science at this time, especially thanks to the work of Carl von Linné. Numerous scientific expeditions were organized around the world,[note 6]​ and a large number of new plants were imported to Europe, which were used from sectors such as horticulture or medicinal herbalism to gardening. Various ornamental plants were imported into this land, such as a genus of orchid, Bletia verecunda, various genus of azalea and camellia, magnolia and various species of oaks and maples.[26] The spread of new plant species favored the implementation of a new type of garden specialized in its study and conservation, the botanical garden, which proliferated especially in the 19th century, in line with the new fashion of the style landscape garden. English.[27]​.

Regarding the legacy left by baroque gardening, although the transition to the new English landscape garden model was somewhat abrupt,[note 7]​ without a solution of continuity between both models, which in many cases meant the replacement of baroque gardens with others of the new landscape fashion, the baroque typology of garden with a geometric configuration lasted to a large extent during the century, and even until the beginning of the 20th. At the end of the century, the baroque garden became fashionable, especially in the United States, perhaps due to the desire to differentiate itself from its former metropolis. There, the formal garden —as the baroque garden is known in the Anglo-Saxon world— was considered more aristocratic in size, and therefore more suitable for the construction of a new nation that aspired to be powerful.[28] This is seen in the Governor's Palace of Williamsburg (Virginia) "Williamsburg (Virginia)"), or in George Washington's house in Mount Vernon "Mount Vernon (plantation)") (Virginia). Between the and centuries, and parallel to the historicist fashion in architecture, there was a revival of previous gardening styles, especially Italian and French, which led to the resurgence of old techniques such as topiary. Thanks to this revival of ancient forms, numerous historic gardens that had been abandoned or had been converted to a landscape style were restored, such as Chatsworth House, restored by Joseph Paxton, or Vaux-le-Vicomte, run by Henri and Achille Duchêne. very conducive to the development of urban planning of cities, as seen in the design of the city of Washington D.C., the work of the French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant, or in the planning of cities such as Lusaka, Nairobi and New Delhi, examples of British colonialism, for which an imperial and propaganda style such as Versailles served conveniently.[30]​.

France

In France, the impetus given by the Bourbons to large court buildings encouraged the development of numerous arts complementary to architecture, from decorative and industrial arts to gardening, considered an inseparable extension of palatial complexes and another sign of the ostentation of royal and aristocratic power. The century was a splendid period for the French monarchy - to the point that it was called the Grand Siècle -, and Louis The creation of a vast palace complex had both political and propaganda purposes, and the king's intention to gather the nobility at court sought to control possible intrigues and rebellions that had been endemic in previous times in the country.[note 8] On the other hand, the mercantilist policy developed by Minister Colbert promoted the industrialization of artistic creations as a means of financing the classroom programs developed by Louis XIV and, at the same time, promoting glory of the monarch and enhance his image abroad.[31]​.

In France, the Baroque had a strong rationalist component - in parallel to philosophical rationalism - which led to classicist artistic forms, the so-called French classicism. It led to the geometrization of shapes and a type of rational design constrained to certain measurements according to the desired effect; The parterre appeared, delimited areas composed of grass and small hedges of shrubs or flowers; The garden areas were complemented by ponds and fountains, and decorated with statues and other artistic elements; In general, large and open spaces were sought, without obstacles to the view, with large avenues and easily passable complexes. The main premise of this type of garden was to improve nature through art. These factors generated the so-called "French garden", which was exported to other countries and became the most archetypal example of baroque gardening.[33]​.

The great renovation of the French garden was carried out by André Le Nôtre: after working for a few years in the Tuileries and the Luxembourg Garden, in 1656 he was commissioned to design the garden of the Palace of Vaux-le-Vicomte, a great project by Louis XIV's finance minister, Nicolas Fouquet. The palace, the work of architect Louis Le Vau, was built in just one year, and was decorated with all kinds of luxuries by Charles Le Brun. Le Nôtre established a central axis that started from the main building of the palatial architectural complex, with a wide avenue that disappeared into the horizon of the landscape. On both sides of this avenue there were two areas of flower beds, divided in turn in two by a transversal avenue, at whose intersection there was a pond with a fountain. The flower beds were designed in broderie, and were flanked with groves that framed the flowerbed area, so that the view did not get lost on the sides and was focused on the distance, which accentuated the spacious effect of the garden. However, such sumptuousness harmed its owner, since after the inauguration party in 1661 Fouquet was arrested for appropriation of public funds. Even so, the garden at Vaux-le-Vicomte was enormously successful, setting the standard for future garden planning. The king, who had undoubtedly marveled at the magnificence of the Vaux palace and garden, immediately began his own palace project, for which he enlisted Le Nôtre to design the garden.[34]

The same year as the inauguration of Vaux-le-Vicomte and its owner's fall from grace, work began on the palace and gardens of Versailles, the magnum opera of the Bourbon monarchy and symbol of absolutist power. In Versailles there previously existed a hunting reserve for the royal family, the construction of which had been ordered by the king's father, Louis XIII. In this preserve, a small garden called Petit Parc was prepared, supervised by Jacques Boyceau, with an area of ​​93 hectares. With the new project, the garden area — called Grand Parc — now has an area of ​​6,500 hectares, which was fenced with a 43 km long wall. The works at Versailles, in largely swampy terrain, involved extensive earthworks, involving up to 30,000 soldiers, as well as extensive hydraulic engineering work to supply both the vegetation and the 2,400 fountains that were placed throughout the garden. Plants and trees were imported from all over France and even from abroad: elms, poplars and lindens from Flanders; Vienna horse chestnuts; roses, hyacinths and tulips from Holland; Turkey lilies and daffodils; carnations and orange trees from Spain.[35]​.

The first phase of construction took place between 1661 and 1680, in which 15 groves were planted, delimited by avenues, as well as most of the flower beds. From the façade of the palace a large central axis started from which numerous avenues emerged in successive sections of the garden. Firstly, there were two symmetrical ponds known as "water parterres", on whose sides there were several spaces of broderie parterres (north and south parterres, of Latona and of the Orangerie), along with several more ponds (of Neptune, of the Dragon, of the Swiss and Bath of the Nymphs) and forest areas (of the King, of the Queen, of the Conch, of the Baths of Apollo, of the Colonnade, of the Dome, Quincunx north and south); Below appeared the Pool of Apollo, and further ahead the Grand Canal, in the shape of a cross, on whose north side was the ancient town of Trianon.[36]

Among the many novelties of Versailles, it is worth highlighting the ménagerie, a small zoo made up of several enclosures with a two-story octagonal building in the center, the lower one decorated as an artificial cave, and the upper one that served as an observatory to see the animals around. It was built in 1633 and was demolished after thirty years. Equally innovative was the orangerie, a greenhouse for orange trees and exotic plants, located next to the south parterre. Another point of interest was the Tethys Grotto, built next to the north parterre between 1664 and 1676, and destroyed in 1684. It was designed as a nymphaeum, with the interior decorated as an underwater grotto, with the walls inlaid with stones, shells and corals, and light and sound effects, with an organ "Organo (musical instrument)") that imitated the sound of water and the trill of the birds.[37]​.

The gardens of Versailles were loaded with great symbolism: the route started from the palace, a human construction; I continued through the area of ​​flowerbeds, where nature was subjected to the intervention of man; and ended in the forest area, where nature regained its wild appearance. Thus, we moved from the artificial to the natural, from dominated nature to free nature, as an expression that ultimately man's intervention is ephemeral. Another symbolic aspect was the iconographic program developed in the sculptural groups of the park, in which the all-embracing power of the monarch was exalted: the fountain of Apollo is a clear identification of Louis XIV, the Sun King, with Apollo, god of the sun in Greek mythology. Likewise, the source of Latona, mother of Apollo and Diana "Diana (mythology)"), could refer to the Marchioness of Montespan, mother of several illegitimate children of the monarch.[38]​.

The gardens were complemented by a great profusion of sculptures by the best artists of the time - with a program conceived by the king's painter, Charles Le Brun -, such as the four fountains dedicated to the seasons, all of them made of gilded lead (Fountain of Ceres or Summer, by Thomas Regnaudin, 1672-1679; Fountain of Saturn or Winter, by François Girardon, 1672-1677; Fountain of Flora or Spring, by Jean-Baptiste Tuby, 1672-1679; Also noteworthy is the Fountain of Apollo (1668-1670), with the figure of the god on a chariot drawn by four horses, the work of Jean-Baptiste Tuby, which is located in the center of the main axis of the gardens. Also worth highlighting is the sculptural group of Bath of Apollo (or Apollo and the Nymphs, 1666-1675), a marble work by François Girardon, or the group of The Steeds of the Sun, by Balthasar and Gaspard Marsy (1668-1675).[39]​.

In 1685, the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart took charge of the project, and compared to the organization of nature preserving its idiosyncrasy carried out by Le Nôtre, he carried out a more architectural nature, with spaces clearly delimited with grass slopes. Mansart gave a more neoclassical air to the complex, which resulted in the loss of a good part of the original project of Le Nôtre - among other things the magnificent labyrinth designed by the great gardener. the Trianon de Marbre, later called Grand Trianon, built by Jules Hardoin-Mansart in 1687; and the Petit Trianon, built between 1763 and 1767 by Ange-Jacques Gabriel.[41] Throughout the construction process the king was very aware of the progress of his garden, and actively intervened in many details of its design. He was so proud of his creation that he even wrote a guide for visiting the garden, Manière de montrer les jardins de Versailles, of which he made six versions between 1689 and 1705.[42]​.

After the death of Louis XIV the gardens underwent several modifications, and subsequent interventions were directed towards the new fashion of the English landscape garden. However, Versailles powerfully influenced other great gardening projects, and was copied by the great European monarchical courts, with exponents such as the gardens of Schönbrunn (Vienna), La Granja (Segovia), Het Loo (Apeldoorn), Drottningholm (Stockholm), Peterhof (Saint Petersburg), Caserta (Campania), Herrenhausen (Hanover), etc. It also influenced urban planning, and its trace is clearly seen in the design of the city of Washington D.C., the work of the French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant. Finally, his stele can still be seen in the century in the Herrenchiemsee Palace, built by Ludwig II of Bavaria on an island in Lake Chiem.[43]​.

• - Versailles Gardens.

• - View of the southern garden.

• - The Orangerie with the Pièce d'Eau des Suisses in the background.

• - Southwest facade.

• - Apollo Fountain.

• - View of the interior of the Tethys Grotto, by Jean Le Pautre, 1676.

After his intervention in the gardens of Versailles, Le Nôtre designed the garden of the Château de Chantilly in 1663 for Prince Louis II of Condé. As in the royal gardens, he designed a system of large canals, the main of which, the Grand Canal, ran parallel to the façade of the palace and flowed into a pond, fed through a waterfall by a mountain stream. In its central part the Grand Canal widened, and on its sides there were separate water beds with fountains. The rest of the plant surface was made up of lawn, threshing floors and alleys "Alameda (gardening)"), although the main element in this garden was water, to which Le Nôtre gave increasingly more importance.[44]

Le Nôtre returned to work for the king in the gardens of two palaces located near Versailles, Marly and Clagny. The Marly Palace was built between 1676 and 1686 by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. The garden was located in a valley, where the water current constituted the main axis of the land, and in whose place four large ponds were arranged in line with the façade of the palace. Several avenues were established around the ponds, flanked by a set of twelve pavilions dedicated to the signs of the zodiac.[45] The Palace of Clagny was also the work of Mansart, completed in 1680. Le Nôtre designed the garden based on the effect of distance, as in Vaux-le-Vicomte. In the main axis he placed a lake with an islet in the middle, flanked by flower beds and groves. The palace was demolished in 1769, and currently nothing remains of the garden, which is known only from a plan.[46]​.

Other works by Le Nôtre were: the garden of the Saint-Cloud Palace, designed for Philip I of Orleans, which stands out for its monumental waterfall built between 1667 and 1697 by Antoine Le Pautre and François Mansart; the garden of the Sceaux Palace "Sceaux (Hauts-de-Seine)"), which he designed in 1670 for Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the king's minister, with a magnificent set of flower beds, groves and waterfalls of which only the large canal and lawn areas remain; Finally, between 1679 and 1691 he participated in the reform of the gardens of the Château de Meudon for Minister Louvois.[47] Other French gardens of note are: the garden of the Berbie Palace in Albi "Albi (Tarn)"), an episcopal residence of medieval origin where a baroque garden was created in the century, which stands out for its geometrically shaped flower beds located next to gravel paths, as well as grass benches, gazebos and various other elements that enhance the playful nature of the garden. The Fontaine Garden in Nîmes was designed in the 19th century by the military architect Jacques-Philippe Mareschal), and stands out for its system of terraces with fountains, in addition to its intensely colorful flower beds and its leafy trees, generally pines and cedars.[48]

• - Chantilly Castle.

• - Saint-Cloud Palace.

• - Sceaux Palace "Sceaux (Hauts de Seine)").

• - Berbie Palace, Albi "Albi (Tarn)").

• - Fontaine Garden"), Nîmes.

Italy

Italy was the cradle of Baroque art, thanks mainly to the patronage of the Church and the great architectural and urban programs developed by the papal see, eager to show the world its victory against the Reformation. During the Renaissance, gardening developed significantly in this country, to the point that the main model of Renaissance garden is usually called the "Italian garden", generally conceived through a structured design, with a geometric composition, built on terraces with stairs, such as the Belvedere Garden, by Bramante, or the Villa Madama, by Raphael. This scheme continued for a good part of the century, although little by little the influence of the French garden was introduced.

Some gardens were begun as Renaissance and finished in Baroque style, such as the Boboli Garden in Florence, whose works began in 1549 by order of Eleanor of Toledo, the wife of Cosimo I de' Medici, under the direction of the landscape architect Niccolò Tribolo, who prepared the valley located behind the Palazzo Pitti, and configured a garden in the shape of an amphitheater, with a central axis that divided it into two parts. symmetrical. However, this layout changed over the years, and in 1618 Alfonso Parigi made a series of modifications that transformed it into a fully baroque garden, with wider road axes and a more symmetrical composition, and with the construction of an oval pond with an artificial island in the center, where the Fountain of the Ocean was located, the work of the sculptor Giambologna.[49]​.

In Italy, gardening developed especially in villas, a model of rural estate composed of a palace surrounded by meadows and gardens, generally near cities, where noble families spent their seasons of leisure and rest. This model came from Roman times, and was widespread during the Renaissance, a period in which many of these sets were designed by the most famous architects of the time. This scheme survived in the Italian Baroque, and among the many villas built in this period it would be worth highlighting the following:

• - Villa Montalto") (Rome): it was promoted by Pope Sixtus V, within a plan for the urban transformation of the city. The most remarkable thing was its planimetry, which gave more importance to the visual focuses than to the formulation of the space: from the main entrance three avenues started in a radial way, the central one of which led to a casino, where there was a semicircular plaza with a pool; from here there was an avenue of cypress trees that was crossed by a transversal road, where a fountain was located. Nowadays it no longer exists, and in its place is the Roman central station (Stazione Termini).[50]​.

• - Villa Borghese (Rome): it was an initiative of Cardinal Scipione Caffarelli Borghese, nephew of Paul V, built between 1613 and 1616 in an area of ​​vineyards in front of the Porta Pinciana. The layout of the avenues was inspired by the Villa Montalto, although the main avenue did not lead to the casino, but to a pond where a fountain called "Sea Horses" was later placed, the work of Christoph Unterberger"), executed in 1770. The main avenue was then crossed by a transversal axis that led to the casino, the work of the Flemish artist Giovanni Vasanzio") (currently a museum, the Borghese Gallery), in the back of which were the ,[note 9]​ composed of orange trees and medicinal herbs. From here there were various ornamental gardens, forests, grottoes, pavilions and even a zoo. In the century a remodeling was carried out that turned it into an English-type garden.[51]​.

Spain

In Spain, the contributions of the Renaissance and the first Baroque arrived late, and in the century there are no clear examples of a Baroque garden, except for small manifestations that were intermixed with other styles, especially the vestiges of an Islamic garden that survived from the Muslim occupation of the peninsula in the Middle Ages. A clear example would be the garden of the Alcázar of Seville, which brings together elements of the initial Mudejar style garden with Renaissance contributions made by Charles V at the beginning of the century and a baroque-looking area on the terraces near the gallery of arches. It should be noted that in Spain the soil is generally harder and drier than in Italy or France, and the sun is more intense, especially in summer, which led to the creation of small, confined gardens in closed spaces, not integrated into the landscape as in other countries. On the other hand, in Spain there was not a middle class or a small nobility of an enlightened court that favored the patronage of art or the dissemination of architecture and gardening, as in the surrounding countries, and there was a great social difference between the common people and the aristocracy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy, which dominated the power. Likewise, the reigning dynasty, the Austrians, did not particularly favor the art of gardening. One of the few examples was the Buen Retiro Park in Madrid, an initiative of Felipe IV that he entrusted to the Count-Duke of Olivares, who commissioned the project from the Italian Cosimo Lotti. Work began in 1628, in the style of the Italian Renaissance garden, but upon the death of the king in 1665 the project was abandoned. In 1714, the landscaping of Buen Retiro was resumed, by the Frenchman Robert de Cotte, but his ambitious project was rejected due to its high cost, and only a broderie parterre was made in a small area of ​​the park known as Jardin de Francia or del Parterre. The rest of the park was built in the 19th century.[64]​.

In the century gardening received a new boost with the arrival of the Bourbons, whose French origin favored the arrival of gardeners from this country. Philip V and his successors wanted to emulate the large garden palaces of the neighboring country, which was carried out mainly in two palace complexes: Aranjuez and La Granja.[65]​[66]​[67]​ In Aranjuez, located 65 km from Madrid, there was a summer residence for the royal family, built in the century on an old hunting reserve. Between the centuries and an Italian-style garden was created on an artificial island in the Tagus River (Jardín de la Isla "Jardín de la Isla (Aranjuez)"), populated by groves and numerous water fountains, among which the Fountain of the Tritons stood out. Upon the arrival to power of Philip V, an ambitious project to reform both the gardens and the palace began, built in neoclassical style by Santiago Bonavía and Francesco Sabatini between 1748 and 1771. The garden was transformed into a French baroque garden (Jardín del Parterre "Jardín del Parterre (Aranjuez)"), with a design by the French gardener Étienne Boutelou"), composed of several parterre areas arranged symmetrically and marked by ponds and fountains (of Hercules and Antaeus, of Ceres "Ceres (mythology)") and of the Nereids), as well as numerous sculptures. Elms were planted for the first time in Spain, as well as hornbeam hedges. The paths were covered with , arches with wooden trellises that provided shade. Starting in 1763, under the reign of Charles III, the following works were carried out in the English style (Garden of the Garden). Prince and Elizabeth II).[68]​.

Portugal

In Portugal the arts were especially revitalized after independence from Spain in 1640, which began a period of great prosperity. Gardening brought together various influences, from Islamic to Italian and French, although it developed several of its own characteristics: the use of tiles to decorate walls and pavements; the configuration of the ponds arranged in terraces; and a peculiar style in the design of boxwood beds.[75]​

The gardens were especially lavish in the stately residences, among which the Palace of the Marquises of Fronteira in Benfica "Benfica (Lisbon)"), built in 1669 by João de Mascarenhas, Marquis of Fronteira, stands out. The garden was configured in the form of a broderie parterre, featuring boxwood hedges cut in different heights and shapes, with several fountains and lined with statues. At one of the limits of the garden, next to a large pond, there is a wall five meters high, with an arcade of fifteen semicircular arches, twelve of them blind and covered in tiles with equestrian representations of Velazquean influence, and three that give access to two caves. At the top of this wall is the so-called Royal Gallery, formed by a walk with a balustrade and the wall decorated with a series of niches with busts; In the center there is a rectangular portico with a pediment "Frontón (architecture)") divided into volutes, and on the sides there are two pavilions, all of them covered with tiles.[76]​.

In 1722, the construction of the Sanctuary of Buen Jesús del Monte in Braga began, at the initiative of Archbishop Rodrigo de Moura Telles, an architectural complex that stands out for its monumental stairs, which span a slope of 116 meters, and which includes a garden classifiable within the typology of sacred garden, integrated into the concept of Sacro Monte or pilgrimage to Golgotha, the hill on which Jesus was crucified. The lower part presents a staircase that ascends into a wooded area dotted with hermitages and fountains dedicated to the planets; Next comes the staircase of the Five Senses, which symbolizes both the sins and humanity of Christ; Finally, at the top is the church with several chapels dedicated to the Passion. The garden is completed with a lake and artificial caves.[77]​.

Another example is the Casa de Mateus") in Vila Real, a residential complex built in 1743 by the Italian architect Niccolò Nasoni in a late-baroque style that hinted at the incipient neoclassicism. The garden is structured in terraces, with flower beds of circular, square or pentagonal shapes, formed by boxwood hedges and flower beds located on a floor of white marble pebbles. In the lower part of the garden It places a gallery of pruned cypresses in the shape of a barrel vault, flanked by two small gardens, one of broderie beds delimited by a hedge and a water garden with a Japanese maple.[78]​.

A more ambitious project was that of the National Palace of Queluz: in this town near Lisbon there was a hunting lodge belonging to the Marquis of Castelo Rodrigo, which was confiscated by King John IV in 1654 to convert it into a residence for the infants. Later, in 1747, Pedro III carried out an ambitious remodeling, which he commissioned the architect Mateus Vicente de Oliveira, while the garden was designed by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Robillion"), who was inspired by the Marly garden. From the façade of the palace there are several parterre areas, arranged around two large ponds decorated with sculptural groups alluding to the myths of Thetis "Thetis (titanide)") and Poseidon; there is also a large canal flanked by walls decorated with tiles, and everywhere there are fountains, waterfalls and jets, as well as busts and sculptures, which create an atmosphere of great harmony and elegance.[79]​.

Germany

The territory of current Germany was at that time fragmented into various states - the most preponderant of which was Prussia - which, with its multiplicity of court centers, led to the development of numerous architectural and landscape projects. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a time of social and economic hardship, but the subsequent period of prosperity translated into numerous construction projects. Gardening received French influence, although Renaissance models such as the Bitter Orange Garden in Leonberg or the Hortus Palatinus in Heidelberg were taken into account, as well as the theoretical treatises of Joseph Furttenbach"), municipal architect of Ulm, who in works such as Architectura civilis (1628) established some planting parameters of the eras that marked gardening throughout southern Germany for quite some time.[80]​.

Some of the first relevant projects were due to the archbishop-elector of Mainz, Lothar Franz von Schönborn, who after a long trip through Europe captured his vision of the baroque garden in two estates belonging to his family: the Gaibach Castle, near Würzburg (1677), and the Weißenstein Palace, in Pommersfelden (1715-1723). In the first he designed an elongated garden and planned from a central axis flanked by embroidered flower beds, next to one of which he placed an oval pond, surrounded by beds of flowers and with a fountain in the center, from whose sculptures streams of water emerged), who designed a garden structured around a circular square with a pond and flanked by chestnut trees, around which there were parterre areas and several orchards, one of them a. orangerie. This garden was later converted to the English style.[81] Another project of the archbishop was the Palace of La Favorita"), in Mainz, built by Maximilian von Welsch in 1704 in imitation of the Palace of Marly, but with six pavilions instead of twelve; it was destroyed in 1793 by French troops.[82]​.

Another double project was that developed by Prince Elector Maximilian II Emmanuel of Bavaria: the palaces of Schleißheim and Nymphenburg. Schleißheim, known as the "Bavarian Versailles", was built between 1701 and 1704, with a garden designed by the Italian Enrico Zucalli"), who from the façade of the palace established a wide central avenue with a canal and areas of grass and flower beds, and flanked by groves. However, the parterre closest to the palace was the work of the Frenchman Dominique Girard"), in the purest style of broderie French.[83] Nymphenburg Palace, near Munich, was built between 1701 and 1715 on a previous palace known as Castello delle Nymphe. The garden was once again entrusted to Dominique Girard, who developed a project inspired by the work of Le Nôtre: in front of the palace an avenue of flowerbeds opened, which led to a large pond traveled by gondolas (Gondola (boat)), and on whose sides were areas of woodland, which included spaces for playing ball and bowling. In the main flower bed there was a fountain with a stream of water ten meters high; dedicated to Flora "Flora (mythology)"), was the work of the Dutch sculptor Guillielmus de Grof"). From here, parterre and grove areas, water channels, fountains and waterfalls, pavilions and pleasure houses were developed axially, all decorated with sculptures, many of which were the work of Ignaz Günther. The park was redesigned in the century in the English style.[84]​.

Austria

Austria was the main fiefdom of the Habsburgs, emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. In its capital and center of the imperial court, Vienna, the construction of Schönbrunn Palace began in 1696, replacing an old palace destroyed in 1683 by the Turks. The palace was built by the prestigious architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, although the garden was entrusted to the French garden architect Jean Trehet"), who transplanted a thousand trees from Paris to Vienna. The garden was articulated through a system of star-shaped avenues, with the palace in the center. In addition to the usual elements of the baroque garden, such as flower beds, hedges, groves, ponds and fountains, sculptures and other ornamental details, a small park was built zoo, designed by Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey"), for which expeditions were organized in search of exotic animals to Africa and America. An orangerie 200 meters long was also built, designed by Nikolaus Pacassi"), which had a hypocaustic heating system to preserve the plants in winter. The work carried out since 1780 was directed towards an English landscape garden.[93]​.

A garden that has not survived to this day is that of the Liechtenstein Palace in Vienna, built between 1700 and 1704 by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach on the initiative of Prince John Adam Andrew of Liechtenstein. From a central axis there were several compartments with threshing floors and hedges of boxwood, yew and cypress ornamented with knots and spirals. The decoration was completed with vases and sculptures with mythological themes, such as the statues of Apollo and Daphne.[94]​.

Another great project was the Belvedere Palace in Vienna, built between 1714 and 1723 by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt for Prince Eugene of Savoy, upon whose death it passed into the hands of the imperial family. The garden was designed by Dominique Girard"), who developed an original solution to adapt the garden to the ascending terrain located between the two palaces (Oberes and Unteres Belvedere, that is, upper and lower Belvedere): an axis consisting of a slope with side stairs and a central waterfall divides the garden into two terraces; in the lower one, hedges of trees configured in a stereometric manner were planted, and in the upper one were flower beds and ponds. The area of groves, articulated with a system of diagonal avenues, it was based on the treatise of Dezallier d'Argenville published in 1710.[95]​.

Finally, it is worth mentioning the magnificent garden of the Mirabell Palace in Salzburg, built in 1606 by the Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau"), and renovated between the end of the century and the beginning of the century by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. They drew two parallel axes in the garden aligned with the neighboring Hohensalzburg Castle, and placed in the center of the parterre a large fountain with a sculpture of Pegasus. In 1728, the Salzburg garden inspector, Franz Anton Dannreiter, carried out a remodeling, which affected the small flowerbed, the and a new surface located on the fort grounds. In the century most of the land was transformed into an English garden.[96]​.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, gardening developed especially since the independence from Spain signed in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. In this country, international trade favored the rise of the bourgeoisie, which, due to the increase in its wealth and as a sign of ostentation, dedicated itself to the patronage of art to emulate the noble classes. One of the main characteristics of the Dutch gardens was the use of water canals around the garden, a resource from the garden of Honslaerdyck"), near The Hague, built in 1621 by Prince Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau, where a canal flanked by long groves of trees bordered the entire perimeter of the palace and garden.[97]

One of the first great projects of Dutch gardening was the Heemstede garden, promoted in 1680 by Diderick van Veldhuysen"), a statesman from Utrecht. The project was developed by the Frenchman Daniel Marot, who designed an axial layout starting from the center of the garden, where the castle was located, with an octagonal plan and surrounded by water. The clear French inspiration was translated into embroidered flower beds, treillages, groves, galleries, labyrinths and boxwood obelisks, although the opening of canals and avenues towards the surrounding landscape followed original Dutch models.[98]​.

The main achievement of Dutch gardening was the garden of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn, built in 1685 by Stadtholder William III (future king of England). Daniel Marot was in charge of the project, who was clearly inspired by Versailles, especially in the upper part, configured radially from a central axis, although the lower part of the garden featured a typically Dutch set of hedges and groves. Marot stood out especially in the design of patterns for flower beds, which, although they were based on French models, moved away from them due to their more symmetrical shapes and a more sober and severe spirit. For the interior structure of the flower beds, he introduced a few innovations, consisting of the union of the ornamental areas of the flower beds with bands of grass, which also framed the outside of the flower bed and accentuated the crossing of axes. Marot's works, for which he had the collaboration of the Dutch architect and sculptor Jacob Roman"), are especially appreciated in the so-called Queen's Garden, in the main parterre next to the palace and in the walks in the upper part of the garden. In 1703 he published some of his flower bed designs in Œuvres de Sieur Daniel Marot. The gardens of Het Loo influenced some German works, such as the Nymphenburg garden and the Great Garden of Herrenhausen.[99]​.

England

In England, the French garden did not have much implementation, especially since in the century the practice of gardening in that country was moving towards landscaping, which led to the so-called "English garden." Despite everything, there were a few examples of baroque gardens, such as the Hampton Court garden (London), a park created by Henry VIII that was renovated in 1660 by Charles II. Then a large canal was created that started from the palace as a central axis, and corresponded to the system of avenues configured in the shape of a star. The king's gardener, John Rose"), was even sent to Paris to study with Le Nôtre, who was also invited to travel to London, although there is no record that he made the trip.[note 10] Later a new reform and extension was carried out during the reign of William III, who in 1689 commissioned the remodeling of the palace to the prestigious architect Christopher Wren, and had Daniel Marot for the design of the flower beds. An ornamental garden was created in front of the wing east of the palace, semicircular in shape and with paths covered with gravel and marked with circular squares with fountains. The Privy Garden - the private garden of Henry VIII - was converted into flower beds, delimited by an iron fence with twelve doors, the work of the French craftsman Jean Tijon. Finally, the old fruit orchard was transformed into another type wilderness,[note 11]​ inspired by the French forest, although wilder, which opened the way to the landscape garden.[100]​.

Another exponent was the garden of Blenheim Palace (Oxfordshire), built between 1705 and 1719 by the architect John Vanbrugh for the Duke of Marlborough. The so-called Military Garden, the orchard and the north and east avenues planted with elms were then formed, although the areas adjacent to the palace were developed in the 19th century. In the garden, designed by Henry Wise"), the flower beds located next to ponds with dentil shapes and boxwood ornaments stand out.[101] Later the garden was transformed in the English style in successive projects developed by Lancelot "Capability" Brown and William Chambers "William Chambers (architect)"), although at the end of the century the French landscaper Achille Duchêne") placed some water beds with French-style decorations around the castle, and a baroque fountain in the Berninesque style.[102]​.

At Chatsworth House (Derbyshire) there was a Renaissance garden that in 1687 was renovated in baroque style by the Duke of Devonshire "William Cavendish (1720-1764)"), with a project designed by the garden architects Henry Wise and George London "George London (landscaper)"). Along with typically English details, such as a wild park with mazes inspired by Hampton Court, or avenues lined with elms like at Blenheim Palace, the French influence was translated into areas of flower beds and flower beds, as well as a waterfall located on a hill behind the garden façade, crowned by a pavilion built by Thomas Archer. In 1760, a new project by “Capability” Brown transformed the garden into a landscape style, so that only the waterfall remained as a vestige of the baroque garden.[103]​.

Scandinavia

In Denmark there was a long tradition of horticultural gardens of medieval origin, but not of ornamental and recreational gardens, a situation that changed significantly after a trip to France by King Frederick IV. In 1700 he began a remodeling of the garden of Frederiksberg Palace (Copenhagen) in French baroque style, with a layout in terraces and parterre areas, which was carried out by Hans Hendrik Scheel"). In 1717 he built a new palace, Fredensborg, north of Copenhagen, with a garden designed by the Italian architect Marcantonio Pelli") in collaboration with Johann Cornelius Krieger"). The project, drawn up between 1759 and 1769, was not completed in its entirety due to its high costs, so the marble terraces and waterfalls initially planned could not be made, and in their place embankments covered with grass and various plants were installed, while the ponds with fountains were replaced by others finished in blocks of stone and wood.[106]​.

In Sweden, gardening received both French and German influence, especially that derived from the Hortus Palatinus of Heidelberg. Gustav II Adolf promoted numerous works at the Royal Palace in Stockholm, and his daughter Queen Christina called the French gardener André Mollet to the Swedish court, who published his famous book Le Jardin de Plaisir in Stockholm in 1751. Mollet transformed the royal gardens into embroidered flower beds, imported various plants from France and built several orangeries. But the main project was Drottningholm Palace, located on an island in Lake Mälar, west of Stockholm, where there was a medieval castle that was remodeled in 1661 by Queen Hedwig Eleanor of Holstein-Gottorp, with an architectural project by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder. It is one of the largest gardens in northern Europe, with flower beds based on models by André Mollet, while the general structure is inspired by the work of Le Nôtre, with whom Tessin had personal contact. It includes a magnificent collection of bronze sculptures, the work of Adriaen de Vries.[107]​.

Other European countries

In Russia there was not much gardening tradition until the century, but the coming to power of Tsar Peter I, founder of the city of Saint Petersburg, led to the construction of numerous palaces and gardens inspired by the great European palace complexes, especially Versailles. The main of these buildings was the Peterhof Palace, known as the "Russian Versailles" and built between 1715 and 1725 by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste-Alexandre Le Blond), a disciple of Le Nôtre. It had a large garden, which extended from the terrace of the palace to the sea through a gentle slope. The tsar ordered trees and plants from all over the world, and 40,000 were transplanted elms and maples from all over Russia. The main core of the garden is the double waterfall in front of the palace, flanked by golden statues, which descends through seven marble steps to a grotto and a large pond, where an artificial rock is located with a sculpture of Samson opening his mouth to a lion, from which a stream of water emerges; a channel flows out of the pond into the sea, where there is a small port. From here the garden is structured through a series of visual axes, as in Versailles, alternating areas of parterre and groves with ponds and fountains, and profuse sculptural decoration.[108]​.

In Poland, the reign of John III Sobieski marked a brief period of cultural splendor, which resulted in projects such as the Wilanów Palace (Warsaw), known as the "Polish Versailles", built between 1677 and 1692 by Augustyn Wincenty Locci") and Andreas Schlüter. The palace has an extensive 45 hectare park with gardens of various styles, numerous fountains, sculptures and monuments. The baroque garden is the section oldest, in front of the rear terrace of the palace, located on two levels; it is designed with geometric shapes, and has various fountains. Between 1799 and 1821, an English garden was installed in front of the north wing of the palace. front by a terrace supported on columns, from where you can see a wonderful panoramic view of the parterre, with a central avenue and decoration of sphinxes. Later, the garden was expanded in the English style.

In the Czech Republic, it is worth mentioning the extensive park formed between the castles of Lednice and Valtice, known today as the Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape and declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1996. The park was configured over the centuries by the Liechtenstein family, with an architectural project by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. It has an area of ​​283.09 km², and has forest areas and numerous ponds, as well as several pavilions, among which the Belvedere, the Temple of Diana, the Temple of the Three Graces, the Temple of Apollo, the Castle of Juan and the Minaret stand out. After a first baroque phase, the park was developed in accordance with the English landscape style.[110] Another unique project was the Bethlehem created by Count František Antonín Špork") in Kuks (1726-1732), a sacred garden composed of several hermitages dedicated to Saints Anthony, Paul, Bruno, Onofre and Garín, and decorated with various sculptures carved in the same rocks of the place, the work of Matthias Braun, which are reminiscent of those in the Mannerist garden of Bomarzo.[111]​.

America

In America, a type of colonial art developed over the centuries that was a faithful reflection of the culture and artistic trends produced in the colonizing metropolises. In most cases, these trends were imposed on previous native styles, the so-called pre-Columbian art. The arrival of the conquerors represented a great revolution, especially in the field of architecture, with the translation of the various typologies of buildings typical of European culture: mainly churches "Church (building)") and cathedrals, given the rapid development of the work of evangelization of the Native American peoples, but also civil buildings such as town halls, hospitals, universities, palaces and private villas, which in many cases had gardens. It is worth noting the importance that the discovery of America had for botany, since numerous horticultural and ornamental species were imported from the new continent that quickly established themselves in Europe. Among the numerous species discovered, the majority were used for their nutritional properties, such as: tomato, potato, corn, cocoa, peanuts, pepper, pineapple, tobacco, cinnamon, pumpkin, vanilla, etc.; but some also for their aesthetic qualities, such as tuberose, dondiego and nasturtium.[113]​.

In the development of American colonial gardening, the climatic factor must be taken into account: in North America the climate is more similar to that of Europe, so it was easier to transfer the existing garden typologies on the Old Continent; On the other hand, from the Caribbean "Caribbean (region)") towards the south there are various climatologies that for the most part were not appropriate for developing the type of gardening that the colonizers knew.[114] On the other hand, there were important differences with respect to the colonizing culture: just as the Spanish and Portuguese implemented a more political and religious domination, the English and French originally established more commercial contacts, and later the emigration of the population. All of this led to important differences: just as the Iberian colonizers respected the traces of previous gardening more than the other colonizers, on the other hand, their own achievements were smaller in number and relevance.[115]​.

Some scholars compare pre-Columbian gardening with Persian or Egyptian gardening, based on testimonies from the first conquerors, who recounted the wonders they saw in garden palaces such as that of Moctezuma, with gardens arranged on stepped terraces, with ponds, groves, medicinal gardens, and even aviaries and zoos.[116] Apparently, many of the pre-Columbian gardens were located in interior courtyards of the houses. houses, a fact that was linked to the Hispanic tradition of the patio of Islamic heritage, which is why this typology survived in the Spanish colonies of America.[117]​.

The first vestiges of colonial gardening are very scarce, since in general the colonizers were more concerned with agricultural exploitation than with ornamental gardening. In the few examples that were produced, the imitation of the gardens of the place of origin of the new settlers was more deprived than the innovation or experimentation of new typologies.[118]​ At the beginning of the century there were some first attempts at urban planning in imitation of European cities, mainly in North America, with examples such as Salem "Salem (Massachusetts)") (1628) or Boston (1630).[119]​ In the area of the colonies In North America, Dutch-style gardens were introduced in the century, small, flat and orderly, with the introduction of flower beds for the first time.[120]​.

Literature

• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Baroque Gardening.

The Baroque was a period in the history of art typical of Western culture, originated by a new way of conceiving art (the "baroque style") and which, starting from different historical-cultural contexts, produced works in numerous artistic fields: literature, architecture, sculpture, painting, music, opera, dance, theater, etc. It manifested itself mainly in Western Europe, although due to colonialism it also occurred in numerous colonies of European powers, mainly in Latin America. Chronologically, it covered the entire century and the beginning of the 20th century, with a greater or lesser extension in time depending on each country. It is usually placed between Mannerism and Rococo, in an era characterized by strong religious disputes between Catholic and Protestant countries, as well as marked political differences between absolutist and parliamentary States, where an incipient bourgeoisie began to lay the foundations of capitalism.[8]​.

The century was generally a time of economic depression "Depression (economy)"): poor harvests led to an increase in the price of wheat and other basic products, with subsequent famines; The poor economic situation was aggravated by the plague that devastated Europe in the middle of the century, which especially affected the Mediterranean area.[note 3] Another factor that generated misery and poverty were wars, mostly caused by the confrontation between Catholics and Protestants, as is the case of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). All these factors caused serious impoverishment of a large part of the population.[9]​.

On the other hand, hegemonic power in Europe shifted from imperial Spain to absolutist France, which after the Peace of Westphalia (1648) and the Peace of the Pyrenees (1659) consolidated itself as the most powerful state on the continent, practically undisputed until the rise of England in the 20th century. Thus, the France of the Louis and papal Rome were the main centers of baroque culture, as centers of political and religious power – respectively – and centers of dissemination of absolutism and counter-reformationism. Spain, although in political and economic decline, nevertheless had a splendorous cultural period—the so-called Golden Age—which, although marked by its religious aspect of incontrovertible counter-reform proselytism, had a marked popular component, and took both literature and the plastic arts to levels of high quality. In the rest of the countries where the baroque culture arrived (England, Germany, the Netherlands), its implementation was irregular and with different seals peculiar to their distinctive national characteristics.[10]​.

During the Baroque era, gardening had extensive development, both technical and theoretical, and evolved from the simple adaptation of a natural space adapted to the habitability of human beings to high degrees of design and planning, organization of space and integration of the natural element with elaborate artistic programs capable of generating sets of refined sensory and intellectual evocation. Gardening was elevated at this time to a full-fledged art, almost inextricably associated with the figure of the architect, since its design entails an elaborate, rational and professional project. The conception of the garden is planned globally with the rest of the arts, especially architecture, but also sculpture, scenography, hydraulic design, etc. Thus, at this time gardening became "the art of ordering nature according to architectural principles."[11]​.

The archetypal model of the Baroque garden, the French garden, was largely nourished by the theoretical and technical contributions of the Italian Renaissance garden, especially the conception developed by Leon Battista Alberti of the house and the garden as an artistic unit based on geometric forms (De Re Aedificatoria, IX, 1443-1452), as well as the model exposed by Francesco Colonna in his Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499), which introduced the use of flower beds and the use of topiary art to give whimsical shapes to trees. The design of the eras based on axial forms, exposed by Sebastiano Serlio in Tutte l'opere d'architettura (1537), also influenced the baroque garden.[12]​.

The evolution of the Italian model to the French one was marked by various factors, especially in relation to the political rise of France and the spread of its programmatic values, such as centralism, absolutism and rationalism, which accentuated the dramatic aspects of the Renaissance style.[13] Thus, although French gardening assumed the geometric concept of the Italian one, it drifted towards new forms, due on the one hand to a new conception of the garden as an element of social prestige and on the other hand to the economic and social development of the state. French, which after its continuous conflicts and divisions until practically the beginning of the century began a new stage of national consolidation, which brought about an economic boom and a vision of promoting the fine arts as a hallmark of French culture on the one hand, and as a prestige product for the national economy on the other. On the other hand, the environmental factor set the guidelines for a differentiation of both garden typologies: just as in Italy the terrain is more rugged, the climate is hotter and the rainfall is lower, in France the terrain is usually flatter, and the climate is more stable and with abundant rainfall. frequent use in architecture of the castle typology—.[15] All these factors led to the differentiation between both styles: the greater use of flowers in French gardening led to the development of flower beds, while greater use of hydraulic resources favored the increase of fountains, ponds and canals; Together with the proliferation of statues and other ornamental details thanks to the impulse given to the arts, they were the main points of characterization of the new French garden.[16]​.

A turning point between the Renaissance and the Baroque gardens were the theories of Olivier de Serres, who elevated gardening to the category of art and introduced it to courtly circles. In Le Théâtre d'Agriculture et Mesnage des Champs (1600) he compared the design of flower beds with pictorial composition, and defended the conception of the garden based on aesthetic canons, unrelated to mere agricultural technique. Serres pointed out four main types of gardens: aromatic, fruit, herbal and recreational.[17] Another important treatise of the time was * Traité du jardinage selon les raisons de la nature et de l'art. Ensemble divers desseins de parterres, pelouzes, Bosquets et autres ornements* (1638), by Jacques Boyceau de la Barauderie, the first in which gardening is approached from both an aesthetic and practical aspect. Boyceau made numerous designs for flower beds, which had a notable influence on the work of Le Nôtre.[note 4]​[18]​ At this point of intersection we can also place the work of Étienne Dupérac, who, although he did not put his ideas into writing, had a notable influence on the achievements of his time. Dupérac had studied in Italy, where he illustrated numerous archaeological remains and ancient monuments, and upon his return he worked as an architect for Henry IV, for whom he designed the gardens of Fontainebleau, The Tuileries and Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Dupérac defended the unitary design for the flower bed, without falling into solely aesthetic or artificial conceptions, and his approaches had a rapid diffusion in his time.[19]​.

The foundations of the baroque garden were laid first by André Mollet, premier jardinier du roi of Louis XIV, author of the famous treatise Le Jardin de Plaisir (1651). André was the son of Claude Mollet, creator of the flower beds of the Castle of Anet "Anet (Eure et Loir)") and of the Gardens of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (with Étienne Dupérac), and author of Théâtre des plans et jardinages (1652), one of the first theoretical works aimed at what would become the baroque garden. André established the principles of classicism in gardening, and his ideas were very well received in England, where he influenced architectural Palladianism. He was the introducer of the patte d'oie ("goose's foot"), a design of avenues established from a circular square, bordered by boxwood hedges or other shrubs. Apart from his work in France, in England he participated in Saint James's Park and Wimbledon "Wimbledon (London)," and was gardener-in-chief of the city of London.[20]​.

The great innovator of the French garden was André Le Nôtre, who, although he did not leave his theories in writing, his practical innovations set the precedents for the baroque garden, which would soon spread from France to the rest of Europe. He had an artistic training, since he was a disciple of the painter Simon Vouet; He later inherited the position of jardinier en chef du roi from his father, Jean Le Nôtre, and at the age of 24 he was already in charge of the Tuileries Gardens. After working in the Luxembourg Garden and Fontainebleau, his designs for Vaux-le-Vicomte enthused Louis Diversity was the basis of the wealth of the whole. The main element in these sectors was the embroidered parterre (broderie), and at the intersection between axes, ponds were located, which could be circular or octagonal. This scheme, sumptuously developed in Versailles, had great success in most European courts, which quickly developed similar programs in their cities and palaces.[21]​.

The main theorist of the baroque garden was Antoine Joseph Dezallier d'Argenville, who presented his ideas in La Théorie et la Pratique du Jardinage (1710), one of the most influential treatises of his time on the art of gardening, to the point of being described as "the Bible of the art of gardening." Although his work was largely based on the contributions made by Le Nôtre, he was the first to systematize rules for the composition of gardens, which is why his work was very relevant. Dezallier highlighted the idea of ​​the garden as a place of recreation, of relaxation, whose design should provide above all pleasure. He pointed out five fundamental aspects when conceiving a garden: healthy location, good terrain, presence of water, landscape perspective and comfort. For the correct appreciation of the garden, visual obstacles, such as walls, fences or hedges, had to be avoided, for which he proposed the delimitation of the surface of the garden through moats called "ahas". avenues arranged in a fan that crossed the hedges in the shape of a crescent.[22]​.

For Dezallier, the most important parts of the garden were the flower beds and the groves, which to be better appreciated had to be contrasted. His ideal model was the following: seen when leaving the palace into the garden and walking away; First would come an area of ​​flower beds, which had to be the most cared for area as it was closest to the palace; Then there would be a transverse axis lined with yew trees, with a pond in the middle; Next would appear an area of ​​groves arranged in a semicircle, with paths drawn diagonally; The next cross section would be formed by a water channel, with a fountain of newts "Triton (mythology)") located at the intersection with the main road, which would give way to a final area of ​​forests. In this scheme, the main element to be considered was the design of the flower beds, of which he distinguished four types: the "broderie* flowerbed" ("embroidery"), composed of grass and boxwood and chiseled with geometric shapes; the "compartment parterre", made up of grass and flowerbeds with sand on its inner surface, and a fountain in the center; the "parterre à l'anglaise", made with a board of grass (boulingrin, from the English bowling green, "lawn for playing bowling") with decorative routes; and the "floral parterre" (parterre de pièces coupées pour des fleurs), based on hedges of low shrubs that delimit areas of floral plants. Finally, in the gaps or angles between flower beds, trees pruned into topiary are placed, preferably boxwoods or yews. Despite this schematic and rational arrangement, Dezallier insisted on the landscape element of gardening and defended the predominance of nature over the intervention of man, thus opening the door to the English landscape garden that became fashionable in the 19th century.[23]​.

As for vegetation, Dezallier details in his work the most suitable species according to the terrain and for each season: for spring he recommends the tulip, the anemone, the ranunculus, the narcissus, the hyacinth, the iris "Iris (plant)"), the cyclamen, the crown, the bear's ear, the liverwort, the pansy, the carnation, the primrose, the violet, the wallflower, the chrysanthemum and the lily of the valley; for summer he mentions the lily, the martagon, the peony, the tuberose, the speedwell "Veronica (plant)"), the morning glory, the sainfoin, the dittany, the scabious, the marjoram, the broom, the poppy, the delphinium, the balsamine, the sunflower, the heliotrope, the nightshade, the aconite and the immortelle; and for autumn it highlights castor bean, calendula, marigold, amaranth, valerian, hollyhock, nasturtium, passionflower and geranium. Also point out woody plants suitable for borders and flower beds, such as elderberry, marshmallow, honeysuckle and shrimp. For hedges, boxwood, yew and cypress are ideal. Finally, groves can be made of any type of tree typical of the area, and Dezallier distinguishes six types of grove: the forêt et grand bois de haute futaie, appropriate for the countryside and large areas of land, with large and densely populated trees; the bois taillis, like the previous one for large spaces or animal parks, carved every nine years; the bosquet de moyenne futaie à hautes palissades, a recreational grove with pruned beech, oleander or maple hedges, next to medium-height trees; the forest découvert et à compartment, a small forest like the previous one, but without thickets, with avenues lined with linden or chestnut trees; the forest I planted in quinconces, another type of grove, planted in the shape of quincunx —like the five on dice—; and the bois vert, an evergreen forest, the rarest given its slow growth.[24]​.

In addition to the plant elements, Dezallier gave special importance to other types of ornamental details, such as pergolas, sculptures, stairs and fountains. The pergolas or berceaux could be of several types: berceau artificiel (also called treillage), formed with wooden slats in the form of a lattice "Lattice (architecture)"), through which bushes or climbing plants climbed; berceau naturel, made by linking branches of several trees with wire, in the form of arches, trellises or rodrigones; or a combination of both, the berceau de treillage. The statues were placed, in conjunction with garden vases, on pedestals located in the high hedges next to the flower beds, or in arbors, oleander niches, crossroads, between trees, in the center of grove halls, in arcades or at the beginning of a patte d'oie. They were generally of mythological allusion, and Dezallier recommends that they be of artistic quality, and if not, dispense with their placement. The stairs were used to overcome unevenness, but they were still an ornamental element, which was complemented by constructions such as arches, exedras, waterfalls and artificial grottoes; For Dezallier, the optimal solution for unevenness was the amphitheater, which brought together steps of various shapes, ramps, fountains and jets, plant ornaments and sculptures. As for the fountains, which for Dezallier are the soul of the gardens after the vegetation, he established a series of guidelines for their correct distribution, since water is a scarce commodity, in such a way that it always seems that there are more than those that actually appear. He pointed out that the height of the fountain must be proportional to the size of the basin, and that all the water columns must be visible at the same time. The fountains are complemented by other water resources such as ponds, canals and waterfalls, and are recommended to house swans, ducks and geese. He also dedicated special studies to hydraulic techniques, and carefully analyzed the detection of sources and their conduction problems, as well as the procedures for their pumping and distribution.[25]​.

On the other hand, it is worth highlighting the importance that botany gained as a science at this time, especially thanks to the work of Carl von Linné. Numerous scientific expeditions were organized around the world,[note 6]​ and a large number of new plants were imported to Europe, which were used from sectors such as horticulture or medicinal herbalism to gardening. Various ornamental plants were imported into this land, such as a genus of orchid, Bletia verecunda, various genus of azalea and camellia, magnolia and various species of oaks and maples.[26] The spread of new plant species favored the implementation of a new type of garden specialized in its study and conservation, the botanical garden, which proliferated especially in the 19th century, in line with the new fashion of the style landscape garden. English.[27]​.

Regarding the legacy left by baroque gardening, although the transition to the new English landscape garden model was somewhat abrupt,[note 7]​ without a solution of continuity between both models, which in many cases meant the replacement of baroque gardens with others of the new landscape fashion, the baroque typology of garden with a geometric configuration lasted to a large extent during the century, and even until the beginning of the 20th. At the end of the century, the baroque garden became fashionable, especially in the United States, perhaps due to the desire to differentiate itself from its former metropolis. There, the formal garden —as the baroque garden is known in the Anglo-Saxon world— was considered more aristocratic in size, and therefore more suitable for the construction of a new nation that aspired to be powerful.[28] This is seen in the Governor's Palace of Williamsburg (Virginia) "Williamsburg (Virginia)"), or in George Washington's house in Mount Vernon "Mount Vernon (plantation)") (Virginia). Between the and centuries, and parallel to the historicist fashion in architecture, there was a revival of previous gardening styles, especially Italian and French, which led to the resurgence of old techniques such as topiary. Thanks to this revival of ancient forms, numerous historic gardens that had been abandoned or had been converted to a landscape style were restored, such as Chatsworth House, restored by Joseph Paxton, or Vaux-le-Vicomte, run by Henri and Achille Duchêne. very conducive to the development of urban planning of cities, as seen in the design of the city of Washington D.C., the work of the French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant, or in the planning of cities such as Lusaka, Nairobi and New Delhi, examples of British colonialism, for which an imperial and propaganda style such as Versailles served conveniently.[30]​.

France

In France, the impetus given by the Bourbons to large court buildings encouraged the development of numerous arts complementary to architecture, from decorative and industrial arts to gardening, considered an inseparable extension of palatial complexes and another sign of the ostentation of royal and aristocratic power. The century was a splendid period for the French monarchy - to the point that it was called the Grand Siècle -, and Louis The creation of a vast palace complex had both political and propaganda purposes, and the king's intention to gather the nobility at court sought to control possible intrigues and rebellions that had been endemic in previous times in the country.[note 8] On the other hand, the mercantilist policy developed by Minister Colbert promoted the industrialization of artistic creations as a means of financing the classroom programs developed by Louis XIV and, at the same time, promoting glory of the monarch and enhance his image abroad.[31]​.

In France, the Baroque had a strong rationalist component - in parallel to philosophical rationalism - which led to classicist artistic forms, the so-called French classicism. It led to the geometrization of shapes and a type of rational design constrained to certain measurements according to the desired effect; The parterre appeared, delimited areas composed of grass and small hedges of shrubs or flowers; The garden areas were complemented by ponds and fountains, and decorated with statues and other artistic elements; In general, large and open spaces were sought, without obstacles to the view, with large avenues and easily passable complexes. The main premise of this type of garden was to improve nature through art. These factors generated the so-called "French garden", which was exported to other countries and became the most archetypal example of baroque gardening.[33]​.

The great renovation of the French garden was carried out by André Le Nôtre: after working for a few years in the Tuileries and the Luxembourg Garden, in 1656 he was commissioned to design the garden of the Palace of Vaux-le-Vicomte, a great project by Louis XIV's finance minister, Nicolas Fouquet. The palace, the work of architect Louis Le Vau, was built in just one year, and was decorated with all kinds of luxuries by Charles Le Brun. Le Nôtre established a central axis that started from the main building of the palatial architectural complex, with a wide avenue that disappeared into the horizon of the landscape. On both sides of this avenue there were two areas of flower beds, divided in turn in two by a transversal avenue, at whose intersection there was a pond with a fountain. The flower beds were designed in broderie, and were flanked with groves that framed the flowerbed area, so that the view did not get lost on the sides and was focused on the distance, which accentuated the spacious effect of the garden. However, such sumptuousness harmed its owner, since after the inauguration party in 1661 Fouquet was arrested for appropriation of public funds. Even so, the garden at Vaux-le-Vicomte was enormously successful, setting the standard for future garden planning. The king, who had undoubtedly marveled at the magnificence of the Vaux palace and garden, immediately began his own palace project, for which he enlisted Le Nôtre to design the garden.[34]

The same year as the inauguration of Vaux-le-Vicomte and its owner's fall from grace, work began on the palace and gardens of Versailles, the magnum opera of the Bourbon monarchy and symbol of absolutist power. In Versailles there previously existed a hunting reserve for the royal family, the construction of which had been ordered by the king's father, Louis XIII. In this preserve, a small garden called Petit Parc was prepared, supervised by Jacques Boyceau, with an area of ​​93 hectares. With the new project, the garden area — called Grand Parc — now has an area of ​​6,500 hectares, which was fenced with a 43 km long wall. The works at Versailles, in largely swampy terrain, involved extensive earthworks, involving up to 30,000 soldiers, as well as extensive hydraulic engineering work to supply both the vegetation and the 2,400 fountains that were placed throughout the garden. Plants and trees were imported from all over France and even from abroad: elms, poplars and lindens from Flanders; Vienna horse chestnuts; roses, hyacinths and tulips from Holland; Turkey lilies and daffodils; carnations and orange trees from Spain.[35]​.

The first phase of construction took place between 1661 and 1680, in which 15 groves were planted, delimited by avenues, as well as most of the flower beds. From the façade of the palace a large central axis started from which numerous avenues emerged in successive sections of the garden. Firstly, there were two symmetrical ponds known as "water parterres", on whose sides there were several spaces of broderie parterres (north and south parterres, of Latona and of the Orangerie), along with several more ponds (of Neptune, of the Dragon, of the Swiss and Bath of the Nymphs) and forest areas (of the King, of the Queen, of the Conch, of the Baths of Apollo, of the Colonnade, of the Dome, Quincunx north and south); Below appeared the Pool of Apollo, and further ahead the Grand Canal, in the shape of a cross, on whose north side was the ancient town of Trianon.[36]

Among the many novelties of Versailles, it is worth highlighting the ménagerie, a small zoo made up of several enclosures with a two-story octagonal building in the center, the lower one decorated as an artificial cave, and the upper one that served as an observatory to see the animals around. It was built in 1633 and was demolished after thirty years. Equally innovative was the orangerie, a greenhouse for orange trees and exotic plants, located next to the south parterre. Another point of interest was the Tethys Grotto, built next to the north parterre between 1664 and 1676, and destroyed in 1684. It was designed as a nymphaeum, with the interior decorated as an underwater grotto, with the walls inlaid with stones, shells and corals, and light and sound effects, with an organ "Organo (musical instrument)") that imitated the sound of water and the trill of the birds.[37]​.

The gardens of Versailles were loaded with great symbolism: the route started from the palace, a human construction; I continued through the area of ​​flowerbeds, where nature was subjected to the intervention of man; and ended in the forest area, where nature regained its wild appearance. Thus, we moved from the artificial to the natural, from dominated nature to free nature, as an expression that ultimately man's intervention is ephemeral. Another symbolic aspect was the iconographic program developed in the sculptural groups of the park, in which the all-embracing power of the monarch was exalted: the fountain of Apollo is a clear identification of Louis XIV, the Sun King, with Apollo, god of the sun in Greek mythology. Likewise, the source of Latona, mother of Apollo and Diana "Diana (mythology)"), could refer to the Marchioness of Montespan, mother of several illegitimate children of the monarch.[38]​.

The gardens were complemented by a great profusion of sculptures by the best artists of the time - with a program conceived by the king's painter, Charles Le Brun -, such as the four fountains dedicated to the seasons, all of them made of gilded lead (Fountain of Ceres or Summer, by Thomas Regnaudin, 1672-1679; Fountain of Saturn or Winter, by François Girardon, 1672-1677; Fountain of Flora or Spring, by Jean-Baptiste Tuby, 1672-1679; Also noteworthy is the Fountain of Apollo (1668-1670), with the figure of the god on a chariot drawn by four horses, the work of Jean-Baptiste Tuby, which is located in the center of the main axis of the gardens. Also worth highlighting is the sculptural group of Bath of Apollo (or Apollo and the Nymphs, 1666-1675), a marble work by François Girardon, or the group of The Steeds of the Sun, by Balthasar and Gaspard Marsy (1668-1675).[39]​.

In 1685, the architect Jules Hardouin-Mansart took charge of the project, and compared to the organization of nature preserving its idiosyncrasy carried out by Le Nôtre, he carried out a more architectural nature, with spaces clearly delimited with grass slopes. Mansart gave a more neoclassical air to the complex, which resulted in the loss of a good part of the original project of Le Nôtre - among other things the magnificent labyrinth designed by the great gardener. the Trianon de Marbre, later called Grand Trianon, built by Jules Hardoin-Mansart in 1687; and the Petit Trianon, built between 1763 and 1767 by Ange-Jacques Gabriel.[41] Throughout the construction process the king was very aware of the progress of his garden, and actively intervened in many details of its design. He was so proud of his creation that he even wrote a guide for visiting the garden, Manière de montrer les jardins de Versailles, of which he made six versions between 1689 and 1705.[42]​.

After the death of Louis XIV the gardens underwent several modifications, and subsequent interventions were directed towards the new fashion of the English landscape garden. However, Versailles powerfully influenced other great gardening projects, and was copied by the great European monarchical courts, with exponents such as the gardens of Schönbrunn (Vienna), La Granja (Segovia), Het Loo (Apeldoorn), Drottningholm (Stockholm), Peterhof (Saint Petersburg), Caserta (Campania), Herrenhausen (Hanover), etc. It also influenced urban planning, and its trace is clearly seen in the design of the city of Washington D.C., the work of the French engineer Pierre Charles L'Enfant. Finally, his stele can still be seen in the century in the Herrenchiemsee Palace, built by Ludwig II of Bavaria on an island in Lake Chiem.[43]​.

• - Versailles Gardens.

• - View of the southern garden.

• - The Orangerie with the Pièce d'Eau des Suisses in the background.

• - Southwest facade.

• - Apollo Fountain.

• - View of the interior of the Tethys Grotto, by Jean Le Pautre, 1676.

After his intervention in the gardens of Versailles, Le Nôtre designed the garden of the Château de Chantilly in 1663 for Prince Louis II of Condé. As in the royal gardens, he designed a system of large canals, the main of which, the Grand Canal, ran parallel to the façade of the palace and flowed into a pond, fed through a waterfall by a mountain stream. In its central part the Grand Canal widened, and on its sides there were separate water beds with fountains. The rest of the plant surface was made up of lawn, threshing floors and alleys "Alameda (gardening)"), although the main element in this garden was water, to which Le Nôtre gave increasingly more importance.[44]

Le Nôtre returned to work for the king in the gardens of two palaces located near Versailles, Marly and Clagny. The Marly Palace was built between 1676 and 1686 by Jules Hardouin-Mansart. The garden was located in a valley, where the water current constituted the main axis of the land, and in whose place four large ponds were arranged in line with the façade of the palace. Several avenues were established around the ponds, flanked by a set of twelve pavilions dedicated to the signs of the zodiac.[45] The Palace of Clagny was also the work of Mansart, completed in 1680. Le Nôtre designed the garden based on the effect of distance, as in Vaux-le-Vicomte. In the main axis he placed a lake with an islet in the middle, flanked by flower beds and groves. The palace was demolished in 1769, and currently nothing remains of the garden, which is known only from a plan.[46]​.

Other works by Le Nôtre were: the garden of the Saint-Cloud Palace, designed for Philip I of Orleans, which stands out for its monumental waterfall built between 1667 and 1697 by Antoine Le Pautre and François Mansart; the garden of the Sceaux Palace "Sceaux (Hauts-de-Seine)"), which he designed in 1670 for Jean-Baptiste Colbert, the king's minister, with a magnificent set of flower beds, groves and waterfalls of which only the large canal and lawn areas remain; Finally, between 1679 and 1691 he participated in the reform of the gardens of the Château de Meudon for Minister Louvois.[47] Other French gardens of note are: the garden of the Berbie Palace in Albi "Albi (Tarn)"), an episcopal residence of medieval origin where a baroque garden was created in the century, which stands out for its geometrically shaped flower beds located next to gravel paths, as well as grass benches, gazebos and various other elements that enhance the playful nature of the garden. The Fontaine Garden in Nîmes was designed in the 19th century by the military architect Jacques-Philippe Mareschal), and stands out for its system of terraces with fountains, in addition to its intensely colorful flower beds and its leafy trees, generally pines and cedars.[48]

• - Chantilly Castle.

• - Saint-Cloud Palace.

• - Sceaux Palace "Sceaux (Hauts de Seine)").

• - Berbie Palace, Albi "Albi (Tarn)").

• - Fontaine Garden"), Nîmes.

Italy

Italy was the cradle of Baroque art, thanks mainly to the patronage of the Church and the great architectural and urban programs developed by the papal see, eager to show the world its victory against the Reformation. During the Renaissance, gardening developed significantly in this country, to the point that the main model of Renaissance garden is usually called the "Italian garden", generally conceived through a structured design, with a geometric composition, built on terraces with stairs, such as the Belvedere Garden, by Bramante, or the Villa Madama, by Raphael. This scheme continued for a good part of the century, although little by little the influence of the French garden was introduced.

Some gardens were begun as Renaissance and finished in Baroque style, such as the Boboli Garden in Florence, whose works began in 1549 by order of Eleanor of Toledo, the wife of Cosimo I de' Medici, under the direction of the landscape architect Niccolò Tribolo, who prepared the valley located behind the Palazzo Pitti, and configured a garden in the shape of an amphitheater, with a central axis that divided it into two parts. symmetrical. However, this layout changed over the years, and in 1618 Alfonso Parigi made a series of modifications that transformed it into a fully baroque garden, with wider road axes and a more symmetrical composition, and with the construction of an oval pond with an artificial island in the center, where the Fountain of the Ocean was located, the work of the sculptor Giambologna.[49]​.

In Italy, gardening developed especially in villas, a model of rural estate composed of a palace surrounded by meadows and gardens, generally near cities, where noble families spent their seasons of leisure and rest. This model came from Roman times, and was widespread during the Renaissance, a period in which many of these sets were designed by the most famous architects of the time. This scheme survived in the Italian Baroque, and among the many villas built in this period it would be worth highlighting the following:

• - Villa Montalto") (Rome): it was promoted by Pope Sixtus V, within a plan for the urban transformation of the city. The most remarkable thing was its planimetry, which gave more importance to the visual focuses than to the formulation of the space: from the main entrance three avenues started in a radial way, the central one of which led to a casino, where there was a semicircular plaza with a pool; from here there was an avenue of cypress trees that was crossed by a transversal road, where a fountain was located. Nowadays it no longer exists, and in its place is the Roman central station (Stazione Termini).[50]​.

• - Villa Borghese (Rome): it was an initiative of Cardinal Scipione Caffarelli Borghese, nephew of Paul V, built between 1613 and 1616 in an area of ​​vineyards in front of the Porta Pinciana. The layout of the avenues was inspired by the Villa Montalto, although the main avenue did not lead to the casino, but to a pond where a fountain called "Sea Horses" was later placed, the work of Christoph Unterberger"), executed in 1770. The main avenue was then crossed by a transversal axis that led to the casino, the work of the Flemish artist Giovanni Vasanzio") (currently a museum, the Borghese Gallery), in the back of which were the ,[note 9]​ composed of orange trees and medicinal herbs. From here there were various ornamental gardens, forests, grottoes, pavilions and even a zoo. In the century a remodeling was carried out that turned it into an English-type garden.[51]​.

Spain

In Spain, the contributions of the Renaissance and the first Baroque arrived late, and in the century there are no clear examples of a Baroque garden, except for small manifestations that were intermixed with other styles, especially the vestiges of an Islamic garden that survived from the Muslim occupation of the peninsula in the Middle Ages. A clear example would be the garden of the Alcázar of Seville, which brings together elements of the initial Mudejar style garden with Renaissance contributions made by Charles V at the beginning of the century and a baroque-looking area on the terraces near the gallery of arches. It should be noted that in Spain the soil is generally harder and drier than in Italy or France, and the sun is more intense, especially in summer, which led to the creation of small, confined gardens in closed spaces, not integrated into the landscape as in other countries. On the other hand, in Spain there was not a middle class or a small nobility of an enlightened court that favored the patronage of art or the dissemination of architecture and gardening, as in the surrounding countries, and there was a great social difference between the common people and the aristocracy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy, which dominated the power. Likewise, the reigning dynasty, the Austrians, did not particularly favor the art of gardening. One of the few examples was the Buen Retiro Park in Madrid, an initiative of Felipe IV that he entrusted to the Count-Duke of Olivares, who commissioned the project from the Italian Cosimo Lotti. Work began in 1628, in the style of the Italian Renaissance garden, but upon the death of the king in 1665 the project was abandoned. In 1714, the landscaping of Buen Retiro was resumed, by the Frenchman Robert de Cotte, but his ambitious project was rejected due to its high cost, and only a broderie parterre was made in a small area of ​​the park known as Jardin de Francia or del Parterre. The rest of the park was built in the 19th century.[64]​.

In the century gardening received a new boost with the arrival of the Bourbons, whose French origin favored the arrival of gardeners from this country. Philip V and his successors wanted to emulate the large garden palaces of the neighboring country, which was carried out mainly in two palace complexes: Aranjuez and La Granja.[65]​[66]​[67]​ In Aranjuez, located 65 km from Madrid, there was a summer residence for the royal family, built in the century on an old hunting reserve. Between the centuries and an Italian-style garden was created on an artificial island in the Tagus River (Jardín de la Isla "Jardín de la Isla (Aranjuez)"), populated by groves and numerous water fountains, among which the Fountain of the Tritons stood out. Upon the arrival to power of Philip V, an ambitious project to reform both the gardens and the palace began, built in neoclassical style by Santiago Bonavía and Francesco Sabatini between 1748 and 1771. The garden was transformed into a French baroque garden (Jardín del Parterre "Jardín del Parterre (Aranjuez)"), with a design by the French gardener Étienne Boutelou"), composed of several parterre areas arranged symmetrically and marked by ponds and fountains (of Hercules and Antaeus, of Ceres "Ceres (mythology)") and of the Nereids), as well as numerous sculptures. Elms were planted for the first time in Spain, as well as hornbeam hedges. The paths were covered with , arches with wooden trellises that provided shade. Starting in 1763, under the reign of Charles III, the following works were carried out in the English style (Garden of the Garden). Prince and Elizabeth II).[68]​.

Portugal

In Portugal the arts were especially revitalized after independence from Spain in 1640, which began a period of great prosperity. Gardening brought together various influences, from Islamic to Italian and French, although it developed several of its own characteristics: the use of tiles to decorate walls and pavements; the configuration of the ponds arranged in terraces; and a peculiar style in the design of boxwood beds.[75]​

The gardens were especially lavish in the stately residences, among which the Palace of the Marquises of Fronteira in Benfica "Benfica (Lisbon)"), built in 1669 by João de Mascarenhas, Marquis of Fronteira, stands out. The garden was configured in the form of a broderie parterre, featuring boxwood hedges cut in different heights and shapes, with several fountains and lined with statues. At one of the limits of the garden, next to a large pond, there is a wall five meters high, with an arcade of fifteen semicircular arches, twelve of them blind and covered in tiles with equestrian representations of Velazquean influence, and three that give access to two caves. At the top of this wall is the so-called Royal Gallery, formed by a walk with a balustrade and the wall decorated with a series of niches with busts; In the center there is a rectangular portico with a pediment "Frontón (architecture)") divided into volutes, and on the sides there are two pavilions, all of them covered with tiles.[76]​.

In 1722, the construction of the Sanctuary of Buen Jesús del Monte in Braga began, at the initiative of Archbishop Rodrigo de Moura Telles, an architectural complex that stands out for its monumental stairs, which span a slope of 116 meters, and which includes a garden classifiable within the typology of sacred garden, integrated into the concept of Sacro Monte or pilgrimage to Golgotha, the hill on which Jesus was crucified. The lower part presents a staircase that ascends into a wooded area dotted with hermitages and fountains dedicated to the planets; Next comes the staircase of the Five Senses, which symbolizes both the sins and humanity of Christ; Finally, at the top is the church with several chapels dedicated to the Passion. The garden is completed with a lake and artificial caves.[77]​.

Another example is the Casa de Mateus") in Vila Real, a residential complex built in 1743 by the Italian architect Niccolò Nasoni in a late-baroque style that hinted at the incipient neoclassicism. The garden is structured in terraces, with flower beds of circular, square or pentagonal shapes, formed by boxwood hedges and flower beds located on a floor of white marble pebbles. In the lower part of the garden It places a gallery of pruned cypresses in the shape of a barrel vault, flanked by two small gardens, one of broderie beds delimited by a hedge and a water garden with a Japanese maple.[78]​.

A more ambitious project was that of the National Palace of Queluz: in this town near Lisbon there was a hunting lodge belonging to the Marquis of Castelo Rodrigo, which was confiscated by King John IV in 1654 to convert it into a residence for the infants. Later, in 1747, Pedro III carried out an ambitious remodeling, which he commissioned the architect Mateus Vicente de Oliveira, while the garden was designed by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Robillion"), who was inspired by the Marly garden. From the façade of the palace there are several parterre areas, arranged around two large ponds decorated with sculptural groups alluding to the myths of Thetis "Thetis (titanide)") and Poseidon; there is also a large canal flanked by walls decorated with tiles, and everywhere there are fountains, waterfalls and jets, as well as busts and sculptures, which create an atmosphere of great harmony and elegance.[79]​.

Germany

The territory of current Germany was at that time fragmented into various states - the most preponderant of which was Prussia - which, with its multiplicity of court centers, led to the development of numerous architectural and landscape projects. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a time of social and economic hardship, but the subsequent period of prosperity translated into numerous construction projects. Gardening received French influence, although Renaissance models such as the Bitter Orange Garden in Leonberg or the Hortus Palatinus in Heidelberg were taken into account, as well as the theoretical treatises of Joseph Furttenbach"), municipal architect of Ulm, who in works such as Architectura civilis (1628) established some planting parameters of the eras that marked gardening throughout southern Germany for quite some time.[80]​.

Some of the first relevant projects were due to the archbishop-elector of Mainz, Lothar Franz von Schönborn, who after a long trip through Europe captured his vision of the baroque garden in two estates belonging to his family: the Gaibach Castle, near Würzburg (1677), and the Weißenstein Palace, in Pommersfelden (1715-1723). In the first he designed an elongated garden and planned from a central axis flanked by embroidered flower beds, next to one of which he placed an oval pond, surrounded by beds of flowers and with a fountain in the center, from whose sculptures streams of water emerged), who designed a garden structured around a circular square with a pond and flanked by chestnut trees, around which there were parterre areas and several orchards, one of them a. orangerie. This garden was later converted to the English style.[81] Another project of the archbishop was the Palace of La Favorita"), in Mainz, built by Maximilian von Welsch in 1704 in imitation of the Palace of Marly, but with six pavilions instead of twelve; it was destroyed in 1793 by French troops.[82]​.

Another double project was that developed by Prince Elector Maximilian II Emmanuel of Bavaria: the palaces of Schleißheim and Nymphenburg. Schleißheim, known as the "Bavarian Versailles", was built between 1701 and 1704, with a garden designed by the Italian Enrico Zucalli"), who from the façade of the palace established a wide central avenue with a canal and areas of grass and flower beds, and flanked by groves. However, the parterre closest to the palace was the work of the Frenchman Dominique Girard"), in the purest style of broderie French.[83] Nymphenburg Palace, near Munich, was built between 1701 and 1715 on a previous palace known as Castello delle Nymphe. The garden was once again entrusted to Dominique Girard, who developed a project inspired by the work of Le Nôtre: in front of the palace an avenue of flowerbeds opened, which led to a large pond traveled by gondolas (Gondola (boat)), and on whose sides were areas of woodland, which included spaces for playing ball and bowling. In the main flower bed there was a fountain with a stream of water ten meters high; dedicated to Flora "Flora (mythology)"), was the work of the Dutch sculptor Guillielmus de Grof"). From here, parterre and grove areas, water channels, fountains and waterfalls, pavilions and pleasure houses were developed axially, all decorated with sculptures, many of which were the work of Ignaz Günther. The park was redesigned in the century in the English style.[84]​.

Austria

Austria was the main fiefdom of the Habsburgs, emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. In its capital and center of the imperial court, Vienna, the construction of Schönbrunn Palace began in 1696, replacing an old palace destroyed in 1683 by the Turks. The palace was built by the prestigious architect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, although the garden was entrusted to the French garden architect Jean Trehet"), who transplanted a thousand trees from Paris to Vienna. The garden was articulated through a system of star-shaped avenues, with the palace in the center. In addition to the usual elements of the baroque garden, such as flower beds, hedges, groves, ponds and fountains, sculptures and other ornamental details, a small park was built zoo, designed by Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey"), for which expeditions were organized in search of exotic animals to Africa and America. An orangerie 200 meters long was also built, designed by Nikolaus Pacassi"), which had a hypocaustic heating system to preserve the plants in winter. The work carried out since 1780 was directed towards an English landscape garden.[93]​.

A garden that has not survived to this day is that of the Liechtenstein Palace in Vienna, built between 1700 and 1704 by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach on the initiative of Prince John Adam Andrew of Liechtenstein. From a central axis there were several compartments with threshing floors and hedges of boxwood, yew and cypress ornamented with knots and spirals. The decoration was completed with vases and sculptures with mythological themes, such as the statues of Apollo and Daphne.[94]​.

Another great project was the Belvedere Palace in Vienna, built between 1714 and 1723 by Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt for Prince Eugene of Savoy, upon whose death it passed into the hands of the imperial family. The garden was designed by Dominique Girard"), who developed an original solution to adapt the garden to the ascending terrain located between the two palaces (Oberes and Unteres Belvedere, that is, upper and lower Belvedere): an axis consisting of a slope with side stairs and a central waterfall divides the garden into two terraces; in the lower one, hedges of trees configured in a stereometric manner were planted, and in the upper one were flower beds and ponds. The area of groves, articulated with a system of diagonal avenues, it was based on the treatise of Dezallier d'Argenville published in 1710.[95]​.

Finally, it is worth mentioning the magnificent garden of the Mirabell Palace in Salzburg, built in 1606 by the Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau"), and renovated between the end of the century and the beginning of the century by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and Johann Lukas von Hildebrandt. They drew two parallel axes in the garden aligned with the neighboring Hohensalzburg Castle, and placed in the center of the parterre a large fountain with a sculpture of Pegasus. In 1728, the Salzburg garden inspector, Franz Anton Dannreiter, carried out a remodeling, which affected the small flowerbed, the and a new surface located on the fort grounds. In the century most of the land was transformed into an English garden.[96]​.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, gardening developed especially since the independence from Spain signed in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. In this country, international trade favored the rise of the bourgeoisie, which, due to the increase in its wealth and as a sign of ostentation, dedicated itself to the patronage of art to emulate the noble classes. One of the main characteristics of the Dutch gardens was the use of water canals around the garden, a resource from the garden of Honslaerdyck"), near The Hague, built in 1621 by Prince Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau, where a canal flanked by long groves of trees bordered the entire perimeter of the palace and garden.[97]

One of the first great projects of Dutch gardening was the Heemstede garden, promoted in 1680 by Diderick van Veldhuysen"), a statesman from Utrecht. The project was developed by the Frenchman Daniel Marot, who designed an axial layout starting from the center of the garden, where the castle was located, with an octagonal plan and surrounded by water. The clear French inspiration was translated into embroidered flower beds, treillages, groves, galleries, labyrinths and boxwood obelisks, although the opening of canals and avenues towards the surrounding landscape followed original Dutch models.[98]​.

The main achievement of Dutch gardening was the garden of Het Loo Palace in Apeldoorn, built in 1685 by Stadtholder William III (future king of England). Daniel Marot was in charge of the project, who was clearly inspired by Versailles, especially in the upper part, configured radially from a central axis, although the lower part of the garden featured a typically Dutch set of hedges and groves. Marot stood out especially in the design of patterns for flower beds, which, although they were based on French models, moved away from them due to their more symmetrical shapes and a more sober and severe spirit. For the interior structure of the flower beds, he introduced a few innovations, consisting of the union of the ornamental areas of the flower beds with bands of grass, which also framed the outside of the flower bed and accentuated the crossing of axes. Marot's works, for which he had the collaboration of the Dutch architect and sculptor Jacob Roman"), are especially appreciated in the so-called Queen's Garden, in the main parterre next to the palace and in the walks in the upper part of the garden. In 1703 he published some of his flower bed designs in Œuvres de Sieur Daniel Marot. The gardens of Het Loo influenced some German works, such as the Nymphenburg garden and the Great Garden of Herrenhausen.[99]​.

England

In England, the French garden did not have much implementation, especially since in the century the practice of gardening in that country was moving towards landscaping, which led to the so-called "English garden." Despite everything, there were a few examples of baroque gardens, such as the Hampton Court garden (London), a park created by Henry VIII that was renovated in 1660 by Charles II. Then a large canal was created that started from the palace as a central axis, and corresponded to the system of avenues configured in the shape of a star. The king's gardener, John Rose"), was even sent to Paris to study with Le Nôtre, who was also invited to travel to London, although there is no record that he made the trip.[note 10] Later a new reform and extension was carried out during the reign of William III, who in 1689 commissioned the remodeling of the palace to the prestigious architect Christopher Wren, and had Daniel Marot for the design of the flower beds. An ornamental garden was created in front of the wing east of the palace, semicircular in shape and with paths covered with gravel and marked with circular squares with fountains. The Privy Garden - the private garden of Henry VIII - was converted into flower beds, delimited by an iron fence with twelve doors, the work of the French craftsman Jean Tijon. Finally, the old fruit orchard was transformed into another type wilderness,[note 11]​ inspired by the French forest, although wilder, which opened the way to the landscape garden.[100]​.

Another exponent was the garden of Blenheim Palace (Oxfordshire), built between 1705 and 1719 by the architect John Vanbrugh for the Duke of Marlborough. The so-called Military Garden, the orchard and the north and east avenues planted with elms were then formed, although the areas adjacent to the palace were developed in the 19th century. In the garden, designed by Henry Wise"), the flower beds located next to ponds with dentil shapes and boxwood ornaments stand out.[101] Later the garden was transformed in the English style in successive projects developed by Lancelot "Capability" Brown and William Chambers "William Chambers (architect)"), although at the end of the century the French landscaper Achille Duchêne") placed some water beds with French-style decorations around the castle, and a baroque fountain in the Berninesque style.[102]​.

At Chatsworth House (Derbyshire) there was a Renaissance garden that in 1687 was renovated in baroque style by the Duke of Devonshire "William Cavendish (1720-1764)"), with a project designed by the garden architects Henry Wise and George London "George London (landscaper)"). Along with typically English details, such as a wild park with mazes inspired by Hampton Court, or avenues lined with elms like at Blenheim Palace, the French influence was translated into areas of flower beds and flower beds, as well as a waterfall located on a hill behind the garden façade, crowned by a pavilion built by Thomas Archer. In 1760, a new project by “Capability” Brown transformed the garden into a landscape style, so that only the waterfall remained as a vestige of the baroque garden.[103]​.

Scandinavia

In Denmark there was a long tradition of horticultural gardens of medieval origin, but not of ornamental and recreational gardens, a situation that changed significantly after a trip to France by King Frederick IV. In 1700 he began a remodeling of the garden of Frederiksberg Palace (Copenhagen) in French baroque style, with a layout in terraces and parterre areas, which was carried out by Hans Hendrik Scheel"). In 1717 he built a new palace, Fredensborg, north of Copenhagen, with a garden designed by the Italian architect Marcantonio Pelli") in collaboration with Johann Cornelius Krieger"). The project, drawn up between 1759 and 1769, was not completed in its entirety due to its high costs, so the marble terraces and waterfalls initially planned could not be made, and in their place embankments covered with grass and various plants were installed, while the ponds with fountains were replaced by others finished in blocks of stone and wood.[106]​.

In Sweden, gardening received both French and German influence, especially that derived from the Hortus Palatinus of Heidelberg. Gustav II Adolf promoted numerous works at the Royal Palace in Stockholm, and his daughter Queen Christina called the French gardener André Mollet to the Swedish court, who published his famous book Le Jardin de Plaisir in Stockholm in 1751. Mollet transformed the royal gardens into embroidered flower beds, imported various plants from France and built several orangeries. But the main project was Drottningholm Palace, located on an island in Lake Mälar, west of Stockholm, where there was a medieval castle that was remodeled in 1661 by Queen Hedwig Eleanor of Holstein-Gottorp, with an architectural project by Nicodemus Tessin the Elder. It is one of the largest gardens in northern Europe, with flower beds based on models by André Mollet, while the general structure is inspired by the work of Le Nôtre, with whom Tessin had personal contact. It includes a magnificent collection of bronze sculptures, the work of Adriaen de Vries.[107]​.

Other European countries

In Russia there was not much gardening tradition until the century, but the coming to power of Tsar Peter I, founder of the city of Saint Petersburg, led to the construction of numerous palaces and gardens inspired by the great European palace complexes, especially Versailles. The main of these buildings was the Peterhof Palace, known as the "Russian Versailles" and built between 1715 and 1725 by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste-Alexandre Le Blond), a disciple of Le Nôtre. It had a large garden, which extended from the terrace of the palace to the sea through a gentle slope. The tsar ordered trees and plants from all over the world, and 40,000 were transplanted elms and maples from all over Russia. The main core of the garden is the double waterfall in front of the palace, flanked by golden statues, which descends through seven marble steps to a grotto and a large pond, where an artificial rock is located with a sculpture of Samson opening his mouth to a lion, from which a stream of water emerges; a channel flows out of the pond into the sea, where there is a small port. From here the garden is structured through a series of visual axes, as in Versailles, alternating areas of parterre and groves with ponds and fountains, and profuse sculptural decoration.[108]​.

In Poland, the reign of John III Sobieski marked a brief period of cultural splendor, which resulted in projects such as the Wilanów Palace (Warsaw), known as the "Polish Versailles", built between 1677 and 1692 by Augustyn Wincenty Locci") and Andreas Schlüter. The palace has an extensive 45 hectare park with gardens of various styles, numerous fountains, sculptures and monuments. The baroque garden is the section oldest, in front of the rear terrace of the palace, located on two levels; it is designed with geometric shapes, and has various fountains. Between 1799 and 1821, an English garden was installed in front of the north wing of the palace. front by a terrace supported on columns, from where you can see a wonderful panoramic view of the parterre, with a central avenue and decoration of sphinxes. Later, the garden was expanded in the English style.

In the Czech Republic, it is worth mentioning the extensive park formed between the castles of Lednice and Valtice, known today as the Lednice-Valtice Cultural Landscape and declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1996. The park was configured over the centuries by the Liechtenstein family, with an architectural project by Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach. It has an area of ​​283.09 km², and has forest areas and numerous ponds, as well as several pavilions, among which the Belvedere, the Temple of Diana, the Temple of the Three Graces, the Temple of Apollo, the Castle of Juan and the Minaret stand out. After a first baroque phase, the park was developed in accordance with the English landscape style.[110] Another unique project was the Bethlehem created by Count František Antonín Špork") in Kuks (1726-1732), a sacred garden composed of several hermitages dedicated to Saints Anthony, Paul, Bruno, Onofre and Garín, and decorated with various sculptures carved in the same rocks of the place, the work of Matthias Braun, which are reminiscent of those in the Mannerist garden of Bomarzo.[111]​.

America

In America, a type of colonial art developed over the centuries that was a faithful reflection of the culture and artistic trends produced in the colonizing metropolises. In most cases, these trends were imposed on previous native styles, the so-called pre-Columbian art. The arrival of the conquerors represented a great revolution, especially in the field of architecture, with the translation of the various typologies of buildings typical of European culture: mainly churches "Church (building)") and cathedrals, given the rapid development of the work of evangelization of the Native American peoples, but also civil buildings such as town halls, hospitals, universities, palaces and private villas, which in many cases had gardens. It is worth noting the importance that the discovery of America had for botany, since numerous horticultural and ornamental species were imported from the new continent that quickly established themselves in Europe. Among the numerous species discovered, the majority were used for their nutritional properties, such as: tomato, potato, corn, cocoa, peanuts, pepper, pineapple, tobacco, cinnamon, pumpkin, vanilla, etc.; but some also for their aesthetic qualities, such as tuberose, dondiego and nasturtium.[113]​.

In the development of American colonial gardening, the climatic factor must be taken into account: in North America the climate is more similar to that of Europe, so it was easier to transfer the existing garden typologies on the Old Continent; On the other hand, from the Caribbean "Caribbean (region)") towards the south there are various climatologies that for the most part were not appropriate for developing the type of gardening that the colonizers knew.[114] On the other hand, there were important differences with respect to the colonizing culture: just as the Spanish and Portuguese implemented a more political and religious domination, the English and French originally established more commercial contacts, and later the emigration of the population. All of this led to important differences: just as the Iberian colonizers respected the traces of previous gardening more than the other colonizers, on the other hand, their own achievements were smaller in number and relevance.[115]​.

Some scholars compare pre-Columbian gardening with Persian or Egyptian gardening, based on testimonies from the first conquerors, who recounted the wonders they saw in garden palaces such as that of Moctezuma, with gardens arranged on stepped terraces, with ponds, groves, medicinal gardens, and even aviaries and zoos.[116] Apparently, many of the pre-Columbian gardens were located in interior courtyards of the houses. houses, a fact that was linked to the Hispanic tradition of the patio of Islamic heritage, which is why this typology survived in the Spanish colonies of America.[117]​.

The first vestiges of colonial gardening are very scarce, since in general the colonizers were more concerned with agricultural exploitation than with ornamental gardening. In the few examples that were produced, the imitation of the gardens of the place of origin of the new settlers was more deprived than the innovation or experimentation of new typologies.[118]​ At the beginning of the century there were some first attempts at urban planning in imitation of European cities, mainly in North America, with examples such as Salem "Salem (Massachusetts)") (1628) or Boston (1630).[119]​ In the area of the colonies In North America, Dutch-style gardens were introduced in the century, small, flat and orderly, with the introduction of flower beds for the first time.[120]​.

Literature

• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Baroque Gardening.