Hindu temple architecture, the main manifestation of Hindu architecture, has many varieties of style, although the basic nature of the Hindu temple is always the same, with the essential feature of having an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb chamber, where the primary Murti or image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber are often other structures and buildings, which in the largest cases cover several hectares. On the outside, the garbhagriha is crowned by a shikhara, shaped like a tower, also called vimana&action=edit&redlink=1 "Vimana (architectural feature) (not yet redacted)") in the south and the Meru tower") in the Balinese temple. The shrine building often includes an ambulatory for parikrama (circumambulation), a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and portico between the garbhagriha and the mandapa. There may be more mandapas or other buildings, connected or separate, in large temples, along with other small temples in the complex.[1]
The architecture of Hindu temples reflects a synthesis of the arts, dharma ideals, beliefs, values and the way of life valued by Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha"), pilgrimage.[2] All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in the Hindu pantheon are present in a Hindu temple: from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kāma to artha, from fleeting sounds and smelling incense to Purusha—the eternal nothingness and universality—it is all part of the architecture of a Hindu temple.[2] The form and meaning of the architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where the link between man and the divine is found, to assist him in his progress towards spiritual knowledge and truth, towards his liberation which is called moksha "Moksha (Hinduism)").[Michell 1].
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in the Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras.
History
Contenido
Apenas quedan restos de templos hinduistas de antes de la dinastía Gupta en el siglo d. C.; sin duda hubo edificaciones anteriores basadas en el uso de la madera. Las cuevas de Udayagiri") excavadas en la roca se encuentran entre los sitios tempranos más importantes.[Michell 2] Los templos hinduistas más antiguos que se conservan son simples templos de piedra parecidos a células, algunos excavados en la roca y otros edificaciones exentas, como en Sanchi.[6] En el siglo o , estos evolucionaron hacia altas superestructuras shikhara de piedra. Sin embargo, hay evidencias epigráficas, como la antigua inscripción de Gangadhara de alrededor del 424, como afirma Meister, de la existencia de templos elevados antes de ese momento y de que posiblemente se hicieran con material más perecedero. Esos templos no han sobrevivido.[6][7].
Hindu architecture
Introduction
Hindu temple architecture, the main manifestation of Hindu architecture, has many varieties of style, although the basic nature of the Hindu temple is always the same, with the essential feature of having an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or womb chamber, where the primary Murti or image of a deity is housed in a simple bare cell. Around this chamber are often other structures and buildings, which in the largest cases cover several hectares. On the outside, the garbhagriha is crowned by a shikhara, shaped like a tower, also called vimana&action=edit&redlink=1 "Vimana (architectural feature) (not yet redacted)") in the south and the Meru tower") in the Balinese temple. The shrine building often includes an ambulatory for parikrama (circumambulation), a mandapa congregation hall, and sometimes an antarala antechamber and portico between the garbhagriha and the mandapa. There may be more mandapas or other buildings, connected or separate, in large temples, along with other small temples in the complex.[1]
The architecture of Hindu temples reflects a synthesis of the arts, dharma ideals, beliefs, values and the way of life valued by Hinduism. The temple is a place for Tirtha"), pilgrimage.[2] All the cosmic elements that create and celebrate life in the Hindu pantheon are present in a Hindu temple: from fire to water, from images of nature to deities, from the feminine to the masculine, from kāma to artha, from fleeting sounds and smelling incense to Purusha—the eternal nothingness and universality—it is all part of the architecture of a Hindu temple.[2] The form and meaning of the architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the place where the link between man and the divine is found, to assist him in his progress towards spiritual knowledge and truth, towards his liberation which is called moksha "Moksha (Hinduism)").[Michell 1].
The architectural principles of Hindu temples in India are described in the Shilpa Shastras and Vastu Sastras.
History
Contenido
Ejemplos de tempranos templos principales del norte de la India que han sobrevivido después de las cuevas Udayagiri en Madhya Pradesh incluyen Deogarh&action=edit&redlink=1 "Templo de Vishnu (Deogarh) (aún no redactado)"), templo de Parvati Temple, Nachna") (465),[7] Distrito de Lalitpur (c. 525), templo de ladrillo Lakshman, Sirpur&action=edit&redlink=1 "Sirpur (Chhattisgarh) (aún no redactado)") (600-625); Rajim#templo de Rajiv Lochan, Rajim (siglo ).[8].
No han sobrevivido templos de piedra de estilo del sur de la India de antes del siglo . Los ejemplos de los principales templos de la India meridional que han sobrevivido, algunos en ruinas, incluyen los diversos estilos en Mahabalipuram. Sin embargo, según Meister, los templos de Mahabalipuram son «modelos monolíticos de una variedad de estructuras formales, de las cuales ya se puede decir que tipifican un orden "Dravida" (sur de la India) desarrollado». Sugieren que cuando se construyeron ya existía una tradición y una base de conocimientos en el sur de la India en el momento de la era temprana de Chalukya y Pallava. Otros ejemplos se encuentran en Aihole y Pattadakal.[8][9].
Alrededor del siglo , la mayoría de las características principales del templo hinduista se establecieron junto con textos teóricos sobre la arquitectura del templo y los métodos de construcción.[10] Aproximadamente entre los siglos VII y XIII, una gran cantidad de templos y sus ruinas han sobrevivido (aunque muchos menos de los han existido ). Muchos estilos regionales se desarrollaron, muy a menudo siguiendo las divisiones políticas, ya que los grandes templos se construyeron generalmente con el patrocinio real. En el norte, las invasiones musulmanas") a partir del siglo redujeron la construcción de templos y vieron la pérdida de muchos ya existentes.[10] El sur también fue testigo del conflicto hindú-musulmán que afectó a los templos, pero la región quedó relativamente menos afectada que el norte.[11] A finales del siglo , el Imperio hinduista Vijayanagara llegó al poder y controló gran parte de la India meridional. Durante ese período, la distintiva puerta de entrada de gopuram muy alta, en realidad un desarrollo tardío, a partir del siglo o posterior, fue típicamente agregada a templos grandes más viejos.[10].
Hindu temples of Southeast Asia
The cultural sphere, often called Greater India"), spread into Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence dates back to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and in mainland Southeast Asia, dating to between the 12th century and the 18th century. Before the 19th century, local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Various national traditions developed in these regions, often mixing Hinduism. and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of Southeast Asia, except in Malaysia and Indonesia, where Islam displaced them both.[Michell 3][14]
Hindu temples in Southeast Asia developed their own distinctive versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, in both northern and southern styles.[Michell 4] However, the architectural styles of Southeast Asian temples are different and there is no single temple in India that can be considered the source of Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if Southeast Asian architects had learned "the theoretical prescriptions for temple construction" from Indian texts, but had never seen them. The elements were reassembled according to their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and much more linked to the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent.[Michell 4] Furthermore, unlike Indian temples, sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associates the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, and the temple serves as both a memorial for the king and a norada of the gods.[Michell 4] Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Trimurti Shiva Prambanan temple complex in Java ("Java (island)"), Indonesia (15th century),[15] and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (16th century).[16]
Design
Un templo hinduista es una edificación impulsada por la simetría, con muchas variaciones, sobre una cuadrícula cuadrada de padas, que muestran formas geométricas perfectas como círculos y cuadrados.[5][2] Susan Lewandowski afirma que el principio subyacente en un templo hinduista se basa en la creencia de que todas las cosas son una, de que todo está conectado. Un templo, afirma Lewandowski, «replica una y otra vez las creencias hinduistas en las partes que reflejan, y al mismo tiempo, el todo universal" como un "organismo de células que se repiten».[17] El peregrino es bienvenido a través de espacios matemáticamente estructurados, una red de arte, pilares con esculturas y estatuas que muestran y celebran los cuatro principios importantes y necesarios de la vida humana: la búsqueda de artha (prosperidad, riqueza), la búsqueda de kama (deseo), la búsqueda de dharma (virtudes, vida ética) y la búsqueda de moksha "Moksha (hinduismo)") (liberación, autoconocimiento).[18][19].
En el centro del templo, generalmente debajo y a veces encima, o al lado de la deidad, está el mero espacio hueco sin decoración, que representa simbólicamente a Purusa, el Principio Supremo, el Universal sagrado, uno sin forma, que está presente en todas partes,que lo conecta todo y es la esencia de todo. Un templo hinduista está destinado a fomentar la reflexión, a facilitar la purificación de la mente y a desencadenar el proceso de realización interna en el devoto.[2] El proceso específico se deja a la escuela de creencias del devoto. La deidad primaria de los diferentes templos hinduistas varía para reflejar ese espectro espiritual.
The location
The proper site for a mandir, ancient Sanskrit texts suggest, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.[2] Such harmonious places were recommended in those texts with the explanation that such were the places where the gods played and, therefore, the best site for temples. Hindus.[2][17].
While the main Hindu mandirs are recommended to be built at sangams (the confluence of rivers), or on the banks of rivers, lakes and coasts, the Brhat Samhita and the Puranas suggest that temples can also be built where there is no natural source of water. Also in that case, they recommend that a pond be built, preferably in front of, or to the left, of the temple with water gardens. If water was not present naturally or by design, water was to be symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples could also be built, as the Visnudharmottara suggests in part III of chapter 93,[20] inside caves and carved rocks, on hilltops offering peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, in forests and interior hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
In practice, most temples were built as part of a town or city.[Michell 5] Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly sacred geography had numerous temples. Since some of those ancient capitals have disappeared, the surviving temples now stand in a rural landscape. Examples are Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram").[Michell 5].
The provision
The design, especially of the ground floor, of the part of a Hindu temple surrounding the sanctum or sanctuary follows a geometric design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a Sanskrit word composed of three of the most important components of the plant: mandala, meaning circle, purusha, which is the universal essence at the core of the Hindu tradition, and vastu, meaning the building of the residence.[21] Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[22] The design presents a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating building derived from beliefs centrals, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[5]
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which a perfect square is formed in the available space. The mandala circle circumscribes the square, which is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of human knowledge and thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, drop of water, rainbow). Each one supports the other.[2] The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is usually an 8x8 or 64 grid building. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is a grid of 81 sub-squares. The squares are called padas.[5][23] The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins of the altar of fire, Agni. Alignment along the cardinal direction, similarly, is an extension of the Vedic rituals of the three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, layout plans are described as 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 and up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plant, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate, do yoga or make offerings with the Vedic fire in front. The second 4 padas design has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative design. The 9 padas design has a surrounded sacred center and is the model for the smaller temple. The oldest Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the series of 9 to 49 pada, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of 64 are dedicated to Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.[2].
In the structure of symmetry and concentric squares of a Hindu temple, each concentric layer has importance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, means aspects of Asuras and evil; The next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas, which means human life; while Devika padas signify Devas and good aspects. The padas of Manusha usually house the ambulatory. Devotees, while walking clockwise through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on the inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the temple boundary or simply represented symbolically.
The builders
Los templos fueron construidos por gremios de arquitectos, artesanos y obreros. Sus conocimientos y tradiciones artesanales, afirma Michell, fueron preservados originalmente por la tradición oral, más tarde con manuscritos de hojas de palma.[29] La tradición de construcción generalmente se transmitía dentro de las familias de una generación a otra, y este conocimiento fue guardado celosamente. Los gremios eran como un cuerpo corporativo que establecía las reglas de trabajo y los salarios estándar. Con el tiempo, estos gremios se hicieron ricos y ellos mismos hicieron donaciones caritativas como lo demuestran las inscripciones.[29] Los gremios cubrieron casi todos los aspectos de la vida en los campamentos alrededor del sitio donde vivían los obreros durante el período de construcción, que en el caso de grandes proyectos podía ser de varios años.[30].
El trabajo era dirigido por un arquitecto jefe (sutradhara) El superintendente de construcción era igual en su autoridad.[29] Otros miembros importantes fueron el jefe de albañiles y el jefe de imagen que colaboraba para completar un templo. Los escultores se llamaban shilpins. Las mujeres participaron en la construcción de templos, pero en trabajos más livianos, como pulir piedras y limpiar.[29] Los textos hinduistas son inconsistentes acerca de qué casta debía hacer el trabajo de construcción, con algunos textos aceptando que todas las castas funcionasen como un shilpin.[31] Los brahmins eran expertos en teoría del arte y guiaban a los obreros cuando era necesario. También realizaron rituales de consagración de la superestructura y en el santuario.[32].
En los primeros períodos del arte hindú, desde aproximadamente el siglo hasta el siglo , los artistas tuvieron una libertad considerable y esto se evidencia en las considerables variaciones e innovaciones de las imágenes creadas y de los diseños de templos. Más tarde, gran parte de esta libertad se perdió a medida que la iconografía se estandarizó y la demanda de consistencia de la iconometría aumentó.[32] Este "«presumiblemente refleja la influencia de los teólogos brahman» —afirma Michell— y la «creciente dependencia del artista de los brahmins» en formas adecuadas de ilasmágenes sagradas. La «búsqueda individual de la autoexpresión» en un proyecto del templo no estaba permitida y, en cambio, el artista expresaba los valores sagrados en forma visual a través de un templo, en su mayor parte de forma anónima.[32].
Los patrocinadores utilizaron contratos para las tareas de construcción.[32] Aunque los grandes maestros probablemente tenían ayudantes para ayudar a completar las imágenes principales en un templo, los paneles en relieve en un templo hinduista eran «casi con toda seguridad la inspiración de un solo artista».[33].
Schools in the tradition of temple building
Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centers) and texts. Of these, those from the Bharne and Krusche states became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Mayan school.[Bharne 2][34] The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Mayan school with those related to the Dravida style.[Bharne 2][35] The style now called Vesara united and combined elements of the styles. Nagara and Dravida, and probably reflected some of the other extinct schools.[36].
Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, including whether the artists relied on the theory of silpa sastras and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by the Brahmins, or whether these treatises preceded or followed the great temples and the ancient temple sculptures. Other scholars wonder whether the construction of great temples and complex symmetrical architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography appearing in distant sites, over many centuries, could have been carried out by artists and architects without adequate theory, without shared terminology and tools, and if so how they could have done it. According to Adam Hardy), an architectural historian and professor of Asian architecture, the truth "must lie somewhere "[37] According to George Michell, an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu architecture, the theory and practice of the creative field probably evolved, and the construction workers and artists who built the temple complexes probably consulted theorists when they needed to.[32]
Different styles of architecture
Los antiguos textos hinduistas sobre arquitectura como Brihatsamhita y otros, afirma Michell, clasifican los templos en cinco órdenes según sus características tipológicas: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, elipse y rectángulo. La planta descrita para cada uno incluye cuadrado, octagonal y absidal. Su planta horizontal regula la forma vertical. Cada arquitectura del templo, a su vez, ha desarrollado su propio vocabulario, con términos que se superponen pero no necesariamente significan exactamente lo mismo en otro estilo y pueden aplicarse a una parte diferente del templo.[Michell 6] Cronológicamente, los tempranos templos hinduistas a menudo se llaman clásicos (hasta los siglos VII u VIII), mientras que los que se remontan al período clásico hasta los siglos y a veces se denominan medievales (ver India medieval). Sin embargo, afirma Michell, esto es inapropiado para la arquitectura hindú, dado que la tradición artística de la India conserva su patrimonio y el marco arquitectónico, al mismo tiempo que evoluciona sus ideas.[Michell 7].
El estilo de la arquitectura del templo hinduista no solo era el resultado de la teología, de las ideas espirituales y de los primeros textos hinduistas, sino también fue el resultado de la innovación impulsada por la disponibilidad regional de materias primas y del clima local.[Michell 7] Algunos materiales de construcción se importaron de regiones distantes, pero gran parte del templo se construyó con materiales fácilmente disponibles. En algunas regiones, como en el sur de Karnataka, la disponibilidad local de piedra blanda llevó a los arquitectos de Hoysala a innovar estilos arquitectónicos que son difíciles con rocas duras y cristalinas.[Michell 7] En otros lugares, los artistas cortaron el granito u otras piedras para construir templos y crear esculturas. Las caras rocosas permitieron a los artistas tallar templos en cuevas o el terreno rocoso de una región alentó la arquitectura monolítica de templos excavados en la roca. En las regiones donde la piedra no estaban disponibles, florecieron las innovaciones en templos de ladrillo. La arquitectura de los templos hinduistas se ha visto afectada históricamente por el material de construcción disponible en cada región, su «valor tonal, textura y posibilidades estructurales», afirma Michell.[Michell 7].
Dravida and Nagara Architectures
Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of North India and the Dravidian architecture of South India are the most common.[38] Other styles are also found. For example, the rainy climate and building materials available in Bengal, Kerala, Java and Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolution of styles and buildings in these regions.[Michell 8] At other sites, such as Ellora and Pattadakal, adjacent temples may have features that draw from different traditions, as well as features in a style common to that region and period. In modern era literature, many styles have been named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built.[39].
Regional styles
The Badami Chalukya style of architecture originated in the century at Aihole and was perfected at Pattadakal and Badami.
Between 500 and 757, the Chalukyas of Badami built sandstone Hindu temples carved from huge blocks of outcrops in the ranges of the Kaladgi hills.
In Aihole, known as the “Cradle of Indian Architecture”, there are more than 150 temples spread throughout the town. The Lad Khan Temple") is the oldest. The Durga Temple") is notable for its semicircular apse, raised plinth and gallery surrounding the sanctum sanctorum. A sculpture of Vishnu sitting on a large cobra is located in the Hutchimali temple. The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates the many forms of Shiva. Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain temple.
Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site where the Virupaksha temple is located; It is the largest temple, with carved scenes from the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other temples in Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath.
The Gadag style of architecture is also known as Western Chalukya architecture. The style flourished for 150 years (from 1050 to 1200); in that period, around 50 temples were built. Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex, in Gadag; the Doddabasappa Temple") at Dambal"); the Kasivisvesvara temple in Lakkundi) and the Amriteshwara temple in Annigeri, which is marked by pillars adorned with intricate sculptures. This style originated during the period of Kalyani Chalukyas") (also known as Western Chalukya) Someswara I").
Kalinga Architecture
The design that flourished in the eastern Indian state of Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh is called the Kalinga style of architecture. The style consists of three different types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the local language. The first two are associated with the temples of Vishnu, Surya and Shiva while the third is mainly with the temples of Chamunda and Durga. The Rekha deula and the Khakhara deula house the sanctum sanctorum, while the Pidha Deula constitutes external dances and offering halls.
The most prominent examples of Rekha Deula are the Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar and the Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the most prominent examples of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula"). The Konark Sun Temple") is a living example of Pidha Deula.
Māru-Gurjar Temple Architecture
The Māru-Gurjara temple architecture originated somewhere in the century in and around the areas of Rajasthan. Māru-Gurjara architecture has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According to Madhusudan Dhaky"), the Maha-Maru style developed mainly in Marudesa, Sapadalaksha"), Surasena and in parts of Uparamala"), while Maru-Gurjara would have originated in Medapata"), Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and some areas of Gujarat.[46] Scholars such as George Michell, Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that the Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely West Indian architecture and that it is very different from North Indian temple architecture.[47]
There is a connection between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture. In both styles the architecture is treated sculpturally.[47][48].
Indonesian architecture
Temples are called candi") () in Indonesia, whether Buddhist or Hindu. A candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of a single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above and a portico for the entrance,[49] mostly built between the 7th and 15th centuries.[49][50] In Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura") compound. The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the century-old Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This Hindu temple, the largest in Indonesia, has three main prasad towers, dedicated to the Trimurti gods. The Shiva temple, the largest main temple, has a height of 47 meters.
The term "candi" is believed to be derived from Candika"), one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death.[51].
Candi architecture follows the typical traditions of Hindu architecture based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially in the Central Javanese period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical raised spiers of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to imitate Mount Meru, the sacred mountain, the abode of the gods. The entire temple is a model of the Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.[52].
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, which range from the least holy to the most sacred areas. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognizes the concept of organizing elements into three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follow the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). They are Bhurloka") represented by the outer courtyard and the foot part (base) of each temple, Bhuvarloka") represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each of the temples, and Svarloka") symbolizing the roof of the Hindu building usually crowned with ratna") (Sanskrit: jewel) or vajra.
Khmer architecture
Before the 2nd century, the Khmer Empire flourished in modern-day Cambodia with its influence extending to most of mainland Southeast Asia. Its great capital, Angkor (Cambodian: 'capital city', derived from Sanskrit nagara), contains some of the most important and magnificent examples of Khmer temple architecture. The classical style of the Angkor temple is demonstrated by the 1st century Angkor Wat. Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building materials.
The main superstructure of the typical Khmer temple is a towered prasat called prang "Prang (architecture)") which houses the inner chamber garbhagriha, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam resides. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; This arrangement represented the mountain ranges that surrounded Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. The enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. The walls that define the precincts of Khmer temples are frequently covered by galleries, while passage through the walls is through gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance is usually adorned with a raised walkway with a cruciform terrace.[54].
champagne architecture
Between the 6th and 16th centuries, the kingdom of Champa flourished in the central and southern part of modern-day Vietnam. Unlike the Javanese who mainly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples, and the Khmers of Angkor who mostly used gray sandstone to construct their religious buildings, the Cham "Cham (people)") built their temples with reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham brick temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang.
Generally, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different types of buildings.[55] There is kalan, a brick shrine, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to house the murti of the deity. A mandapa is an entrance hall connected to a shrine. A kosagrha or "fire house" is a temple construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity. The gopura was a tower gate that led to a walled temple complex. These types of buildings are typical of Hindu temples in general; The classification is valid not only for Champa architecture, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India").
Glossary
Hindu texts on temple architecture have extensive terminology. Some of the most common terms are listed below:[56].
References
[16] ↑ Richard Salomon dates the earliest Cambodian Sanskrit inscriptions to the 5th century.[13].
[56] ↑ In rare cases, such as the Brihadishvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, the center is outside the temple.
Apenas quedan restos de templos hinduistas de antes de la dinastía Gupta en el siglo d. C.; sin duda hubo edificaciones anteriores basadas en el uso de la madera. Las cuevas de Udayagiri") excavadas en la roca se encuentran entre los sitios tempranos más importantes.[Michell 2] Los templos hinduistas más antiguos que se conservan son simples templos de piedra parecidos a células, algunos excavados en la roca y otros edificaciones exentas, como en Sanchi.[6] En el siglo o , estos evolucionaron hacia altas superestructuras shikhara de piedra. Sin embargo, hay evidencias epigráficas, como la antigua inscripción de Gangadhara de alrededor del 424, como afirma Meister, de la existencia de templos elevados antes de ese momento y de que posiblemente se hicieran con material más perecedero. Esos templos no han sobrevivido.[6][7].
Ejemplos de tempranos templos principales del norte de la India que han sobrevivido después de las cuevas Udayagiri en Madhya Pradesh incluyen Deogarh&action=edit&redlink=1 "Templo de Vishnu (Deogarh) (aún no redactado)"), templo de Parvati Temple, Nachna") (465),[7] Distrito de Lalitpur (c. 525), templo de ladrillo Lakshman, Sirpur&action=edit&redlink=1 "Sirpur (Chhattisgarh) (aún no redactado)") (600-625); Rajim#templo de Rajiv Lochan, Rajim (siglo ).[8].
No han sobrevivido templos de piedra de estilo del sur de la India de antes del siglo . Los ejemplos de los principales templos de la India meridional que han sobrevivido, algunos en ruinas, incluyen los diversos estilos en Mahabalipuram. Sin embargo, según Meister, los templos de Mahabalipuram son «modelos monolíticos de una variedad de estructuras formales, de las cuales ya se puede decir que tipifican un orden "Dravida" (sur de la India) desarrollado». Sugieren que cuando se construyeron ya existía una tradición y una base de conocimientos en el sur de la India en el momento de la era temprana de Chalukya y Pallava. Otros ejemplos se encuentran en Aihole y Pattadakal.[8][9].
Alrededor del siglo , la mayoría de las características principales del templo hinduista se establecieron junto con textos teóricos sobre la arquitectura del templo y los métodos de construcción.[10] Aproximadamente entre los siglos VII y XIII, una gran cantidad de templos y sus ruinas han sobrevivido (aunque muchos menos de los han existido ). Muchos estilos regionales se desarrollaron, muy a menudo siguiendo las divisiones políticas, ya que los grandes templos se construyeron generalmente con el patrocinio real. En el norte, las invasiones musulmanas") a partir del siglo redujeron la construcción de templos y vieron la pérdida de muchos ya existentes.[10] El sur también fue testigo del conflicto hindú-musulmán que afectó a los templos, pero la región quedó relativamente menos afectada que el norte.[11] A finales del siglo , el Imperio hinduista Vijayanagara llegó al poder y controló gran parte de la India meridional. Durante ese período, la distintiva puerta de entrada de gopuram muy alta, en realidad un desarrollo tardío, a partir del siglo o posterior, fue típicamente agregada a templos grandes más viejos.[10].
Hindu temples of Southeast Asia
The cultural sphere, often called Greater India"), spread into Southeast Asia. The earliest evidence dates back to Sanskrit stone inscriptions found on the islands and in mainland Southeast Asia, dating to between the 12th century and the 18th century. Before the 19th century, local versions of Hindu temples were built in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. Various national traditions developed in these regions, often mixing Hinduism. and Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism prevailed in many parts of Southeast Asia, except in Malaysia and Indonesia, where Islam displaced them both.[Michell 3][14]
Hindu temples in Southeast Asia developed their own distinctive versions, mostly based on Indian architectural models, in both northern and southern styles.[Michell 4] However, the architectural styles of Southeast Asian temples are different and there is no single temple in India that can be considered the source of Southeast Asian temples. According to Michell, it is as if Southeast Asian architects had learned "the theoretical prescriptions for temple construction" from Indian texts, but had never seen them. The elements were reassembled according to their own creative interpretations. The Hindu temples found in Southeast Asia are more conservative and much more linked to the Mount Meru-related cosmological elements of Indian thought than the Hindu temples found in the subcontinent.[Michell 4] Furthermore, unlike Indian temples, sacred architecture in Southeast Asia associates the ruler (devaraja) with the divine, and the temple serves as both a memorial for the king and a norada of the gods.[Michell 4] Notable examples of Southeast Asian Hindu temple architecture are the Trimurti Shiva Prambanan temple complex in Java ("Java (island)"), Indonesia (15th century),[15] and the Vishnuite Angkor Wat in Cambodia (16th century).[16]
Design
Un templo hinduista es una edificación impulsada por la simetría, con muchas variaciones, sobre una cuadrícula cuadrada de padas, que muestran formas geométricas perfectas como círculos y cuadrados.[5][2] Susan Lewandowski afirma que el principio subyacente en un templo hinduista se basa en la creencia de que todas las cosas son una, de que todo está conectado. Un templo, afirma Lewandowski, «replica una y otra vez las creencias hinduistas en las partes que reflejan, y al mismo tiempo, el todo universal" como un "organismo de células que se repiten».[17] El peregrino es bienvenido a través de espacios matemáticamente estructurados, una red de arte, pilares con esculturas y estatuas que muestran y celebran los cuatro principios importantes y necesarios de la vida humana: la búsqueda de artha (prosperidad, riqueza), la búsqueda de kama (deseo), la búsqueda de dharma (virtudes, vida ética) y la búsqueda de moksha "Moksha (hinduismo)") (liberación, autoconocimiento).[18][19].
En el centro del templo, generalmente debajo y a veces encima, o al lado de la deidad, está el mero espacio hueco sin decoración, que representa simbólicamente a Purusa, el Principio Supremo, el Universal sagrado, uno sin forma, que está presente en todas partes,que lo conecta todo y es la esencia de todo. Un templo hinduista está destinado a fomentar la reflexión, a facilitar la purificación de la mente y a desencadenar el proceso de realización interna en el devoto.[2] El proceso específico se deja a la escuela de creencias del devoto. La deidad primaria de los diferentes templos hinduistas varía para reflejar ese espectro espiritual.
The location
The proper site for a mandir, ancient Sanskrit texts suggest, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, where animals rest without fear of injury or harm.[2] Such harmonious places were recommended in those texts with the explanation that such were the places where the gods played and, therefore, the best site for temples. Hindus.[2][17].
While the main Hindu mandirs are recommended to be built at sangams (the confluence of rivers), or on the banks of rivers, lakes and coasts, the Brhat Samhita and the Puranas suggest that temples can also be built where there is no natural source of water. Also in that case, they recommend that a pond be built, preferably in front of, or to the left, of the temple with water gardens. If water was not present naturally or by design, water was to be symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples could also be built, as the Visnudharmottara suggests in part III of chapter 93,[20] inside caves and carved rocks, on hilltops offering peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, in forests and interior hermitages, next to gardens, or at the head of a town street.
In practice, most temples were built as part of a town or city.[Michell 5] Some sites such as the capitals of kingdoms and those considered particularly sacred geography had numerous temples. Since some of those ancient capitals have disappeared, the surviving temples now stand in a rural landscape. Examples are Aihole, Badami, Pattadakal and Gangaikonda Cholapuram").[Michell 5].
The provision
The design, especially of the ground floor, of the part of a Hindu temple surrounding the sanctum or sanctuary follows a geometric design called vastu-purusha-mandala. The name is a Sanskrit word composed of three of the most important components of the plant: mandala, meaning circle, purusha, which is the universal essence at the core of the Hindu tradition, and vastu, meaning the building of the residence.[21] Vastupurushamandala is a yantra.[22] The design presents a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating building derived from beliefs centrals, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles.[5]
The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which a perfect square is formed in the available space. The mandala circle circumscribes the square, which is considered divine for its perfection and as a symbolic product of human knowledge and thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, drop of water, rainbow). Each one supports the other.[2] The square is divided into perfect square grids. In large temples, this is usually an 8x8 or 64 grid building. In ceremonial temple superstructures, this is a grid of 81 sub-squares. The squares are called padas.[5][23] The square is symbolic and has Vedic origins of the altar of fire, Agni. Alignment along the cardinal direction, similarly, is an extension of the Vedic rituals of the three fires. This symbolism is also found among Greek and other ancient civilizations, through the gnomon. In Hindu temple manuals, layout plans are described as 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81 and up to 1024 squares; 1 pada is considered the simplest plant, as a seat for a hermit or devotee to sit and meditate, do yoga or make offerings with the Vedic fire in front. The second 4 padas design has a symbolic central core at the diagonal intersection, and is also a meditative design. The 9 padas design has a surrounded sacred center and is the model for the smaller temple. The oldest Hindu temple vastumandalas may use the series of 9 to 49 pada, but 64 is considered the most sacred geometric grid in Hindu temples. It is also called Manduka, Bhekapada or Ajira in various ancient Sanskrit texts. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity or a spirit or apasara. The central square(s) of 64 are dedicated to Brahman (not to be confused with Brahmin), and are called Brahma padas.[2].
In the structure of symmetry and concentric squares of a Hindu temple, each concentric layer has importance. The outermost layer, Paisachika padas, means aspects of Asuras and evil; The next inner concentric layer is Manusha padas, which means human life; while Devika padas signify Devas and good aspects. The padas of Manusha usually house the ambulatory. Devotees, while walking clockwise through this ambulatory to complete Parikrama (or Pradakshina), walk between good on the inner side and evil on the outer side. In smaller temples, the Paisachika pada is not part of the temple superstructure, but may be on the temple boundary or simply represented symbolically.
The builders
Los templos fueron construidos por gremios de arquitectos, artesanos y obreros. Sus conocimientos y tradiciones artesanales, afirma Michell, fueron preservados originalmente por la tradición oral, más tarde con manuscritos de hojas de palma.[29] La tradición de construcción generalmente se transmitía dentro de las familias de una generación a otra, y este conocimiento fue guardado celosamente. Los gremios eran como un cuerpo corporativo que establecía las reglas de trabajo y los salarios estándar. Con el tiempo, estos gremios se hicieron ricos y ellos mismos hicieron donaciones caritativas como lo demuestran las inscripciones.[29] Los gremios cubrieron casi todos los aspectos de la vida en los campamentos alrededor del sitio donde vivían los obreros durante el período de construcción, que en el caso de grandes proyectos podía ser de varios años.[30].
El trabajo era dirigido por un arquitecto jefe (sutradhara) El superintendente de construcción era igual en su autoridad.[29] Otros miembros importantes fueron el jefe de albañiles y el jefe de imagen que colaboraba para completar un templo. Los escultores se llamaban shilpins. Las mujeres participaron en la construcción de templos, pero en trabajos más livianos, como pulir piedras y limpiar.[29] Los textos hinduistas son inconsistentes acerca de qué casta debía hacer el trabajo de construcción, con algunos textos aceptando que todas las castas funcionasen como un shilpin.[31] Los brahmins eran expertos en teoría del arte y guiaban a los obreros cuando era necesario. También realizaron rituales de consagración de la superestructura y en el santuario.[32].
En los primeros períodos del arte hindú, desde aproximadamente el siglo hasta el siglo , los artistas tuvieron una libertad considerable y esto se evidencia en las considerables variaciones e innovaciones de las imágenes creadas y de los diseños de templos. Más tarde, gran parte de esta libertad se perdió a medida que la iconografía se estandarizó y la demanda de consistencia de la iconometría aumentó.[32] Este "«presumiblemente refleja la influencia de los teólogos brahman» —afirma Michell— y la «creciente dependencia del artista de los brahmins» en formas adecuadas de ilasmágenes sagradas. La «búsqueda individual de la autoexpresión» en un proyecto del templo no estaba permitida y, en cambio, el artista expresaba los valores sagrados en forma visual a través de un templo, en su mayor parte de forma anónima.[32].
Los patrocinadores utilizaron contratos para las tareas de construcción.[32] Aunque los grandes maestros probablemente tenían ayudantes para ayudar a completar las imágenes principales en un templo, los paneles en relieve en un templo hinduista eran «casi con toda seguridad la inspiración de un solo artista».[33].
Schools in the tradition of temple building
Along with guilds, surviving texts suggest that several schools of Hindu temple architecture had developed in ancient India. Each school developed its own gurukuls (study centers) and texts. Of these, those from the Bharne and Krusche states became most prominent: the Vishwakarma school and the Mayan school.[Bharne 2][34] The Vishwakarma school is credited with treatises, terminology and innovations related to the Nagara style of architecture, while the Mayan school with those related to the Dravida style.[Bharne 2][35] The style now called Vesara united and combined elements of the styles. Nagara and Dravida, and probably reflected some of the other extinct schools.[36].
Some scholars have questioned the relevance of these texts, including whether the artists relied on the theory of silpa sastras and Sanskrit construction manuals probably written by the Brahmins, or whether these treatises preceded or followed the great temples and the ancient temple sculptures. Other scholars wonder whether the construction of great temples and complex symmetrical architecture or sculpture with consistent themes and common iconography appearing in distant sites, over many centuries, could have been carried out by artists and architects without adequate theory, without shared terminology and tools, and if so how they could have done it. According to Adam Hardy), an architectural historian and professor of Asian architecture, the truth "must lie somewhere "[37] According to George Michell, an art historian and professor specializing in Hindu architecture, the theory and practice of the creative field probably evolved, and the construction workers and artists who built the temple complexes probably consulted theorists when they needed to.[32]
Different styles of architecture
Los antiguos textos hinduistas sobre arquitectura como Brihatsamhita y otros, afirma Michell, clasifican los templos en cinco órdenes según sus características tipológicas: Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, elipse y rectángulo. La planta descrita para cada uno incluye cuadrado, octagonal y absidal. Su planta horizontal regula la forma vertical. Cada arquitectura del templo, a su vez, ha desarrollado su propio vocabulario, con términos que se superponen pero no necesariamente significan exactamente lo mismo en otro estilo y pueden aplicarse a una parte diferente del templo.[Michell 6] Cronológicamente, los tempranos templos hinduistas a menudo se llaman clásicos (hasta los siglos VII u VIII), mientras que los que se remontan al período clásico hasta los siglos y a veces se denominan medievales (ver India medieval). Sin embargo, afirma Michell, esto es inapropiado para la arquitectura hindú, dado que la tradición artística de la India conserva su patrimonio y el marco arquitectónico, al mismo tiempo que evoluciona sus ideas.[Michell 7].
El estilo de la arquitectura del templo hinduista no solo era el resultado de la teología, de las ideas espirituales y de los primeros textos hinduistas, sino también fue el resultado de la innovación impulsada por la disponibilidad regional de materias primas y del clima local.[Michell 7] Algunos materiales de construcción se importaron de regiones distantes, pero gran parte del templo se construyó con materiales fácilmente disponibles. En algunas regiones, como en el sur de Karnataka, la disponibilidad local de piedra blanda llevó a los arquitectos de Hoysala a innovar estilos arquitectónicos que son difíciles con rocas duras y cristalinas.[Michell 7] En otros lugares, los artistas cortaron el granito u otras piedras para construir templos y crear esculturas. Las caras rocosas permitieron a los artistas tallar templos en cuevas o el terreno rocoso de una región alentó la arquitectura monolítica de templos excavados en la roca. En las regiones donde la piedra no estaban disponibles, florecieron las innovaciones en templos de ladrillo. La arquitectura de los templos hinduistas se ha visto afectada históricamente por el material de construcción disponible en cada región, su «valor tonal, textura y posibilidades estructurales», afirma Michell.[Michell 7].
Dravida and Nagara Architectures
Of the different styles of temple architecture in India, the Nagara architecture of North India and the Dravidian architecture of South India are the most common.[38] Other styles are also found. For example, the rainy climate and building materials available in Bengal, Kerala, Java and Bali Indonesia have influenced the evolution of styles and buildings in these regions.[Michell 8] At other sites, such as Ellora and Pattadakal, adjacent temples may have features that draw from different traditions, as well as features in a style common to that region and period. In modern era literature, many styles have been named after the royal dynasties in whose territories they were built.[39].
Regional styles
The Badami Chalukya style of architecture originated in the century at Aihole and was perfected at Pattadakal and Badami.
Between 500 and 757, the Chalukyas of Badami built sandstone Hindu temples carved from huge blocks of outcrops in the ranges of the Kaladgi hills.
In Aihole, known as the “Cradle of Indian Architecture”, there are more than 150 temples spread throughout the town. The Lad Khan Temple") is the oldest. The Durga Temple") is notable for its semicircular apse, raised plinth and gallery surrounding the sanctum sanctorum. A sculpture of Vishnu sitting on a large cobra is located in the Hutchimali temple. The Ravalphadi cave temple celebrates the many forms of Shiva. Other temples include the Konthi temple complex and the Meguti Jain temple.
Pattadakal is a World Heritage Site where the Virupaksha temple is located; It is the largest temple, with carved scenes from the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other temples in Pattadakal are Mallikarjuna, Kashivishwanatha, Galaganatha and Papanath.
The Gadag style of architecture is also known as Western Chalukya architecture. The style flourished for 150 years (from 1050 to 1200); in that period, around 50 temples were built. Some examples are the Saraswati temple in the Trikuteshwara temple complex, in Gadag; the Doddabasappa Temple") at Dambal"); the Kasivisvesvara temple in Lakkundi) and the Amriteshwara temple in Annigeri, which is marked by pillars adorned with intricate sculptures. This style originated during the period of Kalyani Chalukyas") (also known as Western Chalukya) Someswara I").
Kalinga Architecture
The design that flourished in the eastern Indian state of Odisha and northern Andhra Pradesh is called the Kalinga style of architecture. The style consists of three different types of temples: Rekha Deula, Pidha Deula and Khakhara Deula. Deula means "temple" in the local language. The first two are associated with the temples of Vishnu, Surya and Shiva while the third is mainly with the temples of Chamunda and Durga. The Rekha deula and the Khakhara deula house the sanctum sanctorum, while the Pidha Deula constitutes external dances and offering halls.
The most prominent examples of Rekha Deula are the Lingaraj Temple of Bhubaneswar and the Jagannath Temple of Puri. One of the most prominent examples of Khakhara Deula is Vaital Deula"). The Konark Sun Temple") is a living example of Pidha Deula.
Māru-Gurjar Temple Architecture
The Māru-Gurjara temple architecture originated somewhere in the century in and around the areas of Rajasthan. Māru-Gurjara architecture has two prominent styles: Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According to Madhusudan Dhaky"), the Maha-Maru style developed mainly in Marudesa, Sapadalaksha"), Surasena and in parts of Uparamala"), while Maru-Gurjara would have originated in Medapata"), Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and some areas of Gujarat.[46] Scholars such as George Michell, Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that the Māru-Gurjara temple architecture is entirely West Indian architecture and that it is very different from North Indian temple architecture.[47]
There is a connection between Māru-Gurjara architecture and Hoysala temple architecture. In both styles the architecture is treated sculpturally.[47][48].
Indonesian architecture
Temples are called candi") () in Indonesia, whether Buddhist or Hindu. A candi refers to a structure based on the Indian type of a single-celled shrine, with a pyramidal tower above and a portico for the entrance,[49] mostly built between the 7th and 15th centuries.[49][50] In Hindu Balinese architecture, a candi shrine can be found within a pura") compound. The best example of Indonesian Javanese Hindu temple architecture is the century-old Prambanan (Shivagrha) temple, located in Central Java, near Yogyakarta. This Hindu temple, the largest in Indonesia, has three main prasad towers, dedicated to the Trimurti gods. The Shiva temple, the largest main temple, has a height of 47 meters.
The term "candi" is believed to be derived from Candika"), one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga as the goddess of death.[51].
Candi architecture follows the typical traditions of Hindu architecture based on Vastu Shastra. The temple layout, especially in the Central Javanese period, incorporated mandala temple plan arrangements and also the typical raised spiers of Hindu temples. The candi was designed to imitate Mount Meru, the sacred mountain, the abode of the gods. The entire temple is a model of the Hindu universe according to Hindu cosmology and the layers of Loka.[52].
The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, which range from the least holy to the most sacred areas. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognizes the concept of organizing elements into three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follow the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). They are Bhurloka") represented by the outer courtyard and the foot part (base) of each temple, Bhuvarloka") represented by the middle courtyard and the body of each of the temples, and Svarloka") symbolizing the roof of the Hindu building usually crowned with ratna") (Sanskrit: jewel) or vajra.
Khmer architecture
Before the 2nd century, the Khmer Empire flourished in modern-day Cambodia with its influence extending to most of mainland Southeast Asia. Its great capital, Angkor (Cambodian: 'capital city', derived from Sanskrit nagara), contains some of the most important and magnificent examples of Khmer temple architecture. The classical style of the Angkor temple is demonstrated by the 1st century Angkor Wat. Angkorian builders mainly used sandstone and laterite as temple building materials.
The main superstructure of the typical Khmer temple is a towered prasat called prang "Prang (architecture)") which houses the inner chamber garbhagriha, where the murti of Vishnu or Shiva, or a lingam resides. Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle; This arrangement represented the mountain ranges that surrounded Mount Meru, the mythical home of the gods. The enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the innermost wall and the temple itself. The walls that define the precincts of Khmer temples are frequently covered by galleries, while passage through the walls is through gopuras located at the cardinal points. The main entrance is usually adorned with a raised walkway with a cruciform terrace.[54].
champagne architecture
Between the 6th and 16th centuries, the kingdom of Champa flourished in the central and southern part of modern-day Vietnam. Unlike the Javanese who mainly used volcanic andesite stone for their temples, and the Khmers of Angkor who mostly used gray sandstone to construct their religious buildings, the Cham "Cham (people)") built their temples with reddish bricks. The most important remaining sites of Cham brick temple architecture include Mỹ Sơn near Da Nang, Po Nagar near Nha Trang, and Po Klong Garai near Phan Rang.
Generally, a Cham temple complex consisted of several different types of buildings.[55] There is kalan, a brick shrine, typically in the form of a tower with garbahgriha used to house the murti of the deity. A mandapa is an entrance hall connected to a shrine. A kosagrha or "fire house" is a temple construction typically with a saddle-shaped roof, used to house valuables belonging to the deity or to cook for the deity. The gopura was a tower gate that led to a walled temple complex. These types of buildings are typical of Hindu temples in general; The classification is valid not only for Champa architecture, but also for other architectural traditions of Greater India").
Glossary
Hindu texts on temple architecture have extensive terminology. Some of the most common terms are listed below:[56].
References
[16] ↑ Richard Salomon dates the earliest Cambodian Sanskrit inscriptions to the 5th century.[13].
[56] ↑ In rare cases, such as the Brihadishvara temple at Gangaikondacholapuram, the center is outside the temple.
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround the Brahma padas, which means creative energy and serves as the location of the temple's main idol for darsana. Finally, at the very center of the Brahma padas is Garbhagruha (Garbha- Center, gruha- house; literally, 'the center of the house') (Purusa space), which means Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in northern India and Vimana in the south, is perfectly aligned above the pada(s) of Brahma.
Below the central square(s) of the mandala is the space for the formless and formless, all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes called garbha-griya (literally, 'house of the womb'), a small space, a perfect square, windowless, enclosed, unadorned that represents the universal essence.[21] In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main image of the deity, and this varies in each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple or others. It is this garbha-griya that devotees seek for 'darsana' (literally, 'a vision of knowledge'[25] or 'vision'[21]).
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala there is a tall superstructure called shikhara, in northern India, and vimana&action=edit&redlink=1 "Vimana (architectural feature) (not yet redacted)") in southern India, which extends towards the sky.[21] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, this superstructure may be replaced by a symbolic bamboo with few leaves on top. The vertical dimension of the dome or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical shape or other mountain shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares (see below).[2] Scholars such as Lewandowski claim that this shape would be inspired by the cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or the Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods according to their ancient mythology.[17]
In larger temples, the three outer padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images that inspire the devotee.[2] In some temples, these images or reliefs on the walls may be stories from Hindu epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about good and evil or virtues and vices, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings also often have highly ornate carvings or images of the four righteous and necessary pursuits of life, kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.[21].
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One, on the east side, serves as a waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate building in older temples, but in newer temples, this space is integrated into the superstructure of the temple. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still ordered by the principles of symmetry, grids, and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is the reflection and repetition of a fractal-like design structure,[26] each unique, but also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski calls "an organism of repeating cells".[27].
A predominant number of Hindu temples display the principle of the perfect square grid.[28] However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 19th century, is not a square, but a rectangle made up of stacked squares. Furthermore, the temple explores various structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These relationships are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonious relationships, and that the rectangle pattern was neither an error nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic relationships are found at the Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur in Rajasthan. Michael Meister") claims that these exceptions mean that ancient Sanskrit temple-building manuals were guidelines, and that Hinduism allowed craftsmen flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.[5]
The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples from which the following are found in other derived publications: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); In Tamil literature, there is also the Prana Vikara (shaped like the Tamil Om sign, ). The methods of combining squares and circles to produce all these plants are described in Hindu texts.[Bharne 1].
The Paisachika padas, Manusha padas and Devika padas surround the Brahma padas, which means creative energy and serves as the location of the temple's main idol for darsana. Finally, at the very center of the Brahma padas is Garbhagruha (Garbha- Center, gruha- house; literally, 'the center of the house') (Purusa space), which means Universal Principle present in everything and everyone.[2] The spire of a Hindu temple, called Shikhara in northern India and Vimana in the south, is perfectly aligned above the pada(s) of Brahma.
Below the central square(s) of the mandala is the space for the formless and formless, all connecting Universal Spirit, the Purusha. This space is sometimes called garbha-griya (literally, 'house of the womb'), a small space, a perfect square, windowless, enclosed, unadorned that represents the universal essence.[21] In or near this space is typically a murti. This is the main image of the deity, and this varies in each temple. Often it is this idol that gives it a local name, such as Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Siva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple or others. It is this garbha-griya that devotees seek for 'darsana' (literally, 'a vision of knowledge'[25] or 'vision'[21]).
Above the vastu-purusha-mandala there is a tall superstructure called shikhara, in northern India, and vimana&action=edit&redlink=1 "Vimana (architectural feature) (not yet redacted)") in southern India, which extends towards the sky.[21] Sometimes, in makeshift temples, this superstructure may be replaced by a symbolic bamboo with few leaves on top. The vertical dimension of the dome or dome is designed as a pyramid, conical shape or other mountain shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares (see below).[2] Scholars such as Lewandowski claim that this shape would be inspired by the cosmic mountain of Mount Meru or the Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods according to their ancient mythology.[17]
In larger temples, the three outer padas are visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images that inspire the devotee.[2] In some temples, these images or reliefs on the walls may be stories from Hindu epics, in others they may be Vedic tales about good and evil or virtues and vices, in some they may be idols of minor or regional deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings also often have highly ornate carvings or images of the four righteous and necessary pursuits of life, kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina.[21].
Large temples also have pillared halls called mandapa. One, on the east side, serves as a waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate building in older temples, but in newer temples, this space is integrated into the superstructure of the temple. Mega temple sites have a main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still ordered by the principles of symmetry, grids, and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is the reflection and repetition of a fractal-like design structure,[26] each unique, but also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski calls "an organism of repeating cells".[27].
A predominant number of Hindu temples display the principle of the perfect square grid.[28] However, there are some exceptions. For example, the Teli ka Mandir in Gwalior, built in the 19th century, is not a square, but a rectangle made up of stacked squares. Furthermore, the temple explores various structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These relationships are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonious relationships, and that the rectangle pattern was neither an error nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic relationships are found at the Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur in Rajasthan. Michael Meister") claims that these exceptions mean that ancient Sanskrit temple-building manuals were guidelines, and that Hinduism allowed craftsmen flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence.[5]
The Hindu text Sthapatya Veda describes many plans and styles of temples from which the following are found in other derived publications: Chaturasra (square), Ashtasra (octagonal), Vritta (circular), Ayatasra (rectangular), Ayata Ashtasra (rectangular-octagonal fusion), Ayata Vritta (elliptical), Hasti Prishta (apsidal), Dwayasra Vrita (rectangular-circular fusion); In Tamil literature, there is also the Prana Vikara (shaped like the Tamil Om sign, ). The methods of combining squares and circles to produce all these plants are described in Hindu texts.[Bharne 1].