Venezuela, officially Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,[5][n 2] is a sovereign country located in the extreme north of South America and in the Caribbean region. Made up of a continental territory and numerous islands, islets and cays in the Caribbean Sea, its capital "Capital (political)") and largest urban agglomeration is the city of Caracas.[n 3].
The country has a territorial area of 916,445 km². The continental territory borders to the north with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; to the west with Colombia; to the south with Brazil; and to the east with Guyana. With the latter country, Venezuela maintains a claim over 159,542 km² of territory west of the Essequibo River, known as Guayana Esequiba or Reclamation Zone,[6] previously under the control of Dutch Guiana. Likewise, Venezuela exercises sovereignty over extensive maritime areas: 71,295 km² of territorial sea,[7] 22,224 km² in its contiguous zone,[7] 471,507 km² in the exclusive economic zone of the Caribbean and the Atlantic,[8][9][10] and 99,889 km² of continental shelf.[10] This marine zone borders those of thirteen States.[11] The country stands out for its high biodiversity, ranking seventh in the world in number of species, and presents a great variety of habitats that range from the Andean mountains in the west to the tropical jungle of the Orinoco basin in the south, passing through the extensive plains of the Llanos, the Caribbean coast and the Orinoco River delta in the east.
The territory currently known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain starting in 1522, amid resistance from the indigenous peoples who inhabited the region. At the end of the century and beginning of the 20th century, ideas of independence spread in Latin America, and in 1811 Venezuela became one of the first Spanish American territories to declare its independence from Spain. The independence struggle was led by figures such as Francisco de Miranda, Simón Bolívar and José Antonio Páez, who won important victories – among them the Battle of Carabobo "Battle of Carabobo (1821)") in 1821, decisive in consolidating the independence of Venezuela and Gran Colombia, which subsequently dissolved in 1830, leaving Venezuela as an independent nation. For much of the century, the country experienced periods of political instability dominated by regional leaders, a situation that made progress difficult. Starting in 1958, Venezuela moved towards democratic governments; However, in the 1980s and 1990s there were economic crises that triggered social unrest, coup attempts, and political trials, such as that of Carlos Andrés Pérez for embezzlement in 1993. Dissatisfaction with traditional parties culminated in the election of Hugo Chávez in 1998, who, after an attempted coup in 1992, began what he called the Bolivarian Revolution. Chávez convened a National Constituent Assembly of Venezuela in 1999 to draft a new Constitution, changing the country's official name to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and establishing a socialist political model, characterized by the nationalization of key companies and greater state intervention in the economy. His government was marked by internal tensions and polarization, which have shaped subsequent political and economic challenges.[12].
Hallway inspection
Introduction
Venezuela, officially Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,[5][n 2] is a sovereign country located in the extreme north of South America and in the Caribbean region. Made up of a continental territory and numerous islands, islets and cays in the Caribbean Sea, its capital "Capital (political)") and largest urban agglomeration is the city of Caracas.[n 3].
The country has a territorial area of 916,445 km². The continental territory borders to the north with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean; to the west with Colombia; to the south with Brazil; and to the east with Guyana. With the latter country, Venezuela maintains a claim over 159,542 km² of territory west of the Essequibo River, known as Guayana Esequiba or Reclamation Zone,[6] previously under the control of Dutch Guiana. Likewise, Venezuela exercises sovereignty over extensive maritime areas: 71,295 km² of territorial sea,[7] 22,224 km² in its contiguous zone,[7] 471,507 km² in the exclusive economic zone of the Caribbean and the Atlantic,[8][9][10] and 99,889 km² of continental shelf.[10] This marine zone borders those of thirteen States.[11] The country stands out for its high biodiversity, ranking seventh in the world in number of species, and presents a great variety of habitats that range from the Andean mountains in the west to the tropical jungle of the Orinoco basin in the south, passing through the extensive plains of the Llanos, the Caribbean coast and the Orinoco River delta in the east.
The territory currently known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain starting in 1522, amid resistance from the indigenous peoples who inhabited the region. At the end of the century and beginning of the 20th century, ideas of independence spread in Latin America, and in 1811 Venezuela became one of the first Spanish American territories to declare its independence from Spain. The independence struggle was led by figures such as Francisco de Miranda, Simón Bolívar and José Antonio Páez, who won important victories – among them the Battle of Carabobo "Battle of Carabobo (1821)") in 1821, decisive in consolidating the independence of Venezuela and Gran Colombia, which subsequently dissolved in 1830, leaving Venezuela as an independent nation. For much of the century, the country experienced periods of political instability dominated by regional leaders, a situation that made progress difficult. Starting in 1958, Venezuela moved towards democratic governments; However, in the 1980s and 1990s there were economic crises that triggered social unrest, coup attempts, and political trials, such as that of Carlos Andrés Pérez for embezzlement in 1993. Dissatisfaction with traditional parties culminated in the election of Hugo Chávez in 1998, who, after an attempted coup in 1992, began what he called the Bolivarian Revolution. Chávez convened a National Constituent Assembly of Venezuela in 1999 to draft a new Constitution, changing the country's official name to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and establishing a socialist political model, characterized by the nationalization of key companies and greater state intervention in the economy. His government was marked by internal tensions and polarization, which have shaped subsequent political and economic challenges.[12].
In the energy field, by 2010 Venezuela had the largest oil reserves in the world and was one of the main oil exporters. Although historically the country was a major exporter of agricultural products such as coffee and cocoa, the oil industry came to dominate exports and state revenues. The global oversupply of oil in the 1980s caused an external debt crisis and prolonged economic deterioration. In 1996, there was an increase in inflation, and by 1998 GDP per capita fell back to 1963 levels, reaching only a third of the maximum recorded in 1978. The government of Hugo Chávez, guided by an anti-imperialist ideology, sought to diversify markets and increase public spending through social welfare programs, which, together with interventionist state policies, stimulated an increase in external debt to more than 118,000 million dollars, despite a period of oil bonanza whose effects were manifested in later years.[13][14][15][16].
Over time, reduced income, excess public spending, increased imports, corruption, and the fall in national production – the result of excessive state control and policies that stifled the private sector – have been identified as destabilizing factors of the Venezuelan economy.[15][17] This scenario has led to a generalized crisis, characterized by hyperinflation, economic depression, shortages of basic products, and a marked increase in unemployment, poverty, malnutrition, infant mortality and crime.[18][19][20][21] In late 2017, credit rating agencies declared Venezuela in default on its debt payments.[15] In 2019, a report from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights denounced alleged systematic violations of human rights by the Venezuelan government.[22].
Place names
In 1498, as part of his third voyage, Admiral Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco delta, then entered the Gulf of Paria. Columbus, in his letter to the Catholic Monarchs, expresses having arrived at "earthly paradise", and confused by the unusual saltiness of the waters, he writes:
Columbus called these paradisiacal places «Land of Grace», an expression that has prevailed to refer to the country par excellence. But the following year, an expedition commanded by Alonso de Ojeda traveled along the coast of the territory until reaching the entrance to the current Lake Maracaibo, in a gulf located between the peninsulas of Paraguaná and La Guajira. On that voyage, the crew observed homes built by the Añú indigenous people, erected on wooden piles that stuck out of the water. These stilt houses reminded Amerigo Vespucci of the city of Venice -Venezia, in Italian-, as he stated in a letter to Piero de' Medici. This was a reason that inspired Ojeda to give the name Venezziola (Little Venice), and then Hispanicized the region and the gulf in which they had made the discovery to "Venezuela", and thus received the name of the Gulf of Venezuela. The name coined by the explorer would later encompass the entire territory.[23] Later the region was also known as Tierra Firme, for being the first non-insular region of the continent to be explored by Europeans.
The popularization of the name "Little Venice" in Europe is probably due to the concession made to the commercial house of Welser to explore and govern part of the territory of South America.
However, the name was already in use before the arrival of the Germans.[28].
History
Pre-Hispanic period
The pre-Hispanic history of Venezuela refers to the local cultural developments of the current territory of the Republic of Venezuela prior to the conquest and colonization by Spain. The first humans settled in what we now know as Venezuela about 30,000 years ago. This stage is divided into four periods: Paleoindian (30,000 BC-5000 BC), Mesoindian (5000 BC-1000 BC), Neoindian (1000 BC-1498) and Indo-Hispanic (1499 to the present). The Paleoindian and Mesoindian periods are distinguished by the development of tools to hunt large animals such as the megatherium, the mastodon and the glyptodont; as well as the subsequent development of fishing techniques and navigation to the Caribbean islands.
During the Neo-Indian period, an important development of native agriculture, architecture and ceramics is observed: structures such as embankments, elevations, dams, terraces, canals and food vaults were built; They also acquired experience and knowledge about the natural cycles of local flora and fauna, which allowed better use of resources. Additionally, they practiced carving sculptures and ceramic works, highlighting the series of the Venus of Tacarigua found near Lake Valencia and ceramic ornaments in the Andean region, belonging to the Carache culture.
Among the most important tribes, the Timoto-Cuicas stood out, located in the Andes and linked culturally but not linguistically to the Chibchas; For their part, the Caribs "Caribbean (ethnic group)") were distributed in the eastern "North-Eastern Region (Venezuela)") and central "Central Region (Venezuela)") regions of the country in Guyana, part of Zulia and the Llanos, who after territorial conflicts acquired the northern coast of South America and spread to the Antilles; the Arawakos, settled in part of the regions of what is now the state of Amazonas "Amazon State (Venezuela)"), a good part of the west, central west and part of the coasts. Some people of Arawak descent are the Wayúu, settled in the west of the country towards the north, and the Caquetíos, who populated the north of the current Falcón state and who were displaced by the conquistadors to the western plains. There were also minor migrations of independent groups that populated the Orinoco River basin and other restricted areas of the country.
The predominant materials for the construction of houses used by the indigenous people of Venezuela were mud, straw or palm leaves to build houses, such as stilt houses built with wood, reeds "Caña (vegetable)") and straw. The Timoto-Cuicas used rock as the main architectural material. Seashells were used for ordinary commercial exchange, or barter. The fauna of prehistoric and pre-Columbian years was made up of tapirs, saber-toothed tigers, giant armadillos, among others.[30] With the arrival of the Spanish, numerous ethnic groups that spoke Carib, Arawak, Chibcha and Tupi-Guaraní languages were found in Venezuela. In addition, a very elaborate mythology was identified, and the cosmogony of tribes such as the Maquiritare that had similarities with the biblical Genesis.[31].
Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of pre-Hispanic cultures in Venezuela. A notable discovery occurred in the Unare River basin, near the town of Onoto "Onoto (Anzoátegui)"), in the Anzoátegui state during work for the construction of a dam, where dozens of large lithic spheres were discovered, some up to two meters in diameter. Investigations have determined that they are not of natural origin, due to the marks of lacquering and ornamentation, in addition to the percussion points characteristic of this type of sculpture.[32].
Conquest and colonial era
Venezuela was sighted for the first time during Christopher Columbus's third voyage, on August 1, 1498, when he arrived at the mouth of the Orinoco River after having passed in front of Trinidad Island.[33] It was the first time that the Spanish touched continental mainland, taking into account that on the first two voyages they reached island territories. Columbus observed the currents of the Orinoco and the jungles, and continued his journey through the Gulf of Paria, skirting the coast near the island of Margarita. In 1499, Alonso de Ojeda made a more extensive expedition along the coast, reaching Cabo de la Vela on the La Guajira peninsula after passing through the Gulf of Paria, the Paraguaná peninsula and the Gulf of Venezuela.
Shortly after, the Spanish Empire undertook the colonization of the territory with the establishment of the ephemeral governorate of Coquibacoa and cities and trade routes between the mainland and the metropolis. Demarcations were made in order to create a jurisdictional structure that materialized with the creation of the provinces of Margarita (1525), Venezuela (1527), Trinidad (1532), Nueva Andalucía and Guayana (1568) and later that of Maracaibo (1676). In 1528, King Charles I issued the "Capitulation of Madrid"), temporarily leasing part of the province of Venezuela to the Welser family and the Fugger family, which gave way to the creation of Klein-Venedig, one of the German governorates in America.[34] However, the Spanish faced several rebellions by the local indigenous people. The most notable were the one commanded by the chief Guaicaipuro in 1560 and the uprising of the quiriquires") in 1600, and even from his own countrymen, such as Lope de Aguirre and his "marañones" from Peru.
The colonial order was established towards the end of the century with the town council and the Catholic Church. Religious orders such as the Jesuits of Spain and the Augustinian Recollects of the Philippines[35] were crucial in pacifying and serving the colony's native and immigrant inhabitants.[36] The Augustinian Recollect Order in particular produced Venezuela's first beatified person, María de San José Alvarado. At the same time, a mixture of people in the provinces was encouraged, which would end up defining the social profile of the country. Trade and the extraction of mineral and natural resources flourished, highlighting the profuse export of cocoa, indigo and tobacco, while the provinces faced pirate attacks such as that of Henry Morgan to Maracaibo in 1669. Given the rise of smuggling in the region in the following years, it was decided to create the Royal Guipuzcoan Company in 1728 to exercise a commercial monopoly.
The existing provinces, then governed alternately by the Royal Court of Santo Domingo and that of Santafé de Bogotá, became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. With the rise to power of the House of Bourbon, King Carlos III formed a single autonomous entity by creating the Captaincy General of Venezuela in 1777. This new political union would be consolidated with the creation of the Royal Court of Caracas in 1786.
Independence and Greater Colombia
At the end of the century, a combination of factors such as the introduction of encyclopedism and the Enlightenment, the independence of the United States, the French Revolution, the antipathy towards political-economic centralism with the metropolis and the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, inspired the first independence attempts in Venezuela. Already in 1748, the cocoa planter Juan Francisco de León had revolted, with some success, against the Guipuzcoan Company. One of the first massive armed rebellions was the one unleashed in 1795 by the zambo "Zambo (caste)") José Leonardo Chirino, in the west of the country, in the town of Coro "Coro (Venezuela)").
Another conspiracy occurred by Manuel Gual and José María España in 1797, this being the first with popular roots. Both attempts were unsuccessful, with their respective leaders executed. For his part, the Creole Francisco de Miranda, in 1806 tried twice to invade Venezuelan territory through La Vela de Coro with an armed expedition from Haiti, and supported by the British. Their raids ended in failure due to the religious preaching against them and the indifference of the population. The subsequent Mantuan Conspiracy had the same fate.
The date of April 19, 1810 marked the beginning of the Venezuelan revolution. Vicente Emparan, at that time the Captain General of Venezuela, was dismissed by the Caracas Cabildo. This gave way to the formation of the Supreme Junta of Caracas, the first form of autonomous government. The Junta governed until March 2, 1811, the day the First National Congress was installed, an entity that appointed a triumvirate composed of Cristóbal Mendoza, Juan Escalona and Baltasar Padrón. Months later, on July 5 of that year, the Declaration of Independence was finally signed. But this First Republic collapsed due to the royalist reaction. In July 1812, Miranda, Commander in Chief of the newly created army, capitulated in San Mateo "San Mateo (Aragua)"). According to Pedro Gual, Miranda thought that the capitulation would allow him to buy time to organize another front, possibly in New Granada, where the independence movement was already underway.[37].
The movement would have new momentum in 1813, when Simón Bolívar, after taking control of Cúcuta, undertook the Admirable Campaign, an armed expedition through the Andes and the western region, together with Atanasio Girardot and José Félix Ribas. After making public the controversial Decree of War to the Death, he faced the royalists in several battles along the route to the capital. At the end of the campaign, he triumphantly entered Caracas, where he was titled Liberator, and where the Second Republic was proclaimed, although fighting continued in other parts of the country. However, the following year a rebellion broke out loyal to the Crown led by José Tomás Boves. The violent push of his troops forced the population to undertake emigration to the East, as well as the expulsion of the patriots from Tierra Firme, thus bringing down the Second Republic.
Caudilloism and Federal War
The main political leader and strongman of Venezuela at its dawn as a republic was José Antonio Páez, who was sworn in as president in April 1831, and his vice president was Diego Bautista Urbaneja. Páez represented the Conservative Party "Conservative Party (Venezuela)"), made up mostly of military veterans of the War of Independence. There was relative peace and the economy showed a recovery stimulated by the Freedom of Contracts Law of 1834 and coffee exports.[39] After losing re-election in 1835, Páez handed over power to José María Vargas, the first civilian to lead the country. This was not to the liking of the independence military, who rebelled against the government in the Reform Revolution. Vargas abdicated in 1836, and his term was finished by Carlos Soublette.
Páez, after having defeated a liberal rebellion, was elected again in 1838. He faced the world economic crisis of that year, which hit Venezuela hard, and the growing liberal opposition "Liberal Party (Venezuela)") represented by Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, at the same time that he began territorial disputes against the British over the issue of Essequibo. Soublette was president again in 1843, and in 1847 General José Tadeo Monagas was elected with great support, but he later broke with the conservatives. Their attempt to depose him led to the attack on Congress in 1848. The general ensured that his brother José Gregorio Monagas was made president in 1851, who proclaimed the definitive abolition of slavery in 1854. José Tadeo returned to power in 1855, but his authoritarian regime saw its end in the March Revolution of 1858, commanded by Julián Castro "Julián Castro (military)"). The latter was named provisional president of the Republic at the Valencia Convention and later interim president, making Valencia "Valencia (Venezuela)") again the provisional capital of the country.
The new government's decrees created discontent among liberals, and the instability made the outbreak of an armed conflict known as the Federal War imminent. The Cry of the Federation marked its beginning, and it developed as a guerrilla war. The liberal federalists obtained important victories thanks to their leader Ezequiel Zamora, who died in San Carlos under strange circumstances.[n 4] Juan Crisóstomo Falcón replaced him, after which they weakened the central forces. In 1863 the Treaty of Coche was signed, which meant the access to power of the liberals and the end of a war that decimated the population.[n 5][40][41] Despite this result, new regional caudillismos were formed with their own army. Falcón assumed the presidency and promulgated his Decree of Guarantees"),[42] which abolished the death penalty. This provision, ratified in the new constitution,[43] made Venezuela the oldest modern State to implement it.[n 6][44].
Falcón sowed resentment among both conservatives and liberal dissidents, causing both sides to unite to overthrow him in 1867 with the Blue Revolution. An army led by Miguel Antonio Rojas") rose in the central region, with former president José Tadeo Monagas in the eastern region. Given the difficult situation, Falcón delegated power to Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual. But upon surrounding the capital, Rojas signed the Treaty of Antímano"), recognizing the government and assuming military command of the country. The easterners, seeing the treaty as a betrayal, continued their campaign towards Caracas, which they finally captured, thus establishing the government of the *,* Guillermo Tell Villegas and José Ruperto Monagas.
Yellow Liberalism
Antonio Guzmán Blanco, son of Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, plotted with his father the return to power of the liberals. Fleeing due to the government's rejection, he organized an invasion of Curaçao supported by regional leaders such as Joaquín Crespo and Francisco Linares Alcántara. In 1870 he landed on the coast and took positions in the center-west of the country while he increased his forces. He took Caracas in the April Revolution "April Revolution (Venezuela)").
Once he became president, he implemented measures to modernize the country and establish definitive order, on a platform called "Yellow Liberalism." He created the Conservatory of Fine Arts"), issued the Decree of Public and Compulsory Instruction, made the Venezuelan peso the national currency, promoted agriculture, organized the first population census in the country,[45] improved the infrastructure and initiated an urban transformation of Caracas, to which he wanted to give Parisian qualities,[46] without abandoning a centralist and authoritarian character. He fought several caudillista uprisings, achieving calm the turbulent panorama of insurrections. His policy was to promote the cult of the heroes of the past, especially Simón Bolívar, as a strategy to unite the country. Likewise, he weakened the power of the Catholic Church, by transferring functions that were traditionally carried out by it to the State.
In 1877, he passed the command to Francisco Linares Alcántara, so that he could continue his work and go to Europe. But Linares' break with him and the discontinuation of the progressive line provoked the Reclaiming Revolution that overthrew him in 1879. Guzmán Blanco had to return to the country and take the reins of the government again. On this occasion he designated the bolivar "Bolívar (currency)") as the national currency, and decreed Glory to the Bravo People as the national anthem, in addition to continuing with the political-economic measures that had been successful. After five years he passed the command to Joaquín Crespo, but the effects of the introduction of positivism and the growing opposition from the student sector that gained strength, so Crespo closed the University, warranted a second return by Guzmán. He was elected by Congress to preside between 1886 and 1888, but retired in 1887, appointing Hermógenes López for the transition.
It was followed by the government of Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl, who moved away from the centralist line maintained until now. He created the National Academy of History and faced anti-Guzmancist riots. In 1890 Raimundo Andueza Palacio was elected. His attempt to extend his two-year term caused the Legalist Revolution of 1892 led by Joaquín Crespo, who gained power and established the four-year presidency and direct voting. Under his leadership, public resources were misappropriated and there was greater debt, although he remained popular among his soldiers. His successor candidate, Ignacio Andrade, won the 1897 elections, but his rival José Manuel Hernández, alias , accused fraud and rebelled in Queipa. Crespo perished in command of his troops, but the uprising was defeated. The final balance of the century was one of economic recession, but of advances in culture, technology and urban planning.[47].
Andean Hegemony
The military man and former deputy Cipriano Castro accused Andrade of violating the 1893 constitution, so he organized a restorative military uprising from Táchira together with Juan Vicente Gómez to overthrow him. Castro came to power in October. However, he ratified some ministers of the defeated government, including Raimundo Andueza Palacio in the cabinet. In 1901, he was elected president by the National Constituent Assembly. Like his predecessors, due to his authoritarianism he fought seditions. The most outstanding of these was the Liberating Revolution "Revolución Libertadora (Venezuela)"), which culminated in Castro's triumph in 1903, being the last of the great caudillo rebellions. His administration followed anti-imperialism, refusing to cancel the debt with the United Kingdom and Germany, which caused the naval blockade imposed by these countries.
Castro became ill in 1908, and left the country to undergo treatment. Days later, his vice president and friend Juan Vicente Gómez perpetrated a coup d'état and prohibited his return to Venezuela.[48] Starting in 1909, Gómez would exercise his government from the city of Maracay, even moving his official residence which was in the city of Caracas. That is why with the Federal Constitution of 1909, ministers, diplomats, and all government employees had to go weekly to Maracay to report. Gómez was officially president from 1910 and later appointed for seven-year terms established by a new constitution"), interspersed with puppet governments that acted as a façade. He treated without mercy anyone who questioned him. Many political prisoners served as forced laborers "Forced labor (penalty)"), building roads throughout the country. To resist student protests, he closed the Central University of Venezuela for ten years. He promulgated the first Labor Law, created banks for workers, initiated oil exploitation and canceled the foreign debt. The most remembered opposition movement of its time was carried out by university students in 1928, from which new political leaders would emerge. It also stopped a military coup and the invasion of General Román Delgado Chalbaud with the German steamship Falke in 1929. Its greatest contribution was the pacification of the country by ending the warlords and creating the Military Academy of Venezuela, as the basis of a consolidated National Army. Oil exploitation in this period would be the cause of migration of the rural population to large urban centers since the 1930s.[49].
Gómez died in 1935, leaving a pacified, organized and solvent country.[50] General Eleazar López Contreras was appointed president until 1936, and then president for seven years. With him the transition to democracy begins: he decrees amnesty for political prisoners and restores freedom of the press.[51] That year a large public demonstration in front of the Miraflores Palace demanded greater civil liberties,[52] to which López partially agreed with his .[53] He reduced the presidential term to 5 years, and focused his policies on the creation of public health assistance programs.[54] In addition, He carried out extremely important works such as the creation of the National Guard of Venezuela, the opening of the Museum of Fine Arts and the Museum of Sciences in 1938, and the creation of the Central Bank of Venezuela in 1939.
Adeco triennium and military period
After the coup, a de facto government was established that became a constitutional one, dominated by the Democratic Action party for the next three years. A new constitution was approved in 1947 that granted direct suffrage and women's suffrage. In new elections, the famous writer Rómulo Gallegos turned out to be the first Venezuelan president elected in this way, taking office in 1948. Despite this, Gallegos did not complete his term after a coup d'état months later brought to power a military Junta made up of the same rebels from three years ago, which repealed the constitution.[55] Of the triumvirs, Delgado Chalbaud was a candidate to preside over the country after the Junta called elections, but he was kidnapped and murdered in 1950. After the incident, Germán Suárez Flamerich was appointed provisional president.
Pérez Jiménez remained Minister of Defense until 1952, the date of voting for a Constituent Assembly. During the course of the day, seeing that the opposition URD reached the majority of votes, the ruling Independent Electoral Front ignored the results and suspended the elections. Two days later, Pérez Jiménez was proclaimed president. His government promoted a constitution in 1953, outlawed the opposition and restricted civil liberties. Its main police agency, the National Security Directorate, arrested and detained opponents in the Guasina Island concentration camp and also executed them. Supported by the United States for being part of the oil distribution network and for its anti-communism, his regime was also distinguished by progress in visionary and technologically cutting-edge infrastructure unparalleled for the country. That, the special promotion of European immigration and the culmination of complex public works projects, were framed as the practice of a nationalist thought known as the New National Ideal.[56] Despite this, the antipathy generated by his repressive acts and his intentions to perpetuate himself in power, increased discontent against him.
On the other hand, Venezuela's economic indicators during the government of Marcos Pérez Jiménez showed a country in growth, with low inflation and high levels of employment. During his mandate under the doctrine of the "New National Ideal" he carried out the transformation of the country, going from having rural populations to being one of the references of modernism in Latin America. In this period, the main communication routes were built, linking the west, center and east of the country, as well as industrial conglomerates and large monuments. Pérez Jiménez consolidated a good part of the infrastructure of Venezuela and its capital city from 1952 to 1958. His vision of a modern Caracas turned the city into a dispersed, automobile-driven metropolis, crisscrossed by highways and characterized by modernist architecture. This architectural legacy today constitutes a residual topography of a Caracas that in the 1950s was seen as the modern capital of Latin America.[57].
Democracy
The new democratic era brought with it changes on a political and economic level. In the second Betancourt government, no more concessions were granted to oil multinationals, the Venezuelan Petroleum Corporation was established, and OPEC was created in 1960, at the initiative of Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo. An agrarian reform was carried out and a new constitution was approved in 1961.
The new order had its antagonists. Betancourt suffered an attack planned by the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, and the leftists excluded from the pact began an armed insurgency by organizing themselves into the Armed Forces of National Liberation, sponsored by the Communist Party and Fidel Castro. In 1962 they attempted destabilization via the military, with failed revolts in Carúpano and Puerto Cabello. At the same time, Betancourt promoted an international doctrine in which he only recognized governments elected by popular vote.
In the 1963 elections "Venezuelan Presidential Election (1963)") Raúl Leoni was elected. Its platform consisted of a coalition of Broad Base parties, integrating AD, URD and the FND. Although his government was one of harmony and general understanding, he had to deal with continuous guerrilla attacks. Among these, the invasion of the beaches of Machurucuto in 1967 stands out, in which Venezuelan and Cuban guerrillas participated. Most of the guerrillas abandoned the armed struggle that year. Leoni's government was also notable for public works and cultural development.
Rafael Caldera won the following elections "Venezuelan Presidential Election (1968)"). Before taking office in 1969, the Rupununi rebellion broke out in Guayana Esequiba, which represented an opportunity to annex the Essequibo Territory, claimed by Venezuela. In this context, he signed the Port of Spain Protocol in 1970. He agreed to a definitive truce with the guerrillas and guaranteed their return to political life, legalizing the PCV. In 1974 Carlos Andrés Pérez took over. In those years, the income of foreign currency increased enormously as a consequence of the oil crisis of 1973, when the price of a barrel of oil suddenly went from $3 to $12, leading to the meaning of Saudi Venezuela, the title of a book by Sanín (Alfredo Tarre Murzi), although the name had been previously indicated by Rómulo Betancourt and Laureano Vallenilla Lanz, Jr.[61] In 1975 the The iron industry was nationalized and the oil industry the following year, creating Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA). Both Caldera and Pérez partially broke with the Betancourt Doctrine.
In 1979, Luis Herrera Campins was sworn in as president. He inaugurated multiple cultural and sports facilities. Although oil revenues continued to rise, indebtedness in international finance could not be prevented, forcing adherence to the dictates of the IMF. In 1983 the bolivar was devalued on Black Friday "Black Friday (Venezuela)"), unleashing a strong economic crisis. Under Jaime Lusinchi's government, little would be done to counteract it. Corruption increased and economic policy maintained the rentier line. On the other hand, in 1987 the Caldas corvette incident generated one of the greatest moments of international tension with Colombia, due to the dispute over sovereignty over the Gulf of Venezuela between both nations.
Bolivarian revolution
The "Bolivarian Revolution" is the name given by Hugo Chávez and his supporters to the political, ideological and social project that began in 1998, with the election of Chávez as president of the country.[12] According to its supporters, the revolution is based on the ideology of Simón Bolívar,[12] on the doctrines of Simón Rodríguez, who proposed that Latin America invent its own political system, and General Ezequiel Zamora "Lands and Free Men" and "Horror to the Oligarchy", who defended the ownership of land for the peasants who worked it. Its purpose is to promote Latin American patriotism[62][63] and reach a new socialism. One of its first measures was to approve a new constitution by popular referendum in 1999 that, among other things, changed the name of the country to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.[12].
Chávez won the 1998 presidential elections. He was supported by the “Polo Patriotico” party alliance. He promoted a new constitution, which was approved by referendum in December 1999, and which brought with it the renewal of Public Power by a National Constituent Assembly which replaced the national congress, and was made up of 95% of government supporters, which called into question the independence of State powers in some sectors of Venezuelan society.[64] Through said referendum, the official name of the country changed from "Republic of Venezuela" to "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela", in homage to the Venezuelan liberator Simón Bolívar.
In 2001, Chávez promulgated 49 laws on land administration, thanks to an authorization from the National Assembly, within the framework of his platform called the Bolivarian Revolution, generating conflicts with the opposition. This led to a national strike called by the Confederation of Venezuelan Workers (CTV) and by the business chamber (Fedecámaras "Fedecámaras (Venezuela)").
In 2002, a large number of protests began against the 49 laws. That year, after a massive demonstration in Caracas, on April 11, 2002, the 2002 Coup d'état took place. Faced with an alleged resignation and arrest of Chávez, Pedro Carmona, leader of Fedecámaras "Fedecámaras (Venezuela)"), proclaimed himself President with the support of the CTV and several opposition political parties.[65] According to an investigation carried out by Izquierda Unida "United Left (Spain)"), journalist and advisor José Manuel Fernández says that "Powerful media outlets, in Venezuela and abroad, directly and indirectly supported the coup."[66][67][68] As the first government action, Carmona disintegrated all constituted powers and established a de facto government. That same night Chávez was restored, after being rescued in a commando action on the island where he had been imprisoned. Many political scientists and politicians agree in asserting that it was not a coup d'état, but a self-coup, in which Hugo Chávez tested his general staff and was able to know who was loyal to him and who was not.[69] The opposition then organized a general strike in December 2002 requesting the resignation of Chávez, joined by many Petróleos de Venezuela workers, causing great economic losses for the country.[70] A request was then made for a recall referendum, finally held in 2004 and in it, Chávez was victorious.
Government and politics
Contenido
La Constitución vigente de Venezuela, aprobada en referéndum constitucional el 15 de diciembre de 1999 y promulgada cinco días después, establece que la República Bolivariana de Venezuela se constituye en un Estado social y democrático de Derecho y de justicia que "propugna como valores "Valor (axiología)") superiores de su ordenamiento jurídico y de su actuación, la vida, la libertad, la justicia, la igualdad, la solidaridad "Solidaridad (sociología)"), la democracia, la responsabilidad social y, en general, la preeminencia de los derechos humanos, la ética y el pluralismo político".[123].
En los términos establecidos en la Constitución de la República, Venezuela asume la forma de un Estado federal descentralizado, y se rige por los principios de integridad territorial, cooperación, solidaridad, concurrencia y corresponsabilidad. El mismo tiene como fines la protección y fomento de la persona y su humanidad, garantizar el ejercicio democrático de la voluntad popular, y la búsqueda de un estado de bienestar general. Para la consecución de tales metas, se señalan como vías el desarrollo de la educación y el trabajo "Trabajo (sociología)").[124].
Se establece además que la forma de gobierno es la de una república presidencialista, encabezada por el presidente de la República funciona jefe del Estado y jefe del Poder Ejecutivo Nacional a la vez. La soberanía, la cual reside en el pueblo, se ejerce de dos maneras: directamente a través de la Constitución misma y de la ley, e indirectamente, mediante el sufragio, por el Poder Público "Poder Público Nacional (Venezuela)"), cuyos componentes están sometidos a dicha soberanía popular y se deben a ella. Todos los entes públicos están sujetos a lo previsto en esta Constitución. El Presidente tiene la facultad de dirigir las acciones del Gobierno.[125].
Actualmente; el país vive bajo un régimen dictatorial del cual esta al frente Nicolás Maduro Moros, quien se ha mantenido en el poder de manera polémica al tener más de 940 presos políticos por oponerse al régimen,[126] entre otras estrategias que a utilizado donde la represión al pueblo, la manipulación y vigilancia desde organizaciones vecinales y chantaje en cuanto a acceso a la educación y la salud han sido claves en sus intereses propios.
Division of powers
The national authorities of the State reside in Caracas, Capital District "Capital District (Venezuela)"), since according to the National Constitution, it is the seat of the bodies of the National Public Power. The public administration is at the service of citizens and is based on the principles of honesty, participation, speed, effectiveness, efficiency, transparency, accountability and responsibility, as required by Article 141 of the Constitution of the Republic.[127].
The National Public Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") is divided into Legislative, Executive, Judicial, Citizen#Citizen_Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") and Electoral#Electoral Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)"); Each of the branches of Public Power has its own functions, but the bodies responsible for its exercise will collaborate with each other in achieving the purposes of the State. The National Public Power is made up of the organs and entities of the State with national jurisdiction that are framed within the Constitution of the Republic:.
Legislative power is exercised by the National Assembly of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which is a unicameral parliament that exercises the legislative function - formation, discussion and sanction of national laws and the legal codes of the country -, the function of political control over the National Public Administration and the Government, and the function of promoting the organization and citizen participation in matters within its jurisdiction. Since January 2021, it is made up of 277 deputies elected by direct, universal suffrage. and secrecy in each federal entity (before 2020 there were 167 deputies). The duration of the legislative mandate is five years and they can be re-elected in accordance with Amendment No. 1 of the Constitution of the Republic.
Executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic, the Executive Vice President, the Ministers and other officials established by the Constitution of the Republic and the law. The President of the Republic is elected by direct, secret and universal suffrage for a term that lasts 6 years, with the possibility of being re-elected for new periods.[n 7] He is the head of the State, head of the National Executive Branch, Commander in Chief of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces, and directs the foreign relations of the Republic. The Executive Vice President is a direct and immediate collaborator of the President. He coordinates the relations of the National Executive with the National Assembly, presides over the Federal Government Council and makes up for the temporary absences of the President of the Republic. The Ministers are direct organs of the president, and together with him and the vice president, they make up the Council of Ministers. The Attorney General of the Republic "Procuraduría General de la República (Venezuela)") attends, with the right to speak, the meetings of the Council of Ministers. Additionally, the president can convene the Council of State "Council of State (Venezuela)"), being a higher consultative body of the Government and the National Public Administration to recommend policies of national interest on matters of special importance.
Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice and the other courts determined by law. These, together with the Public Ministry, the Public Defense&action=edit&redlink=1 "Public Defense (Venezuela) (not yet drafted)"), the criminal investigation bodies, auxiliaries and justice officials, the penitentiary system, the alternative means of justice, the citizens who participate in the administration of justice in accordance with the law and the lawyers authorized to practice, make up the Justice System&action=edit&redlink=1 "Justice System (Venezuela) (not yet written)").
Citizen Power#Citizen_Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") is exercised by the Republican Moral Council, made up of the Public Ministry, the Comptroller General of the Republic "General Comptroller of the Republic (Venezuela)"), and the Ombudsman's Office "Defensoría del Pueblo (Venezuela)"). Any of the highest authorities of the bodies that make up this Branch may be elected president of the Republican Moral Council for periods of one year, re-electable. Among its functions are to prevent, investigate and sanction acts that violate public ethics and administrative morality, ensure the proper use of public assets and preselect candidates for magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice.
The Electoral Power#Elector_Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") is exercised by the body of the National Electoral Council "National Electoral Council (Venezuela)"), which has as subordinate bodies: the National Electoral Board, the Civil and Electoral Registry Commission and the Political Participation and Financing Commission. Its objective is to regulate and manage electoral processes as well as the application of personalization of suffrage and proportional representation. The CNE maintains, organizes, directs and supervises the Civil and Electoral Registry. The 1999 Constitution incorporates the figure of a recall referendum for all popularly elected positions, which can be subject to a new election halfway through the term, as a novel way of allowing a political decision by citizens regarding elected officials.
political parties
The organization that can properly be called the first Venezuelan political party is the Liberal Party "Partido Liberal (Venezuela)"), created by Tomás Lander and Antonio Leocadio Guzmán in 1840. Emerging as a response to the ruling Conservative Party "Partido Conservador (Venezuela)"), both would compete for power throughout the century. From these derived parties would emerge, later dissolved by the Gomecista dictatorship. In the subsequent democratic stage, some of the most important parties have emerged on the national scene, such as Democratic Republican Union (URD, f. 1945), the People's Electoral Movement (MEP, f. 1967), La Causa R (f. 1971), among others.
In the current political life of the country, those that are especially relevant are the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which is the governing party; Voluntad Popular (VP) at the initiative of Leopoldo López in 2009; Vente Venezuela (VV), founded by María Corina Machado in 2012; Un Nuevo Tiempo (UNT) formed as a national party in 2007 and the first party in the opposition coalition; Primero Justicia (PJ), national since 2003; Democratic Action (AD), with a social democratic tendency, founded in 1941 by Rómulo Gallegos and Rómulo Betancourt; the Independent Electoral Political Organization Committee (COPEI), of a Christian social nature, founded in 1946 by Rafael Caldera; the Movement to Socialism "Movimiento al Socialismo (Venezuela)") (MAS), also a social democrat, created in 1971; and the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), founded in 1931 and legalized in 1945. Some parties of importance at the regional level are Proyecto Carabobo (founded in 1997 with Proyecto Venezuela), Patria Para Todos (PPT), and Por la Democracia Social (Vamos), founded in 2003 by Ismael García.
Foreign relations
Venezuelan foreign policy has varied according to the nature of its government. Since in its first years as an independent nation the country suffered a long period of internal turbulence, it was not able to outline a concrete international policy, but focused on the demarcation of boundaries. At the beginning of the century, there were difficult relations with the European powers and with the United States due to foreign debt, and it remained neutral during World War II until it sided with the Allies on February 15, 1945. In the 1950s, Venezuela maintained close ties with dictatorships existing at the time in Latin America, and with the United States. The reestablishment of the democratic system of government in 1958 generated significant changes in Venezuela's foreign policy, being framed within the 1961 Constitution and taking shape in three basic guidelines: democracy, oil, and active international presence. Under the Betancourt Doctrine, it only recognized democratic governments. In the 1980s, it joined the Contadora Group along with other countries, to seek peace in the armed conflicts in Central America.
According to Article 153 of the 1999 Constitution, Latin American and Caribbean integration is favored, privileging relations with Ibero-America. During the Bolivarian Revolution, the Venezuelan Government has approached governments with a clear leftist and anti-imperialist line, such as Cuba, Russia and China; At the same time, mishaps and rifts have arisen in diplomatic relations with Colombia, Mexico and the United States. Venezuela has held a seat on the UN Security Council on four occasions, in the periods from 1962 to 1963, from 1977 to 1978, from 1986 to 1987, from 1992 to 1993 and from 2015 to 2016.[128]In 2006 she ran without being elected.
Venezuela has a long history of territorial claims with Guyana and Colombia. The country's eastern limits with Guyana, drawn by the Paris Award of 1899 (declared null and void by Venezuela), run from Mount Roraima "Roraima (tepuy)") to Punta Playa in the Atlantic Ocean. However, Venezuela claims the territory called Guayana Essequiba, which would extend from the border between both countries to the Essequibo River, which are regions 1 (Barima-Waini), 2 (Cuyuni-Mazaruni), 7 (Pomeroon-Supenaam), 8 (Potaro-Siparuni), 10 (Alto Takutu-Alto Essequibo) and the western area of 5 (Essequibo-Demerara Islands). Western), based on the Geneva Agreement "Geneva Agreement (1966)") of 1966, signed with the United Kingdom.[129].
Likewise, it maintains a dispute with Colombia over the sovereignty of the Gulf of Venezuela. The dispute, which dates back to the dissolution of Gran Colombia, is believed to have been motivated by the presence of hydrocarbons in the Gulf, which in turn led to the outbreak of the Caldas corvette crisis in 1987.[6] The problem was addressed again in 2007, when it was agreed to continue negotiations between both parties.[130].
National defense and security
The defense of Venezuela is in charge of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces,[131] which, according to Article 328 of the National Constitution, is an entity organized by the State for the service of the Nation, and which has the duty to monitor the independence and sovereignty of the geographical space of the country, the integrity of the territory, and to participate in its development, in addition to remaining apolitical.
The Venezuelan military institution as a whole has its roots in the Liberation Army "Patriot Armies (Hispanic-American Independence)") commanded by Simón Bolívar and several republican leaders during the War of Independence, but we cannot speak of a permanent and professional army until 1910, when Juan Vicente Gómez puts into operation the Military Academy of Venezuela, together with the establishment of new institutions for its activity, the National Aviation and a new Military Code, in order to eliminate the various regional caudillismos and preserve peace in the country.
Currently, the FANB groups five essential components, which are:
• - Bolivarian Army: institutionalized at the dawn of the century, which is in charge of land operations and protection of territorial borders. His day is celebrated on June 24, in commemoration of the Battle of Carabobo "Battle of Carabobo (1821)").[132].
• - Bolivarian Navy: existing since 1811, it is in charge of naval defense and the preservation of sovereignty over the aquatic spaces of Venezuela. Its day is July 24, in commemoration of the naval battle of Lake Maracaibo.[133].
• - Bolivarian Military Aviation: created in 1920 and independent since 1946, whose objective is the protection of Venezuela's airspace. Its anniversary was celebrated on December 10,[134] but by decree of President Hugo Chávez, since 2010 it has been celebrated on November 27, in commemoration of the second coup attempt in 1992.[135].
• - Bolivarian National Guard: founded in 1937 by Eleazar López Contreras, previously known as the Armed Forces of Cooperation. Its ultimate purpose is to conduct the operations required to maintain the internal order of the country, to cooperate in the development of military operations required to ensure the defense of the Nation, to carry out the administrative police and criminal investigation activities attributed to it by law, as well as to actively participate in national development, in the territory and other geographical spaces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Their anniversary is August 4.[136].
• - Bolivarian Militia: founded in 2005, it functions as a reserve and celebrates its day on April 13 of each year.[137].
Military service is mandatory - although without forced recruitment - for every man or woman between 18 and 60 years of age, and must be completed for a period of one year. (AMAB), Military Academy of the Bolivarian National Guard (AMGNB), Military Academy of Troop Officers C/J Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (AMOTHCH), Bolivarian Military Technical Academy (ATMB) and Military Academy of Medicine (AMMED). This institution graduates "Officer (armed forces)" command officers, troops, technicians and military surgeons.
Human rights
According to The Economist Democracy Index* in 2017, the country was listed as an "authoritarian regime", revealing how human rights have been eroded in the country.[141] Human rights organizations have expressed concern about attacks on journalists, harassment of human rights defenders, and poor conditions in prisons.[142][143] According to Human Rights Watch's 2017 report, During the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, the accumulation of power in the Executive Branch "National Executive Power (Venezuela)") and the erosion of human rights guarantees have allowed the government to intimidate, persecute, torture and even criminally prosecute and extrajudicially shoot its political opponents.[144].
In 2019 the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reported: "Security agents, notably members of SEBIN, DGCIM and GNB, resorted to such measures to intimidate and punish detainees, as well as to extract confessions and information. The most serious cases generally took place at SEBIN, DGCIM and army premises, throughout the country (...) The cases documented by OHCHR, together With the information collected, they indicate that the ill-treatment and torture inflicted on people deprived of liberty for having expressed certain political opinions or for having exercised their human rights are not isolated incidents. On the contrary, it has been documented that the same forms of ill-treatment have been committed by agents from different security units throughout the country, in different detention centers and with the alleged knowledge of superior officers, which clearly demonstrates the existence of a pattern of conduct.
Likewise in September 2020, OHCHR this time reported that the Government, state agents and groups working with them had committed flagrant violations of the human rights of men and women in Venezuela. It identified patterns of violations and highly coordinated crimes in accordance with State policies and part of a course of conduct that was both generalized and systematic, thus constituting crimes against humanity.[146] Also by public consensus, Venezuela is designated as a modern dictatorship, a country that is designated by its only party in power for more than twenty years and made up of political figures colluding in illicit scandals. Venezuela is currently suffering destabilization not only on the political side but also on the social and economic side, with high poverty rates only surpassed by Haiti.
Political-territorial organization
El territorio venezolano se divide en 23 estados federales, un Distrito Capital "Distrito Capital (Venezuela)")[147] —que comprende la ciudad de Caracas—, y las Dependencias Federales —conformadas por más de 311 islas, islotes y cayos en su mayoría deshabitados—.[n 8] Los estados a su vez están subdivididos en Municipios. Los estados son autónomos e iguales políticamente, organizando su administración y sus Poderes Públicos por medio de una Constitución Estadal, dictada por el Consejo Legislativo de acuerdo con las leyes de la Federación. Mantienen todo el poder no delegado explícitamente al gobierno nacional y municipal, según se lee en el Artículo 164 de la Constitución.
States
The State Public Power is divided into four branches. The Legislative Power of the states falls on the unicameral Legislative Council, whose deputies are elected by popular, direct and secret vote every four years, and may be re-elected, under a system of proportional representation of the population of the state and its municipalities, with a minimum of 7 and a maximum of 15. The states can enact laws on regional issues, but the main civil, commercial, criminal, labor, social security and mining laws are the responsibility of the National Assembly. The Executive Power of the states is exercised by a Governor accompanied by the State Secretaries"). The Governor is also elected by direct and secret suffrage for a period of four years and with the possibility of immediate re-election, being in charge of the state administration. The states have other institutions such as State Comptroller's Offices and the Attorney General's Offices. The Judicial Power is represented by the Supreme Court of the Republic, but divided into judicial circuits in each state coordinated by the Executive Directorate of the Regional Judiciary. The Electoral Power is in each state through the Electoral Offices dependent on the CNE.[148].
State fiscal control is exercised by a Comptroller's Office in each State, which supervises state income, expenses and assets, without prejudice to the scope of the functions of the Comptroller General of the Republic. State planning, for its part, is exercised by a Council for Planning and Coordination of Public Policies in each State, chaired by the governor and made up of the Mayors of the Municipalities, the state directors of the ministries, and a representation of regional deputies elected to the Assembly. National, legislators of the State Legislative Council, municipal councilors and organized communities, including indigenous communities where they exist.
Municipalities
Municipal Public Power is exercised in each of the 335 municipalities through executive, legislative, judicial, fiscal control and planning functions, although in essence it does not differ much from the state model. The Municipal Municipal Executive is exercised by a Mayor elected for a period of four years by a simple majority of the people who vote and can be re-elected. The Legislative Branch delegates its authority to Municipal Councils made up of a number of no more than thirteen and no less than five councilors elected for a period of four years, and may be re-elected, who will proportionally represent the population of the Municipality. The Judicial Power is represented in the Municipal Judicial Headquarters, and the Citizen Power exists in an autonomous Municipal Comptroller's Office, which exercises the function of fiscal control of the income, expenses and assets of the municipality.
Municipal planning is carried out by a Local Public Planning Council in each municipality, in charge of designing the Municipal Development Plan and other plans, and being chaired by the mayor and made up of the councilors, the presidents of the communal parish boards and representatives of neighborhood organizations and others of organized society, in accordance with the provisions established by law.
Capital District
The Powers of the Venezuelan Federation reside in the Capital District as a federal territory, the Government of the entity is headed by a head of Government, appointed by the President of the Republic on behalf of the Federation, and has been legislatively dependent on the Republic through the National Assembly since 2009. The district is composed of a single municipality called Libertador Municipality and this is in turn made up of twenty-two (22) parishes, such as Cathedral, El Recreo "Parroquia El Recreo (Caracas)") or Caricuao, among others.
Political-administrative regions
On January 8, 1980, an organization by political-administrative regions was created through Decree 478 on Regionalization and Participation of communities in regional development, which groups the states according to their social, economic and traditional characteristics, with the aim of promoting development. The decree lists nine political-administrative regions, namely:
Geography
Con 916 445 km², y con un litoral de 3 726 kilómetros —donde alrededor de 1700 km son playas de arena y 311 son islas—, Venezuela es el 32° país más grande del mundo —Venezuela reclama la Guayana Esequiba, administrada por Guyana, con la que totalizaría 1 075 987 km²—; además es el noveno país más grande de América, y el sexto de América del Sur. El territorio que controla se encuentra entre las latitudes 0° y 16°N y las longitudes 59° y 74°W.
Con una forma aproximada de triángulo, el país tiene una costa en el norte, que incluye numerosas islas en el Caribe y el noreste limita con el Océano Atlántico norte. La mayoría de los observadores describen a Venezuela en términos de cuatro regiones topográficas bastante bien definidas: las tierras bajas de Maracaibo en el noroeste, las montañas del norte que se extienden en un amplio arco de este a oeste desde la frontera con Colombia a lo largo de la costa norte del Caribe, las amplias llanuras en el centro del país y las altas tierras de Guayana en el sureste.
Context and conditions
The geographical location of Venezuela corresponds to the northern hemisphere, and its southern limit is very close to the Earth's equator. Its continental territory is made up of a compact land mass that extends equally from east to west and from north to south. Its island territory includes a set of archipelagos, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. Its geography grants it a great diversity of natural resources, mainly energy and minerals, as well as species and ecosystems.
The country is located on the northern coast of South America, and occupies most of the South American Caribbean. To the north it has its maritime façade on the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. In the Caribbean Sea it has an extensive coastline of 2718 km, while in the Atlantic Ocean it is 556 km.
Its continental shelf is located in the north and northeast of the country; It covers approximately 18% of the total continental surface and has a maritime presence of 860,000 km². In general, it comprises a wide coastal strip of low relief, between 0 and 100. It is located between the Caribbean Sea and the coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"). It presents three important widened depressions: Lake Maracaibo to the west, the Unare Depression in the central northeast corner and the Orinoco delta region to the east, with low and swampy lands. In the coastal area are the most important ports of the country: La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello and Puerto La Cruz.
These extensive territories are expressed in a compact continental surface, whose maximum distance is 1,493 km in an east-west direction, and 1,271 km in a north-south direction, which contributes to facilitating integration and internal cohesion. It is articulated with extensive coastlines, which reach a maritime façade of 2183 km in length in the Caribbean Sea, from Castilletes to the Paria promontory. It is irregular in shape and is made up of numerous gulfs and bays, among which the Gulfs of Venezuela, Triste, Paria and Cariaco stand out and more than 314 islands, cays and islets of Venezuelan sovereignty that reach the north to the island of Aves.[149].
Being in the intertropical zone, Venezuela has a warm and rainy climate in general, but due to the orography, the winds, the influence of the sea and the orientation of the mountain ranges, there are climatic differences. Latitude plays a certain role in the seasonality and amount of rainfall, but its role is much smaller in terms of the effect it has on temperatures. Altitude, however, constitutes a factor that drastically changes the climate, especially with regard to temperature, reaching very different values depending on the arrangement of the relief in what is known as thermal, biotic or ecological floors.
Borders
Venezuela borders thirteen political units of the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, although not all of them have defined limits of marine and underwater areas. It has borders with settled delimitations with the United States of America (Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands),[n 9][150] the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba, Curaçao and the Caribbean Netherlands),[n 10][151] the Dominican Republic,[n 11][152] France (Guadeloupe "Guadeloupe (France)") and Martinique)[n 12][153] and Trinidad and Tobago.[n 13][154].
It remains to be delimited with Colombia (430 km), Saint Kitts and Nevis (80 km), the United Kingdom (Montserrat) (45 km), Dominica (80 km), Saint Lucia (10 km), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (90 km), Grenada "Granada (country)") (300 km) and Guyana (1150 km). It has land borders with three countries, to the south with Brazil with 2199 km; to the east with Guyana with 743 km that may be subject to changes;[n 14] and to the west with Colombia with a length of 2219 km.[8].
Natural regions
The geographical diversity of the national territory becomes evident when it is divided into natural regions. Specifically, in Venezuela up to eight regions can be differentiated, namely: The Andes, Lake Maracaibo Depression, Insular, Coastal Cordillera, Eastern Cordillera, the Orinoco River Delta, Los Llanos, Guayana, and the Lara-Falcón Formation.
Relief and geology
The Venezuelan territory covers three large geographical units that follow one another from west to east: the northern Andean and coastal mountain ranges to the north and west, the Venezuelan Llanos that constitute extensive sedimentary plains that are almost entirely part of the Orinoco basin to the north of this river, and the massifs and plateaus of very ancient formation in the Venezuelan Guayana, to the south of the Orinoco River. Its configuration took place in the process of formation of the South American subcontinent, when it formed a supercontinent with Africa, until its separation in the Paleozoic. Very few countries in the world, except for some very large ones, have this same variety of reliefs on their territory.
In Venezuela, the northern mountain formations bifurcate into two Andean chains, raised during the Tertiary Era, which begin to be individualized in the north of the Colombian Eastern mountain range "Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)"). The western chain is made up of the Perijá mountain range, on the border with Colombia, which rises to 3750 m. The eastern chain forms the Mérida mountain range, which culminates in Pico Bolívar at 4978 meters,[n 15][156] the highest elevation in the country. These two mountain chains surround the depression of Lake Maracaibo —13,280 km², the largest in South America—[157] which occupies a wide depression open to the Gulf of Venezuela and has large reserves of hydrocarbons underground. Between Lake Maracaibo, the Mérida mountain range and the Caribbean Sea rise the mountain ranges and hollows of the Coriano System, formed by three orographic alignments oriented from southwest to northwest.
Towards the east, the mountainous region extends, bordering the Caribbean coast through the Caribbean mountain range, made up of the Coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)") and the Interior mountain range, both oriented parallel in an east-west direction, and between which is the depression of Lake Valencia. They are separated by other highly populated longitudinal valleys in which most of the country's economic activity is concentrated. The dunes also appear, starting in the city of Coro "Coro (Venezuela)") and extending northward towards the Paraguaná peninsula, including the isthmus of Los Médanos, and the Venezuelan portion of the Guajira peninsula. Its landscape is desert-type, with dunes that continually move due to the action of the trade winds that blow from east to west. Finally, to the east of this mountain range rises the Cumaná Massif"), which forms the peninsulas of Araya "Araya (Venezuela)") and Paria, between the gulfs of Cariaco and Paria. Thus we have that the west and north Venezuelan coast are dominated by successive mountain chains, which although they are segregated by fertile valleys and hollows, do not lose their structural continuity.
The Orinoco Plains occupy the central depression that extends between the Andean mountains and the Orinoco valley, which borders the north of the Guayanés Massif. It constitutes an immense plain that is characterized by its horizontality, covered by the sea in past times - the origin of hydrocarbon deposits - and currently covered by powerful layers of river sediments drained by the Orinoco, which in the south links with the Amazon and extends to the Atlantic in the east, through a large river delta of more than 40,000 km². They are different from other alluvial formations, due to their geological constitution and general appearance, distinguishing among them the so-called High or Western Plains, well drained and covered with vegetation; the Low or Central Plains, floodable in the rainy season, and the Eastern Plains or Las Mesas, characterized by the tabular relief in the form of plateaus, which descends in the east from the Cumaná Massif to the Orinoco, isolating in the eastern end the plains of the Monagas state.
Hydrography
The country is made up of three hydrographic slopes: that of the Caribbean Sea, that of the Atlantic Ocean and that of Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin.
Most of Venezuela's river waters drain on the Atlantic slope. The largest basin in this area is the extensive Orinoco basin whose surface area, close to one million km², is larger than that of all of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65% in the country. The size of said basin—similar to that of the Danube—makes it the third largest in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of about 33 thousand m³/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the world,[159] and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of renewable natural resources. The Casiquiare River or Arm constitutes a unique case in the world, since it is a natural derivation of the Orinoco that, after about 500 km in length, connects it with the Negro River "Río Negro (Amazonas)"), which is in turn a tributary of the Amazon. The Orinoco directly or indirectly receives rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the Caroní, the Meta, the Arauca, the Apure and many others. Other Venezuelan river courses that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the San Juan "Río San Juan (Venezuela)") and Cuyuní basins. Finally there is that of the Amazon River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro "Río Negro (Amazonas)") and others. Other basins are the Gulf of Paria and the Essequibo River.
The second most important slope is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers in this region tend to have short courses and low and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the Catatumbo, which originates in Colombia and empties into the basin of Lake Maracaibo. Among the rivers that reach the Lake Maracaibo basin are the Chama, the Escalante "Río Escalante (Venezuela)"), the Catatumbo, and the contributions from smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers "Río Manzanares (Venezuela)").
A minimum drains to the Valencia Lake basin. Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, the Arauca, the Caura, the Meta, the Barima, the Portuguesa, the Ventuari and the Zulia, among others.
The main lakes in the country are Lake Maracaibo—the largest in South America—open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other mentionable bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon), the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon, in the Andes. Navigation in Lake Maracaibo through the natural channel is useful for the mobilization of oil resources.
Climate
Being in the intertropical zone, Venezuela has a warm and rainy climate with two seasons: a dry season, which runs from October to March, and a rainy season, from April to September. Due to the orography, the winds and the sea, there are climatic differences. Latitude is of little importance, but altitude drastically changes the climate, especially the temperature, reaching very different values.
According to the Köppen classification, the types of climate are:[160].
• - Tropical or warm rainy (A), the most predominant and characteristic of the country. It maintains temperatures above 18 °C and rainfall for much of the year. The tropical savannah climate (Aw) occurs in the plains, north of Guyana, and in part of the Andes and the coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"), such as San Cristóbal "San Cristóbal (Venezuela)") and Caracas. It is dry between December and March, with rainfall between 600 and 1500 mm annually. In Guyana, the Aroa and Barlovento rivers, the monsoon climate (Am) is typical, with rainfall between 1600 and 2500 mm annually and a drought of just 45 days. To the south of the same region and in the Perijá mountain range the climate is typical of a tropical forest (Af), rainfall exceeds 2500 mm, with no dry season.
• - Dry (B) "Köppen climate classification"), where evaporation exceeds precipitation. It is typical of desert and arid coastal areas, with temperatures much higher than 18 °C. In Falcón, especially in the Médanos de Coro, and the Insular Region, the hot desert mode (BWh) occurs with moderate rains and scarce vegetation. To the west of that state, the central coast, the coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"), Paraguaná, Barquisimeto, Maracaibo and part of the island of Margarita have the warm or semi-arid steppe (BSh).
• - Intertropical temperate high altitude or dry winter (Cw), with temperatures between 14 and 18 °C in the highest elevations of the Coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)") such as Colonia Tovar, and at medium altitudes of the Andes, such as Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)"), Tovar and Mucuchíes.
• - High mountain cold (E), with temperatures between less than 0 and 10 °C. The tundra climate (ET) can be seen in the moors "Páramo (ecosystem)") above 2800, in Apartaderos and Pico El Águila. The frozen high mountain climate (EF) is reserved for the highest peaks of the Venezuelan Andes, such as the Bonpland, La Concha, Humboldt and Bolívar peaks.
Fauna and flora
Venezuela presents a diversity of species in its natural habitat. Its main centers of endemism are the Andes and Coast mountain ranges "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"), the Perijá mountain range and the Guayana massif within the Orinoco River basin.
It has more than 30,000 species of angiosperms—positioning the country in eighth place in the world—of which more than 8,000 are endemic (40% of the total). It also occupies fifth place in the world in bird species, with approximately 1,420 species (15% of the world total and 45% of South American bird species) with 49 of them being endemic.[161] There are 390 species of mammals, and 400 species of amphibians, ranking ninth in the world in this group.[162] It is estimated that 12% of the 1,300 species of fish freshwater species are endemic. Among tropical countries, it ranks fourth in plant species, fifth in mammals and birds, sixth in primates, amphibians and reptiles, and ninth in butterflies.[163].
The vertebrate fauna in Venezuela covers approximately 2,120 terrestrial species and 1,000 aquatic species. Venezuelan mammals include 306 terrestrial and 21 aquatic species, of which 14 are endemic. The birdlife is represented in 1300 species; 46 of them are endemic and 120 are migratory. There are 254 species of reptiles distributed in 3 orders, 22 families and 105 genera in the country, while continental fish have around 1000 species.[165] Due to this wide diversity of natural species, the country is part of the group of megadiverse countries, which brings together 18 countries as it has the greatest concentration and diversity of species in the world.[166].
The flora of the rainforests of Venezuelan Guayana, on the other hand, consist of trees up to 40 meters high, such as ceiba, yagrumo, guamo, caobo, vines, species of bromeliads and other epiphytes. The fauna of these regions is represented by jaguars, pumas, chigüires, anteaters, báquiros, otters and cachicamos. Its birdlife is made up of toucans, parrots and macaws. There are also rattlesnakes and cuaima-piña, as well as iguanas, morrocoyas and dolphins.
In the cloud forests of the Andes and Coast mountain ranges and in several mountain ranges, the presence of sweet cedar, jarillo or apamate stands out, in addition to various species of palms and orchids such as Cattleya mossiae, the national flower. Among the fauna inhabiting such regions, the tapir or tapir, the limpet, the kinkajú, the puma and others are recorded. Birds such as the guacharaca and hummingbirds are observed, many snakes such as the famous anaconda, themapanare and the coral snake, and many species of frogs and arachnids.
The Andean regions of Trujillo "Trujillo (state)"), Mérida "Mérida State (Venezuela)") and Táchira, in which the temperature is very low, include cardón, cují, bucare and frailejón among their plant species. Precisely due to the low temperature, fauna is usually scarce, however the presence of rabbits, deer, foxes, porcupines and shrews is observed, as well as the Andean condor, the black eagle, the golden eagle and the paraulata.
Biodiversity
Phytogeographically, Venezuela has a wide variety of biomes such as savannahs, jungles, forests, paramos, deserts, mangroves, tepuis, among others. With a community of plants and animals of various types due largely to the climatic differences that occur in its territory. The country has very different areas both for its climate and the presence of the fauna characteristic of the areas. These biomes are usually easily classified by their appearance or feature because the vegetation contributes to their observation and classification.
These characteristics make the country recognized as a megadiverse country, occupying seventh place among the countries with the greatest biodiversity in the world.[169][170] The country occupies the fifth position in the world in number of bird species, the seventh position in the world in species of vascular plants,[171] the ninth position in the world in amphibians, the fourth position with the most species of freshwater fish, and is also among the countries with the most species of butterflies.[172] Currently Venezuela has two biosphere reserves, among which are the Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare bioreserve - which occupies a large part of the surface of the Duida-Marahuaca national park - and the Orinoco Delta.
Economy
En 2020, el país fue el 76.º mayor exportador del mundo (US$16,4 millones en bienes, 0,1 % del total mundial).[174][175] En 2016, el país fue el 63.º mayor importador del mundo: US$33,6 mil millones.[176] Venezuela posee una economía de mercado cuya base principal es la extracción y refinamiento de petróleo para la exportación y consumo interno. Es la octava economía de América Latina, después de Brasil, México, Argentina, Colombia, Perú, Ecuador y Guatemala según su PIB (nominal)[177]y la séptima también, por su PIB (PPA).[178].
Las principales exportaciones del país van hacia China ($843 M), Turquía ($452 M), Estados Unidos ($308 M), Países Bajos ($171 M), y Brasil ($168 M), mientras que sus principales importaciones provienen desde China ($2.19 MM), Estados Unidos ($1.55 MM), Brasil ($1.09 B), Colombia ($331 M), y la India ($312 M).[173].
A lo largo del siglo se posicionó como la economía más próspera de la región precisamente debido al boom petrolero comenzado a mediados de la época, mientras que su moneda era una de las de mayor apreciación frente al dólar, pero la caída en la cotización de este recurso en la década de 1980 originó una fuerte recesión y problemas financieros. La economía presentó una importante recuperación en 2004, registrando un crecimiento del 17%, uno de los más altos del mundo según el Fondo Monetario Internacional. Al cierre del 2008, este fue de un 4% del producto interno bruto.[179] El riesgo país se ubicó en 961 puntos básicos en septiembre de 2012, según datos oficiales.[180] La tasa de desocupación para 2011 fue de 8,2%.[181] No obstante, su tasa de inflación para ese mismo año fue de 30,9%, la más alta de América Latina.[182] A principios de 2014, la economía volvió a caer en recesión con 3 semestres consecutivos de datos negativos y con un retroceso al final del año 2014 del 3,9%.[183][184] En el año 2015 la inflación cerró en 180,9%[185] y el PIB se redujo 5,7% con respecto al año anterior.[186]En 2016, de acuerdo con resultados preliminares del Banco Central de Venezuela reportados por Reuters, el PIB cayó 18,6% y la inflación alcanzó un 799,9%, la más alta del mundo.[187][188] Venezuela cuenta también con algunas empresas filiales de Petróleos de Venezuela como Citgo.
International rankings
Venezuela's position in international classification systems in different categories. The data used corresponds to the year of publication indicated, not necessarily the same year.
Agriculture, fishing and forestry
Venezuela produced in 2019: 4.3 million tons of sugar cane; 1.9 million tons of corn; 1.4 million tons of bananas; 760 thousand tons of rice; 485 thousand tons of pineapple; 477 thousand tons of potatoes; 435 thousand tons of palm oil; 421 thousand tons of cassava; 382 thousand tons of orange "Orange (fruit)"); 225 thousand tons of watermelon; 199 thousand tons of papaya; 194 thousand tons of melon; 182 thousand tons of tomatoes; 155 thousand tons of mandarin; 153 thousand tons of coconut; 135 thousand tons of avocado; 102 thousand tons of mango "Mango (fruit)")—including mangosteen and guava—; 56 thousand tons of coffee; in addition to small productions of other agricultural products. Due to internal economic and political problems, sugar cane production fell from 7.3 million tons in 2012 to 3.6 million in 2016. Corn production fell from 2.3 million tons in 2014 to 1.2 million in 2017. Rice fell from 1.15 million tons in 2014 to 498 thousand tons in 2016.[197].
In livestock, Venezuela produced, in 2019: 470 thousand tons of beef, 454 thousand tons of chicken meat, 129 thousand tons of pork, 1.7 billion liters of cow's milk, among others. Chicken meat production decreased progressively, from year to year, from 1.1 million tons in 2011 to 448 thousand tons in 2017. Pork production fell from 219 thousand tons in 2011 to 124 thousand tons in 2018. Cow's milk production fell from 2.4 billion liters in 2011 to 1.7 billion liters in 2019.[199].
The Land and Agrarian Development Law of 1960 allowed the expansion and diversification of agricultural production, which was also stimulated by the increase in irrigable surface area, the emergence of new companies and the introduction of new plant species. These events helped agriculture to benefit, increasing the spaces for cultivation in the plains, Andean and Zulia regions. In the country there are about 310,972 hectares of irrigable surface, with a net area of 197,258 hectares.[200].
In 2003, agricultural activities employed 11% of the country's active population—4% less than in 1990—and contributed 5% of the annual GDP. Venezuelan agricultural resources range from subsistence and semi-commercial agriculture, developed in traditional conucos and small farms where products for domestic consumption are grown, to plantations of various types. In recent decades, mechanized and modern annual crop systems have multiplied, such as those specialized in corn, rice, sorghum, sesame, peanuts, sunflower and cotton.
The leading crops in terms of production and trade are sugar cane, corn, rice, banana, potato, and cassava. Traditional tropical crops are coffee, sugar cane, cocoa and tobacco.[203] An important cereal crop of corn, rice and sorghum has been established in the central-western plains region. The cultivation of corn represented 58.13% of cereal production in 2005, reaching two million tons, while that of rice exceeded 900,000 tons.[204] In the production of oilseeds, oil palm — 44.41% of the total for that year —, coconuts, cotton, sisal, soybeans, sunflower and sesame are of great importance. The group of legumes experienced an upturn in recent years, and its production includes beans—62.97%—and beans. For its part, the production of roots and tubers began to experience a rebound in 1998, led by potatoes—50.83% of the area—and cassava, which has stagnated. In the group of fruits, bananas or bananas, plantains, oranges "Orange (fruit)"), pineapples and melons stand out.[204].
Livestock farming is concentrated in the plains region, Zulia, Guayana, the Andes, Bajo Motatán "Municipio Motatán (Trujillo)") and the northwest. Advances can be seen in the mobilization of livestock resources with improvements in the yields of various types of livestock. In 2005, the livestock herd in Venezuela had 16,300,000 heads of cattle, 3,100,000 of pigs, 530,000 of sheep and 110,000,000 of poultry. In the Llanos there is more activity, having established a prosperous area of intensive meat and milk production there. The main breeds of cattle are Brahman "Brahman (cattle)"), Santa Gertrudis "Santa Gertrudis (cattle breed)") and Carora, while those of pig cattle are Yorkshire and Landrace, among others.[205] In recent times, Venezuela has imported cattle from Argentina and Uruguay.
Venezuela's fishing resources are made up of a variety of marine species. The most important commercial catches are tuna, sardines, kingfish, dogfish, mullet, shrimp, shrimp, trout, snappers, groupers, crabs and others. Mariculture of shrimp and mussels has been introduced on the coast, trout farming in fish farms in Mérida "Estado Mérida (Venezuela)") and Táchira, and river aquaculture in the Llanos, Zulia and Guayana. In 2007, fishing production stood at 311,125 tons,[206] highlighting the productions of Sucre, Nueva Esparta and Falcón.
For its part, the timber industry has not had the same magnitude, despite the fact that Venezuela is covered in extensive forests and jungles. This due to the inaccessibility of the areas. Despite this, massive plantations of Caribbean pine have been carried out for commercial purposes, south of Monagas and Anzoátegui, along the banks of the Orinoco. According to statistics, in 2005 5,082,092 m³ of wood were obtained.
Oil and mining
In non-renewable energy, in 2020, the country was the 26th largest oil producer in the world, extracting 527 thousand barrels / day. 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investments. and by the country's politics.[208] In 2019, the country consumed 356 thousand barrels/day (39th largest consumer in the world).[209][210] The country was the thirteenth largest oil exporter in the world in 2018 (1.2 million barrels/day), when production had not yet plummeted to 527 thousand barrels/day in 2020.[207] In 2015, Venezuela was the 28th largest producer of natural gas, 26 billion m³ per year.
In 2017, the country was the 28th largest consumer of gas (37.6 billion m³ per year) and was the 45th largest gas importer in the world in 2010: 2.1 billion m³ per year.[211] In coal production, the country was the 41st largest in the world in 2018: 0.3 million tons (in 2014, production was 1.2 million tons and has been falling since then).[212] In renewable energy, in 2020, Venezuela produced no wind energy or solar energy.[213] In 2014 it was the ninth largest producer of hydroelectric energy in the world with an installed capacity of 15 GW.[214][215][216].
In Venezuela, oil, the main source of income,[217] generates around 80% from exports. The country is a founding member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and one of the main producing countries on the planet. The deposits of this resource in all its types are abundant in a large part of the territory, having the first world reserve. In 2019, oil production in Venezuela was 750,000 b/d and in 2020 its monthly average was 450,000 b/d,[218][219][220][221] with most of it exported to the United States, Europe and Latin American countries. Until before 2014, currently its main consumer is China and, on a smaller scale, Cuba and Iran. By 2019, oil production decreased too much and in 2021 Venezuela became an importer of gasoline and diesel.[222].
Extraction is carried out mainly in the Lake Maracaibo basin and in the Barinas-Apure and Oriental basins. The leading company in oil processing is PDVSA, which has subsidiaries that operate in six refineries in the country of varying sizes, as well as others in Curacao, the United States, Germany, Sweden and Belgium. The country is also one of the world's main producers of natural gas: in 2005, m³ of production were calculated,[221] along with liquefied gas, butane and propane. Venezuela also has the Orinoco Belt, which is considered the largest accumulation of heavy and extra-heavy crude oil that exists in the world. The original oil reserves at the Belt site, according to PDVSA, so far reach 1.36 billion barrels.[223].
Other mineral resources are also exploited for commercial purposes such as iron, bauxite, coal, gold, salt "Salt (seasoning)"), phosphates and limestone. The iron deposits in the Imataca mountain range, discovered in the 1940s, were extracted by American companies until the nationalization of 1975 passed this function on to the state-owned Ferrominera del Orinoco, a subsidiary of the Venezuelan Corporation of Guayana. The main Guayanese deposits are Cerro Bolívar, Cerro San Isidro and Cerro Los Barrancos, of which most are exported to Europe, Asia and the United States.
Industry
The World Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on total value of production. According to the 2019 list, Venezuela had the 31st most valuable industry in the world (US$58.2 billion). Broadly speaking, based on the oil industry.[227]In 2018, Venezuela was the 51st largest producer of vehicles in the world (1.7 thousand), suffering drops since 2010, when it produced 153 thousand vehicles/year. In steel production, the country is not among the 40 largest producers in the world.[228][229][230].
Venezuela was highly industrialized until before 2013, since 51.6% (2003) of its gross domestic product (GDP) comes from industry. Special priority has been given to the manufacturing industry since mid-century. The main products of Venezuelan industries are petroleum derivatives, steel, aluminum, fertilizers, cement, tires and motor vehicles. It is also responsible for the processing of food, beverages, textiles, clothing, footwear, plastic and wood articles. INE data for 2004 placed the active population in industry at 322,907 people.[231] Industrial zones are concentrated in the cities of the Capital and Central region. At the end of the century, the location of industries was consolidated in other regions such as the Western Center, Zuliana and Guayana. In 2007, 4.3 billion tons of steel were produced per year, that year the loss of steel production began, by 2018 only 50 thousand tons were produced per year.[232][233] The aluminum industry ended in 2019 with the energy crisis when they turned off their last electrolytic cells.[234][235] the fertilizer, plastic footwear and clothing industry have been diminished by the economic crisis that the country is going through.
Tourism
Tourism in Venezuela is a poorly developed industry, despite the fact that the country is favored by the wide range of natural environments in its territory. All the natural regions of Venezuela have a large number of tourist attractions and the low cost of transportation, given the low price of gasoline in Venezuela, favors the mobility of tourists.
The country receives fewer foreign visitors than most countries of the same size and even nearby regions such as Aruba. For 2008, Venezuela had some 301,579 visitors from Europe, followed by South America (227,105), North America (130,257), the Caribbean "Caribbean (zone)") (39,480), Asia (15,912), Central America (11,377) and the Middle East (10,100).[236] The industry experienced a significant decline due to instability. politics during the Bolivarian Revolution. According to data from the Ministry of Popular Power for Tourism (MPPT), in 2003 435,421 tourists were received, 47% less than in 1998. However, this rate showed an uptick in 2008, with 856,810 foreign tourists visiting the country.[237].
Regarding domestic tourism, MPPT data express that Venezuelans prefer to travel to various destinations in the national geography during the Easter holiday and the Carnival festivities —13.1 and 12.6 million tourists respectively for 2007—[239] as well as during the Christmas and New Year holidays. The main reason for traveling within the country throughout the year, according to statistics, is to visit family or friends, followed by the desire for recreation typical of the holiday seasons, and professional and business reasons as the third motive.[240].
Given the development of its tourism industry, Margarita Island is the destination par excellence for recreation, being valued for its beaches, its climate and its culture. The Los Roques archipelago and the Morrocoy national park also stand out. The Médanos de Coro and the Cueva del Guácharo also arouse interest due to their peculiarity.
The Andean region, also attractive for its temperate climate and landscapes, has the Pico Bolívar and the Mérida Cable Car, as well as the Sierra Nevada. Urban destinations are profitable, especially in the historic center of each city, with Caracas being the most visited city—about 231,000 international tourists in 2008.[241].
Venezuela is a particularly interesting country for the development of ecotourism or adventure tourism, and its main destinations are the Canaima National Park, the Los Llanos Region (which has areas of exuberant biodiversity), the state of Amazonas, and the uninhabited La Tortuga Island, among others. These ecotourism destinations are recommended for visitors in search of risk, adventure and experiences different from conventional tourism. The Amazon Rainforest has indigenous tribes of great interest while within the Canaima national park, in the south of Venezuela, in the Bolívar State "Bolívar (Venezuela)"), there are views that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. This park has two very different sectors. To the east, the eastern sector, where the Gran Sabana is located and to the west, the western sector, where Angel Falls and the Canaima lagoon are located. The Canaima National Park extends over 30,000 km² to the border with Guyana and Brazil, due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park in the world. About 65% of the park is occupied by rock plateaus called tepuis. These constitute a unique biological environment, also presenting great geological interest. Its steep cliffs and waterfalls (including Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world, at 1002 m) form spectacular landscapes.
Energy
In non-renewable energy, in 2020, the country was the 26th largest oil producer in the world, extracting 527 thousand barrels / day. 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investments. and by the country's politics.[208] In 2019, the country consumed 356 thousand barrels/day (39th largest consumer in the world).[209][210] The country was the thirteenth largest oil exporter in the world in 2018 (1.2 million barrels/day), when production had not yet plummeted to 527 thousand barrels/day in 2020.[207] In 2015, Venezuela was the 28th largest producer of natural gas, 26 billion m³ per year. In 2017, the country was the 28th largest consumer of gas (37.6 billion m³ per year) and was the 45th largest gas importer in the world in 2010: 2.1 billion m³ per year.[211].
In coal production, the country was the 41st largest in the world in 2018: 0.3 million tons (in 2014, production was 1.2 million tons and has been falling since then).[212] In renewable energy, in 2020, Venezuela produced no wind power or solar power.[213] In 2014 it was the ninth largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world with an installed capacity of 15 GW.[214][215][216].
Around 68.13% of electrical energy is produced in hydroelectric facilities. The state company Corporación Venezolana de Guayana/Electrificación del Caroní (CVG EDELCA) developed the Raúl Leoni hydroelectric plant and the Macagua plant in Bolívar "Bolívar (Venezuela)". They have contributed more than 70% of Venezuelan electricity production in recent years. The state-owned Electrical Administration and Development Company (CADAFE, f. 1958) has been carrying out the construction of the Uribante Caparo Complex since the 1970s, having only built the San Agatón power plant or first development to date. According to data, 99.2 million kWh of electricity were generated in 2005.[242].
According to INE data for that year, Venezuelan electricity production was capable of supplying consumption equivalent to 757,000 barrels of oil per day,[243] which has made it possible to comply with the policy of replacing thermoelectricity with hydroelectricity followed by Venezuela, which will save liquid fuels that can be used for export or conservation. The energy generated by the Simón Bolívar plant supplies most of the national territory, including part of Caracas. Of the total produced, a part is acquired by Brazil to supply a portion of the North of its territory.
Minimum wage
The minimum wage is established directly by the national government with its publication in the Official Gazette. From December 2015 to April 2025, the minimum wage has been deteriorating due to the high inflation in Venezuela and the fall in international reserves. By November 2017, the minimum wage fell on average to less than $25 per month. During that period, the government has raised the wage between four and six times a year to try to level out its devaluation. For March 1, 2018, the minimum wage was 392,646.46 Bs.F "Bolívar (currency)"), which together with the food bonus (915,000 Bs.F "Bolívar (currency)"), totals 1,307,546.46 Bs.F "Bolívar (currency)"), equivalent to 6.12 USD at the market exchange rate black[244] or 32.54 USD according to the official DICOM exchange rate of the Central Bank of Venezuela (BCV). The minimum wage has remained below $4 per month since March 2020, although the bonus has been increased as compensation for the salary, but at the time of pensioning or retiring it is based on the minimum wage.[245].
In August 2018, the Venezuelan monetary cone lost five zeros in its accounting, with a new currency the Sovereign bolivar (Bs.S), the new minimum wage was adjusted to 1,800 sovereign bolivars. Retirees lost part of their acquired benefits due to high inflation. For that month, the minimum wage was 18 dollars and the government disappeared the official dollar system controlled by a Controlled Floating exchange system.[246][247][248] In January 2020, the minimum wage rose to 250 thousand sovereign bolivars, which is equivalent to about 3.5 dollars or a few Colombians per month.[249] Food bonuses do not enter into the accounting at the time of settlement of the termination of employment or termination of employment. ask for retirement.
Historically, the official exchange rate assigned by the BCV by which the equivalent of bolivars in dollars is calculated, had a fixed value from February 5, 2003 (1 USD = 1,600 Bs.) that lasted until February 2005, it was again regulated from March 2005 to January 2010 (1 USD = 2.15 Bs.F or 2,150 Bs.)[250] product of an exchange control regulated by CADIVI. On January 11, 2010, the national exchange system was devalued again, placing the dollar at 2.60 Bs.F and creating the oil dollar at 4.30 Bs.F. This dual scheme was eliminated as of January 1, 2011, devaluing both rates to a value of 4.30 Bs.F per dollar.[251].
From June 2010 to mid-2012, there was a third exchange rate called SITME, regulated by the BCV in order to contain the parallel exchange rate in which the price of the dollar fluctuated around twice the official rate.[252] This scheme did not have a fixed value for the dollar and worked through the purchase and sale of securities in foreign currency. This fixed value system was eliminated on January 30, 2018[253] Venezuela has the highest inflation in the world: it closed at 799.9% in 2016,[187][188] considered hyperinflation since November 2017; The accumulated inflation in 2018 reached 1,698,488% by December 2019, according to the National Assembly, which estimated a cumulative inflation of 7,374%.[254][255].
International reserves
International reserves are foreign currency deposits controlled by Central Banks and other monetary authorities. Venezuela's reserves in March 2009 were a total of 29,633 million dollars,[256] rising to 30,434 billion in July,[257]< while by the end of July 2012 they stood at 27,210 million dollars.[258] Until December 2016, reserves have dropped to 10,868 million dollars.[259] In October 2019, reserves fell by 7,978 million dollars.[260] On January 2, 2020, according to a BCV report, reserves stood at 6,633 million dollars, the lowest figure in the last 25 years[261].
In official gold reserves, Venezuela has been losing its gold reserves continuously for the last eight years. By 1957, after the Second World War, it managed to accumulate 640 tons of gold, being the most thriving economy for the time. In 2010, it ranked first in Latin America and 15th in the world, with 372.9 tons,[262] equivalent to 67.7% of its international reserves. Until the end of 2016, gold reserves decreased to 187.5 tons, ranking 25th in the world.[259] By June 2019, gold reserves decreased to 102.4 Tm, ranking 36th in the world.[263].
economic crisis
Along with the economic crisis of 1983 that led to industrial reconversion and the establishment of exchange control,[265] the oil sector became the most important part of the economy, the global economic crisis that began in 2008 and taking into account the Venezuelan oil boom 2008-2011, external debt, uncontrolled public spending, poor administration and the fall in oil production after 2014. They had especially serious consequences in Venezuela.
Initially there was a shortage of basic products, unemployment, a subsequent stagnation and a new decline starting in the last quarter of 2014. The difficult situation of the economy led to a fall in tax revenues, a fall in oil production, an increase in certain financial expenses, the maturity of debts and the commitment to deliver oil to China, which led the government of Nicolás Maduro to drastically devalue the currency. This was accompanied by a social, institutional and political crisis, numerous demonstrations, an increase in poverty and inequality in the country.
The country has been in default since November 2018.[266] The conflicts acquired in 2008 due to the expropriation of some foreign companies that the state lost before the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). They have brought serious consequences for its economy between 2016 and 2019, finding itself in a hyper-inflationary process. The crisis has triggered de facto dollarization. According to Luis Zambrano Sequín, from the Institute of Economic and Social Research, 40% of its deposits are in the US currency, turning the country into a dollarized economy as of September 2018.[267] In addition, approximately 60% of payments in commercial businesses in 2021 were made in dollars.[268].
The Special Economic Zones have recently been established by presidential decree.[269]The SEZs in the decree are Paraguaná (Falcón), Puerto Cabello – Morón (Carabobo), La Guaira (La Guaira), Margarita (Nueva Esparta) and La Tortuga Island (Miranda Island Territory). It is expected that in the coming years with these new economic policies, Venezuela can achieve high levels of economic development and some recovery.
Science and technology
Venezuela has had several scientists who have contributed significantly to natural and medical sciences, as well as to technological advancement. The first vaccine to cure leprosy and leishmaniasis was developed by Jacinto Convit, while Baruj Benacerraf carried out demonstrations on immune responses to antigens and their variation in each person, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1980. In the field of technology, Humberto Fernández Morán contributed to the development of the electron microscope and the diamond scalpel, the latter of his own invention, being the first to introduce the concept of cryoultramicrotomy").
Historically, the first vestige of technology made by Venezuelans is found in the development of the Rincones clamp, which allowed parts to be recovered from oil wells.[270] Technological activities in the country would gain new momentum towards the middle of the century with the creation of new institutes aimed at the promotion and professionalization of scientific and technological activity in the country.[271].
Such institutions, such as the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICIT) and the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research, are the main references in these matters. All are attached to the Ministry of Science and Technology. On the other hand, there is the National Astronomical Observatory of Llano del Hato which, at 3600 m, is one of the highest in the world.[272] In 2012, the Miranda Satellite (VRSS-1) "Satélite Miranda (VRSS-1)") was launched, intended for terrestrial observation and taking high-resolution digital photographs of the national territory.
According to the World Innovation Index, run by the World Intellectual Property Organization, in 2025, Venezuela was ranked 136th in innovation among 139 countries in the world.[273].
Demography
Venezuela se encuentra entre los países más urbanizados de América Latina;[278][279][280] la gran mayoría de los venezolanos vive en las ciudades del norte, especialmente en la capital Caracas, que es a su vez la ciudad más poblada. Alrededor del 93% de la población vive en áreas urbanas en el norte del país; El 73% vive a menos de 100 kilómetros de la costa. Aunque casi la mitad de la superficie terrestre de Venezuela se encuentra al sur del Orinoco, solo el 5 % de los venezolanos vive allí. La ciudad más grande e importante al sur del Orinoco es Ciudad Guayana, que es la sexta aglomeración urbana más poblada.
La población de Venezuela en el año 2011 superaba los 28 millones de habitantes, y se estimaba que la misma se eleve hasta 42 millones para el 2050.[281] No obstante, la crisis social, económica y política que ha vivido el país durante la década del 2010 ha contribuido a un éxodo masivo de la población del país[282][283] ha derivado en una reducción importante de la población venezolana que para 2020 se contrajo nuevamente a los 28.5 millones de ciudadanos.[284].
Pese a tener una alta tasa de natalidad,[285] Venezuela al mismo tiempo presenta la mayor tasa de emigración de toda la región. En 2009, se estimó que más de 1 millón de venezolanos habían emigrado desde que Hugo Chávez llegó al poder.[286] La emigración a gran escala aún continúa y se incrementó durante la presidencia de Nicolás Maduro, estimándose que desde 1999 unos 6,5 millones de venezolanos han abandonado el país.[287].
Main cities
The Venezuelan population tends to concentrate mostly in coastal and mountainous areas, either due to easier access to ports, in the case of the coast; or due to the more temperate climate, in the case of mountainous areas. The most important population center outside the coastal/mountain area is Ciudad Guayana, at the confluence of the Orinoco and Caroní rivers, in the east of the country. The main cities of Venezuela are listed below in terms of importance, extension and number of inhabitants. The population data belongs to the last Population and Housing Census of the National Institute of Statistics for 2011.
Ethnic composition
Venezuela is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in America, with a population made up mainly of a mix of indigenous people, Europeans and Africans.[290] Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory was inhabited by numerous indigenous peoples, including Caribs, Arawaks, Wayuus, Yanomamis, Pemones, Waraos, Yucpas, Piaroas, Guajibos, each with their own languages and cultures.[291][292][293] According to estimates by modern authors, the indigenous population at the time of European contact ranged between 200,000 and 500,000 people. By 1800, Alexander von Humboldt estimated that it had declined to approximately 120,000 inhabitants. This decline was primarily due to epidemics of infectious diseases introduced by Europeans, such as smallpox, which caused a pandemic in the 1580s, as well as violence and exploitative conditions resulting from Spanish colonization. Added to these factors were processes of miscegenation that, over time, transformed the ethnic identity of large sectors of the population.[294].
According to the results of the 2011 National Census, the most selected ethnic self-identification category was “moreno/a”, with 49.9% of the population. 42.2% identified themselves as "white", 2.8% as "black", 0.7% as "Afro-descendant", 2.7% as "indigenous", 1.1% as "other" and 0.6% did not respond.[295] In the first half of the century, it was common in intellectual and political discourse to consider that around 60% of the Venezuelan population belonged to the category of "non-whites", in contrast to a minority identified as "white".[296] Various international sources have offered estimates based on historical and demographic models. For example, the Encyclopædia Britannica (2000) estimated that approximately 63.7% of the population was mixed race, 20.0% local white, 3.3% other white, 10.0% local black, 1.3% Amerindian and 1.7% in other categories.[297].
Most European colonizers came from Spain, especially from regions such as Andalusia, Extremadura, Castile and the Canary Islands. In the 20th century, the country received new migratory flows from Italy, Portugal and other European nations.[298][299][300] During that same period, communities from Lebanon, Syria, China and of Jewish origin also arrived.[301][302][303].
The African presence in Venezuela originated in the transatlantic slave trade, which brought people mainly from West Africa and Central Africa to work on plantations and agricultural work. These populations were settled in regions such as Barlovento and the central coast, areas that historically concentrated the country's Afro-descendant population.[304][305][306].
The 1999 Constitution officially recognizes Venezuela as a multiethnic and pluricultural society, granting specific rights to indigenous peoples, who maintain their own languages, customs and identities.[307].
A study by the University of Brasilia on the average ancestral composition of South American populations reports that the average DNA of the Venezuelan population is made up of approximately 60.6% ± 4.0% of European ancestry, 23.0% ± 1.5% of indigenous (Amerindian) ancestry and 16.3% ± 3.1% of African ancestry.[308].
indigenous
They are a minority group that in 2011 represented 2.7% of the country's total population, with a total of 1,511,329 ethnic people according to the 2011 census of Venezuela, of which small groups located in the most isolated and remote regions of the country maintain their culture intact.[309] The indigenous people in contact with the white and mestizo city man have a certain assimilation, putting their culture in danger of disappearing due to the influences from neighboring countries. The indigenous influence is limited to the vocabulary of some words - such as place names - and gastronomy.[310].
Among those who recognized themselves as Amerindians, 58% said they were from the Wayúu ethnic group, 7% Warao, 5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu, 3% Cumanagoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima, 1% Yanomami and other peoples. 9%.[311][312][313].
Emigration
Venezuelan emigration constitutes the largest recent migration crisis in Latin America, with more than 7.7 million people displaced by 2024, of which 6.5 million reside in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Colombia is the main receiving country, with approximately 2.8 million Venezuelans;[314] followed by Peru, which is home to nearly 1.6 million, representing more than 4% of its total population.[315] Chile hosts around 32.8% of the Venezuelan diaspora in the country—about 532,700 people—[316][317] while Ecuador, Brazil, the United States The United States and other countries have also received important migratory flows.[318][319][320].
This mass exodus has transformed the demographic composition of Venezuela, significantly reducing the population of reproductive and working age, and increasing the proportion of people over 60 years of age.[321] The main causes of emigration are the economic crisis, political instability, shortages of food and medicine, and violence, affecting various sociodemographic profiles, from young professionals to complete families.[320][322] Migration also involves changes in the family structure, with frequent separations. between members who remain in Venezuela and those who emigrate, which affects household dynamics.[323] Recent studies have used innovative methods, such as social network analysis and surveys, to monitor and better understand this phenomenon, highlighting the importance of contingent hope and transnational support networks for migrants.[314][324] Furthermore, the mental health of migrants varies depending on their reasons for departure and the country of destination, constituting a crucial aspect for the design of support policies. effective.[320][325].
Foreign communities
Venezuela is home to an important colony of Italians, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabs and Chinese "China (region)"), in addition to a large number of people from Colombia and also from the Southern Cone and the Caribbean "Caribbean (region)"). With the beginning of oil exploitation in 1914, companies and citizens, largely from the United States, were established. Later, during the postwar period, Venezuela received the third largest wave of European immigration in America.[n 16] Immigrants coming mainly from Italy and Spain, and new immigrants from Portugal, the Middle East, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland,[326] the Netherlands, China, Hungary, Turkey, Ukraine,[327] Poland,[328] Armenia, and Russia, among others, encouraged at the same time by the immigration and colonization program implemented by the Government.[329] This process created large communities among which the Italian-Venezuelans, the Hispanic-Venezuelans and the Portuguese-Venezuelans stand out. According to official data from Spain, Venezuela is the third country in the world to have the largest community of Spaniards.[n 17] It occupies the same position in the case of the Italian community, but only at the Latin American level.[n 18][330] The Lusitanian community is the second after Brazil.
During the 1970s, Venezuela received immigration from various Latin American countries, primarily Colombia, Peru and Ecuador. Added to this was immigration from the Southern Cone of people fleeing dictatorships and who saw in Venezuela a way out of their difficult situation. These continuous waves of migration increased the country's complex racial mosaic. The Venezuelan population born in other countries represented 4.4% of the national total. The greatest immigration comes from Colombia, Spain, Portugal and Italy, among other countries such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Tobago, with Venezuela being the second country in Latin America to have the most immigration from both Europe and America itself, behind Argentina.[331].
Education
Education has been free and compulsory since June 27, 1870, by decree of President Antonio Guzmán Blanco, while on August 3, 1910, during the government of Juan Vicente Gómez, the Public Instruction code of June 25 was published in the Official Gazette No. 11,068, 11,069 and 11,070, which establishes that education in Venezuela is divided into public, subsidized and private.[336].
In Venezuela, education is structured at the preschool, basic, diversified and higher levels. It is regulated by the Organic Law of Education"), which makes it mandatory from preschool to the diversified secondary level (from 6 to 15 years), and free in schools managed directly by the State up to the undergraduate level.[337] In this matter, the State has the power to create the relevant services to facilitate and maintain access to all types of education.
According to official data, for the 2005-2006 academic period a total of 1,010,946 children were enrolled in preschool education.[338]Basic education had approximately 4,885,779 enrolled for that same period, while 671,140 students were registered in middle or secondary, diversified and professional education centers.[338]The country also had the number of 25,835 schools and educational units for these three levels.[338].
The evolution of literacy has been growing and especially accelerated during the period 1950-2005. In the 1970s, when Venezuela was experiencing enormous growth due to the sale of oil, the literacy rate increased from 77% to 93% until 1999, being one of the highest literacy rates in the region. 2015.[341][342] In 2005, Venezuela declared itself a territory free of illiteracy,[343][344] after enrolling one and a half million people between 2003 and 2005. This announcement, however, contradicted official statistics and projections on the subject.[345].
Likewise, in the United Nations Human Development Index, Venezuela (0.711) is in 71st place in terms of average years of study worldwide and in 8th place in Latin America. The countries with the best education in Latin America until 2007 were Cuba (0.993), Uruguay (0.955) and Argentina (0.946), although since then Cuba has not been included in the indicators.[346].
Health
The Venezuelan government manages a social security system that covers, among others, work accidents, illnesses and pensions. Life expectancy is 71.5 years for men and 77.8 years for women, according to estimates for 2006.[347].
The majority of deaths and deaths on holidays are caused by accidents induced by alcohol intake, and by non-compliance with safety regulations such as seat belts, among others.
Certain diseases are located mainly in rural areas of Venezuela, due to the lack of sanitation in these areas. In the 1940s, an intense campaign was carried out to fumigate with DDT and eliminate mosquitoes that transmitted malaria, yellow fever and Chagas disease. However, starting in the 1970s, these mosquito-borne diseases increased again.
Since 2007 and 2008, several health indicators showed a significant deterioration. Thus, infant mortality grew from 4,747 deaths in children under 1 year of age in 2007 to deaths in 2016 and maternal mortality in the same period from 198 maternal deaths to 756. While cases of malaria were recorded in 2008, this number rose to in 2016.[348][349][350][351].
Languages
The Constitution of Venezuela recognizes Spanish and the languages of the Venezuelan indigenous peoples as official. Spanish is the mother tongue of the majority of Venezuelans. The variant of Spanish used is Venezuelan Spanish, which in turn is divided into several dialects.
The languages of indigenous Venezuelans are spoken by less than 1% of the total population of Venezuela. Among these languages are Wayuunaiki, Warao, Pemón and others.
Venezuelan Sign Language (LSV) is not constitutionally an official language, however, it is used by the country's deaf culture and constitutionally the deaf and mute have the right to express themselves and communicate under this language. Generally, Venezuelan Sign Language is used in television news programs by interpreters.
Immigrants from other countries use their own languages, in addition to Spanish. Among the most spoken non-native languages are Arabic, Chinese, English, Italian and Portuguese. English is used as a mother tongue by Venezuelans residing in towns near Guyana, such as San Martín de Turumbán.[352] As for dialects, Portuñol is spoken on the border with Brazil, especially in Santa Elena de Uairén. Coloniero German is a German dialect used in Colonia Tovar, in the state of Aragua.
Religion
The National Constitution establishes freedom of worship. Although official figures show that Christians make up more than 80% of the population, this high number is due to the fact that the majority of the population is a believer in God and was raised in a Catholic home, but strictly speaking, not all of them are practitioners or identify with Catholic customs or rites, which; Added to the growing migration towards evangelical and Pentecostal cults, it results in a truly lower percentage of Catholics. In fact, it is a trend that is observed throughout Latin America and is increasing in countries such as Chile, Nicaragua, Honduras and Uruguay.[354] Around 17% belong to evangelical churches, the Anglican Church and other Protestant groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. There are also small communities of Orthodox Christians.
2% of Venezuelans are members of other religions such as Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism. Practitioners of religions with pre-Hispanic roots represent another 2% of the population. Atheists are 2% of Venezuelans, while agnostics are 6%. On the other hand, Santeria has followers among the Afro-descendant population.
Among the popular religious manifestations of Venezuela are the dancing devils of Corpus Christi. This demonstration is carried out in various regions of the country by different groups called brotherhoods or brotherhoods, which celebrate the presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament of the Eucharist in accordance with the doctrine of Catholicism.[353] In total there are 11 brotherhoods that bring together more than five thousand people, the most famous of which is the dancing devils of Yare. These manifestations were recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2012.[355] Likewise, the San Pedro party is another religious festival proclaimed intangible cultural heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.[356].
Venezuela led Christian religious news, beginning on February 25, 2025, when Pope Francis announced that Blessed José Gregorio Hernández the Doctor of the Poor would be canonized along with Mother Carmen Rendiles.[357].
On June 13, 2025, in the first ordinary public Consistory of Pope Leo XIV, it was decreed that José Gregorio Hernández would be canonized on October 19, 2025, along with Mother Carmen Rendiles and five other blesseds from different countries.[358].
Saint José Gregorio Hernández and Saint Carmen Rendiles were canonized on October 19, 2025 by Pope Leo XIV in a massive event in Saint Peter's Square, in Vatican City, Rome, becoming the first Venezuelan saints.[359][360][361].
Criminality
Crime in Venezuela is a problem that affects the entire country, although the exact severity of the problem is not known because NGOs handle unofficial information and they have no way to verify official information about crime in Venezuela.[362] Venezuela was classified as the most unsafe nation in the world according to Gallup polls in 2013 and 2015. In 2013 only 19% of Venezuelans felt safe walking alone at night, with almost a quarter of respondents indicating that they or a member of their family had been robbed in the last year. The situation worsened when just 14% felt safe in 2015, the lowest global percentage recorded since 2005.[363][364][365] The country's intentional homicide rate is also one of the highest in the world.[366][367][368].
According to the United Nations, this type of problem is due to the poor political and economic situation in the country.[363][365]The United States Department of State defines Venezuela as "a country of origin, transit, and destination for men, women, and children subject to sex trafficking and slave labor."[369] As a result of the high levels of crime, Venezuelans have been forced to modify some lifestyle habits.[370].
Infrastructure
Transport
Infrastructure in Venezuela had one of its greatest periods of growth under the autocratic government of General Marcos Pérez Jiménez, and then in the oil booms of the following years. The General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge over Lake Maracaibo, 8.7 kilometers long, was at the time of its construction the longest of its kind in the world.[372] Historically, to talk about infrastructure in the country was to talk about a set of well-articulated systems that received good maintenance. However, with the budget cuts made during the 2013 economic crisis, progressive neglect was forced. This, coupled with a problem of insufficiency in recent years, has given rise to recent programs for its rescue.[373] The country today has important highways to which is added a vast network of roads that cover a high percentage of the national territory, which are used by a large number of bus lines that connect the entire territory, being internationally recognized for their low prices. As a whole, the country is articulated by nine main highways: the Caracas - La Guaira Highway that connects the country's capital with the main air terminal and with the second Venezuelan seaport, the Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho Highway that connects the city of Caracas with eastern Venezuela, the Central Regional Highway that connects the main roads of the country, the José Antonio Páez Highway that crosses the heart of Los Llanos from Barinas "Barinas (city)") to Valencia "Valencia (Venezuela)"), the Barquisimeto Northern Beltway "Northern Beltway Highway (Barquisimeto)"), the Valencia - Puerto Cabello Highway that connects the main industrial center with the country's first seaport, the Central Western Highway that links the city of Barquisimeto with Puerto Cabello, the Barquisimeto-Acarigua Highway that allows transportation between the Central-Western and Los Llanos as well as the Lara-Zulia Highway that connects the capitals of the aforementioned states.
The country has approximately 360 airports, of which 11 are classified as international and two of them are among the most prominent in Latin America: the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Caracas, which transports more than nine million passengers annually, and the Santiago Mariño Caribbean International Airport in Porlamar, which transports just over two and a half million passengers. These, along with La Chinita International Airport in Maracaibo, Arturo Michelena International Airport in Valencia, Oriente General José Antonio Anzoátegui International Airport in Barcelona, Manuel Piar International Airport in Ciudad Guayana and Las Piedras Josefa Camejo International Airport in Punto Fijo, are the main ones in the country.[374].
Due to the low cost of automobile fuel, the country's railways have traditionally been scarce, compared to other countries on the continent. There have been railway projects in different governments and the last one was taken up in 2004 by the Autonomous Institute of State Railways, through the National Railway System "Sistema Ferroviario Nacional (Venezuela)"). The same, which is scheduled to be completed in 20 years,[374] foresees its reach of around 13,600 km on rails. Today the section between Caracas and the Valles del Tuy is in operation, which has the largest railway tunnel in Latin America.
Among the infrastructure expansion projects is the third bridge over the Orinoco River between the towns of Cabruta and Caicara del Orinoco, which constitutes the third structure to be built over the Orinoco River, after the Angostura Bridge and the Orinoquia Bridge, which are the longest suspension bridges in Latin America, as well as the Second Bridge Over Lake Maracaibo that would join the Venezuelan cities of Santa Cruz de Mara and Punta de Palmas located on both sides of the Lake. from Maracaibo.
Venezuela resumed the process of construction and completion of new high-level infrastructure, such as the Caruachi Dam, the railway routes between Caracas - Cúa "Cúa (Venezuela)") and between Puerto Cabello - La Encrucijada "La Encrucijada (Venezuela)"), the opening or expansion of metropolitan railway systems in Maracaibo, Valencia "Valencia Metro (Venezuela)"), Los Teques and in Guarenas and Guatire. Of those existing until now, the Caracas Metro is the oldest and most developed, reaching 54.2 kilometers in length. In addition to this, there has been the installation of rapid transit bus networks such as the Tromerca in Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)"), the Transbarca in Barquisimeto, the TransMaracay in Maracay, the TransBolívar in Ciudad Guayana, and the BusCaracas in Distrito Capital "Distrito Capital (Venezuela)"), as well as an urban cable car system such as the Metrocable "Metrocable (Caracas)"), conceived for the transportation of the inhabitants of the mountainous neighborhoods of Caracas and the Trolcable that allows better communication between the city of Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)") and its suburbs located in the Chama River basin.[376].
Telecommunications
The governmental telecommunications regulator in Venezuela, CONATEL, counted in its statistics for September 2016 a total of 7,677,354 subscribers to local fixed telephony, which is managed throughout the Venezuelan territory by CANTV, founded in 1930 under the concession scheme. This company was progressively nationalized between 1953 and 1973; It was privatized in 1991 and was nationalized again in 2007.
According to the same data presented by the institute, for the same period there were a total of 29,158,082 mobile telephone lines, which translates into approximately 94 out of every 100 people have a cell phone line.[377] The main companies in that sector are Movilnet, Movistar —previously known as Telcel— and Digitel, each with its own network.
CANTV also provides Internet services in dial-up and broadband connection. For the third quarter of 2016, there were around 16,624,862 subscribers to the network and a penetration of 18,547,827 users. In September 2016, Internet use had increased by 2.74% in relation to the previous year.[378] With this figure it is estimated that 62 out of every 100 inhabitants are users of the Internet service.[379] The number of web pages with a Venezuelan domain reached a total of 145 <761 sites in June 2009.[380] Other Internet providers in the country have been companies that offer cable television, such as NetUno, Inter "Inter (Venezuela)") —which also provides a fixed telephone service— and Supercable. In this last field, there were 2,165,787 subscribers, with 32 out of every 100 homes receiving a paid signal.[379].
Media
Para 2012, según la Comisión Nacional de Telecomunicaciones de Venezuela, 70,36% de las estaciones de radio y televisión están en manos privadas, 4,58% son de propiedad estatal y 25,05% son medios comunitarios.[381] Los medios de comunicación pertenecientes al Estado venezolano forman parte del Sistema Bolivariano de Comunicación e Información.
La Constitución de Venezuela ampara la libertad de expresión y la libertad de prensa, estableciendo que la comunicación es libre y plural. El artículo 57 de la constitución determina que.
La ONG Reporteros Sin Fronteras, en su informe anual de 2013, ubicó al país en el puesto 117 de 179 países evaluados respecto al grado de libertad de prensa existente,[383] bajando la evaluación al puesto 139 de 180 países en el informe de 2016,[384] en el informe del año 2025, la calificación ubica al país en el puesto 169 de 180, siendo el único país de Sudamérica catalogado como "situación muy grave" desde el 2022 por el organismo.[385] De igual manera desde el 2015 hasta el presente, este informe de publicación anual, muestra que el país ha sido el de peor calificación en Sudamérica.[386].
Press
The most distributed newspapers are the morning newspapers Últimas Noticias "Últimas Noticias (Venezuela)"), El Nacional "El Nacional (Venezuela)"), El Universal "El Universal (Venezuela)"), Tal Cual "Tal Cual (Venezuela)"), El Mundo, Economía y Negocios "El Mundo (Venezuela)"), the sports newspapers Líder "Líder (newspaper)") and Meridian "Meridian (periodic)"). Correo del Orinoco "Correo del Orinoco (2009)") is a newspaper owned by the Venezuelan State. Outside Caracas there are important local newspapers such as Panorama "Panorama (Venezuela)") (Maracaibo, Zulia state); El Carabobeño (Valencia "Valencia (Venezuela)"), Carabobo state); El Impulso "El Impulso (Venezuela)") and El Informador "El Informador (Venezuela)") (Barquisimeto, Lara state); El Siglo "El Siglo (Venezuela)") (Maracay, Aragua); El Tiempo "El Tiempo (Venezuela)") (Puerto la Cruz, Anzoátegui state); Diario Frontera (Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)"), part of Táchira, and South of Lake Maracaibo); Pico Bolívar (Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)")) and La Nación "La Nación (Venezuela)") (San Cristóbal "San Cristóbal (Venezuela)"), Táchira). There are also newspapers in other languages, aimed at foreign communities in the country, such as Correio de Venezuela (Portuguese) and La Voce d’ Italia "La Voce d’ Italia (Venezuela)") (Italian).
According to the Inter-American Press Association; In Venezuela, more than 405 media outlets have been closed in the last 20 years during the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro Moros,[387] due to the political censorship undertaken by these governments, among which are an innumerable number of newspapers and where the most peculiar case can be cited, that of the newspaper El Nacional "El Nacional (Venezuela)"); one of the oldest and most prestigious in Venezuela and Latin America, which was sued by Diosdado Cabello, one of the main politicians of Chavismo following an article published in the newspaper, which spoke of said politician's links with organized crime, information corroborated by the DEA and the North American government.
However, there was a ruling in favor of Diosdado Cabello resulting in him having to pay a fine of $13,000,000 and as a measure of pressure, the government ordered the expropriation of the El Nacional building which was valued at more than $40,000,000. With this; The newspaper controversially changed ownership and changed its editorial line in favor of the government. [388].
Television
The free-to-air television networks with the greatest coverage of Venezuelan territory are the state-owned Venezolana de Televisión (f. 1964), TVes (Televisora Venezolana Social) (f. 2007), ViVe (f. 2003); and the private companies Venevisión (f. 1961) and Televen (f. 1988).
In 2006, the government of Hugo Chávez, motivated for political reasons, decided not to renew the tender for the RCTV television channel, which had been in operation since August 18, 1953. The reason was that this channel was openly opposed to the Chávez government and because the tender for the use of the radio spectrum had expired, it decided not to renew said tender, thus causing the signal to be turned off on May 27. 2007. It should be noted that it was together with Venevisión; one of the main and oldest television channels in Venezuela. This fact generated a wave of protests at the national level[389] without the government listening to the people.[390].
There are open signal television stations with little reach, but with a presence throughout the country through subscription television, such as the Televisora de la Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana (f. 2014), the news and opinion channel Globovisión (f. 1994), the legislative channel ANTV (f. 2016), Vepaco TV (f. 2015), the sports channel Meridiano Televisión (f. 1996) and the entertainment and entertainment channel. variety Canal I (f. 2007). Ve Plus, Sun Channel and IVC Networks are TV stations that are only seen through subscription television. There are also regional television channels such as Ávila TV (Caracas), TVS Televisora Regional del Centro (Aragua state), Televisora Regional del Táchira (San Cristóbal, Táchira state), Telecaribe "Telecaribe (Venezuela)") and Televisora de Oriente (Anzoátegui state), Televisora Andina de Mérida (Mérida state), PortuTV (Portuguesa state), among others.
Radio
Radio Nacional de Venezuela (RNV) is the main radio station of the Venezuelan State. Other state-owned radio circuits are YVKE Mundial Radio and the PDVSA Radial Circuit. There are private radio networks with national coverage such as Circuito Líder"), Rumbera Network, FM Center, Circuito Unión Radio, Circuito Radio Venezuela, Ven fm"), Circuito Nacional Belfort, Circuito X, among others. By February 2014, the Venezuelan Chamber of the Broadcasting Industry brought together more than 400 private stations.[391] However, from 2003 to 2021 and according to data from the NGO Foro Penal; The Venezuelan state, through CONATEL (National Telecommunications Commission), has closed more than 233 private radio stations;[392] as part of its attempt to censor the media that report on the social, political and economic situation derived from the crisis created by the governments of Hugo Chávez (1998-2012), and Nicolás Maduro (2012-Present). Commonly, the reasons that CONATEL argues for these closures are technical, operational and permit-related; which has been denied by the owners of said radio stations.
Throughout Venezuela there are many short-range community radio stations. They receive financial and technical support from the Ministry of Popular Power for Communication and Information. These stations are members of the National Circuit of Community Stations. The International Channel of Radio Nacional de Venezuela is the international shortwave service of Radio Nacional de Venezuela. "La Radio del Sur") aims to communicatively integrate countries from Latin America, Africa, Asia and even the United States, Canada and Europe.
Culture
La cultura de Venezuela es un crisol que integra fundamentalmente a tres familias distintas: la indígena, la africana y la europea. Las dos primeras a su vez tenían culturas diferenciadas según las tribus. La transculturación y la asimilación, propias de un sincretismo cultural, condicionaron para llegar a la cultura venezolana actual, similar en muchos aspectos al resto de América Latina, aunque el medio natural hace que haya diferencias importantes. La influencia indígena se limita a algunas palabras del léxico y a la gastronomía. La influencia africana del mismo modo, además de instrumentos musicales como el tambor. La influencia española fue más importante y en particular provino de las regiones de Andalucía y Extremadura, lugares de origen la mayoría de colonos en la zona del Caribe durante la época colonial. Como ejemplo de ello se pueden mencionar las edificaciones, parte de la música, la religión católica y el idioma. Una influencia evidente española son las corridas de toros y ciertos rasgos de la gastronomía. Venezuela también se enriqueció por otras corrientes de origen antillano y europeo en el siglo , en especial de procedencia francesa. En etapa más reciente, en las grandes ciudades y las regiones petrolíferas irrumpieron manifestaciones de origen estadounidense y de la nueva inmigración de origen español, italiano y portugués, aumentando el ya complejo mosaico cultural. Así por ejemplo de Estados Unidos llega la influencia del gusto por el béisbol y las construcciones arquitectónicas modernas.
Literature
Venezuelan literature began to develop from the colonial era, with addresses to the new lands and their original inhabitants. Chronicles and various styles of poetry were the main literary manifestations during the century. In this first period, the figure of Andrés Bello, poet, philologist, grammarian and educator of universal renown, stands out. Bello developed works such as Address to Poetry (1823) and Silva to Agriculture in the Torrid Zone (1826), which were precursors of the Americanist theme that would be developed some time later in other areas of the continent. Simón Rodríguez represents another example of renown throughout the continent, with works such as American Societies (1828), Defense of Bolívar (1830), Observations on the terrain of Vincocaya (1830), and Lights and social virtues (1834).
The beginning of the century and Independence saw the birth of a refined political literature, including the autobiography of Francisco de Miranda and the letters of Bolívar, as well as oratory of great rhetorical and stylistic beauty that would permeate the writings of the most diverse heroes of the emancipation process. After Independence, Venezuelan literature began to diversify, but it only began to evolve rapidly in the time of Guzmán Blanco.
During the period between the emancipation of Venezuela from Gran Colombia, the life of the Zulian poet, political philologist and historian Rafael María Baralt stands out, the first Latin American to occupy a number chair in the Royal Spanish Academy and author of the first book of History of Venezuela (1887), in addition to a series of publications that framed contributions to Hispanic literature with the first Diccionario Matrix de la Lengua Castellana (1850) and the Dictionary of Galicisms (1855); of countless odes such as To Christopher Columbus (1849) and his most famous Farewell to the Homeland (1843), and several political essays.
Romanticism, the first important literary genre in Venezuela, developed in the middle of that period, with figures such as Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde and Eduardo Blanco "Eduardo Blanco (writer)" standing out within this movement. At the end of the century modernism "Modernism (literature in Spanish)") took place and at the beginning of the century the appearance of avant-garde occurred. Costumbrismo, with romanticist roots, took deep root in Venezuela through authors such as Nicanor Bolet Peraza, Daniel Mendoza&action=edit&redlink=1 "Daniel Mendoza (writer) (not yet written)") and Fermín Toro.
Starting in 1880, a literary movement and tradition of broader ambition began to take shape in Venezuela.[395] Cecilio Acosta and Arístides Rojas, among others, pointed out the transition towards new intellectual and creative positions. In the field of modernism, Manuel Díaz Rodríguez and Luis Urbaneja Achelpohl, among others, stood out.
The year 1910 is usually taken as the starting point for new aesthetic experiences that react against modernism and attempt to write about common life, so that a new literary expression of a realistic nature emerges, in which old essences of costumbrismo reappear. At this moment in the trajectory of the Venezuelan novel, the names of José Rafael Pocaterra (Memories of a Venezuelan of Decadence), Teresa de la Parra (Ifigenia "Ifigenia (1924 novel)")) and the great figure of Rómulo Gallegos, who founded the school of Latin American Magical Realism, with works such as Doña Bárbara (1929), Cantaclaro are relevant. (1934), and Canaima (1935).
Other recognized Venezuelan authors are Andrés Eloy Blanco, Arturo Uslar Pietri (who introduced the term Magical Realism in literature), Miguel Otero Silva, Mariano Picón Salas, Guillermo Meneses, Adriano González León, Antonia Palacios, José Antonio Ramos Sucre, Salvador Garmendia, Francisco Lazo Martí, Rafael Cadenas, José Ignacio Cabrujas, and Víctor Bravo, among others. As part of the literary work, in Venezuela the Rómulo Gallegos Prize is organized biannually for the most outstanding novel in the Spanish-speaking world, an award considered by many to be the most important literary prize in Latin America.[396].
Music
Venezuelan music is characterized by mixing Spanish and African elements, typical of belonging to a predominantly mestizo people. The most representative genre of the country is llanera music, which uses instruments such as the cuatro, the harp, the maracas, the bandola and the capachos. This rhythm has become consecrated as the music of national identity, to the point that Venezuelans are called llaneros abroad. This genus had its origin in the region today comprised of the states of Apure, Barinas, Guárico, Cojedes and Portuguesa, where it is frequently cultivated.[397].
Another genre of great cultural significance is the bagpipe, originally from Zulia—although it has variants in the east of the country. Nowadays it is a genre that is related to Christmas throughout Venezuela. Among the exponents of the Zuliana bagpipe, the reverential respect for Ricardo Aguirre stands out, who composed what is considered the anthem of the genre, La Gray Zuliana.
The Venezuelan waltz also enjoys recognition, and was developed above all by great guitar masters such as Antonio Lauro and Alirio Díaz. Although it is a derivative of the European waltz, it is nourished by the typical musical characteristics of the country, being performed with the classic instruments of llanera music, including the guitar, the tiple, the piano and the clarinet. It has its roots in the central-western region of the country and in the Andean region, where the violin and mandolin are used.[399].
The musical taste of Venezuelans is very different from that of South American countries. Only with Colombia do they have some tastes in common, such as vallenato on the coast and llanera music, because they are from the border. It is clearly Caribbean: salsa "Salsa (musical genre)") and merengue "Merengue (musical genre)") are music to listen to and not just to dance to, as in other countries. Pop and hip hop are also genres that are very popular among youth.
The most representative dance of the Venezuelan nation is the joropo. It has a fast movement with a ternary rhythm, which includes a colorful tap dance and a slight reference to the European waltz, which is why it represents the most genuine expressive form among the manifestations of colonial music.
Given the influence and proximity of Anglo-American countries, heavy metal, reggae and ska are also produced, as well as other rock and pop genres, which are heard especially among the youth communities of large cities. Likewise, electronic music made in Venezuela has been enjoying greater international recognition.[400].
Among all the exponents of Venezuelan music, the most celebrated is Simón Díaz, whose cult and interpretation of llanera music, coupled with his personality, has earned him the status of being considered the most important Venezuelan folklorist of all time. His tune Caballo Viejo "Old Horse (song)") has been widely covered and translated into several languages around the world.[401] In 2008 Díaz received an Honorary Grammy Award from the Board of Directors of the Latin American Recording Academy.[402].
plastic arts
Venezuelan painting and sculpture have traditionally been influenced by historical themes and the political process experienced by the country during its Independence. Many nineteenth-century paintings and sculptures are often presented as representations of key moments in history, heroic deeds, and allegories of the nation. Those who stood out in this phase were Juan Lovera, Arturo Michelena, Martín Tovar y Tovar, Tito Salas, among others. However, romantic painting had its greatest exponent in Cristóbal Rojas, who largely deviated from these generalized themes.[405]
Among those who have greatly contributed to kinetic art have been Carlos Cruz-Díez,[406] Jesús Soto and Juvenal Ravelo. This particular trend has become very popular in the country, and there are works of this type in various cultural institutions, and even on highways, in the Metro and in airports such as Maiquetía. Abstractionism and symbolism had one of its greatest developers in Armando Reverón, whose work is beginning to be rediscovered and recognized internationally.[407].
Alejandro Otero also stood out in abstractionism and kineticism, while social realism was linked to the work of César Rengifo. Great landscape painters have been Manuel Cabré, Luis Álvarez de Lugo, among others, standing out in the painting of El Ávila hill. Another name is Pedro León Zapata, recognized for being a famous caricaturist. Francisco Narváez, Alejandro Colina, Gertrud Goldschmidt, Lía Bermúdez, among others, stand out in sculpture. Activities and creations in the field of graphic design have also had a special place in the country. Likewise, there are numerous artists who have dedicated themselves to the production of contemporary art, appearing on the national and international scene. Highlights the work of Yucef Merhi, pioneer of digital art,[408] as well as the work of José Antonio Hernández-Díez.
Craft
The history of crafts and artisans cannot be separated from antecedents that date back more than 14,000 years, when the first Amerindian settlers inhabited the current territory of Venezuela. These developed techniques typical of hunter-gatherer societies for carving stones and wood, in order to create objects that favored their interaction with the environment and the use of its resources.[409].
Some time later, when they acquired the knowledge that allowed them to treat other natural resources, such as clay, they managed to capture part of their world and cosmogony on the modeled and cooked earth. The first ceramic vestiges come from the middle Orinoco, from the cultural traditions known as Saladoide and Barrancoide. Weaving and basketry were used in a utilitarian way and in sacred festivals. In the indigenous cemeteries of Quíbor, remains of entire plots that served as support for the corpses have been found. Such baskets were used as urns where parts of the dried skeleton were placed to be deposited in other spaces as secondary burials. Some archaeological ceramic fragments show impressions of basketry that suggest that certain weaves served as supports for large pots "Casserole (container)") or plates, while the pieces were decorated or finished before being burned. Many of the techniques practiced in current crafts had their birth in this historical period.
Architecture
Architectural work in the country can date back to 1000 BC. C., when the first settlers carried out earthworks with a view to agricultural development, also mastering the handling of stone for buildings intended for storage. Later indigenous architecture developed in aquatic and jungle spaces, having its most representative examples in the stilt houses, the shabonos and the churuatas (huts) of collective interest, characterized by a conical tip and a circular structure. The latter are the most proliferated in the country, they have a specificity according to each indigenous ethnic group and have become an icon of Venezuelan culture.
With the establishment of the Colony "Epoca de lacolonia (Venezuela)"), an architecture characterized above all by sobriety and simplicity was achieved. Given the little perception of economic geology that was initially given to the then province, it opted for savings in resources allocated for construction, which determined a marked modesty in the buildings of this phase.[412] The bahareque and adobe houses, with large windows, and built around leafy patios and hallways, proliferated until they became the most common for the time. The popular housing is noticeable without much ostentation, and the religious architecture also remained attached to that spirit, which lasted throughout the century. However, the picturesque and bright colors with which the exterior walls of the homes are decorated are characteristic of the country's colonial architecture, particularly in the warmer cities, such as Coro "Coro (Venezuela)") and Maracaibo.
The century was characterized more by its urban development aimed at modernization. The neo-baroque and Moorish influence were evident in the construction of the National Theater and the New Circus, by notable architects such as Alejandro Chataing. Constructions such as the Teresa Carreño Theater and the Simón Bolívar Center Towers, as well as the El Silencio Redevelopment and the University City of Caracas (made by Carlos Raúl Villanueva), reveal the impulse given to modernist architecture "Modernism (art)") in the country, already in the middle of the century. Also noteworthy are the imposing skyscrapers in the capital built during the oil boom, with the Twin Towers of Parque Central standing out.[413].
Gastronomy
The gastronomy of Venezuela is a varied way of preparing foods and drinks made in that country, constituting the result of the cultural and gastronomic mix from Europe - especially Spain, Italy, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Portugal - and Africa - through the populations of slaves brought by the Spanish - with the gastronomy of the country's indigenous peoples.
Although it has these traits universally, Venezuelan gastronomy is as variable and diverse as the territory itself. In the capital region of the country, greater diversity is noted because it is a point of confluence, since it is the center of the productive areas, and where the greatest Spanish, Italian and other European influence is received. In the eastern region, because it is a Caribbean area, a cuisine based on fish, lobsters and shellfish with pasta or rice predominates, also revealing the influence of European maritime foods. In the Llanos the consumption of beef and hunted animals is well known, as well as its large production of cheese and dairy products. Zulia, the west of the country and Guayana are not far from these same features, differing in the meat of goat, goat and rabbit, cheeses such as palmita") in the first two, and in the presence of corn in that last region, where cheeses such as Guayanés, hand-made, among others, are produced.[415] In the Andes there is a more European orientation, where more vegetables and tubers, wheat, sheep meat, cultured trout and dairy products.[416].
Venezuelan cuisine has other well-known dishes such as the arepa, a type of roasted bun with a circular shape of corn dough that is consumed filled with other foods or used as a side dish, the cahapas, the goat in coconut, the queen pepiada, the carne en vara "Pincho (utensil)"), the black roast, the Creole grill, tripe soup, Andean pisca and bollos pelones among others. Tequeños, in addition to being a cultural heritage,[417] are the most appreciated type of appetizer in the country, and the preparation of empanadas is also very extensive. Of foreign contribution are the fabada (from Spain) and the pasticho (from Italy). Among the most popular drinks are Venezuelan chicha and papelón with lemon. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage,[418] and cream punch is also produced. Venezuelan rums have a great tradition and are among the best in the world.[419].
Cinema and theater
Venezuelan cinema began its production in 1896, just a year after the first production of the Lumière brothers in France. National cinema also took one of its most important steps in 1934 when the headquarters of the national laboratories and Maracay Films were established in the city of Maracay. The miracle of the lake, the first color documentary made in Venezuela and Latin America, is filmed in said laboratory.[420].
Venezuelan cinema, in turn, has been characterized by irregular production, although it lived through a golden era in the 1970s and 1980s with directors such as Mauricio Walerstein, Clemente de la Cerda and Román Chalbaud, the latter author of the film considered by many to be the best exponent of Venezuelan cinema: The Fish That Smokes (1977). Perhaps the most successful filmmaker in the country has been Margot Benacerraf, who won the Palme d'Or for Venezuela at the 1959 Cannes Festival with her work Araya. The most representative directors are Fina Torres, Elia Schneider, Alberto Arvelo, José Ramón Novoa and Diego Rísquez. The governing body is the National Autonomous Center of Cinematography.
The five most viewed films in the history of Venezuelan cinema are Papita, maní, tostón (2013) by Luis Carlos Hueck (with 1,840,281 million viewers), Manslaughter (1984) by César Bolívar (1,335,552), Macu, the policeman's wife (1987) by Solveig Hoogesteijn (1,180 621), Secuestro express "Secuestro Express (film)") (2005) by Jonathan Jakubowicz, and La hora cero (2010) by Diego Velasco").[421].
For its part, Venezuelan theatrical manifestations are poorly documented during the pre-Columbian period, partly due to the Eurocentric vision of the world and the little development of the local indigenous tribes, compared to the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas. However, theater fulfilled an important function in terms of disseminating the identity of the tribe, developing further in the Venezuelan Andes, where it was used for educational and religious purposes. The professionalization of theater would come during the Colony, around the 19th century. It has been said that modern Venezuelan theater has been largely influenced by the pieces of Tennessee Williams for his treatment of the problems of human beings,[422] and was popularized through the so-called Santísima Trinidad of Venezuelan theater: José Ignacio Cabrujas, Isaac Chocrón and Román Chalbaud. Its activity is profuse and seeks to enrich itself with universal works and new performing techniques.[423] There are numerous theater groups such as the National Theater Company), the Rajatabla, the Theja, the Venezuelan Chair of the Stage").
Sport
The origins of the sport in Venezuela can be traced back to colonial times, when cattle were introduced into the country in the second half of the century. This would give rise to coleus, an equestrian sport that consists of knocking down a bull by the tail, arising from agricultural work in the plains.[424] Of the same date, the Creole balls, a game similar to boccia and petanque, are counted. This last modality was introduced by Spanish monks in that same historical period, but its popularity would grow in the 19th century. Both practices have a long tradition in the country. Some martial arts such as the Tocuyano garrote and Karive submission combat are also indigenous.
Baseball is the main sport in the country. The popularity of this sport grew extraordinarily after, in 1941, this South American nation was crowned in the Baseball World Cup.[425] In this area, Venezuela has stood out notably, winning seven Caribbean Series titles, and has been a Baseball World Cup gold medalist on three occasions. The Venezuelan Professional Baseball League, founded in 1945, is the one that organizes the main annual competition in the field, and has eight teams. Furthermore, Venezuela is the second largest exporter of baseball players, surpassed only by the Dominican Republic. In 2008, a total of 729 Venezuelan baseball players had a contract in foreign professional baseball.[426] For the country it is very important to follow the sports career of Venezuelans in the American baseball league. It should be noted that Venezuela appears as one of the world powers in this sport. It also has a women's baseball team that won the bronze medal in the baseball world championship in that category in 2016.[427].
Basketball is considered one of the most popular sports in the country.[428] This sporting discipline is represented by the Venezuelan Basketball Federation (FVB) affiliated with FIBA. Its activity is divided into the Professional League and the National League. In international events, the team participated in the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, being its only Olympic participation, and in the 1990, 2002, 2006 and 2023 World Cups. It has also qualified for several Americas Tournaments (Pre-Olympic), FIBA Americas Championships (Pre-World) and Pan American Games. Several Venezuelans have participated in the NBA, the most recognized being Carl Herrera. The greatest feat of Venezuelan basketball so far has been the gold medal in the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship, and no less important the three titles of the South American Basketball Championship in 1991, 2014 and 2016.
Soccer has seen its popularity increase in recent years, becoming a sport that draws crowds in the country. Organized by the Venezuelan Football Federation (FVF), affiliated with FIFA. The increase in victories and quality of play of the Venezuelan soccer team since 2001 has stimulated development in this discipline, as well as the attraction of fans. Venezuela organized a Copa América for the first time in its 42nd edition in 2007, although its best participation in the tournament was in 2011, obtaining fourth place. The greatest achievements of Venezuelan football have been two titles in the South American Women's Under-17 Championship in 2013 and 2016 and a runner-up in the South American Under-17 Football Championship in 2013. It also reached runner-up in the World Cup. U-20 Soccer from 2017. In its variation of futsal, Venezuela has had an important career, becoming champion in the AMF Futsal World Championship in 1997.[429]
beauty pageants
Venezuela is distinguished for being a "beauty queen factory",[431] since it holds the title of Miss Universe 7 times—an international and annual female beauty contest in which overall beauty is judged—, second only to the United States, which has won it 9 times.[431] In fact, it was the Americans who helped introduce the contest in Venezuela. Miss Venezuela began as a beauty pageant in 1952 sponsored by the Pan Am airline and a company that manufactured swimsuits.[432].
The country has more than 200 modeling academies where girls from the age of 4 are trained in disciplines such as makeup, glamour, public speaking, photo-posing, body expression, as well as other skills, since the modeling industry has become one of the most lucrative and efficient businesses in the country. Hence, reigns are part of popular culture in Venezuela, where nearly 600 beauty contests are held each year.[431] Writer Raúl Gallegos noted in his 2016 book, «Crude Nation: How Oil Riches Ruined Venezuela», "oil wealth has nurtured a culture in which appearance is of paramount importance."[432] In turn, Venezuela has one of the highest rates of cosmetic procedures per capita in the country. the world.[432].
Venezuela's fame for producing crown-winning queens has crossed borders, since there are several candidates from other countries, who hire the services of modeling agencies in this country to train them and thus have greater opportunities to win in the competitions in which they participate.[431] The feminist movement in Venezuela has expressed itself over the years against the cult of the pageant.
In 1972, a group of women inspired by the work of Simone de Beauvoir—categorized as the founder of contemporary feminism—gathered at the Municipal Theater of Caracas, where the Miss Venezuela event was taking place. They held signs condemning the event and attempted to spray paint the participants' dresses before the police arrived.[432]
National symbols
In Venezuela, in addition to recognizing the flag, the anthem "National Anthem (Venezuela)") and the shield, as national symbols, other typical elements of the national flora and fauna have been named as symbols of the nation.[433] Namely:.
• - The araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha) has been the national tree since May 29, 1948.[434] Its name is made up of a word of indigenous origin and the combination of Greek words that mean golden flower, in reference to the color yellow.
• - The orchid (Cattleya mossiae) was declared the national flower on May 23, 1951.[435] The species mossiae was discovered in Venezuela in the 1830s.
• - The turpial (Icterus icterus) has been the national bird since May 23, 1958.[436] It is a bird with a wingspan of about 24 centimeters, which is distinguished by its yellow-orange color throughout the body, except for the head and wings, which are black with white parts, and a blue spot around the eyes.
• - Alma llanera is a joropo released in 1914, whose music was composed by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez based on a text by Rafael Bolívar Coronado.[437] It is considered the second national anthem of Venezuela.
• - The liquiliqui is the national typical costume of Venezuela, declared on March 17, 2017.[438] It is mostly used as male attire for parties and social events, as well as for the joropo dance. It consists of a jacket, pants and espadrilles. In some parts it is being made with trims of different colors and used as a common or dance costume with espadrilles.
Festivities
Venezuela is the fourth country in Latin America in number of holidays.[439] There are also very important festivities at the regional level due to their cultural significance, such as that of the Divina Pastora "Divina Pastora (Barquisimeto)") (January 14) in Lara "Lara (state)"),[n 19] the Virgin of Consolation (August 15) in Táchira, the Virgin of Socorro (November 13) in Carabobo and the Virgin of Chiquinquirá (November 18) in Zulia, which is celebrated with the La Chinita Fair.
• - Portal:Venezuela. Content related to Venezuela.
• - Annex: Tallest sculptures in Venezuela.
• - List of ISO 3166-2 codes for Venezuela.
• - Venezuelan passport.
• - Annex: World Heritage in Venezuela.
• - Annex: Memory of the World Program in Venezuela.
• - Wikisource in Spanish contains original works from Venezuela.
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia gallery about Venezuela.
• - Wikinews has news related to Venezuela.
• - Wikiquote hosts famous phrases from or about Venezuela.
• - Wiktionary has definitions and other information about Venezuela.
• - Wikimedia Atlas: Venezuela.
• - Wikiviajes hosts travel guides from or about Venezuela.
• - Office of the President of the Republic.
• - Government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
• - National Assembly of Venezuela.
• - Simón Bolívar Geographic Institute of Venezuela.
• - Official Site of the Bolivarian National Army.
References
[1] ↑ Reconocido como presidente por 49 países, y por las instituciones del Estado como son; la FANB, el Poder Moral, el CNE, el TSJ y la Asamblea Nacional.
[2] ↑ Anteriormente recibió las denominaciones oficiales de Estado de Venezuela (1830-1856), República de Venezuela (1856-1864), Estados Unidos de Venezuela (1864-1953), y nuevamente República de Venezuela (1953-1999).
[3] ↑ La capitalidad estuvo anteriormente situada en Coro (1527-1545) y El Tocuyo (1545-1577). Caracas fue designada capital oficial en 1577. También fueron designadas provisionalmente como capitales a Maracay (1812), Valencia (1812, 1830 y 1858), y Angostura (hoy Ciudad Bolívar, 1819-1821).
[4] ↑ No se conoce si el General Zamora fue muerto por el bando enemigo o por su propio bando. Una versión afirma que el autor del disparo fue un sargento G. Morón, espaldero de Falcón, quien se había apostado en la torre de una iglesia con su rifle. Información en Historia política de los campesinos latinoamericanos, Vol 3. Pág. 83.: http://books.google.co.ve/books?id=Jb8cQBwLvGgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=es#v=snippet&q=G.%20Mor%C3%B3n&f=false
[5] ↑ Cálculos posteriores estimaron que las bajas, entre civiles y militares, oscilaron entre 150 000 y 200 000. En ambos casos representó casi un 10 % de la población del momento.[cita requerida].
[6] ↑ La Constitución de la República Romana de 1849 fue la primera en la historia de la humanidad en abolir la pena de muerte, pero el Estado desapareció tras la ocupación francesa. Venezuela fue el siguiente país en tomar la misma medida.
[7] ↑ De acuerdo a la Enmienda n.º 1 de la Constitución de la República.
[8] ↑ De acuerdo con la Constitución Nacional de Venezuela de 1999, artículo 11: "El espacio insular de la República comprende el archipiélago de Los Monjes, archipiélago de Las Aves, archipiélago de Los Roques, archipiélago de La Orchila, isla La Tortuga, isla La Blanquilla, archipiélago Los Hermanos, islas de Margarita, Cubagua y Coche, archipiélago de Los Frailes, isla La Sola, archipiélago de Los Testigos, isla de Patos e isla de Aves; y, además, las islas, islotes, cayos y bancos situados o que emerjan dentro del mar territorial, en el que cubre la plataforma continental o dentro de los límites de la zona económica exclusiva.".
[9] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado de 1978 entre los Estados Unidos y Venezuela, efectivo en 1980.
[10] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado de 1978 entre los Países Bajos y Venezuela.
[11] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado sobre delimitación de áreas marinas y submarinas entre la República de Venezuela y la República Dominicana de 1979.
[12] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado venezolano-francés de delimitación de 1980.
[13] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado entre la República de Venezuela y la República de Trinidad y Tobago sobre la delimitación de áreas marinas y submarinas de 1990.
[14] ↑ La cifra se eleva a 1010 km si se toma al río Esequibo como línea fronteriza.
[15] ↑ Según un estudio realizado por el Instituto Geográfico de Venezuela, la Universidad Simón Bolívar y la Universidad del Zulia.
[16] ↑ Después de Argentina y Estados Unidos.
[17] ↑ Después de Francia y Argentina.
[18] ↑ Después de Argentina y Brasil.
[19] ↑ La primera procesión de la Divina Pastora se realizó en 1856.
[20] ↑ a b Asamblea Nacional Constituyente (24 de marzo de 2000). «Constitución de Venezuela». Tribunal Supremo de Justicia. Archivado desde el original el 12 de enero de 2014. Consultado el 10 de enero de 2014. «Artículo 9. El idioma oficial es el castellano. Los idiomas indígenas también son de uso oficial para los pueblos indígenas y deben ser respetados en todo el territorio de la República, por constituir patrimonio cultural de la Nación y de la humanidad.».: https://web.archive.org/web/20140112103019/http://www.tsj.gov.ve/legislacion/constitucion1999.htm
[23] ↑ Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), ed. (2022). «Human Development Insights» (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 26 de marzo de 2024. Consultado el 26 de marzo de 2024.: https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks
[29] ↑ a b Sea Around Us Project (s/f). «EEZ Waters of Venezuela» (en inglés). seaaroundus.org. Consultado el 19 de noviembre de 2012.: http://www.seaaroundus.org/eez/862.aspx
[35] ↑ «La geopolítica petrolera del Gobierno está poniendo las bases para salirse del mercado estadounidense » « los contratos de suministros al sistema Citgo que eran a 10 años son reducidos a una vigencia de 1 año, y 1 año de prórroga»«PDVSA MADURA LA SALIDA DE CITGO». ABC de la Semana. 4 de noviembre de 2010.: http://www.abcdelasemana.com/2010/11/04/pdvsa-madura-la-salida-de-citgo/
[41] ↑ Oficina del Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos, ed. (Junio de 2018). Violaciones de los derechos humanos en la República Bolivariana de Venezuela: una espiral descendente que no parece tener fin (PDF). Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2020.: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/VE/VenezuelaReport2018_SP.pdf
[42] ↑ a b «500 años del nombre de Venezuela». Universidad de Barcelona. Consultado el 13 de enero de 2009.: http://www.ub.es/geocrit/b3w-152.htm
[43] ↑ «Carta de Colón a los Reyes Católicos (La "Tierra de Gracia")» (PDF). Biblioteca Digital desenvolvida em software livre, Governo Federal do Brasil. Consultado el 10 de marzo de 2010.: http://www.dominiopublico.gov.br/download/texto/bk000066.pdf
[49] ↑ Montaño Fuentes, Tereinés (2008). «IVIC colaboró con la identificación de fósiles de Tigres Dientes de Sable» (PDF). IVIC en Casa (68). Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas. Archivado desde el original el 22 de julio de 2011. Consultado el 8 de noviembre de 2008.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110722065546/http://www.ivic.ve/bitacora/Imagenes/file/N%2068.pdf
[56] ↑ Bohórquez Morán, Carmen: Francisco de Miranda, Précurseur des indépendances de l'Amérique latine, p. 258, Editions L'Hamattan, París, 1998.
[57] ↑ Briceño Perozo, Manuel y Pérez Vila, Manuel. (2000). Gran Colombia. En Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. Disponible en [CD-ROM]. Caracas. Videodacta.
[58] ↑ Giménez Landínez, Víctor. (2000). Ley de Libertad de Contratos. En Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. Disponible en [CD-ROM]. Caracas. Videodacta.
[61] ↑ «Academia Nacional de la Historia» (PDF). www.anhvenezuela.org. - [http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Decreto+de+garantias+expedido+por+Falcon+(1863).pdf](http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Decreto+de+garantias+expedido+por+Falcon+(1863).pdf)
[62] ↑ «Academia Nacional de la Historia» (PDF). www.anhvenezuela.org. - [http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Constitucion+Federal++(1864).pdf](http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Constitucion+Federal++(1864).pdf)
[84] ↑ «Venezuela: por qué fracasó el golpe». Caracas, Venezuela: El País. 17 de abril de 2002. Consultado el 21 de junio de 2015. «Se impusieron la derecha y el revanchismo, el sector que redactó un decreto-ley que arrasó con la Constitución Bolivariana y determinó el alejamiento de los militares moderados y del principal sindicato de trabajadores.».: http://elpais.com/diario/2002/04/17/internacional/1018994403_850215.html
[86] ↑ Kaiser, Patricia (2003), «Estrategias discursivas antichavistas de los medios de comunicación», Revista Venezolana de Economía y Ciencias Sociales 9 (3).
[101] ↑ e.V., Transparency International. «Venezuela 2013 - World's largest opinion survey on corruption - Transparency International». www.transparency.org. Consultado el 27 de agosto de 2015.: http://www.transparency.org/gcb2013/country/?country=venezuela
[104] ↑ «Venezuela Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption». www.heritage.org. Consultado el 27 de agosto de 2015.: http://www.heritage.org/index/country/venezuela
[117] ↑ José Ignacio Hernández G. (4 de marzo de 2017). «¿Qué validez tiene la memoria y cuenta presentada por el gobierno ante el TSJ?». Prodavinic.com. Falta la |url= (ayuda); |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[123] ↑ «"Alteración inconstitucional del orden democrático" en Venezuela: la resolución de la OEA tras una turbulenta reunión que Bolivia acusó de "ilegal"». BBC. 4 de abril de 2017. Consultado el 1 de mayo de 2017.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-39487179
[130] ↑ «Crisis en Venezuela: países europeos reconocen a Juan Guaidó como "presidente encargado" y crece la tensión internacional». BBC News Mundo. 4 de febrero de 2019. Consultado el 3 de marzo de 2019.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-47115699
[138] ↑ «Esequibo | "No toleraremos una anexión de nuestro territorio": la respuesta de Guyana a la ley de defensa del Esequibo aprobada por Venezuela». BBC News Mundo. 4 de abril de 2024. Consultado el 6 de junio de 2025.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cy0zlrny41xo
[149] ↑ «A punto de resolverse diferendo limítrofe entre Colombia y Venezuela por áreas marinas y submarinas». Guía.com.ve. 2007. Consultado el 22 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.guia.com.ve/noticias/?id=12136
[169] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado de Delimitación de Fronteras Marítimas entre la República de Venezuela y los Estados Unidos de América». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (2.290 Extraordinario). 1978.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1978/2290.pdf
[170] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado de Delimitación entre Venezuela y el Reino de los Países Bajos». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (2.291 Extraordinario). 1978.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1978/2291.pdf
[171] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado sobre Áreas Marinas y Submarinas entre la República de Venezuela y la República Dominicana». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (2.642 Extraordinario). 1980.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1980/2642.pdf
[172] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado de Delimitación entre el Gobierno de la República de Venezuela y el Gobierno de la República Francesa». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (3.026 Extraordinario). 1982.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1982/3026.pdf
[173] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado entre la República de Venezuela y la República de Trinidad y Tobago sobre la Delimitación de Áreas Marinas y Submarinas». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (34.745). 1991.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1991/34745.pdf
[175] ↑ a b Deiros, Diego; Hernández, José N.; Hoyer, Melvyn; Márques, Víctor; Pérez, Omar J.; Rodríguez, Carlos; Sué, Nicolás; Velandia, José R. (2005). «Alturas del Pico Bolívar y otras cimas andinas venezolanas a partir de observaciones Gps». Interciencia 30 (4): 213-216. ISSN 0378-1844. Archivado desde el original el 24 de septiembre de 2016. Consultado el 3 de septiembre de 2016.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160924203551/http://www.interciencia.org/v30_04/213_perez.pdf
[183] ↑ De Juana, E; Del Hoyo, J; Fernández-Cruz, M; Ferrer, X; Sáez-Royuela, R; Sargatal, J (2012). «Nombres en castellano de las aves del mundo recomendados por la Sociedad Española de Ornitología (Decimosexta parte: Orden Passeriformes, Familias Thraupidae a Icteridae)». Ardeola. Handbook of the Birds of the World (Madrid: SEO/BirdLife) 59 (1): 157-166. ISSN 0570-7358. Consultado el 16 de mayo de 2014.: https://www.ardeola.org/uploads/articles/docs/1545.pdf
[187] ↑ «Primer Informe de País para la Convención sobre Diversidad Biológica». Ministerio del Ambiente. 2000. Consultado el 14 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ve/ve-nr-01-es.pdf
[192] ↑ a b OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity. «Venezuela (VEN) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners». Consultado el 5 de agosto de 2023.: https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ven#Profile
[193] ↑ Trade Map - List of exporters for the selected product in 2018 (All products). - [https://www.trademap.org/(X(1)S(wxymkd45vpinba45qduyc345))/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7C%7C%7C%7C%7CTOTAL%7C%7C%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1](https://www.trademap.org/(X(1)S(wxymkd45vpinba45qduyc345))/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7C%7C%7C%7C%7CTOTAL%7C%7C%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1)
[208] ↑ Reporters Without Borders. «Clasificación Mundial de la Libertad de Prensa 2022». Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2022.: https://rsf.org/es/clasificacion
[211] ↑ Transparency International. «Corruption perceptions index 2021» (en inglés). Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2022.: https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021
[212] ↑ The Heritage Foundation; The Wall Street Journal. «2022 Index of Economic Freedom. Country Rankings» (en inglés). Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2022.: https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking
[215] ↑ Baller, Silja; Di Battista, Atilop; Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno (2016). «Chapter 1.1. The Networked Readiness Index 2016» (PDF). En Baller, Silja; Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno, eds. Insight Report. The Global Information Technology Report 2016. Innovating in the Digital Economy (en inglés). Ginebra: World Economic Forum. ISBN 978-1-944835-03-3. Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2022.: https://www3.weforum.org/docs/GITR2016/WEF_GITR_Full_Report.pdf
[241] ↑ «Por qué Venezuela se quedó sin gasolina y qué consecuencias tiene en medio de la crisis por el coronavirus». BBC News Mundo. 6 de abril de 2020. Consultado el 18 de abril de 2020.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-52145210
[264] ↑ «OVF: brecha salarial continuó ampliándose en 2024». Finanzas Digital. 20 de diciembre de 2024. «En cuanto al salario mínimo, que cubre principalmente a más de cinco millones de pensionados del Instituto Venezolano de los Seguros Sociales, indicó que sigue sin modificaciones en 130 bolívares equivalentes a 2,50 dólares mensuales desde hace dos años y ocho meses.».: https://finanzasdigital.com/remuneracion-trabajadores-caracas-2024-observatorio-venezolano-de-finanzas/
[267] ↑ «Reconversión monetaria arranca el 20 de agosto con supresión de 5 ceros al bolívar» (html). Banco Central de Venezuela. 25 de julio de 2018. Archivado desde el original el 28 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 27 de julio de 2018. «El presidente de la República, anunció este miércoles que la reconversión monetaria entrará en vigencia el próximo 20 de agosto con la supresión de cinco (5) ceros al cono monetario vigente. Asimismo, el Jefe del Estado venezolano dio a conocer que el Bolívar Soberano tendrá una base de cambio e intercambio sustentada en la criptomoneda Petro, anclaje que permitirá configurar un nuevo sistema monetario.».: https://archive.today/20180728013946/http://www.bcv.org.ve/notas-de-prensa/reconversion-monetaria-arranca-el-20-de-agosto-con-supresion-de-5-ceros-al-bolivar
[268] ↑ «Gaceta Oficial Extraordinaria N° 6.502: Se fija el salario mínimo nacional mensual en doscientos cincuenta mil Bolívares (Bs 250 000), a partir del 1° de enero de 2020». Finanzas Digital. 11 de enero de 2020. Consultado el 2 de agosto de 2021.: https://www.finanzasdigital.com/2020/01/gaceta-oficial-6502-salario-minimo/
[274] ↑ «Gaceta Oficial Extraordinaria N° 6.502: Se fija el salario mínimo nacional mensual en doscientos cincuenta mil bolivares (Bs. 250 mil bolívares) a partir del 1ro de enero de 2020». Finanza Digital. 11 de enero de 2020.: https://www.finanzasdigital.com/2020/01/gaceta-oficial-6502-salario-mínimo/
[295] ↑ «Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision». Esa.un.org (en inglés). 6 de diciembre de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 6 de mayo de 2011. Consultado el 20 de abril de 2013.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110506065230/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm
[310] ↑ Paniz-Mondolfi, Alberto E.; Grillet, María E.; Tami, Adriana; Oliveira-Miranda, María A.; Noguera, Lourdes Delgado; Hotez, Peter; Oletta, José Felix (23 de agosto de 2019). «Venezuela's upheaval threatens Yanomami». Science 365 (6455): 766-767. doi:10.1126/science.aay6003. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aay6003
[311] ↑ Neel, James V.; Weiss, Kenneth M. (1975). «The genetic structure of a tribal population, the Yanomama Indians. XII. Biodemographic studies». American Journal of Physical Anthropology (en inglés) 42 (1): 25-51. ISSN 1096-8644. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330420105. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330420105
[312] ↑ Briceño-León, Roberto; Perdomo, Gloria (19 de agosto de 2019). «Violence against indigenous children and adolescents in Venezuela». Cadernos de Saúde Pública (en inglés) 35: e00084718. ISSN 0102-311X. doi:10.1590/0102-311X00084718. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://www.scielosp.org/article/csp/2019.v35suppl3/e00084718/en/
[313] ↑ Bacci, Massimo Livi (13 de septiembre de 2017). «Venezuela's melting pot: 1500-1800». Revista Brasileira de Estudos de População (en inglés) 34 (2): 199-221. ISSN 1980-5519. doi:10.20947/S0102-3098a0023. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://www.rebep.org.br/revista/article/view/1086
[314] ↑ Angosto-Ferrández, Luis F. (2 de septiembre de 2014). «From ‘café con leche’ to ‘o café, o leche’: National Identity, Mestizaje and Census Politics in Contemporary Venezuela». Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research 20 (3): 373-398. ISSN 1326-0219. doi:10.1080/13260219.2014.995876. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/13260219.2014.995876
[315] ↑ Alvarez, Alana (2 de enero de 2024). «Venezuela’s Mixed-Race People and the Jew: Spectrums of Whiteness in Rufino Blanco Fombona’s Judas Capitolino and Rómulo Gallegos’s “Los inmigrantes”». Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies 33 (1): 85-101. ISSN 1356-9325. doi:10.1080/13569325.2024.2339232. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/13569325.2024.2339232
[317] ↑ Pérez-Artés, María del Carmen (2024). «Numeracy selectivity of Spanish migrants in colonial America (sixteenth–eighteenth centuries)». The Economic History Review (en inglés) 77 (2): 503-522. ISSN 1468-0289. doi:10.1111/ehr.13279. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ehr.13279
[318] ↑ Lynch, John (2001). Lynch, John, ed. Spanish America’s Poor Whites: Canarian Immigrants in Venezuela, 1700–1830 (en inglés). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 58-73. ISBN 978-0-230-51172-9. doi:10.1057/9780230511729_4. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230511729_4
[319] ↑ Gómez-Carballa, Alberto; Ignacio-Veiga, Ana; Álvarez-Iglesias, Vanesa; Pastoriza-Mourelle, Ana; Ruíz, Yarimar; Pineda, Lennie; Carracedo, Ángel; Salas, Antonio (2012). «A melting pot of multicontinental mtDNA lineages in admixed Venezuelans». American Journal of Physical Anthropology (en inglés) 147 (1): 78-87. ISSN 1096-8644. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21629. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.21629
[321] ↑ Moreno, Aviad (3 de mayo de 2024). «Expanding the dimensions of Moroccan (Jewish) migration: postcolonial perspectives from Venezuela». The Journal of North African Studies 29 (3): 527-554. ISSN 1362-9387. doi:10.1080/13629387.2022.2088522. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/13629387.2022.2088522
[322] ↑ Derham, Michael (2 de septiembre de 2021). «Construction of a culture of privileged immigrants in Venezuela». Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies 27 (3): 377-401. ISSN 1470-1847. doi:10.1080/14701847.2021.1998989. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/14701847.2021.1998989
[324] ↑ A, Ada N. Rodríguez (21 de diciembre de 2018). «De lo negro a lo propio: reflexiones sobre la herencia cultural africana en Venezuela». Dissertare Revista de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales 3 (1): 135-148. ISSN 2542-3177. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://revistas.uclave.org/index.php/dissertare/article/view/1980
[326] ↑ Rivero, Cayetano Núñez; A, Carla Z. Pérez (1 de julio de 2015). «La diversidad cultural como derecho fundamental de los pueblos indígenas». Revista de Derecho de la UNED (RDUNED) (17): 57-71. ISSN 2255-3436. doi:10.5944/rduned.17.2015.16263. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/RDUNED/article/view/16263
[327] ↑ Godinho, Neide Maria de Oliveira (2008). O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/5542
[328] ↑ Wiedmann, Karl. 1984. Tierra Yanomami. Oscar Todtmann Editores. Caracas. 155p.
[329] ↑ Wagner, Erika. 1991. Más de Quinientos años de Legado Americano al Mundo. Cuadernos Lagoven, Lagoven, S.A. Caracas. 104p. ISBN 980-259-409-1.
[339] ↑ a b c Duque, Maria; Vos, S.; García, M. F.; Brown, Eric C.; Perrino, Tatiana; Trujillo, Juliana Mejía; Pérez-Gómez, A.; Salas-Wright, C. et al. (2025). «The Importance of Motivations for Emigration in Understanding Post-Migration Mental Health Outcomes Among Diasporic Venezuelans in the United States and Colombia». Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. doi:10.1177/00220221251327966. Consultado el 26 de noviembre de 2025. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://consensus.app/papers/the-importance-of-motivations-for-emigration-in-duque-vos/2fa8d1813530551f8be6d7025ece630e/
[351] ↑ «Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas». World Heritage List (en inglés). Unesco. Consultado el 27 de noviembre de 2008.: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/986
[353] ↑ «UIS.Stat». UNESCO INSTITUTE FOR STATISTICS. Consultado el 10 de junio de 2017.: http://data.uis.unesco.org
[354] ↑ Daniel, Ortega; Rodríguez, Francisco (octubre de 2008). «Freed from Illiteracy? A Closer Look at Venezuela’s Misión Robinson Literacy Campaign». Economic Development and Cultural Change (en inglés) (University of Chicago Press) 57 (1): 1-30. doi:10.1086/590461. Consultado el 10 de junio de 2017.: https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-development-and-cultural-change_2008-10_57_1/page/1
[358] ↑ Nelson, Brian A. (2009). The silence and the scorpion: the coup against Chávez and the making of modern Venezuela (en inglés) (Online edición). New York: Nation Books. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1568584188.: https://archive.org/details/silencescorpionc00nels
[359] ↑ Heritage, Andrew (December 2002). Financial Times World Desk Reference (en inglés). Dorling Kindersley. pp. 618-21. ISBN 9780789488053.
[360] ↑ N.F.R. Crafts (julio de 1996). «The Human Development Index: Some Historical Comparisons». London School of Economics &Political Science: Working Papers in Economic History (en inglés).: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/17436/1/33_96.pdf
[362] ↑ Ulrike Hanemann (2015). «The Evolution and Impact of Literacy Campaigns and Programmes 2000-2014». UIL Research Series (en inglés). UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2017.: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002341/234154e.pdf
[403] ↑ «Clasificación Mundial de la Libertad de Prensa 2016». Reporteros sin Fronteras. 2016. Consultado el 17 de marzo de 2017.: https://rsf.org/es/clasificacion
[453] ↑ «Resolución por la cual se declara oficialmente al Araguaney (tecoma chrysanta), como Árbol Nacional de Venezuela.». Gaceta Oficial de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela (22.628). 1948. Archivado desde el original el 24 de septiembre de 2015. Consultado el 23 de abril de 2013.: https://web.archive.org/web/20150924072125/http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1948/22628.pdf
[454] ↑ «Resolución por la cual se declara Flor Nacional de Venezuela a la orquídea conocida con el nombre de Flor de Mayo (Cattleya Mossiae).». Gaceta Oficial de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela (23.535). 1951.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1951/23535.pdf
[455] ↑ «Resolución Ejecutiva por la cual es declarado el Turpial como "Ave Nacional de Venezuela."». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (25.665). 1958.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1958/25665.pdf
[457] ↑ «Decreto N° 2.760, mediante el cual se declara que la utilización del Liqui Liqui como Traje Nacional, en tanto símbolo emblemático y representativo de la identidad cultural venezolana.». Gaceta Oficial de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela (6.289 Extraoridinario). 2017.: http://www.juris-line.com.ve/data/files/3801.pdf
In the energy field, by 2010 Venezuela had the largest oil reserves in the world and was one of the main oil exporters. Although historically the country was a major exporter of agricultural products such as coffee and cocoa, the oil industry came to dominate exports and state revenues. The global oversupply of oil in the 1980s caused an external debt crisis and prolonged economic deterioration. In 1996, there was an increase in inflation, and by 1998 GDP per capita fell back to 1963 levels, reaching only a third of the maximum recorded in 1978. The government of Hugo Chávez, guided by an anti-imperialist ideology, sought to diversify markets and increase public spending through social welfare programs, which, together with interventionist state policies, stimulated an increase in external debt to more than 118,000 million dollars, despite a period of oil bonanza whose effects were manifested in later years.[13][14][15][16].
Over time, reduced income, excess public spending, increased imports, corruption, and the fall in national production – the result of excessive state control and policies that stifled the private sector – have been identified as destabilizing factors of the Venezuelan economy.[15][17] This scenario has led to a generalized crisis, characterized by hyperinflation, economic depression, shortages of basic products, and a marked increase in unemployment, poverty, malnutrition, infant mortality and crime.[18][19][20][21] In late 2017, credit rating agencies declared Venezuela in default on its debt payments.[15] In 2019, a report from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights denounced alleged systematic violations of human rights by the Venezuelan government.[22].
Place names
In 1498, as part of his third voyage, Admiral Christopher Columbus sailed near the Orinoco delta, then entered the Gulf of Paria. Columbus, in his letter to the Catholic Monarchs, expresses having arrived at "earthly paradise", and confused by the unusual saltiness of the waters, he writes:
Columbus called these paradisiacal places «Land of Grace», an expression that has prevailed to refer to the country par excellence. But the following year, an expedition commanded by Alonso de Ojeda traveled along the coast of the territory until reaching the entrance to the current Lake Maracaibo, in a gulf located between the peninsulas of Paraguaná and La Guajira. On that voyage, the crew observed homes built by the Añú indigenous people, erected on wooden piles that stuck out of the water. These stilt houses reminded Amerigo Vespucci of the city of Venice -Venezia, in Italian-, as he stated in a letter to Piero de' Medici. This was a reason that inspired Ojeda to give the name Venezziola (Little Venice), and then Hispanicized the region and the gulf in which they had made the discovery to "Venezuela", and thus received the name of the Gulf of Venezuela. The name coined by the explorer would later encompass the entire territory.[23] Later the region was also known as Tierra Firme, for being the first non-insular region of the continent to be explored by Europeans.
The popularization of the name "Little Venice" in Europe is probably due to the concession made to the commercial house of Welser to explore and govern part of the territory of South America.
However, the name was already in use before the arrival of the Germans.[28].
History
Pre-Hispanic period
The pre-Hispanic history of Venezuela refers to the local cultural developments of the current territory of the Republic of Venezuela prior to the conquest and colonization by Spain. The first humans settled in what we now know as Venezuela about 30,000 years ago. This stage is divided into four periods: Paleoindian (30,000 BC-5000 BC), Mesoindian (5000 BC-1000 BC), Neoindian (1000 BC-1498) and Indo-Hispanic (1499 to the present). The Paleoindian and Mesoindian periods are distinguished by the development of tools to hunt large animals such as the megatherium, the mastodon and the glyptodont; as well as the subsequent development of fishing techniques and navigation to the Caribbean islands.
During the Neo-Indian period, an important development of native agriculture, architecture and ceramics is observed: structures such as embankments, elevations, dams, terraces, canals and food vaults were built; They also acquired experience and knowledge about the natural cycles of local flora and fauna, which allowed better use of resources. Additionally, they practiced carving sculptures and ceramic works, highlighting the series of the Venus of Tacarigua found near Lake Valencia and ceramic ornaments in the Andean region, belonging to the Carache culture.
Among the most important tribes, the Timoto-Cuicas stood out, located in the Andes and linked culturally but not linguistically to the Chibchas; For their part, the Caribs "Caribbean (ethnic group)") were distributed in the eastern "North-Eastern Region (Venezuela)") and central "Central Region (Venezuela)") regions of the country in Guyana, part of Zulia and the Llanos, who after territorial conflicts acquired the northern coast of South America and spread to the Antilles; the Arawakos, settled in part of the regions of what is now the state of Amazonas "Amazon State (Venezuela)"), a good part of the west, central west and part of the coasts. Some people of Arawak descent are the Wayúu, settled in the west of the country towards the north, and the Caquetíos, who populated the north of the current Falcón state and who were displaced by the conquistadors to the western plains. There were also minor migrations of independent groups that populated the Orinoco River basin and other restricted areas of the country.
The predominant materials for the construction of houses used by the indigenous people of Venezuela were mud, straw or palm leaves to build houses, such as stilt houses built with wood, reeds "Caña (vegetable)") and straw. The Timoto-Cuicas used rock as the main architectural material. Seashells were used for ordinary commercial exchange, or barter. The fauna of prehistoric and pre-Columbian years was made up of tapirs, saber-toothed tigers, giant armadillos, among others.[30] With the arrival of the Spanish, numerous ethnic groups that spoke Carib, Arawak, Chibcha and Tupi-Guaraní languages were found in Venezuela. In addition, a very elaborate mythology was identified, and the cosmogony of tribes such as the Maquiritare that had similarities with the biblical Genesis.[31].
Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of pre-Hispanic cultures in Venezuela. A notable discovery occurred in the Unare River basin, near the town of Onoto "Onoto (Anzoátegui)"), in the Anzoátegui state during work for the construction of a dam, where dozens of large lithic spheres were discovered, some up to two meters in diameter. Investigations have determined that they are not of natural origin, due to the marks of lacquering and ornamentation, in addition to the percussion points characteristic of this type of sculpture.[32].
Conquest and colonial era
Venezuela was sighted for the first time during Christopher Columbus's third voyage, on August 1, 1498, when he arrived at the mouth of the Orinoco River after having passed in front of Trinidad Island.[33] It was the first time that the Spanish touched continental mainland, taking into account that on the first two voyages they reached island territories. Columbus observed the currents of the Orinoco and the jungles, and continued his journey through the Gulf of Paria, skirting the coast near the island of Margarita. In 1499, Alonso de Ojeda made a more extensive expedition along the coast, reaching Cabo de la Vela on the La Guajira peninsula after passing through the Gulf of Paria, the Paraguaná peninsula and the Gulf of Venezuela.
Shortly after, the Spanish Empire undertook the colonization of the territory with the establishment of the ephemeral governorate of Coquibacoa and cities and trade routes between the mainland and the metropolis. Demarcations were made in order to create a jurisdictional structure that materialized with the creation of the provinces of Margarita (1525), Venezuela (1527), Trinidad (1532), Nueva Andalucía and Guayana (1568) and later that of Maracaibo (1676). In 1528, King Charles I issued the "Capitulation of Madrid"), temporarily leasing part of the province of Venezuela to the Welser family and the Fugger family, which gave way to the creation of Klein-Venedig, one of the German governorates in America.[34] However, the Spanish faced several rebellions by the local indigenous people. The most notable were the one commanded by the chief Guaicaipuro in 1560 and the uprising of the quiriquires") in 1600, and even from his own countrymen, such as Lope de Aguirre and his "marañones" from Peru.
The colonial order was established towards the end of the century with the town council and the Catholic Church. Religious orders such as the Jesuits of Spain and the Augustinian Recollects of the Philippines[35] were crucial in pacifying and serving the colony's native and immigrant inhabitants.[36] The Augustinian Recollect Order in particular produced Venezuela's first beatified person, María de San José Alvarado. At the same time, a mixture of people in the provinces was encouraged, which would end up defining the social profile of the country. Trade and the extraction of mineral and natural resources flourished, highlighting the profuse export of cocoa, indigo and tobacco, while the provinces faced pirate attacks such as that of Henry Morgan to Maracaibo in 1669. Given the rise of smuggling in the region in the following years, it was decided to create the Royal Guipuzcoan Company in 1728 to exercise a commercial monopoly.
The existing provinces, then governed alternately by the Royal Court of Santo Domingo and that of Santafé de Bogotá, became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. With the rise to power of the House of Bourbon, King Carlos III formed a single autonomous entity by creating the Captaincy General of Venezuela in 1777. This new political union would be consolidated with the creation of the Royal Court of Caracas in 1786.
Independence and Greater Colombia
At the end of the century, a combination of factors such as the introduction of encyclopedism and the Enlightenment, the independence of the United States, the French Revolution, the antipathy towards political-economic centralism with the metropolis and the Napoleonic invasion of Spain, inspired the first independence attempts in Venezuela. Already in 1748, the cocoa planter Juan Francisco de León had revolted, with some success, against the Guipuzcoan Company. One of the first massive armed rebellions was the one unleashed in 1795 by the zambo "Zambo (caste)") José Leonardo Chirino, in the west of the country, in the town of Coro "Coro (Venezuela)").
Another conspiracy occurred by Manuel Gual and José María España in 1797, this being the first with popular roots. Both attempts were unsuccessful, with their respective leaders executed. For his part, the Creole Francisco de Miranda, in 1806 tried twice to invade Venezuelan territory through La Vela de Coro with an armed expedition from Haiti, and supported by the British. Their raids ended in failure due to the religious preaching against them and the indifference of the population. The subsequent Mantuan Conspiracy had the same fate.
The date of April 19, 1810 marked the beginning of the Venezuelan revolution. Vicente Emparan, at that time the Captain General of Venezuela, was dismissed by the Caracas Cabildo. This gave way to the formation of the Supreme Junta of Caracas, the first form of autonomous government. The Junta governed until March 2, 1811, the day the First National Congress was installed, an entity that appointed a triumvirate composed of Cristóbal Mendoza, Juan Escalona and Baltasar Padrón. Months later, on July 5 of that year, the Declaration of Independence was finally signed. But this First Republic collapsed due to the royalist reaction. In July 1812, Miranda, Commander in Chief of the newly created army, capitulated in San Mateo "San Mateo (Aragua)"). According to Pedro Gual, Miranda thought that the capitulation would allow him to buy time to organize another front, possibly in New Granada, where the independence movement was already underway.[37].
The movement would have new momentum in 1813, when Simón Bolívar, after taking control of Cúcuta, undertook the Admirable Campaign, an armed expedition through the Andes and the western region, together with Atanasio Girardot and José Félix Ribas. After making public the controversial Decree of War to the Death, he faced the royalists in several battles along the route to the capital. At the end of the campaign, he triumphantly entered Caracas, where he was titled Liberator, and where the Second Republic was proclaimed, although fighting continued in other parts of the country. However, the following year a rebellion broke out loyal to the Crown led by José Tomás Boves. The violent push of his troops forced the population to undertake emigration to the East, as well as the expulsion of the patriots from Tierra Firme, thus bringing down the Second Republic.
Caudilloism and Federal War
The main political leader and strongman of Venezuela at its dawn as a republic was José Antonio Páez, who was sworn in as president in April 1831, and his vice president was Diego Bautista Urbaneja. Páez represented the Conservative Party "Conservative Party (Venezuela)"), made up mostly of military veterans of the War of Independence. There was relative peace and the economy showed a recovery stimulated by the Freedom of Contracts Law of 1834 and coffee exports.[39] After losing re-election in 1835, Páez handed over power to José María Vargas, the first civilian to lead the country. This was not to the liking of the independence military, who rebelled against the government in the Reform Revolution. Vargas abdicated in 1836, and his term was finished by Carlos Soublette.
Páez, after having defeated a liberal rebellion, was elected again in 1838. He faced the world economic crisis of that year, which hit Venezuela hard, and the growing liberal opposition "Liberal Party (Venezuela)") represented by Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, at the same time that he began territorial disputes against the British over the issue of Essequibo. Soublette was president again in 1843, and in 1847 General José Tadeo Monagas was elected with great support, but he later broke with the conservatives. Their attempt to depose him led to the attack on Congress in 1848. The general ensured that his brother José Gregorio Monagas was made president in 1851, who proclaimed the definitive abolition of slavery in 1854. José Tadeo returned to power in 1855, but his authoritarian regime saw its end in the March Revolution of 1858, commanded by Julián Castro "Julián Castro (military)"). The latter was named provisional president of the Republic at the Valencia Convention and later interim president, making Valencia "Valencia (Venezuela)") again the provisional capital of the country.
The new government's decrees created discontent among liberals, and the instability made the outbreak of an armed conflict known as the Federal War imminent. The Cry of the Federation marked its beginning, and it developed as a guerrilla war. The liberal federalists obtained important victories thanks to their leader Ezequiel Zamora, who died in San Carlos under strange circumstances.[n 4] Juan Crisóstomo Falcón replaced him, after which they weakened the central forces. In 1863 the Treaty of Coche was signed, which meant the access to power of the liberals and the end of a war that decimated the population.[n 5][40][41] Despite this result, new regional caudillismos were formed with their own army. Falcón assumed the presidency and promulgated his Decree of Guarantees"),[42] which abolished the death penalty. This provision, ratified in the new constitution,[43] made Venezuela the oldest modern State to implement it.[n 6][44].
Falcón sowed resentment among both conservatives and liberal dissidents, causing both sides to unite to overthrow him in 1867 with the Blue Revolution. An army led by Miguel Antonio Rojas") rose in the central region, with former president José Tadeo Monagas in the eastern region. Given the difficult situation, Falcón delegated power to Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual. But upon surrounding the capital, Rojas signed the Treaty of Antímano"), recognizing the government and assuming military command of the country. The easterners, seeing the treaty as a betrayal, continued their campaign towards Caracas, which they finally captured, thus establishing the government of the *,* Guillermo Tell Villegas and José Ruperto Monagas.
Yellow Liberalism
Antonio Guzmán Blanco, son of Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, plotted with his father the return to power of the liberals. Fleeing due to the government's rejection, he organized an invasion of Curaçao supported by regional leaders such as Joaquín Crespo and Francisco Linares Alcántara. In 1870 he landed on the coast and took positions in the center-west of the country while he increased his forces. He took Caracas in the April Revolution "April Revolution (Venezuela)").
Once he became president, he implemented measures to modernize the country and establish definitive order, on a platform called "Yellow Liberalism." He created the Conservatory of Fine Arts"), issued the Decree of Public and Compulsory Instruction, made the Venezuelan peso the national currency, promoted agriculture, organized the first population census in the country,[45] improved the infrastructure and initiated an urban transformation of Caracas, to which he wanted to give Parisian qualities,[46] without abandoning a centralist and authoritarian character. He fought several caudillista uprisings, achieving calm the turbulent panorama of insurrections. His policy was to promote the cult of the heroes of the past, especially Simón Bolívar, as a strategy to unite the country. Likewise, he weakened the power of the Catholic Church, by transferring functions that were traditionally carried out by it to the State.
In 1877, he passed the command to Francisco Linares Alcántara, so that he could continue his work and go to Europe. But Linares' break with him and the discontinuation of the progressive line provoked the Reclaiming Revolution that overthrew him in 1879. Guzmán Blanco had to return to the country and take the reins of the government again. On this occasion he designated the bolivar "Bolívar (currency)") as the national currency, and decreed Glory to the Bravo People as the national anthem, in addition to continuing with the political-economic measures that had been successful. After five years he passed the command to Joaquín Crespo, but the effects of the introduction of positivism and the growing opposition from the student sector that gained strength, so Crespo closed the University, warranted a second return by Guzmán. He was elected by Congress to preside between 1886 and 1888, but retired in 1887, appointing Hermógenes López for the transition.
It was followed by the government of Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl, who moved away from the centralist line maintained until now. He created the National Academy of History and faced anti-Guzmancist riots. In 1890 Raimundo Andueza Palacio was elected. His attempt to extend his two-year term caused the Legalist Revolution of 1892 led by Joaquín Crespo, who gained power and established the four-year presidency and direct voting. Under his leadership, public resources were misappropriated and there was greater debt, although he remained popular among his soldiers. His successor candidate, Ignacio Andrade, won the 1897 elections, but his rival José Manuel Hernández, alias , accused fraud and rebelled in Queipa. Crespo perished in command of his troops, but the uprising was defeated. The final balance of the century was one of economic recession, but of advances in culture, technology and urban planning.[47].
Andean Hegemony
The military man and former deputy Cipriano Castro accused Andrade of violating the 1893 constitution, so he organized a restorative military uprising from Táchira together with Juan Vicente Gómez to overthrow him. Castro came to power in October. However, he ratified some ministers of the defeated government, including Raimundo Andueza Palacio in the cabinet. In 1901, he was elected president by the National Constituent Assembly. Like his predecessors, due to his authoritarianism he fought seditions. The most outstanding of these was the Liberating Revolution "Revolución Libertadora (Venezuela)"), which culminated in Castro's triumph in 1903, being the last of the great caudillo rebellions. His administration followed anti-imperialism, refusing to cancel the debt with the United Kingdom and Germany, which caused the naval blockade imposed by these countries.
Castro became ill in 1908, and left the country to undergo treatment. Days later, his vice president and friend Juan Vicente Gómez perpetrated a coup d'état and prohibited his return to Venezuela.[48] Starting in 1909, Gómez would exercise his government from the city of Maracay, even moving his official residence which was in the city of Caracas. That is why with the Federal Constitution of 1909, ministers, diplomats, and all government employees had to go weekly to Maracay to report. Gómez was officially president from 1910 and later appointed for seven-year terms established by a new constitution"), interspersed with puppet governments that acted as a façade. He treated without mercy anyone who questioned him. Many political prisoners served as forced laborers "Forced labor (penalty)"), building roads throughout the country. To resist student protests, he closed the Central University of Venezuela for ten years. He promulgated the first Labor Law, created banks for workers, initiated oil exploitation and canceled the foreign debt. The most remembered opposition movement of its time was carried out by university students in 1928, from which new political leaders would emerge. It also stopped a military coup and the invasion of General Román Delgado Chalbaud with the German steamship Falke in 1929. Its greatest contribution was the pacification of the country by ending the warlords and creating the Military Academy of Venezuela, as the basis of a consolidated National Army. Oil exploitation in this period would be the cause of migration of the rural population to large urban centers since the 1930s.[49].
Gómez died in 1935, leaving a pacified, organized and solvent country.[50] General Eleazar López Contreras was appointed president until 1936, and then president for seven years. With him the transition to democracy begins: he decrees amnesty for political prisoners and restores freedom of the press.[51] That year a large public demonstration in front of the Miraflores Palace demanded greater civil liberties,[52] to which López partially agreed with his .[53] He reduced the presidential term to 5 years, and focused his policies on the creation of public health assistance programs.[54] In addition, He carried out extremely important works such as the creation of the National Guard of Venezuela, the opening of the Museum of Fine Arts and the Museum of Sciences in 1938, and the creation of the Central Bank of Venezuela in 1939.
Adeco triennium and military period
After the coup, a de facto government was established that became a constitutional one, dominated by the Democratic Action party for the next three years. A new constitution was approved in 1947 that granted direct suffrage and women's suffrage. In new elections, the famous writer Rómulo Gallegos turned out to be the first Venezuelan president elected in this way, taking office in 1948. Despite this, Gallegos did not complete his term after a coup d'état months later brought to power a military Junta made up of the same rebels from three years ago, which repealed the constitution.[55] Of the triumvirs, Delgado Chalbaud was a candidate to preside over the country after the Junta called elections, but he was kidnapped and murdered in 1950. After the incident, Germán Suárez Flamerich was appointed provisional president.
Pérez Jiménez remained Minister of Defense until 1952, the date of voting for a Constituent Assembly. During the course of the day, seeing that the opposition URD reached the majority of votes, the ruling Independent Electoral Front ignored the results and suspended the elections. Two days later, Pérez Jiménez was proclaimed president. His government promoted a constitution in 1953, outlawed the opposition and restricted civil liberties. Its main police agency, the National Security Directorate, arrested and detained opponents in the Guasina Island concentration camp and also executed them. Supported by the United States for being part of the oil distribution network and for its anti-communism, his regime was also distinguished by progress in visionary and technologically cutting-edge infrastructure unparalleled for the country. That, the special promotion of European immigration and the culmination of complex public works projects, were framed as the practice of a nationalist thought known as the New National Ideal.[56] Despite this, the antipathy generated by his repressive acts and his intentions to perpetuate himself in power, increased discontent against him.
On the other hand, Venezuela's economic indicators during the government of Marcos Pérez Jiménez showed a country in growth, with low inflation and high levels of employment. During his mandate under the doctrine of the "New National Ideal" he carried out the transformation of the country, going from having rural populations to being one of the references of modernism in Latin America. In this period, the main communication routes were built, linking the west, center and east of the country, as well as industrial conglomerates and large monuments. Pérez Jiménez consolidated a good part of the infrastructure of Venezuela and its capital city from 1952 to 1958. His vision of a modern Caracas turned the city into a dispersed, automobile-driven metropolis, crisscrossed by highways and characterized by modernist architecture. This architectural legacy today constitutes a residual topography of a Caracas that in the 1950s was seen as the modern capital of Latin America.[57].
Democracy
The new democratic era brought with it changes on a political and economic level. In the second Betancourt government, no more concessions were granted to oil multinationals, the Venezuelan Petroleum Corporation was established, and OPEC was created in 1960, at the initiative of Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo. An agrarian reform was carried out and a new constitution was approved in 1961.
The new order had its antagonists. Betancourt suffered an attack planned by the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, and the leftists excluded from the pact began an armed insurgency by organizing themselves into the Armed Forces of National Liberation, sponsored by the Communist Party and Fidel Castro. In 1962 they attempted destabilization via the military, with failed revolts in Carúpano and Puerto Cabello. At the same time, Betancourt promoted an international doctrine in which he only recognized governments elected by popular vote.
In the 1963 elections "Venezuelan Presidential Election (1963)") Raúl Leoni was elected. Its platform consisted of a coalition of Broad Base parties, integrating AD, URD and the FND. Although his government was one of harmony and general understanding, he had to deal with continuous guerrilla attacks. Among these, the invasion of the beaches of Machurucuto in 1967 stands out, in which Venezuelan and Cuban guerrillas participated. Most of the guerrillas abandoned the armed struggle that year. Leoni's government was also notable for public works and cultural development.
Rafael Caldera won the following elections "Venezuelan Presidential Election (1968)"). Before taking office in 1969, the Rupununi rebellion broke out in Guayana Esequiba, which represented an opportunity to annex the Essequibo Territory, claimed by Venezuela. In this context, he signed the Port of Spain Protocol in 1970. He agreed to a definitive truce with the guerrillas and guaranteed their return to political life, legalizing the PCV. In 1974 Carlos Andrés Pérez took over. In those years, the income of foreign currency increased enormously as a consequence of the oil crisis of 1973, when the price of a barrel of oil suddenly went from $3 to $12, leading to the meaning of Saudi Venezuela, the title of a book by Sanín (Alfredo Tarre Murzi), although the name had been previously indicated by Rómulo Betancourt and Laureano Vallenilla Lanz, Jr.[61] In 1975 the The iron industry was nationalized and the oil industry the following year, creating Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA). Both Caldera and Pérez partially broke with the Betancourt Doctrine.
In 1979, Luis Herrera Campins was sworn in as president. He inaugurated multiple cultural and sports facilities. Although oil revenues continued to rise, indebtedness in international finance could not be prevented, forcing adherence to the dictates of the IMF. In 1983 the bolivar was devalued on Black Friday "Black Friday (Venezuela)"), unleashing a strong economic crisis. Under Jaime Lusinchi's government, little would be done to counteract it. Corruption increased and economic policy maintained the rentier line. On the other hand, in 1987 the Caldas corvette incident generated one of the greatest moments of international tension with Colombia, due to the dispute over sovereignty over the Gulf of Venezuela between both nations.
Bolivarian revolution
The "Bolivarian Revolution" is the name given by Hugo Chávez and his supporters to the political, ideological and social project that began in 1998, with the election of Chávez as president of the country.[12] According to its supporters, the revolution is based on the ideology of Simón Bolívar,[12] on the doctrines of Simón Rodríguez, who proposed that Latin America invent its own political system, and General Ezequiel Zamora "Lands and Free Men" and "Horror to the Oligarchy", who defended the ownership of land for the peasants who worked it. Its purpose is to promote Latin American patriotism[62][63] and reach a new socialism. One of its first measures was to approve a new constitution by popular referendum in 1999 that, among other things, changed the name of the country to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.[12].
Chávez won the 1998 presidential elections. He was supported by the “Polo Patriotico” party alliance. He promoted a new constitution, which was approved by referendum in December 1999, and which brought with it the renewal of Public Power by a National Constituent Assembly which replaced the national congress, and was made up of 95% of government supporters, which called into question the independence of State powers in some sectors of Venezuelan society.[64] Through said referendum, the official name of the country changed from "Republic of Venezuela" to "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela", in homage to the Venezuelan liberator Simón Bolívar.
In 2001, Chávez promulgated 49 laws on land administration, thanks to an authorization from the National Assembly, within the framework of his platform called the Bolivarian Revolution, generating conflicts with the opposition. This led to a national strike called by the Confederation of Venezuelan Workers (CTV) and by the business chamber (Fedecámaras "Fedecámaras (Venezuela)").
In 2002, a large number of protests began against the 49 laws. That year, after a massive demonstration in Caracas, on April 11, 2002, the 2002 Coup d'état took place. Faced with an alleged resignation and arrest of Chávez, Pedro Carmona, leader of Fedecámaras "Fedecámaras (Venezuela)"), proclaimed himself President with the support of the CTV and several opposition political parties.[65] According to an investigation carried out by Izquierda Unida "United Left (Spain)"), journalist and advisor José Manuel Fernández says that "Powerful media outlets, in Venezuela and abroad, directly and indirectly supported the coup."[66][67][68] As the first government action, Carmona disintegrated all constituted powers and established a de facto government. That same night Chávez was restored, after being rescued in a commando action on the island where he had been imprisoned. Many political scientists and politicians agree in asserting that it was not a coup d'état, but a self-coup, in which Hugo Chávez tested his general staff and was able to know who was loyal to him and who was not.[69] The opposition then organized a general strike in December 2002 requesting the resignation of Chávez, joined by many Petróleos de Venezuela workers, causing great economic losses for the country.[70] A request was then made for a recall referendum, finally held in 2004 and in it, Chávez was victorious.
Government and politics
Contenido
La Constitución vigente de Venezuela, aprobada en referéndum constitucional el 15 de diciembre de 1999 y promulgada cinco días después, establece que la República Bolivariana de Venezuela se constituye en un Estado social y democrático de Derecho y de justicia que "propugna como valores "Valor (axiología)") superiores de su ordenamiento jurídico y de su actuación, la vida, la libertad, la justicia, la igualdad, la solidaridad "Solidaridad (sociología)"), la democracia, la responsabilidad social y, en general, la preeminencia de los derechos humanos, la ética y el pluralismo político".[123].
En los términos establecidos en la Constitución de la República, Venezuela asume la forma de un Estado federal descentralizado, y se rige por los principios de integridad territorial, cooperación, solidaridad, concurrencia y corresponsabilidad. El mismo tiene como fines la protección y fomento de la persona y su humanidad, garantizar el ejercicio democrático de la voluntad popular, y la búsqueda de un estado de bienestar general. Para la consecución de tales metas, se señalan como vías el desarrollo de la educación y el trabajo "Trabajo (sociología)").[124].
Se establece además que la forma de gobierno es la de una república presidencialista, encabezada por el presidente de la República funciona jefe del Estado y jefe del Poder Ejecutivo Nacional a la vez. La soberanía, la cual reside en el pueblo, se ejerce de dos maneras: directamente a través de la Constitución misma y de la ley, e indirectamente, mediante el sufragio, por el Poder Público "Poder Público Nacional (Venezuela)"), cuyos componentes están sometidos a dicha soberanía popular y se deben a ella. Todos los entes públicos están sujetos a lo previsto en esta Constitución. El Presidente tiene la facultad de dirigir las acciones del Gobierno.[125].
Actualmente; el país vive bajo un régimen dictatorial del cual esta al frente Nicolás Maduro Moros, quien se ha mantenido en el poder de manera polémica al tener más de 940 presos políticos por oponerse al régimen,[126] entre otras estrategias que a utilizado donde la represión al pueblo, la manipulación y vigilancia desde organizaciones vecinales y chantaje en cuanto a acceso a la educación y la salud han sido claves en sus intereses propios.
Division of powers
The national authorities of the State reside in Caracas, Capital District "Capital District (Venezuela)"), since according to the National Constitution, it is the seat of the bodies of the National Public Power. The public administration is at the service of citizens and is based on the principles of honesty, participation, speed, effectiveness, efficiency, transparency, accountability and responsibility, as required by Article 141 of the Constitution of the Republic.[127].
The National Public Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") is divided into Legislative, Executive, Judicial, Citizen#Citizen_Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") and Electoral#Electoral Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)"); Each of the branches of Public Power has its own functions, but the bodies responsible for its exercise will collaborate with each other in achieving the purposes of the State. The National Public Power is made up of the organs and entities of the State with national jurisdiction that are framed within the Constitution of the Republic:.
Legislative power is exercised by the National Assembly of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which is a unicameral parliament that exercises the legislative function - formation, discussion and sanction of national laws and the legal codes of the country -, the function of political control over the National Public Administration and the Government, and the function of promoting the organization and citizen participation in matters within its jurisdiction. Since January 2021, it is made up of 277 deputies elected by direct, universal suffrage. and secrecy in each federal entity (before 2020 there were 167 deputies). The duration of the legislative mandate is five years and they can be re-elected in accordance with Amendment No. 1 of the Constitution of the Republic.
Executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic, the Executive Vice President, the Ministers and other officials established by the Constitution of the Republic and the law. The President of the Republic is elected by direct, secret and universal suffrage for a term that lasts 6 years, with the possibility of being re-elected for new periods.[n 7] He is the head of the State, head of the National Executive Branch, Commander in Chief of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces, and directs the foreign relations of the Republic. The Executive Vice President is a direct and immediate collaborator of the President. He coordinates the relations of the National Executive with the National Assembly, presides over the Federal Government Council and makes up for the temporary absences of the President of the Republic. The Ministers are direct organs of the president, and together with him and the vice president, they make up the Council of Ministers. The Attorney General of the Republic "Procuraduría General de la República (Venezuela)") attends, with the right to speak, the meetings of the Council of Ministers. Additionally, the president can convene the Council of State "Council of State (Venezuela)"), being a higher consultative body of the Government and the National Public Administration to recommend policies of national interest on matters of special importance.
Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice and the other courts determined by law. These, together with the Public Ministry, the Public Defense&action=edit&redlink=1 "Public Defense (Venezuela) (not yet drafted)"), the criminal investigation bodies, auxiliaries and justice officials, the penitentiary system, the alternative means of justice, the citizens who participate in the administration of justice in accordance with the law and the lawyers authorized to practice, make up the Justice System&action=edit&redlink=1 "Justice System (Venezuela) (not yet written)").
Citizen Power#Citizen_Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") is exercised by the Republican Moral Council, made up of the Public Ministry, the Comptroller General of the Republic "General Comptroller of the Republic (Venezuela)"), and the Ombudsman's Office "Defensoría del Pueblo (Venezuela)"). Any of the highest authorities of the bodies that make up this Branch may be elected president of the Republican Moral Council for periods of one year, re-electable. Among its functions are to prevent, investigate and sanction acts that violate public ethics and administrative morality, ensure the proper use of public assets and preselect candidates for magistrates of the Supreme Court of Justice.
The Electoral Power#Elector_Power "National Public Power (Venezuela)") is exercised by the body of the National Electoral Council "National Electoral Council (Venezuela)"), which has as subordinate bodies: the National Electoral Board, the Civil and Electoral Registry Commission and the Political Participation and Financing Commission. Its objective is to regulate and manage electoral processes as well as the application of personalization of suffrage and proportional representation. The CNE maintains, organizes, directs and supervises the Civil and Electoral Registry. The 1999 Constitution incorporates the figure of a recall referendum for all popularly elected positions, which can be subject to a new election halfway through the term, as a novel way of allowing a political decision by citizens regarding elected officials.
political parties
The organization that can properly be called the first Venezuelan political party is the Liberal Party "Partido Liberal (Venezuela)"), created by Tomás Lander and Antonio Leocadio Guzmán in 1840. Emerging as a response to the ruling Conservative Party "Partido Conservador (Venezuela)"), both would compete for power throughout the century. From these derived parties would emerge, later dissolved by the Gomecista dictatorship. In the subsequent democratic stage, some of the most important parties have emerged on the national scene, such as Democratic Republican Union (URD, f. 1945), the People's Electoral Movement (MEP, f. 1967), La Causa R (f. 1971), among others.
In the current political life of the country, those that are especially relevant are the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which is the governing party; Voluntad Popular (VP) at the initiative of Leopoldo López in 2009; Vente Venezuela (VV), founded by María Corina Machado in 2012; Un Nuevo Tiempo (UNT) formed as a national party in 2007 and the first party in the opposition coalition; Primero Justicia (PJ), national since 2003; Democratic Action (AD), with a social democratic tendency, founded in 1941 by Rómulo Gallegos and Rómulo Betancourt; the Independent Electoral Political Organization Committee (COPEI), of a Christian social nature, founded in 1946 by Rafael Caldera; the Movement to Socialism "Movimiento al Socialismo (Venezuela)") (MAS), also a social democrat, created in 1971; and the Communist Party of Venezuela (PCV), founded in 1931 and legalized in 1945. Some parties of importance at the regional level are Proyecto Carabobo (founded in 1997 with Proyecto Venezuela), Patria Para Todos (PPT), and Por la Democracia Social (Vamos), founded in 2003 by Ismael García.
Foreign relations
Venezuelan foreign policy has varied according to the nature of its government. Since in its first years as an independent nation the country suffered a long period of internal turbulence, it was not able to outline a concrete international policy, but focused on the demarcation of boundaries. At the beginning of the century, there were difficult relations with the European powers and with the United States due to foreign debt, and it remained neutral during World War II until it sided with the Allies on February 15, 1945. In the 1950s, Venezuela maintained close ties with dictatorships existing at the time in Latin America, and with the United States. The reestablishment of the democratic system of government in 1958 generated significant changes in Venezuela's foreign policy, being framed within the 1961 Constitution and taking shape in three basic guidelines: democracy, oil, and active international presence. Under the Betancourt Doctrine, it only recognized democratic governments. In the 1980s, it joined the Contadora Group along with other countries, to seek peace in the armed conflicts in Central America.
According to Article 153 of the 1999 Constitution, Latin American and Caribbean integration is favored, privileging relations with Ibero-America. During the Bolivarian Revolution, the Venezuelan Government has approached governments with a clear leftist and anti-imperialist line, such as Cuba, Russia and China; At the same time, mishaps and rifts have arisen in diplomatic relations with Colombia, Mexico and the United States. Venezuela has held a seat on the UN Security Council on four occasions, in the periods from 1962 to 1963, from 1977 to 1978, from 1986 to 1987, from 1992 to 1993 and from 2015 to 2016.[128]In 2006 she ran without being elected.
Venezuela has a long history of territorial claims with Guyana and Colombia. The country's eastern limits with Guyana, drawn by the Paris Award of 1899 (declared null and void by Venezuela), run from Mount Roraima "Roraima (tepuy)") to Punta Playa in the Atlantic Ocean. However, Venezuela claims the territory called Guayana Essequiba, which would extend from the border between both countries to the Essequibo River, which are regions 1 (Barima-Waini), 2 (Cuyuni-Mazaruni), 7 (Pomeroon-Supenaam), 8 (Potaro-Siparuni), 10 (Alto Takutu-Alto Essequibo) and the western area of 5 (Essequibo-Demerara Islands). Western), based on the Geneva Agreement "Geneva Agreement (1966)") of 1966, signed with the United Kingdom.[129].
Likewise, it maintains a dispute with Colombia over the sovereignty of the Gulf of Venezuela. The dispute, which dates back to the dissolution of Gran Colombia, is believed to have been motivated by the presence of hydrocarbons in the Gulf, which in turn led to the outbreak of the Caldas corvette crisis in 1987.[6] The problem was addressed again in 2007, when it was agreed to continue negotiations between both parties.[130].
National defense and security
The defense of Venezuela is in charge of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces,[131] which, according to Article 328 of the National Constitution, is an entity organized by the State for the service of the Nation, and which has the duty to monitor the independence and sovereignty of the geographical space of the country, the integrity of the territory, and to participate in its development, in addition to remaining apolitical.
The Venezuelan military institution as a whole has its roots in the Liberation Army "Patriot Armies (Hispanic-American Independence)") commanded by Simón Bolívar and several republican leaders during the War of Independence, but we cannot speak of a permanent and professional army until 1910, when Juan Vicente Gómez puts into operation the Military Academy of Venezuela, together with the establishment of new institutions for its activity, the National Aviation and a new Military Code, in order to eliminate the various regional caudillismos and preserve peace in the country.
Currently, the FANB groups five essential components, which are:
• - Bolivarian Army: institutionalized at the dawn of the century, which is in charge of land operations and protection of territorial borders. His day is celebrated on June 24, in commemoration of the Battle of Carabobo "Battle of Carabobo (1821)").[132].
• - Bolivarian Navy: existing since 1811, it is in charge of naval defense and the preservation of sovereignty over the aquatic spaces of Venezuela. Its day is July 24, in commemoration of the naval battle of Lake Maracaibo.[133].
• - Bolivarian Military Aviation: created in 1920 and independent since 1946, whose objective is the protection of Venezuela's airspace. Its anniversary was celebrated on December 10,[134] but by decree of President Hugo Chávez, since 2010 it has been celebrated on November 27, in commemoration of the second coup attempt in 1992.[135].
• - Bolivarian National Guard: founded in 1937 by Eleazar López Contreras, previously known as the Armed Forces of Cooperation. Its ultimate purpose is to conduct the operations required to maintain the internal order of the country, to cooperate in the development of military operations required to ensure the defense of the Nation, to carry out the administrative police and criminal investigation activities attributed to it by law, as well as to actively participate in national development, in the territory and other geographical spaces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Their anniversary is August 4.[136].
• - Bolivarian Militia: founded in 2005, it functions as a reserve and celebrates its day on April 13 of each year.[137].
Military service is mandatory - although without forced recruitment - for every man or woman between 18 and 60 years of age, and must be completed for a period of one year. (AMAB), Military Academy of the Bolivarian National Guard (AMGNB), Military Academy of Troop Officers C/J Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (AMOTHCH), Bolivarian Military Technical Academy (ATMB) and Military Academy of Medicine (AMMED). This institution graduates "Officer (armed forces)" command officers, troops, technicians and military surgeons.
Human rights
According to The Economist Democracy Index* in 2017, the country was listed as an "authoritarian regime", revealing how human rights have been eroded in the country.[141] Human rights organizations have expressed concern about attacks on journalists, harassment of human rights defenders, and poor conditions in prisons.[142][143] According to Human Rights Watch's 2017 report, During the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro, the accumulation of power in the Executive Branch "National Executive Power (Venezuela)") and the erosion of human rights guarantees have allowed the government to intimidate, persecute, torture and even criminally prosecute and extrajudicially shoot its political opponents.[144].
In 2019 the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reported: "Security agents, notably members of SEBIN, DGCIM and GNB, resorted to such measures to intimidate and punish detainees, as well as to extract confessions and information. The most serious cases generally took place at SEBIN, DGCIM and army premises, throughout the country (...) The cases documented by OHCHR, together With the information collected, they indicate that the ill-treatment and torture inflicted on people deprived of liberty for having expressed certain political opinions or for having exercised their human rights are not isolated incidents. On the contrary, it has been documented that the same forms of ill-treatment have been committed by agents from different security units throughout the country, in different detention centers and with the alleged knowledge of superior officers, which clearly demonstrates the existence of a pattern of conduct.
Likewise in September 2020, OHCHR this time reported that the Government, state agents and groups working with them had committed flagrant violations of the human rights of men and women in Venezuela. It identified patterns of violations and highly coordinated crimes in accordance with State policies and part of a course of conduct that was both generalized and systematic, thus constituting crimes against humanity.[146] Also by public consensus, Venezuela is designated as a modern dictatorship, a country that is designated by its only party in power for more than twenty years and made up of political figures colluding in illicit scandals. Venezuela is currently suffering destabilization not only on the political side but also on the social and economic side, with high poverty rates only surpassed by Haiti.
Political-territorial organization
El territorio venezolano se divide en 23 estados federales, un Distrito Capital "Distrito Capital (Venezuela)")[147] —que comprende la ciudad de Caracas—, y las Dependencias Federales —conformadas por más de 311 islas, islotes y cayos en su mayoría deshabitados—.[n 8] Los estados a su vez están subdivididos en Municipios. Los estados son autónomos e iguales políticamente, organizando su administración y sus Poderes Públicos por medio de una Constitución Estadal, dictada por el Consejo Legislativo de acuerdo con las leyes de la Federación. Mantienen todo el poder no delegado explícitamente al gobierno nacional y municipal, según se lee en el Artículo 164 de la Constitución.
States
The State Public Power is divided into four branches. The Legislative Power of the states falls on the unicameral Legislative Council, whose deputies are elected by popular, direct and secret vote every four years, and may be re-elected, under a system of proportional representation of the population of the state and its municipalities, with a minimum of 7 and a maximum of 15. The states can enact laws on regional issues, but the main civil, commercial, criminal, labor, social security and mining laws are the responsibility of the National Assembly. The Executive Power of the states is exercised by a Governor accompanied by the State Secretaries"). The Governor is also elected by direct and secret suffrage for a period of four years and with the possibility of immediate re-election, being in charge of the state administration. The states have other institutions such as State Comptroller's Offices and the Attorney General's Offices. The Judicial Power is represented by the Supreme Court of the Republic, but divided into judicial circuits in each state coordinated by the Executive Directorate of the Regional Judiciary. The Electoral Power is in each state through the Electoral Offices dependent on the CNE.[148].
State fiscal control is exercised by a Comptroller's Office in each State, which supervises state income, expenses and assets, without prejudice to the scope of the functions of the Comptroller General of the Republic. State planning, for its part, is exercised by a Council for Planning and Coordination of Public Policies in each State, chaired by the governor and made up of the Mayors of the Municipalities, the state directors of the ministries, and a representation of regional deputies elected to the Assembly. National, legislators of the State Legislative Council, municipal councilors and organized communities, including indigenous communities where they exist.
Municipalities
Municipal Public Power is exercised in each of the 335 municipalities through executive, legislative, judicial, fiscal control and planning functions, although in essence it does not differ much from the state model. The Municipal Municipal Executive is exercised by a Mayor elected for a period of four years by a simple majority of the people who vote and can be re-elected. The Legislative Branch delegates its authority to Municipal Councils made up of a number of no more than thirteen and no less than five councilors elected for a period of four years, and may be re-elected, who will proportionally represent the population of the Municipality. The Judicial Power is represented in the Municipal Judicial Headquarters, and the Citizen Power exists in an autonomous Municipal Comptroller's Office, which exercises the function of fiscal control of the income, expenses and assets of the municipality.
Municipal planning is carried out by a Local Public Planning Council in each municipality, in charge of designing the Municipal Development Plan and other plans, and being chaired by the mayor and made up of the councilors, the presidents of the communal parish boards and representatives of neighborhood organizations and others of organized society, in accordance with the provisions established by law.
Capital District
The Powers of the Venezuelan Federation reside in the Capital District as a federal territory, the Government of the entity is headed by a head of Government, appointed by the President of the Republic on behalf of the Federation, and has been legislatively dependent on the Republic through the National Assembly since 2009. The district is composed of a single municipality called Libertador Municipality and this is in turn made up of twenty-two (22) parishes, such as Cathedral, El Recreo "Parroquia El Recreo (Caracas)") or Caricuao, among others.
Political-administrative regions
On January 8, 1980, an organization by political-administrative regions was created through Decree 478 on Regionalization and Participation of communities in regional development, which groups the states according to their social, economic and traditional characteristics, with the aim of promoting development. The decree lists nine political-administrative regions, namely:
Geography
Con 916 445 km², y con un litoral de 3 726 kilómetros —donde alrededor de 1700 km son playas de arena y 311 son islas—, Venezuela es el 32° país más grande del mundo —Venezuela reclama la Guayana Esequiba, administrada por Guyana, con la que totalizaría 1 075 987 km²—; además es el noveno país más grande de América, y el sexto de América del Sur. El territorio que controla se encuentra entre las latitudes 0° y 16°N y las longitudes 59° y 74°W.
Con una forma aproximada de triángulo, el país tiene una costa en el norte, que incluye numerosas islas en el Caribe y el noreste limita con el Océano Atlántico norte. La mayoría de los observadores describen a Venezuela en términos de cuatro regiones topográficas bastante bien definidas: las tierras bajas de Maracaibo en el noroeste, las montañas del norte que se extienden en un amplio arco de este a oeste desde la frontera con Colombia a lo largo de la costa norte del Caribe, las amplias llanuras en el centro del país y las altas tierras de Guayana en el sureste.
Context and conditions
The geographical location of Venezuela corresponds to the northern hemisphere, and its southern limit is very close to the Earth's equator. Its continental territory is made up of a compact land mass that extends equally from east to west and from north to south. Its island territory includes a set of archipelagos, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. Its geography grants it a great diversity of natural resources, mainly energy and minerals, as well as species and ecosystems.
The country is located on the northern coast of South America, and occupies most of the South American Caribbean. To the north it has its maritime façade on the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. In the Caribbean Sea it has an extensive coastline of 2718 km, while in the Atlantic Ocean it is 556 km.
Its continental shelf is located in the north and northeast of the country; It covers approximately 18% of the total continental surface and has a maritime presence of 860,000 km². In general, it comprises a wide coastal strip of low relief, between 0 and 100. It is located between the Caribbean Sea and the coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"). It presents three important widened depressions: Lake Maracaibo to the west, the Unare Depression in the central northeast corner and the Orinoco delta region to the east, with low and swampy lands. In the coastal area are the most important ports of the country: La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello and Puerto La Cruz.
These extensive territories are expressed in a compact continental surface, whose maximum distance is 1,493 km in an east-west direction, and 1,271 km in a north-south direction, which contributes to facilitating integration and internal cohesion. It is articulated with extensive coastlines, which reach a maritime façade of 2183 km in length in the Caribbean Sea, from Castilletes to the Paria promontory. It is irregular in shape and is made up of numerous gulfs and bays, among which the Gulfs of Venezuela, Triste, Paria and Cariaco stand out and more than 314 islands, cays and islets of Venezuelan sovereignty that reach the north to the island of Aves.[149].
Being in the intertropical zone, Venezuela has a warm and rainy climate in general, but due to the orography, the winds, the influence of the sea and the orientation of the mountain ranges, there are climatic differences. Latitude plays a certain role in the seasonality and amount of rainfall, but its role is much smaller in terms of the effect it has on temperatures. Altitude, however, constitutes a factor that drastically changes the climate, especially with regard to temperature, reaching very different values depending on the arrangement of the relief in what is known as thermal, biotic or ecological floors.
Borders
Venezuela borders thirteen political units of the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, although not all of them have defined limits of marine and underwater areas. It has borders with settled delimitations with the United States of America (Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands),[n 9][150] the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba, Curaçao and the Caribbean Netherlands),[n 10][151] the Dominican Republic,[n 11][152] France (Guadeloupe "Guadeloupe (France)") and Martinique)[n 12][153] and Trinidad and Tobago.[n 13][154].
It remains to be delimited with Colombia (430 km), Saint Kitts and Nevis (80 km), the United Kingdom (Montserrat) (45 km), Dominica (80 km), Saint Lucia (10 km), Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (90 km), Grenada "Granada (country)") (300 km) and Guyana (1150 km). It has land borders with three countries, to the south with Brazil with 2199 km; to the east with Guyana with 743 km that may be subject to changes;[n 14] and to the west with Colombia with a length of 2219 km.[8].
Natural regions
The geographical diversity of the national territory becomes evident when it is divided into natural regions. Specifically, in Venezuela up to eight regions can be differentiated, namely: The Andes, Lake Maracaibo Depression, Insular, Coastal Cordillera, Eastern Cordillera, the Orinoco River Delta, Los Llanos, Guayana, and the Lara-Falcón Formation.
Relief and geology
The Venezuelan territory covers three large geographical units that follow one another from west to east: the northern Andean and coastal mountain ranges to the north and west, the Venezuelan Llanos that constitute extensive sedimentary plains that are almost entirely part of the Orinoco basin to the north of this river, and the massifs and plateaus of very ancient formation in the Venezuelan Guayana, to the south of the Orinoco River. Its configuration took place in the process of formation of the South American subcontinent, when it formed a supercontinent with Africa, until its separation in the Paleozoic. Very few countries in the world, except for some very large ones, have this same variety of reliefs on their territory.
In Venezuela, the northern mountain formations bifurcate into two Andean chains, raised during the Tertiary Era, which begin to be individualized in the north of the Colombian Eastern mountain range "Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)"). The western chain is made up of the Perijá mountain range, on the border with Colombia, which rises to 3750 m. The eastern chain forms the Mérida mountain range, which culminates in Pico Bolívar at 4978 meters,[n 15][156] the highest elevation in the country. These two mountain chains surround the depression of Lake Maracaibo —13,280 km², the largest in South America—[157] which occupies a wide depression open to the Gulf of Venezuela and has large reserves of hydrocarbons underground. Between Lake Maracaibo, the Mérida mountain range and the Caribbean Sea rise the mountain ranges and hollows of the Coriano System, formed by three orographic alignments oriented from southwest to northwest.
Towards the east, the mountainous region extends, bordering the Caribbean coast through the Caribbean mountain range, made up of the Coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)") and the Interior mountain range, both oriented parallel in an east-west direction, and between which is the depression of Lake Valencia. They are separated by other highly populated longitudinal valleys in which most of the country's economic activity is concentrated. The dunes also appear, starting in the city of Coro "Coro (Venezuela)") and extending northward towards the Paraguaná peninsula, including the isthmus of Los Médanos, and the Venezuelan portion of the Guajira peninsula. Its landscape is desert-type, with dunes that continually move due to the action of the trade winds that blow from east to west. Finally, to the east of this mountain range rises the Cumaná Massif"), which forms the peninsulas of Araya "Araya (Venezuela)") and Paria, between the gulfs of Cariaco and Paria. Thus we have that the west and north Venezuelan coast are dominated by successive mountain chains, which although they are segregated by fertile valleys and hollows, do not lose their structural continuity.
The Orinoco Plains occupy the central depression that extends between the Andean mountains and the Orinoco valley, which borders the north of the Guayanés Massif. It constitutes an immense plain that is characterized by its horizontality, covered by the sea in past times - the origin of hydrocarbon deposits - and currently covered by powerful layers of river sediments drained by the Orinoco, which in the south links with the Amazon and extends to the Atlantic in the east, through a large river delta of more than 40,000 km². They are different from other alluvial formations, due to their geological constitution and general appearance, distinguishing among them the so-called High or Western Plains, well drained and covered with vegetation; the Low or Central Plains, floodable in the rainy season, and the Eastern Plains or Las Mesas, characterized by the tabular relief in the form of plateaus, which descends in the east from the Cumaná Massif to the Orinoco, isolating in the eastern end the plains of the Monagas state.
Hydrography
The country is made up of three hydrographic slopes: that of the Caribbean Sea, that of the Atlantic Ocean and that of Lake Valencia, which forms an endorheic basin.
Most of Venezuela's river waters drain on the Atlantic slope. The largest basin in this area is the extensive Orinoco basin whose surface area, close to one million km², is larger than that of all of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65% in the country. The size of said basin—similar to that of the Danube—makes it the third largest in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of about 33 thousand m³/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the world,[159] and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of renewable natural resources. The Casiquiare River or Arm constitutes a unique case in the world, since it is a natural derivation of the Orinoco that, after about 500 km in length, connects it with the Negro River "Río Negro (Amazonas)"), which is in turn a tributary of the Amazon. The Orinoco directly or indirectly receives rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the Caroní, the Meta, the Arauca, the Apure and many others. Other Venezuelan river courses that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the San Juan "Río San Juan (Venezuela)") and Cuyuní basins. Finally there is that of the Amazon River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro "Río Negro (Amazonas)") and others. Other basins are the Gulf of Paria and the Essequibo River.
The second most important slope is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers in this region tend to have short courses and low and irregular flow, with some exceptions such as the Catatumbo, which originates in Colombia and empties into the basin of Lake Maracaibo. Among the rivers that reach the Lake Maracaibo basin are the Chama, the Escalante "Río Escalante (Venezuela)"), the Catatumbo, and the contributions from smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and Manzanares rivers "Río Manzanares (Venezuela)").
A minimum drains to the Valencia Lake basin. Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, the Arauca, the Caura, the Meta, the Barima, the Portuguesa, the Ventuari and the Zulia, among others.
The main lakes in the country are Lake Maracaibo—the largest in South America—open to the sea through the natural channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other mentionable bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon), the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon, in the Andes. Navigation in Lake Maracaibo through the natural channel is useful for the mobilization of oil resources.
Climate
Being in the intertropical zone, Venezuela has a warm and rainy climate with two seasons: a dry season, which runs from October to March, and a rainy season, from April to September. Due to the orography, the winds and the sea, there are climatic differences. Latitude is of little importance, but altitude drastically changes the climate, especially the temperature, reaching very different values.
According to the Köppen classification, the types of climate are:[160].
• - Tropical or warm rainy (A), the most predominant and characteristic of the country. It maintains temperatures above 18 °C and rainfall for much of the year. The tropical savannah climate (Aw) occurs in the plains, north of Guyana, and in part of the Andes and the coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"), such as San Cristóbal "San Cristóbal (Venezuela)") and Caracas. It is dry between December and March, with rainfall between 600 and 1500 mm annually. In Guyana, the Aroa and Barlovento rivers, the monsoon climate (Am) is typical, with rainfall between 1600 and 2500 mm annually and a drought of just 45 days. To the south of the same region and in the Perijá mountain range the climate is typical of a tropical forest (Af), rainfall exceeds 2500 mm, with no dry season.
• - Dry (B) "Köppen climate classification"), where evaporation exceeds precipitation. It is typical of desert and arid coastal areas, with temperatures much higher than 18 °C. In Falcón, especially in the Médanos de Coro, and the Insular Region, the hot desert mode (BWh) occurs with moderate rains and scarce vegetation. To the west of that state, the central coast, the coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"), Paraguaná, Barquisimeto, Maracaibo and part of the island of Margarita have the warm or semi-arid steppe (BSh).
• - Intertropical temperate high altitude or dry winter (Cw), with temperatures between 14 and 18 °C in the highest elevations of the Coastal mountain range "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)") such as Colonia Tovar, and at medium altitudes of the Andes, such as Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)"), Tovar and Mucuchíes.
• - High mountain cold (E), with temperatures between less than 0 and 10 °C. The tundra climate (ET) can be seen in the moors "Páramo (ecosystem)") above 2800, in Apartaderos and Pico El Águila. The frozen high mountain climate (EF) is reserved for the highest peaks of the Venezuelan Andes, such as the Bonpland, La Concha, Humboldt and Bolívar peaks.
Fauna and flora
Venezuela presents a diversity of species in its natural habitat. Its main centers of endemism are the Andes and Coast mountain ranges "Cordillera de la Costa (Venezuela)"), the Perijá mountain range and the Guayana massif within the Orinoco River basin.
It has more than 30,000 species of angiosperms—positioning the country in eighth place in the world—of which more than 8,000 are endemic (40% of the total). It also occupies fifth place in the world in bird species, with approximately 1,420 species (15% of the world total and 45% of South American bird species) with 49 of them being endemic.[161] There are 390 species of mammals, and 400 species of amphibians, ranking ninth in the world in this group.[162] It is estimated that 12% of the 1,300 species of fish freshwater species are endemic. Among tropical countries, it ranks fourth in plant species, fifth in mammals and birds, sixth in primates, amphibians and reptiles, and ninth in butterflies.[163].
The vertebrate fauna in Venezuela covers approximately 2,120 terrestrial species and 1,000 aquatic species. Venezuelan mammals include 306 terrestrial and 21 aquatic species, of which 14 are endemic. The birdlife is represented in 1300 species; 46 of them are endemic and 120 are migratory. There are 254 species of reptiles distributed in 3 orders, 22 families and 105 genera in the country, while continental fish have around 1000 species.[165] Due to this wide diversity of natural species, the country is part of the group of megadiverse countries, which brings together 18 countries as it has the greatest concentration and diversity of species in the world.[166].
The flora of the rainforests of Venezuelan Guayana, on the other hand, consist of trees up to 40 meters high, such as ceiba, yagrumo, guamo, caobo, vines, species of bromeliads and other epiphytes. The fauna of these regions is represented by jaguars, pumas, chigüires, anteaters, báquiros, otters and cachicamos. Its birdlife is made up of toucans, parrots and macaws. There are also rattlesnakes and cuaima-piña, as well as iguanas, morrocoyas and dolphins.
In the cloud forests of the Andes and Coast mountain ranges and in several mountain ranges, the presence of sweet cedar, jarillo or apamate stands out, in addition to various species of palms and orchids such as Cattleya mossiae, the national flower. Among the fauna inhabiting such regions, the tapir or tapir, the limpet, the kinkajú, the puma and others are recorded. Birds such as the guacharaca and hummingbirds are observed, many snakes such as the famous anaconda, themapanare and the coral snake, and many species of frogs and arachnids.
The Andean regions of Trujillo "Trujillo (state)"), Mérida "Mérida State (Venezuela)") and Táchira, in which the temperature is very low, include cardón, cují, bucare and frailejón among their plant species. Precisely due to the low temperature, fauna is usually scarce, however the presence of rabbits, deer, foxes, porcupines and shrews is observed, as well as the Andean condor, the black eagle, the golden eagle and the paraulata.
Biodiversity
Phytogeographically, Venezuela has a wide variety of biomes such as savannahs, jungles, forests, paramos, deserts, mangroves, tepuis, among others. With a community of plants and animals of various types due largely to the climatic differences that occur in its territory. The country has very different areas both for its climate and the presence of the fauna characteristic of the areas. These biomes are usually easily classified by their appearance or feature because the vegetation contributes to their observation and classification.
These characteristics make the country recognized as a megadiverse country, occupying seventh place among the countries with the greatest biodiversity in the world.[169][170] The country occupies the fifth position in the world in number of bird species, the seventh position in the world in species of vascular plants,[171] the ninth position in the world in amphibians, the fourth position with the most species of freshwater fish, and is also among the countries with the most species of butterflies.[172] Currently Venezuela has two biosphere reserves, among which are the Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare bioreserve - which occupies a large part of the surface of the Duida-Marahuaca national park - and the Orinoco Delta.
Economy
En 2020, el país fue el 76.º mayor exportador del mundo (US$16,4 millones en bienes, 0,1 % del total mundial).[174][175] En 2016, el país fue el 63.º mayor importador del mundo: US$33,6 mil millones.[176] Venezuela posee una economía de mercado cuya base principal es la extracción y refinamiento de petróleo para la exportación y consumo interno. Es la octava economía de América Latina, después de Brasil, México, Argentina, Colombia, Perú, Ecuador y Guatemala según su PIB (nominal)[177]y la séptima también, por su PIB (PPA).[178].
Las principales exportaciones del país van hacia China ($843 M), Turquía ($452 M), Estados Unidos ($308 M), Países Bajos ($171 M), y Brasil ($168 M), mientras que sus principales importaciones provienen desde China ($2.19 MM), Estados Unidos ($1.55 MM), Brasil ($1.09 B), Colombia ($331 M), y la India ($312 M).[173].
A lo largo del siglo se posicionó como la economía más próspera de la región precisamente debido al boom petrolero comenzado a mediados de la época, mientras que su moneda era una de las de mayor apreciación frente al dólar, pero la caída en la cotización de este recurso en la década de 1980 originó una fuerte recesión y problemas financieros. La economía presentó una importante recuperación en 2004, registrando un crecimiento del 17%, uno de los más altos del mundo según el Fondo Monetario Internacional. Al cierre del 2008, este fue de un 4% del producto interno bruto.[179] El riesgo país se ubicó en 961 puntos básicos en septiembre de 2012, según datos oficiales.[180] La tasa de desocupación para 2011 fue de 8,2%.[181] No obstante, su tasa de inflación para ese mismo año fue de 30,9%, la más alta de América Latina.[182] A principios de 2014, la economía volvió a caer en recesión con 3 semestres consecutivos de datos negativos y con un retroceso al final del año 2014 del 3,9%.[183][184] En el año 2015 la inflación cerró en 180,9%[185] y el PIB se redujo 5,7% con respecto al año anterior.[186]En 2016, de acuerdo con resultados preliminares del Banco Central de Venezuela reportados por Reuters, el PIB cayó 18,6% y la inflación alcanzó un 799,9%, la más alta del mundo.[187][188] Venezuela cuenta también con algunas empresas filiales de Petróleos de Venezuela como Citgo.
International rankings
Venezuela's position in international classification systems in different categories. The data used corresponds to the year of publication indicated, not necessarily the same year.
Agriculture, fishing and forestry
Venezuela produced in 2019: 4.3 million tons of sugar cane; 1.9 million tons of corn; 1.4 million tons of bananas; 760 thousand tons of rice; 485 thousand tons of pineapple; 477 thousand tons of potatoes; 435 thousand tons of palm oil; 421 thousand tons of cassava; 382 thousand tons of orange "Orange (fruit)"); 225 thousand tons of watermelon; 199 thousand tons of papaya; 194 thousand tons of melon; 182 thousand tons of tomatoes; 155 thousand tons of mandarin; 153 thousand tons of coconut; 135 thousand tons of avocado; 102 thousand tons of mango "Mango (fruit)")—including mangosteen and guava—; 56 thousand tons of coffee; in addition to small productions of other agricultural products. Due to internal economic and political problems, sugar cane production fell from 7.3 million tons in 2012 to 3.6 million in 2016. Corn production fell from 2.3 million tons in 2014 to 1.2 million in 2017. Rice fell from 1.15 million tons in 2014 to 498 thousand tons in 2016.[197].
In livestock, Venezuela produced, in 2019: 470 thousand tons of beef, 454 thousand tons of chicken meat, 129 thousand tons of pork, 1.7 billion liters of cow's milk, among others. Chicken meat production decreased progressively, from year to year, from 1.1 million tons in 2011 to 448 thousand tons in 2017. Pork production fell from 219 thousand tons in 2011 to 124 thousand tons in 2018. Cow's milk production fell from 2.4 billion liters in 2011 to 1.7 billion liters in 2019.[199].
The Land and Agrarian Development Law of 1960 allowed the expansion and diversification of agricultural production, which was also stimulated by the increase in irrigable surface area, the emergence of new companies and the introduction of new plant species. These events helped agriculture to benefit, increasing the spaces for cultivation in the plains, Andean and Zulia regions. In the country there are about 310,972 hectares of irrigable surface, with a net area of 197,258 hectares.[200].
In 2003, agricultural activities employed 11% of the country's active population—4% less than in 1990—and contributed 5% of the annual GDP. Venezuelan agricultural resources range from subsistence and semi-commercial agriculture, developed in traditional conucos and small farms where products for domestic consumption are grown, to plantations of various types. In recent decades, mechanized and modern annual crop systems have multiplied, such as those specialized in corn, rice, sorghum, sesame, peanuts, sunflower and cotton.
The leading crops in terms of production and trade are sugar cane, corn, rice, banana, potato, and cassava. Traditional tropical crops are coffee, sugar cane, cocoa and tobacco.[203] An important cereal crop of corn, rice and sorghum has been established in the central-western plains region. The cultivation of corn represented 58.13% of cereal production in 2005, reaching two million tons, while that of rice exceeded 900,000 tons.[204] In the production of oilseeds, oil palm — 44.41% of the total for that year —, coconuts, cotton, sisal, soybeans, sunflower and sesame are of great importance. The group of legumes experienced an upturn in recent years, and its production includes beans—62.97%—and beans. For its part, the production of roots and tubers began to experience a rebound in 1998, led by potatoes—50.83% of the area—and cassava, which has stagnated. In the group of fruits, bananas or bananas, plantains, oranges "Orange (fruit)"), pineapples and melons stand out.[204].
Livestock farming is concentrated in the plains region, Zulia, Guayana, the Andes, Bajo Motatán "Municipio Motatán (Trujillo)") and the northwest. Advances can be seen in the mobilization of livestock resources with improvements in the yields of various types of livestock. In 2005, the livestock herd in Venezuela had 16,300,000 heads of cattle, 3,100,000 of pigs, 530,000 of sheep and 110,000,000 of poultry. In the Llanos there is more activity, having established a prosperous area of intensive meat and milk production there. The main breeds of cattle are Brahman "Brahman (cattle)"), Santa Gertrudis "Santa Gertrudis (cattle breed)") and Carora, while those of pig cattle are Yorkshire and Landrace, among others.[205] In recent times, Venezuela has imported cattle from Argentina and Uruguay.
Venezuela's fishing resources are made up of a variety of marine species. The most important commercial catches are tuna, sardines, kingfish, dogfish, mullet, shrimp, shrimp, trout, snappers, groupers, crabs and others. Mariculture of shrimp and mussels has been introduced on the coast, trout farming in fish farms in Mérida "Estado Mérida (Venezuela)") and Táchira, and river aquaculture in the Llanos, Zulia and Guayana. In 2007, fishing production stood at 311,125 tons,[206] highlighting the productions of Sucre, Nueva Esparta and Falcón.
For its part, the timber industry has not had the same magnitude, despite the fact that Venezuela is covered in extensive forests and jungles. This due to the inaccessibility of the areas. Despite this, massive plantations of Caribbean pine have been carried out for commercial purposes, south of Monagas and Anzoátegui, along the banks of the Orinoco. According to statistics, in 2005 5,082,092 m³ of wood were obtained.
Oil and mining
In non-renewable energy, in 2020, the country was the 26th largest oil producer in the world, extracting 527 thousand barrels / day. 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investments. and by the country's politics.[208] In 2019, the country consumed 356 thousand barrels/day (39th largest consumer in the world).[209][210] The country was the thirteenth largest oil exporter in the world in 2018 (1.2 million barrels/day), when production had not yet plummeted to 527 thousand barrels/day in 2020.[207] In 2015, Venezuela was the 28th largest producer of natural gas, 26 billion m³ per year.
In 2017, the country was the 28th largest consumer of gas (37.6 billion m³ per year) and was the 45th largest gas importer in the world in 2010: 2.1 billion m³ per year.[211] In coal production, the country was the 41st largest in the world in 2018: 0.3 million tons (in 2014, production was 1.2 million tons and has been falling since then).[212] In renewable energy, in 2020, Venezuela produced no wind energy or solar energy.[213] In 2014 it was the ninth largest producer of hydroelectric energy in the world with an installed capacity of 15 GW.[214][215][216].
In Venezuela, oil, the main source of income,[217] generates around 80% from exports. The country is a founding member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and one of the main producing countries on the planet. The deposits of this resource in all its types are abundant in a large part of the territory, having the first world reserve. In 2019, oil production in Venezuela was 750,000 b/d and in 2020 its monthly average was 450,000 b/d,[218][219][220][221] with most of it exported to the United States, Europe and Latin American countries. Until before 2014, currently its main consumer is China and, on a smaller scale, Cuba and Iran. By 2019, oil production decreased too much and in 2021 Venezuela became an importer of gasoline and diesel.[222].
Extraction is carried out mainly in the Lake Maracaibo basin and in the Barinas-Apure and Oriental basins. The leading company in oil processing is PDVSA, which has subsidiaries that operate in six refineries in the country of varying sizes, as well as others in Curacao, the United States, Germany, Sweden and Belgium. The country is also one of the world's main producers of natural gas: in 2005, m³ of production were calculated,[221] along with liquefied gas, butane and propane. Venezuela also has the Orinoco Belt, which is considered the largest accumulation of heavy and extra-heavy crude oil that exists in the world. The original oil reserves at the Belt site, according to PDVSA, so far reach 1.36 billion barrels.[223].
Other mineral resources are also exploited for commercial purposes such as iron, bauxite, coal, gold, salt "Salt (seasoning)"), phosphates and limestone. The iron deposits in the Imataca mountain range, discovered in the 1940s, were extracted by American companies until the nationalization of 1975 passed this function on to the state-owned Ferrominera del Orinoco, a subsidiary of the Venezuelan Corporation of Guayana. The main Guayanese deposits are Cerro Bolívar, Cerro San Isidro and Cerro Los Barrancos, of which most are exported to Europe, Asia and the United States.
Industry
The World Bank lists the top producing countries each year, based on total value of production. According to the 2019 list, Venezuela had the 31st most valuable industry in the world (US$58.2 billion). Broadly speaking, based on the oil industry.[227]In 2018, Venezuela was the 51st largest producer of vehicles in the world (1.7 thousand), suffering drops since 2010, when it produced 153 thousand vehicles/year. In steel production, the country is not among the 40 largest producers in the world.[228][229][230].
Venezuela was highly industrialized until before 2013, since 51.6% (2003) of its gross domestic product (GDP) comes from industry. Special priority has been given to the manufacturing industry since mid-century. The main products of Venezuelan industries are petroleum derivatives, steel, aluminum, fertilizers, cement, tires and motor vehicles. It is also responsible for the processing of food, beverages, textiles, clothing, footwear, plastic and wood articles. INE data for 2004 placed the active population in industry at 322,907 people.[231] Industrial zones are concentrated in the cities of the Capital and Central region. At the end of the century, the location of industries was consolidated in other regions such as the Western Center, Zuliana and Guayana. In 2007, 4.3 billion tons of steel were produced per year, that year the loss of steel production began, by 2018 only 50 thousand tons were produced per year.[232][233] The aluminum industry ended in 2019 with the energy crisis when they turned off their last electrolytic cells.[234][235] the fertilizer, plastic footwear and clothing industry have been diminished by the economic crisis that the country is going through.
Tourism
Tourism in Venezuela is a poorly developed industry, despite the fact that the country is favored by the wide range of natural environments in its territory. All the natural regions of Venezuela have a large number of tourist attractions and the low cost of transportation, given the low price of gasoline in Venezuela, favors the mobility of tourists.
The country receives fewer foreign visitors than most countries of the same size and even nearby regions such as Aruba. For 2008, Venezuela had some 301,579 visitors from Europe, followed by South America (227,105), North America (130,257), the Caribbean "Caribbean (zone)") (39,480), Asia (15,912), Central America (11,377) and the Middle East (10,100).[236] The industry experienced a significant decline due to instability. politics during the Bolivarian Revolution. According to data from the Ministry of Popular Power for Tourism (MPPT), in 2003 435,421 tourists were received, 47% less than in 1998. However, this rate showed an uptick in 2008, with 856,810 foreign tourists visiting the country.[237].
Regarding domestic tourism, MPPT data express that Venezuelans prefer to travel to various destinations in the national geography during the Easter holiday and the Carnival festivities —13.1 and 12.6 million tourists respectively for 2007—[239] as well as during the Christmas and New Year holidays. The main reason for traveling within the country throughout the year, according to statistics, is to visit family or friends, followed by the desire for recreation typical of the holiday seasons, and professional and business reasons as the third motive.[240].
Given the development of its tourism industry, Margarita Island is the destination par excellence for recreation, being valued for its beaches, its climate and its culture. The Los Roques archipelago and the Morrocoy national park also stand out. The Médanos de Coro and the Cueva del Guácharo also arouse interest due to their peculiarity.
The Andean region, also attractive for its temperate climate and landscapes, has the Pico Bolívar and the Mérida Cable Car, as well as the Sierra Nevada. Urban destinations are profitable, especially in the historic center of each city, with Caracas being the most visited city—about 231,000 international tourists in 2008.[241].
Venezuela is a particularly interesting country for the development of ecotourism or adventure tourism, and its main destinations are the Canaima National Park, the Los Llanos Region (which has areas of exuberant biodiversity), the state of Amazonas, and the uninhabited La Tortuga Island, among others. These ecotourism destinations are recommended for visitors in search of risk, adventure and experiences different from conventional tourism. The Amazon Rainforest has indigenous tribes of great interest while within the Canaima national park, in the south of Venezuela, in the Bolívar State "Bolívar (Venezuela)"), there are views that cannot be found anywhere else in the world. This park has two very different sectors. To the east, the eastern sector, where the Gran Sabana is located and to the west, the western sector, where Angel Falls and the Canaima lagoon are located. The Canaima National Park extends over 30,000 km² to the border with Guyana and Brazil, due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park in the world. About 65% of the park is occupied by rock plateaus called tepuis. These constitute a unique biological environment, also presenting great geological interest. Its steep cliffs and waterfalls (including Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in the world, at 1002 m) form spectacular landscapes.
Energy
In non-renewable energy, in 2020, the country was the 26th largest oil producer in the world, extracting 527 thousand barrels / day. 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack of investments. and by the country's politics.[208] In 2019, the country consumed 356 thousand barrels/day (39th largest consumer in the world).[209][210] The country was the thirteenth largest oil exporter in the world in 2018 (1.2 million barrels/day), when production had not yet plummeted to 527 thousand barrels/day in 2020.[207] In 2015, Venezuela was the 28th largest producer of natural gas, 26 billion m³ per year. In 2017, the country was the 28th largest consumer of gas (37.6 billion m³ per year) and was the 45th largest gas importer in the world in 2010: 2.1 billion m³ per year.[211].
In coal production, the country was the 41st largest in the world in 2018: 0.3 million tons (in 2014, production was 1.2 million tons and has been falling since then).[212] In renewable energy, in 2020, Venezuela produced no wind power or solar power.[213] In 2014 it was the ninth largest producer of hydroelectric power in the world with an installed capacity of 15 GW.[214][215][216].
Around 68.13% of electrical energy is produced in hydroelectric facilities. The state company Corporación Venezolana de Guayana/Electrificación del Caroní (CVG EDELCA) developed the Raúl Leoni hydroelectric plant and the Macagua plant in Bolívar "Bolívar (Venezuela)". They have contributed more than 70% of Venezuelan electricity production in recent years. The state-owned Electrical Administration and Development Company (CADAFE, f. 1958) has been carrying out the construction of the Uribante Caparo Complex since the 1970s, having only built the San Agatón power plant or first development to date. According to data, 99.2 million kWh of electricity were generated in 2005.[242].
According to INE data for that year, Venezuelan electricity production was capable of supplying consumption equivalent to 757,000 barrels of oil per day,[243] which has made it possible to comply with the policy of replacing thermoelectricity with hydroelectricity followed by Venezuela, which will save liquid fuels that can be used for export or conservation. The energy generated by the Simón Bolívar plant supplies most of the national territory, including part of Caracas. Of the total produced, a part is acquired by Brazil to supply a portion of the North of its territory.
Minimum wage
The minimum wage is established directly by the national government with its publication in the Official Gazette. From December 2015 to April 2025, the minimum wage has been deteriorating due to the high inflation in Venezuela and the fall in international reserves. By November 2017, the minimum wage fell on average to less than $25 per month. During that period, the government has raised the wage between four and six times a year to try to level out its devaluation. For March 1, 2018, the minimum wage was 392,646.46 Bs.F "Bolívar (currency)"), which together with the food bonus (915,000 Bs.F "Bolívar (currency)"), totals 1,307,546.46 Bs.F "Bolívar (currency)"), equivalent to 6.12 USD at the market exchange rate black[244] or 32.54 USD according to the official DICOM exchange rate of the Central Bank of Venezuela (BCV). The minimum wage has remained below $4 per month since March 2020, although the bonus has been increased as compensation for the salary, but at the time of pensioning or retiring it is based on the minimum wage.[245].
In August 2018, the Venezuelan monetary cone lost five zeros in its accounting, with a new currency the Sovereign bolivar (Bs.S), the new minimum wage was adjusted to 1,800 sovereign bolivars. Retirees lost part of their acquired benefits due to high inflation. For that month, the minimum wage was 18 dollars and the government disappeared the official dollar system controlled by a Controlled Floating exchange system.[246][247][248] In January 2020, the minimum wage rose to 250 thousand sovereign bolivars, which is equivalent to about 3.5 dollars or a few Colombians per month.[249] Food bonuses do not enter into the accounting at the time of settlement of the termination of employment or termination of employment. ask for retirement.
Historically, the official exchange rate assigned by the BCV by which the equivalent of bolivars in dollars is calculated, had a fixed value from February 5, 2003 (1 USD = 1,600 Bs.) that lasted until February 2005, it was again regulated from March 2005 to January 2010 (1 USD = 2.15 Bs.F or 2,150 Bs.)[250] product of an exchange control regulated by CADIVI. On January 11, 2010, the national exchange system was devalued again, placing the dollar at 2.60 Bs.F and creating the oil dollar at 4.30 Bs.F. This dual scheme was eliminated as of January 1, 2011, devaluing both rates to a value of 4.30 Bs.F per dollar.[251].
From June 2010 to mid-2012, there was a third exchange rate called SITME, regulated by the BCV in order to contain the parallel exchange rate in which the price of the dollar fluctuated around twice the official rate.[252] This scheme did not have a fixed value for the dollar and worked through the purchase and sale of securities in foreign currency. This fixed value system was eliminated on January 30, 2018[253] Venezuela has the highest inflation in the world: it closed at 799.9% in 2016,[187][188] considered hyperinflation since November 2017; The accumulated inflation in 2018 reached 1,698,488% by December 2019, according to the National Assembly, which estimated a cumulative inflation of 7,374%.[254][255].
International reserves
International reserves are foreign currency deposits controlled by Central Banks and other monetary authorities. Venezuela's reserves in March 2009 were a total of 29,633 million dollars,[256] rising to 30,434 billion in July,[257]< while by the end of July 2012 they stood at 27,210 million dollars.[258] Until December 2016, reserves have dropped to 10,868 million dollars.[259] In October 2019, reserves fell by 7,978 million dollars.[260] On January 2, 2020, according to a BCV report, reserves stood at 6,633 million dollars, the lowest figure in the last 25 years[261].
In official gold reserves, Venezuela has been losing its gold reserves continuously for the last eight years. By 1957, after the Second World War, it managed to accumulate 640 tons of gold, being the most thriving economy for the time. In 2010, it ranked first in Latin America and 15th in the world, with 372.9 tons,[262] equivalent to 67.7% of its international reserves. Until the end of 2016, gold reserves decreased to 187.5 tons, ranking 25th in the world.[259] By June 2019, gold reserves decreased to 102.4 Tm, ranking 36th in the world.[263].
economic crisis
Along with the economic crisis of 1983 that led to industrial reconversion and the establishment of exchange control,[265] the oil sector became the most important part of the economy, the global economic crisis that began in 2008 and taking into account the Venezuelan oil boom 2008-2011, external debt, uncontrolled public spending, poor administration and the fall in oil production after 2014. They had especially serious consequences in Venezuela.
Initially there was a shortage of basic products, unemployment, a subsequent stagnation and a new decline starting in the last quarter of 2014. The difficult situation of the economy led to a fall in tax revenues, a fall in oil production, an increase in certain financial expenses, the maturity of debts and the commitment to deliver oil to China, which led the government of Nicolás Maduro to drastically devalue the currency. This was accompanied by a social, institutional and political crisis, numerous demonstrations, an increase in poverty and inequality in the country.
The country has been in default since November 2018.[266] The conflicts acquired in 2008 due to the expropriation of some foreign companies that the state lost before the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). They have brought serious consequences for its economy between 2016 and 2019, finding itself in a hyper-inflationary process. The crisis has triggered de facto dollarization. According to Luis Zambrano Sequín, from the Institute of Economic and Social Research, 40% of its deposits are in the US currency, turning the country into a dollarized economy as of September 2018.[267] In addition, approximately 60% of payments in commercial businesses in 2021 were made in dollars.[268].
The Special Economic Zones have recently been established by presidential decree.[269]The SEZs in the decree are Paraguaná (Falcón), Puerto Cabello – Morón (Carabobo), La Guaira (La Guaira), Margarita (Nueva Esparta) and La Tortuga Island (Miranda Island Territory). It is expected that in the coming years with these new economic policies, Venezuela can achieve high levels of economic development and some recovery.
Science and technology
Venezuela has had several scientists who have contributed significantly to natural and medical sciences, as well as to technological advancement. The first vaccine to cure leprosy and leishmaniasis was developed by Jacinto Convit, while Baruj Benacerraf carried out demonstrations on immune responses to antigens and their variation in each person, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1980. In the field of technology, Humberto Fernández Morán contributed to the development of the electron microscope and the diamond scalpel, the latter of his own invention, being the first to introduce the concept of cryoultramicrotomy").
Historically, the first vestige of technology made by Venezuelans is found in the development of the Rincones clamp, which allowed parts to be recovered from oil wells.[270] Technological activities in the country would gain new momentum towards the middle of the century with the creation of new institutes aimed at the promotion and professionalization of scientific and technological activity in the country.[271].
Such institutions, such as the National Council for Scientific and Technological Research (CONICIT) and the Venezuelan Institute of Scientific Research, are the main references in these matters. All are attached to the Ministry of Science and Technology. On the other hand, there is the National Astronomical Observatory of Llano del Hato which, at 3600 m, is one of the highest in the world.[272] In 2012, the Miranda Satellite (VRSS-1) "Satélite Miranda (VRSS-1)") was launched, intended for terrestrial observation and taking high-resolution digital photographs of the national territory.
According to the World Innovation Index, run by the World Intellectual Property Organization, in 2025, Venezuela was ranked 136th in innovation among 139 countries in the world.[273].
Demography
Venezuela se encuentra entre los países más urbanizados de América Latina;[278][279][280] la gran mayoría de los venezolanos vive en las ciudades del norte, especialmente en la capital Caracas, que es a su vez la ciudad más poblada. Alrededor del 93% de la población vive en áreas urbanas en el norte del país; El 73% vive a menos de 100 kilómetros de la costa. Aunque casi la mitad de la superficie terrestre de Venezuela se encuentra al sur del Orinoco, solo el 5 % de los venezolanos vive allí. La ciudad más grande e importante al sur del Orinoco es Ciudad Guayana, que es la sexta aglomeración urbana más poblada.
La población de Venezuela en el año 2011 superaba los 28 millones de habitantes, y se estimaba que la misma se eleve hasta 42 millones para el 2050.[281] No obstante, la crisis social, económica y política que ha vivido el país durante la década del 2010 ha contribuido a un éxodo masivo de la población del país[282][283] ha derivado en una reducción importante de la población venezolana que para 2020 se contrajo nuevamente a los 28.5 millones de ciudadanos.[284].
Pese a tener una alta tasa de natalidad,[285] Venezuela al mismo tiempo presenta la mayor tasa de emigración de toda la región. En 2009, se estimó que más de 1 millón de venezolanos habían emigrado desde que Hugo Chávez llegó al poder.[286] La emigración a gran escala aún continúa y se incrementó durante la presidencia de Nicolás Maduro, estimándose que desde 1999 unos 6,5 millones de venezolanos han abandonado el país.[287].
Main cities
The Venezuelan population tends to concentrate mostly in coastal and mountainous areas, either due to easier access to ports, in the case of the coast; or due to the more temperate climate, in the case of mountainous areas. The most important population center outside the coastal/mountain area is Ciudad Guayana, at the confluence of the Orinoco and Caroní rivers, in the east of the country. The main cities of Venezuela are listed below in terms of importance, extension and number of inhabitants. The population data belongs to the last Population and Housing Census of the National Institute of Statistics for 2011.
Ethnic composition
Venezuela is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in America, with a population made up mainly of a mix of indigenous people, Europeans and Africans.[290] Before the arrival of Europeans, the territory was inhabited by numerous indigenous peoples, including Caribs, Arawaks, Wayuus, Yanomamis, Pemones, Waraos, Yucpas, Piaroas, Guajibos, each with their own languages and cultures.[291][292][293] According to estimates by modern authors, the indigenous population at the time of European contact ranged between 200,000 and 500,000 people. By 1800, Alexander von Humboldt estimated that it had declined to approximately 120,000 inhabitants. This decline was primarily due to epidemics of infectious diseases introduced by Europeans, such as smallpox, which caused a pandemic in the 1580s, as well as violence and exploitative conditions resulting from Spanish colonization. Added to these factors were processes of miscegenation that, over time, transformed the ethnic identity of large sectors of the population.[294].
According to the results of the 2011 National Census, the most selected ethnic self-identification category was “moreno/a”, with 49.9% of the population. 42.2% identified themselves as "white", 2.8% as "black", 0.7% as "Afro-descendant", 2.7% as "indigenous", 1.1% as "other" and 0.6% did not respond.[295] In the first half of the century, it was common in intellectual and political discourse to consider that around 60% of the Venezuelan population belonged to the category of "non-whites", in contrast to a minority identified as "white".[296] Various international sources have offered estimates based on historical and demographic models. For example, the Encyclopædia Britannica (2000) estimated that approximately 63.7% of the population was mixed race, 20.0% local white, 3.3% other white, 10.0% local black, 1.3% Amerindian and 1.7% in other categories.[297].
Most European colonizers came from Spain, especially from regions such as Andalusia, Extremadura, Castile and the Canary Islands. In the 20th century, the country received new migratory flows from Italy, Portugal and other European nations.[298][299][300] During that same period, communities from Lebanon, Syria, China and of Jewish origin also arrived.[301][302][303].
The African presence in Venezuela originated in the transatlantic slave trade, which brought people mainly from West Africa and Central Africa to work on plantations and agricultural work. These populations were settled in regions such as Barlovento and the central coast, areas that historically concentrated the country's Afro-descendant population.[304][305][306].
The 1999 Constitution officially recognizes Venezuela as a multiethnic and pluricultural society, granting specific rights to indigenous peoples, who maintain their own languages, customs and identities.[307].
A study by the University of Brasilia on the average ancestral composition of South American populations reports that the average DNA of the Venezuelan population is made up of approximately 60.6% ± 4.0% of European ancestry, 23.0% ± 1.5% of indigenous (Amerindian) ancestry and 16.3% ± 3.1% of African ancestry.[308].
indigenous
They are a minority group that in 2011 represented 2.7% of the country's total population, with a total of 1,511,329 ethnic people according to the 2011 census of Venezuela, of which small groups located in the most isolated and remote regions of the country maintain their culture intact.[309] The indigenous people in contact with the white and mestizo city man have a certain assimilation, putting their culture in danger of disappearing due to the influences from neighboring countries. The indigenous influence is limited to the vocabulary of some words - such as place names - and gastronomy.[310].
Among those who recognized themselves as Amerindians, 58% said they were from the Wayúu ethnic group, 7% Warao, 5% Kariña, 4% Pemón, 3% Piaroa, 3% Jivi, 3% Añu, 3% Cumanagoto, 2% Yukpa, 2% Chaima, 1% Yanomami and other peoples. 9%.[311][312][313].
Emigration
Venezuelan emigration constitutes the largest recent migration crisis in Latin America, with more than 7.7 million people displaced by 2024, of which 6.5 million reside in Latin American and Caribbean countries. Colombia is the main receiving country, with approximately 2.8 million Venezuelans;[314] followed by Peru, which is home to nearly 1.6 million, representing more than 4% of its total population.[315] Chile hosts around 32.8% of the Venezuelan diaspora in the country—about 532,700 people—[316][317] while Ecuador, Brazil, the United States The United States and other countries have also received important migratory flows.[318][319][320].
This mass exodus has transformed the demographic composition of Venezuela, significantly reducing the population of reproductive and working age, and increasing the proportion of people over 60 years of age.[321] The main causes of emigration are the economic crisis, political instability, shortages of food and medicine, and violence, affecting various sociodemographic profiles, from young professionals to complete families.[320][322] Migration also involves changes in the family structure, with frequent separations. between members who remain in Venezuela and those who emigrate, which affects household dynamics.[323] Recent studies have used innovative methods, such as social network analysis and surveys, to monitor and better understand this phenomenon, highlighting the importance of contingent hope and transnational support networks for migrants.[314][324] Furthermore, the mental health of migrants varies depending on their reasons for departure and the country of destination, constituting a crucial aspect for the design of support policies. effective.[320][325].
Foreign communities
Venezuela is home to an important colony of Italians, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabs and Chinese "China (region)"), in addition to a large number of people from Colombia and also from the Southern Cone and the Caribbean "Caribbean (region)"). With the beginning of oil exploitation in 1914, companies and citizens, largely from the United States, were established. Later, during the postwar period, Venezuela received the third largest wave of European immigration in America.[n 16] Immigrants coming mainly from Italy and Spain, and new immigrants from Portugal, the Middle East, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland,[326] the Netherlands, China, Hungary, Turkey, Ukraine,[327] Poland,[328] Armenia, and Russia, among others, encouraged at the same time by the immigration and colonization program implemented by the Government.[329] This process created large communities among which the Italian-Venezuelans, the Hispanic-Venezuelans and the Portuguese-Venezuelans stand out. According to official data from Spain, Venezuela is the third country in the world to have the largest community of Spaniards.[n 17] It occupies the same position in the case of the Italian community, but only at the Latin American level.[n 18][330] The Lusitanian community is the second after Brazil.
During the 1970s, Venezuela received immigration from various Latin American countries, primarily Colombia, Peru and Ecuador. Added to this was immigration from the Southern Cone of people fleeing dictatorships and who saw in Venezuela a way out of their difficult situation. These continuous waves of migration increased the country's complex racial mosaic. The Venezuelan population born in other countries represented 4.4% of the national total. The greatest immigration comes from Colombia, Spain, Portugal and Italy, among other countries such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Tobago, with Venezuela being the second country in Latin America to have the most immigration from both Europe and America itself, behind Argentina.[331].
Education
Education has been free and compulsory since June 27, 1870, by decree of President Antonio Guzmán Blanco, while on August 3, 1910, during the government of Juan Vicente Gómez, the Public Instruction code of June 25 was published in the Official Gazette No. 11,068, 11,069 and 11,070, which establishes that education in Venezuela is divided into public, subsidized and private.[336].
In Venezuela, education is structured at the preschool, basic, diversified and higher levels. It is regulated by the Organic Law of Education"), which makes it mandatory from preschool to the diversified secondary level (from 6 to 15 years), and free in schools managed directly by the State up to the undergraduate level.[337] In this matter, the State has the power to create the relevant services to facilitate and maintain access to all types of education.
According to official data, for the 2005-2006 academic period a total of 1,010,946 children were enrolled in preschool education.[338]Basic education had approximately 4,885,779 enrolled for that same period, while 671,140 students were registered in middle or secondary, diversified and professional education centers.[338]The country also had the number of 25,835 schools and educational units for these three levels.[338].
The evolution of literacy has been growing and especially accelerated during the period 1950-2005. In the 1970s, when Venezuela was experiencing enormous growth due to the sale of oil, the literacy rate increased from 77% to 93% until 1999, being one of the highest literacy rates in the region. 2015.[341][342] In 2005, Venezuela declared itself a territory free of illiteracy,[343][344] after enrolling one and a half million people between 2003 and 2005. This announcement, however, contradicted official statistics and projections on the subject.[345].
Likewise, in the United Nations Human Development Index, Venezuela (0.711) is in 71st place in terms of average years of study worldwide and in 8th place in Latin America. The countries with the best education in Latin America until 2007 were Cuba (0.993), Uruguay (0.955) and Argentina (0.946), although since then Cuba has not been included in the indicators.[346].
Health
The Venezuelan government manages a social security system that covers, among others, work accidents, illnesses and pensions. Life expectancy is 71.5 years for men and 77.8 years for women, according to estimates for 2006.[347].
The majority of deaths and deaths on holidays are caused by accidents induced by alcohol intake, and by non-compliance with safety regulations such as seat belts, among others.
Certain diseases are located mainly in rural areas of Venezuela, due to the lack of sanitation in these areas. In the 1940s, an intense campaign was carried out to fumigate with DDT and eliminate mosquitoes that transmitted malaria, yellow fever and Chagas disease. However, starting in the 1970s, these mosquito-borne diseases increased again.
Since 2007 and 2008, several health indicators showed a significant deterioration. Thus, infant mortality grew from 4,747 deaths in children under 1 year of age in 2007 to deaths in 2016 and maternal mortality in the same period from 198 maternal deaths to 756. While cases of malaria were recorded in 2008, this number rose to in 2016.[348][349][350][351].
Languages
The Constitution of Venezuela recognizes Spanish and the languages of the Venezuelan indigenous peoples as official. Spanish is the mother tongue of the majority of Venezuelans. The variant of Spanish used is Venezuelan Spanish, which in turn is divided into several dialects.
The languages of indigenous Venezuelans are spoken by less than 1% of the total population of Venezuela. Among these languages are Wayuunaiki, Warao, Pemón and others.
Venezuelan Sign Language (LSV) is not constitutionally an official language, however, it is used by the country's deaf culture and constitutionally the deaf and mute have the right to express themselves and communicate under this language. Generally, Venezuelan Sign Language is used in television news programs by interpreters.
Immigrants from other countries use their own languages, in addition to Spanish. Among the most spoken non-native languages are Arabic, Chinese, English, Italian and Portuguese. English is used as a mother tongue by Venezuelans residing in towns near Guyana, such as San Martín de Turumbán.[352] As for dialects, Portuñol is spoken on the border with Brazil, especially in Santa Elena de Uairén. Coloniero German is a German dialect used in Colonia Tovar, in the state of Aragua.
Religion
The National Constitution establishes freedom of worship. Although official figures show that Christians make up more than 80% of the population, this high number is due to the fact that the majority of the population is a believer in God and was raised in a Catholic home, but strictly speaking, not all of them are practitioners or identify with Catholic customs or rites, which; Added to the growing migration towards evangelical and Pentecostal cults, it results in a truly lower percentage of Catholics. In fact, it is a trend that is observed throughout Latin America and is increasing in countries such as Chile, Nicaragua, Honduras and Uruguay.[354] Around 17% belong to evangelical churches, the Anglican Church and other Protestant groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Seventh-day Adventist Church. There are also small communities of Orthodox Christians.
2% of Venezuelans are members of other religions such as Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism. Practitioners of religions with pre-Hispanic roots represent another 2% of the population. Atheists are 2% of Venezuelans, while agnostics are 6%. On the other hand, Santeria has followers among the Afro-descendant population.
Among the popular religious manifestations of Venezuela are the dancing devils of Corpus Christi. This demonstration is carried out in various regions of the country by different groups called brotherhoods or brotherhoods, which celebrate the presence of Christ in the Blessed Sacrament of the Eucharist in accordance with the doctrine of Catholicism.[353] In total there are 11 brotherhoods that bring together more than five thousand people, the most famous of which is the dancing devils of Yare. These manifestations were recognized by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2012.[355] Likewise, the San Pedro party is another religious festival proclaimed intangible cultural heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.[356].
Venezuela led Christian religious news, beginning on February 25, 2025, when Pope Francis announced that Blessed José Gregorio Hernández the Doctor of the Poor would be canonized along with Mother Carmen Rendiles.[357].
On June 13, 2025, in the first ordinary public Consistory of Pope Leo XIV, it was decreed that José Gregorio Hernández would be canonized on October 19, 2025, along with Mother Carmen Rendiles and five other blesseds from different countries.[358].
Saint José Gregorio Hernández and Saint Carmen Rendiles were canonized on October 19, 2025 by Pope Leo XIV in a massive event in Saint Peter's Square, in Vatican City, Rome, becoming the first Venezuelan saints.[359][360][361].
Criminality
Crime in Venezuela is a problem that affects the entire country, although the exact severity of the problem is not known because NGOs handle unofficial information and they have no way to verify official information about crime in Venezuela.[362] Venezuela was classified as the most unsafe nation in the world according to Gallup polls in 2013 and 2015. In 2013 only 19% of Venezuelans felt safe walking alone at night, with almost a quarter of respondents indicating that they or a member of their family had been robbed in the last year. The situation worsened when just 14% felt safe in 2015, the lowest global percentage recorded since 2005.[363][364][365] The country's intentional homicide rate is also one of the highest in the world.[366][367][368].
According to the United Nations, this type of problem is due to the poor political and economic situation in the country.[363][365]The United States Department of State defines Venezuela as "a country of origin, transit, and destination for men, women, and children subject to sex trafficking and slave labor."[369] As a result of the high levels of crime, Venezuelans have been forced to modify some lifestyle habits.[370].
Infrastructure
Transport
Infrastructure in Venezuela had one of its greatest periods of growth under the autocratic government of General Marcos Pérez Jiménez, and then in the oil booms of the following years. The General Rafael Urdaneta Bridge over Lake Maracaibo, 8.7 kilometers long, was at the time of its construction the longest of its kind in the world.[372] Historically, to talk about infrastructure in the country was to talk about a set of well-articulated systems that received good maintenance. However, with the budget cuts made during the 2013 economic crisis, progressive neglect was forced. This, coupled with a problem of insufficiency in recent years, has given rise to recent programs for its rescue.[373] The country today has important highways to which is added a vast network of roads that cover a high percentage of the national territory, which are used by a large number of bus lines that connect the entire territory, being internationally recognized for their low prices. As a whole, the country is articulated by nine main highways: the Caracas - La Guaira Highway that connects the country's capital with the main air terminal and with the second Venezuelan seaport, the Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho Highway that connects the city of Caracas with eastern Venezuela, the Central Regional Highway that connects the main roads of the country, the José Antonio Páez Highway that crosses the heart of Los Llanos from Barinas "Barinas (city)") to Valencia "Valencia (Venezuela)"), the Barquisimeto Northern Beltway "Northern Beltway Highway (Barquisimeto)"), the Valencia - Puerto Cabello Highway that connects the main industrial center with the country's first seaport, the Central Western Highway that links the city of Barquisimeto with Puerto Cabello, the Barquisimeto-Acarigua Highway that allows transportation between the Central-Western and Los Llanos as well as the Lara-Zulia Highway that connects the capitals of the aforementioned states.
The country has approximately 360 airports, of which 11 are classified as international and two of them are among the most prominent in Latin America: the Simón Bolívar International Airport in Caracas, which transports more than nine million passengers annually, and the Santiago Mariño Caribbean International Airport in Porlamar, which transports just over two and a half million passengers. These, along with La Chinita International Airport in Maracaibo, Arturo Michelena International Airport in Valencia, Oriente General José Antonio Anzoátegui International Airport in Barcelona, Manuel Piar International Airport in Ciudad Guayana and Las Piedras Josefa Camejo International Airport in Punto Fijo, are the main ones in the country.[374].
Due to the low cost of automobile fuel, the country's railways have traditionally been scarce, compared to other countries on the continent. There have been railway projects in different governments and the last one was taken up in 2004 by the Autonomous Institute of State Railways, through the National Railway System "Sistema Ferroviario Nacional (Venezuela)"). The same, which is scheduled to be completed in 20 years,[374] foresees its reach of around 13,600 km on rails. Today the section between Caracas and the Valles del Tuy is in operation, which has the largest railway tunnel in Latin America.
Among the infrastructure expansion projects is the third bridge over the Orinoco River between the towns of Cabruta and Caicara del Orinoco, which constitutes the third structure to be built over the Orinoco River, after the Angostura Bridge and the Orinoquia Bridge, which are the longest suspension bridges in Latin America, as well as the Second Bridge Over Lake Maracaibo that would join the Venezuelan cities of Santa Cruz de Mara and Punta de Palmas located on both sides of the Lake. from Maracaibo.
Venezuela resumed the process of construction and completion of new high-level infrastructure, such as the Caruachi Dam, the railway routes between Caracas - Cúa "Cúa (Venezuela)") and between Puerto Cabello - La Encrucijada "La Encrucijada (Venezuela)"), the opening or expansion of metropolitan railway systems in Maracaibo, Valencia "Valencia Metro (Venezuela)"), Los Teques and in Guarenas and Guatire. Of those existing until now, the Caracas Metro is the oldest and most developed, reaching 54.2 kilometers in length. In addition to this, there has been the installation of rapid transit bus networks such as the Tromerca in Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)"), the Transbarca in Barquisimeto, the TransMaracay in Maracay, the TransBolívar in Ciudad Guayana, and the BusCaracas in Distrito Capital "Distrito Capital (Venezuela)"), as well as an urban cable car system such as the Metrocable "Metrocable (Caracas)"), conceived for the transportation of the inhabitants of the mountainous neighborhoods of Caracas and the Trolcable that allows better communication between the city of Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)") and its suburbs located in the Chama River basin.[376].
Telecommunications
The governmental telecommunications regulator in Venezuela, CONATEL, counted in its statistics for September 2016 a total of 7,677,354 subscribers to local fixed telephony, which is managed throughout the Venezuelan territory by CANTV, founded in 1930 under the concession scheme. This company was progressively nationalized between 1953 and 1973; It was privatized in 1991 and was nationalized again in 2007.
According to the same data presented by the institute, for the same period there were a total of 29,158,082 mobile telephone lines, which translates into approximately 94 out of every 100 people have a cell phone line.[377] The main companies in that sector are Movilnet, Movistar —previously known as Telcel— and Digitel, each with its own network.
CANTV also provides Internet services in dial-up and broadband connection. For the third quarter of 2016, there were around 16,624,862 subscribers to the network and a penetration of 18,547,827 users. In September 2016, Internet use had increased by 2.74% in relation to the previous year.[378] With this figure it is estimated that 62 out of every 100 inhabitants are users of the Internet service.[379] The number of web pages with a Venezuelan domain reached a total of 145 <761 sites in June 2009.[380] Other Internet providers in the country have been companies that offer cable television, such as NetUno, Inter "Inter (Venezuela)") —which also provides a fixed telephone service— and Supercable. In this last field, there were 2,165,787 subscribers, with 32 out of every 100 homes receiving a paid signal.[379].
Media
Para 2012, según la Comisión Nacional de Telecomunicaciones de Venezuela, 70,36% de las estaciones de radio y televisión están en manos privadas, 4,58% son de propiedad estatal y 25,05% son medios comunitarios.[381] Los medios de comunicación pertenecientes al Estado venezolano forman parte del Sistema Bolivariano de Comunicación e Información.
La Constitución de Venezuela ampara la libertad de expresión y la libertad de prensa, estableciendo que la comunicación es libre y plural. El artículo 57 de la constitución determina que.
La ONG Reporteros Sin Fronteras, en su informe anual de 2013, ubicó al país en el puesto 117 de 179 países evaluados respecto al grado de libertad de prensa existente,[383] bajando la evaluación al puesto 139 de 180 países en el informe de 2016,[384] en el informe del año 2025, la calificación ubica al país en el puesto 169 de 180, siendo el único país de Sudamérica catalogado como "situación muy grave" desde el 2022 por el organismo.[385] De igual manera desde el 2015 hasta el presente, este informe de publicación anual, muestra que el país ha sido el de peor calificación en Sudamérica.[386].
Press
The most distributed newspapers are the morning newspapers Últimas Noticias "Últimas Noticias (Venezuela)"), El Nacional "El Nacional (Venezuela)"), El Universal "El Universal (Venezuela)"), Tal Cual "Tal Cual (Venezuela)"), El Mundo, Economía y Negocios "El Mundo (Venezuela)"), the sports newspapers Líder "Líder (newspaper)") and Meridian "Meridian (periodic)"). Correo del Orinoco "Correo del Orinoco (2009)") is a newspaper owned by the Venezuelan State. Outside Caracas there are important local newspapers such as Panorama "Panorama (Venezuela)") (Maracaibo, Zulia state); El Carabobeño (Valencia "Valencia (Venezuela)"), Carabobo state); El Impulso "El Impulso (Venezuela)") and El Informador "El Informador (Venezuela)") (Barquisimeto, Lara state); El Siglo "El Siglo (Venezuela)") (Maracay, Aragua); El Tiempo "El Tiempo (Venezuela)") (Puerto la Cruz, Anzoátegui state); Diario Frontera (Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)"), part of Táchira, and South of Lake Maracaibo); Pico Bolívar (Mérida "Mérida (Venezuela)")) and La Nación "La Nación (Venezuela)") (San Cristóbal "San Cristóbal (Venezuela)"), Táchira). There are also newspapers in other languages, aimed at foreign communities in the country, such as Correio de Venezuela (Portuguese) and La Voce d’ Italia "La Voce d’ Italia (Venezuela)") (Italian).
According to the Inter-American Press Association; In Venezuela, more than 405 media outlets have been closed in the last 20 years during the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás Maduro Moros,[387] due to the political censorship undertaken by these governments, among which are an innumerable number of newspapers and where the most peculiar case can be cited, that of the newspaper El Nacional "El Nacional (Venezuela)"); one of the oldest and most prestigious in Venezuela and Latin America, which was sued by Diosdado Cabello, one of the main politicians of Chavismo following an article published in the newspaper, which spoke of said politician's links with organized crime, information corroborated by the DEA and the North American government.
However, there was a ruling in favor of Diosdado Cabello resulting in him having to pay a fine of $13,000,000 and as a measure of pressure, the government ordered the expropriation of the El Nacional building which was valued at more than $40,000,000. With this; The newspaper controversially changed ownership and changed its editorial line in favor of the government. [388].
Television
The free-to-air television networks with the greatest coverage of Venezuelan territory are the state-owned Venezolana de Televisión (f. 1964), TVes (Televisora Venezolana Social) (f. 2007), ViVe (f. 2003); and the private companies Venevisión (f. 1961) and Televen (f. 1988).
In 2006, the government of Hugo Chávez, motivated for political reasons, decided not to renew the tender for the RCTV television channel, which had been in operation since August 18, 1953. The reason was that this channel was openly opposed to the Chávez government and because the tender for the use of the radio spectrum had expired, it decided not to renew said tender, thus causing the signal to be turned off on May 27. 2007. It should be noted that it was together with Venevisión; one of the main and oldest television channels in Venezuela. This fact generated a wave of protests at the national level[389] without the government listening to the people.[390].
There are open signal television stations with little reach, but with a presence throughout the country through subscription television, such as the Televisora de la Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana (f. 2014), the news and opinion channel Globovisión (f. 1994), the legislative channel ANTV (f. 2016), Vepaco TV (f. 2015), the sports channel Meridiano Televisión (f. 1996) and the entertainment and entertainment channel. variety Canal I (f. 2007). Ve Plus, Sun Channel and IVC Networks are TV stations that are only seen through subscription television. There are also regional television channels such as Ávila TV (Caracas), TVS Televisora Regional del Centro (Aragua state), Televisora Regional del Táchira (San Cristóbal, Táchira state), Telecaribe "Telecaribe (Venezuela)") and Televisora de Oriente (Anzoátegui state), Televisora Andina de Mérida (Mérida state), PortuTV (Portuguesa state), among others.
Radio
Radio Nacional de Venezuela (RNV) is the main radio station of the Venezuelan State. Other state-owned radio circuits are YVKE Mundial Radio and the PDVSA Radial Circuit. There are private radio networks with national coverage such as Circuito Líder"), Rumbera Network, FM Center, Circuito Unión Radio, Circuito Radio Venezuela, Ven fm"), Circuito Nacional Belfort, Circuito X, among others. By February 2014, the Venezuelan Chamber of the Broadcasting Industry brought together more than 400 private stations.[391] However, from 2003 to 2021 and according to data from the NGO Foro Penal; The Venezuelan state, through CONATEL (National Telecommunications Commission), has closed more than 233 private radio stations;[392] as part of its attempt to censor the media that report on the social, political and economic situation derived from the crisis created by the governments of Hugo Chávez (1998-2012), and Nicolás Maduro (2012-Present). Commonly, the reasons that CONATEL argues for these closures are technical, operational and permit-related; which has been denied by the owners of said radio stations.
Throughout Venezuela there are many short-range community radio stations. They receive financial and technical support from the Ministry of Popular Power for Communication and Information. These stations are members of the National Circuit of Community Stations. The International Channel of Radio Nacional de Venezuela is the international shortwave service of Radio Nacional de Venezuela. "La Radio del Sur") aims to communicatively integrate countries from Latin America, Africa, Asia and even the United States, Canada and Europe.
Culture
La cultura de Venezuela es un crisol que integra fundamentalmente a tres familias distintas: la indígena, la africana y la europea. Las dos primeras a su vez tenían culturas diferenciadas según las tribus. La transculturación y la asimilación, propias de un sincretismo cultural, condicionaron para llegar a la cultura venezolana actual, similar en muchos aspectos al resto de América Latina, aunque el medio natural hace que haya diferencias importantes. La influencia indígena se limita a algunas palabras del léxico y a la gastronomía. La influencia africana del mismo modo, además de instrumentos musicales como el tambor. La influencia española fue más importante y en particular provino de las regiones de Andalucía y Extremadura, lugares de origen la mayoría de colonos en la zona del Caribe durante la época colonial. Como ejemplo de ello se pueden mencionar las edificaciones, parte de la música, la religión católica y el idioma. Una influencia evidente española son las corridas de toros y ciertos rasgos de la gastronomía. Venezuela también se enriqueció por otras corrientes de origen antillano y europeo en el siglo , en especial de procedencia francesa. En etapa más reciente, en las grandes ciudades y las regiones petrolíferas irrumpieron manifestaciones de origen estadounidense y de la nueva inmigración de origen español, italiano y portugués, aumentando el ya complejo mosaico cultural. Así por ejemplo de Estados Unidos llega la influencia del gusto por el béisbol y las construcciones arquitectónicas modernas.
Literature
Venezuelan literature began to develop from the colonial era, with addresses to the new lands and their original inhabitants. Chronicles and various styles of poetry were the main literary manifestations during the century. In this first period, the figure of Andrés Bello, poet, philologist, grammarian and educator of universal renown, stands out. Bello developed works such as Address to Poetry (1823) and Silva to Agriculture in the Torrid Zone (1826), which were precursors of the Americanist theme that would be developed some time later in other areas of the continent. Simón Rodríguez represents another example of renown throughout the continent, with works such as American Societies (1828), Defense of Bolívar (1830), Observations on the terrain of Vincocaya (1830), and Lights and social virtues (1834).
The beginning of the century and Independence saw the birth of a refined political literature, including the autobiography of Francisco de Miranda and the letters of Bolívar, as well as oratory of great rhetorical and stylistic beauty that would permeate the writings of the most diverse heroes of the emancipation process. After Independence, Venezuelan literature began to diversify, but it only began to evolve rapidly in the time of Guzmán Blanco.
During the period between the emancipation of Venezuela from Gran Colombia, the life of the Zulian poet, political philologist and historian Rafael María Baralt stands out, the first Latin American to occupy a number chair in the Royal Spanish Academy and author of the first book of History of Venezuela (1887), in addition to a series of publications that framed contributions to Hispanic literature with the first Diccionario Matrix de la Lengua Castellana (1850) and the Dictionary of Galicisms (1855); of countless odes such as To Christopher Columbus (1849) and his most famous Farewell to the Homeland (1843), and several political essays.
Romanticism, the first important literary genre in Venezuela, developed in the middle of that period, with figures such as Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde and Eduardo Blanco "Eduardo Blanco (writer)" standing out within this movement. At the end of the century modernism "Modernism (literature in Spanish)") took place and at the beginning of the century the appearance of avant-garde occurred. Costumbrismo, with romanticist roots, took deep root in Venezuela through authors such as Nicanor Bolet Peraza, Daniel Mendoza&action=edit&redlink=1 "Daniel Mendoza (writer) (not yet written)") and Fermín Toro.
Starting in 1880, a literary movement and tradition of broader ambition began to take shape in Venezuela.[395] Cecilio Acosta and Arístides Rojas, among others, pointed out the transition towards new intellectual and creative positions. In the field of modernism, Manuel Díaz Rodríguez and Luis Urbaneja Achelpohl, among others, stood out.
The year 1910 is usually taken as the starting point for new aesthetic experiences that react against modernism and attempt to write about common life, so that a new literary expression of a realistic nature emerges, in which old essences of costumbrismo reappear. At this moment in the trajectory of the Venezuelan novel, the names of José Rafael Pocaterra (Memories of a Venezuelan of Decadence), Teresa de la Parra (Ifigenia "Ifigenia (1924 novel)")) and the great figure of Rómulo Gallegos, who founded the school of Latin American Magical Realism, with works such as Doña Bárbara (1929), Cantaclaro are relevant. (1934), and Canaima (1935).
Other recognized Venezuelan authors are Andrés Eloy Blanco, Arturo Uslar Pietri (who introduced the term Magical Realism in literature), Miguel Otero Silva, Mariano Picón Salas, Guillermo Meneses, Adriano González León, Antonia Palacios, José Antonio Ramos Sucre, Salvador Garmendia, Francisco Lazo Martí, Rafael Cadenas, José Ignacio Cabrujas, and Víctor Bravo, among others. As part of the literary work, in Venezuela the Rómulo Gallegos Prize is organized biannually for the most outstanding novel in the Spanish-speaking world, an award considered by many to be the most important literary prize in Latin America.[396].
Music
Venezuelan music is characterized by mixing Spanish and African elements, typical of belonging to a predominantly mestizo people. The most representative genre of the country is llanera music, which uses instruments such as the cuatro, the harp, the maracas, the bandola and the capachos. This rhythm has become consecrated as the music of national identity, to the point that Venezuelans are called llaneros abroad. This genus had its origin in the region today comprised of the states of Apure, Barinas, Guárico, Cojedes and Portuguesa, where it is frequently cultivated.[397].
Another genre of great cultural significance is the bagpipe, originally from Zulia—although it has variants in the east of the country. Nowadays it is a genre that is related to Christmas throughout Venezuela. Among the exponents of the Zuliana bagpipe, the reverential respect for Ricardo Aguirre stands out, who composed what is considered the anthem of the genre, La Gray Zuliana.
The Venezuelan waltz also enjoys recognition, and was developed above all by great guitar masters such as Antonio Lauro and Alirio Díaz. Although it is a derivative of the European waltz, it is nourished by the typical musical characteristics of the country, being performed with the classic instruments of llanera music, including the guitar, the tiple, the piano and the clarinet. It has its roots in the central-western region of the country and in the Andean region, where the violin and mandolin are used.[399].
The musical taste of Venezuelans is very different from that of South American countries. Only with Colombia do they have some tastes in common, such as vallenato on the coast and llanera music, because they are from the border. It is clearly Caribbean: salsa "Salsa (musical genre)") and merengue "Merengue (musical genre)") are music to listen to and not just to dance to, as in other countries. Pop and hip hop are also genres that are very popular among youth.
The most representative dance of the Venezuelan nation is the joropo. It has a fast movement with a ternary rhythm, which includes a colorful tap dance and a slight reference to the European waltz, which is why it represents the most genuine expressive form among the manifestations of colonial music.
Given the influence and proximity of Anglo-American countries, heavy metal, reggae and ska are also produced, as well as other rock and pop genres, which are heard especially among the youth communities of large cities. Likewise, electronic music made in Venezuela has been enjoying greater international recognition.[400].
Among all the exponents of Venezuelan music, the most celebrated is Simón Díaz, whose cult and interpretation of llanera music, coupled with his personality, has earned him the status of being considered the most important Venezuelan folklorist of all time. His tune Caballo Viejo "Old Horse (song)") has been widely covered and translated into several languages around the world.[401] In 2008 Díaz received an Honorary Grammy Award from the Board of Directors of the Latin American Recording Academy.[402].
plastic arts
Venezuelan painting and sculpture have traditionally been influenced by historical themes and the political process experienced by the country during its Independence. Many nineteenth-century paintings and sculptures are often presented as representations of key moments in history, heroic deeds, and allegories of the nation. Those who stood out in this phase were Juan Lovera, Arturo Michelena, Martín Tovar y Tovar, Tito Salas, among others. However, romantic painting had its greatest exponent in Cristóbal Rojas, who largely deviated from these generalized themes.[405]
Among those who have greatly contributed to kinetic art have been Carlos Cruz-Díez,[406] Jesús Soto and Juvenal Ravelo. This particular trend has become very popular in the country, and there are works of this type in various cultural institutions, and even on highways, in the Metro and in airports such as Maiquetía. Abstractionism and symbolism had one of its greatest developers in Armando Reverón, whose work is beginning to be rediscovered and recognized internationally.[407].
Alejandro Otero also stood out in abstractionism and kineticism, while social realism was linked to the work of César Rengifo. Great landscape painters have been Manuel Cabré, Luis Álvarez de Lugo, among others, standing out in the painting of El Ávila hill. Another name is Pedro León Zapata, recognized for being a famous caricaturist. Francisco Narváez, Alejandro Colina, Gertrud Goldschmidt, Lía Bermúdez, among others, stand out in sculpture. Activities and creations in the field of graphic design have also had a special place in the country. Likewise, there are numerous artists who have dedicated themselves to the production of contemporary art, appearing on the national and international scene. Highlights the work of Yucef Merhi, pioneer of digital art,[408] as well as the work of José Antonio Hernández-Díez.
Craft
The history of crafts and artisans cannot be separated from antecedents that date back more than 14,000 years, when the first Amerindian settlers inhabited the current territory of Venezuela. These developed techniques typical of hunter-gatherer societies for carving stones and wood, in order to create objects that favored their interaction with the environment and the use of its resources.[409].
Some time later, when they acquired the knowledge that allowed them to treat other natural resources, such as clay, they managed to capture part of their world and cosmogony on the modeled and cooked earth. The first ceramic vestiges come from the middle Orinoco, from the cultural traditions known as Saladoide and Barrancoide. Weaving and basketry were used in a utilitarian way and in sacred festivals. In the indigenous cemeteries of Quíbor, remains of entire plots that served as support for the corpses have been found. Such baskets were used as urns where parts of the dried skeleton were placed to be deposited in other spaces as secondary burials. Some archaeological ceramic fragments show impressions of basketry that suggest that certain weaves served as supports for large pots "Casserole (container)") or plates, while the pieces were decorated or finished before being burned. Many of the techniques practiced in current crafts had their birth in this historical period.
Architecture
Architectural work in the country can date back to 1000 BC. C., when the first settlers carried out earthworks with a view to agricultural development, also mastering the handling of stone for buildings intended for storage. Later indigenous architecture developed in aquatic and jungle spaces, having its most representative examples in the stilt houses, the shabonos and the churuatas (huts) of collective interest, characterized by a conical tip and a circular structure. The latter are the most proliferated in the country, they have a specificity according to each indigenous ethnic group and have become an icon of Venezuelan culture.
With the establishment of the Colony "Epoca de lacolonia (Venezuela)"), an architecture characterized above all by sobriety and simplicity was achieved. Given the little perception of economic geology that was initially given to the then province, it opted for savings in resources allocated for construction, which determined a marked modesty in the buildings of this phase.[412] The bahareque and adobe houses, with large windows, and built around leafy patios and hallways, proliferated until they became the most common for the time. The popular housing is noticeable without much ostentation, and the religious architecture also remained attached to that spirit, which lasted throughout the century. However, the picturesque and bright colors with which the exterior walls of the homes are decorated are characteristic of the country's colonial architecture, particularly in the warmer cities, such as Coro "Coro (Venezuela)") and Maracaibo.
The century was characterized more by its urban development aimed at modernization. The neo-baroque and Moorish influence were evident in the construction of the National Theater and the New Circus, by notable architects such as Alejandro Chataing. Constructions such as the Teresa Carreño Theater and the Simón Bolívar Center Towers, as well as the El Silencio Redevelopment and the University City of Caracas (made by Carlos Raúl Villanueva), reveal the impulse given to modernist architecture "Modernism (art)") in the country, already in the middle of the century. Also noteworthy are the imposing skyscrapers in the capital built during the oil boom, with the Twin Towers of Parque Central standing out.[413].
Gastronomy
The gastronomy of Venezuela is a varied way of preparing foods and drinks made in that country, constituting the result of the cultural and gastronomic mix from Europe - especially Spain, Italy, Germany, France, the Netherlands and Portugal - and Africa - through the populations of slaves brought by the Spanish - with the gastronomy of the country's indigenous peoples.
Although it has these traits universally, Venezuelan gastronomy is as variable and diverse as the territory itself. In the capital region of the country, greater diversity is noted because it is a point of confluence, since it is the center of the productive areas, and where the greatest Spanish, Italian and other European influence is received. In the eastern region, because it is a Caribbean area, a cuisine based on fish, lobsters and shellfish with pasta or rice predominates, also revealing the influence of European maritime foods. In the Llanos the consumption of beef and hunted animals is well known, as well as its large production of cheese and dairy products. Zulia, the west of the country and Guayana are not far from these same features, differing in the meat of goat, goat and rabbit, cheeses such as palmita") in the first two, and in the presence of corn in that last region, where cheeses such as Guayanés, hand-made, among others, are produced.[415] In the Andes there is a more European orientation, where more vegetables and tubers, wheat, sheep meat, cultured trout and dairy products.[416].
Venezuelan cuisine has other well-known dishes such as the arepa, a type of roasted bun with a circular shape of corn dough that is consumed filled with other foods or used as a side dish, the cahapas, the goat in coconut, the queen pepiada, the carne en vara "Pincho (utensil)"), the black roast, the Creole grill, tripe soup, Andean pisca and bollos pelones among others. Tequeños, in addition to being a cultural heritage,[417] are the most appreciated type of appetizer in the country, and the preparation of empanadas is also very extensive. Of foreign contribution are the fabada (from Spain) and the pasticho (from Italy). Among the most popular drinks are Venezuelan chicha and papelón with lemon. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage,[418] and cream punch is also produced. Venezuelan rums have a great tradition and are among the best in the world.[419].
Cinema and theater
Venezuelan cinema began its production in 1896, just a year after the first production of the Lumière brothers in France. National cinema also took one of its most important steps in 1934 when the headquarters of the national laboratories and Maracay Films were established in the city of Maracay. The miracle of the lake, the first color documentary made in Venezuela and Latin America, is filmed in said laboratory.[420].
Venezuelan cinema, in turn, has been characterized by irregular production, although it lived through a golden era in the 1970s and 1980s with directors such as Mauricio Walerstein, Clemente de la Cerda and Román Chalbaud, the latter author of the film considered by many to be the best exponent of Venezuelan cinema: The Fish That Smokes (1977). Perhaps the most successful filmmaker in the country has been Margot Benacerraf, who won the Palme d'Or for Venezuela at the 1959 Cannes Festival with her work Araya. The most representative directors are Fina Torres, Elia Schneider, Alberto Arvelo, José Ramón Novoa and Diego Rísquez. The governing body is the National Autonomous Center of Cinematography.
The five most viewed films in the history of Venezuelan cinema are Papita, maní, tostón (2013) by Luis Carlos Hueck (with 1,840,281 million viewers), Manslaughter (1984) by César Bolívar (1,335,552), Macu, the policeman's wife (1987) by Solveig Hoogesteijn (1,180 621), Secuestro express "Secuestro Express (film)") (2005) by Jonathan Jakubowicz, and La hora cero (2010) by Diego Velasco").[421].
For its part, Venezuelan theatrical manifestations are poorly documented during the pre-Columbian period, partly due to the Eurocentric vision of the world and the little development of the local indigenous tribes, compared to the Aztecs, Mayans and Incas. However, theater fulfilled an important function in terms of disseminating the identity of the tribe, developing further in the Venezuelan Andes, where it was used for educational and religious purposes. The professionalization of theater would come during the Colony, around the 19th century. It has been said that modern Venezuelan theater has been largely influenced by the pieces of Tennessee Williams for his treatment of the problems of human beings,[422] and was popularized through the so-called Santísima Trinidad of Venezuelan theater: José Ignacio Cabrujas, Isaac Chocrón and Román Chalbaud. Its activity is profuse and seeks to enrich itself with universal works and new performing techniques.[423] There are numerous theater groups such as the National Theater Company), the Rajatabla, the Theja, the Venezuelan Chair of the Stage").
Sport
The origins of the sport in Venezuela can be traced back to colonial times, when cattle were introduced into the country in the second half of the century. This would give rise to coleus, an equestrian sport that consists of knocking down a bull by the tail, arising from agricultural work in the plains.[424] Of the same date, the Creole balls, a game similar to boccia and petanque, are counted. This last modality was introduced by Spanish monks in that same historical period, but its popularity would grow in the 19th century. Both practices have a long tradition in the country. Some martial arts such as the Tocuyano garrote and Karive submission combat are also indigenous.
Baseball is the main sport in the country. The popularity of this sport grew extraordinarily after, in 1941, this South American nation was crowned in the Baseball World Cup.[425] In this area, Venezuela has stood out notably, winning seven Caribbean Series titles, and has been a Baseball World Cup gold medalist on three occasions. The Venezuelan Professional Baseball League, founded in 1945, is the one that organizes the main annual competition in the field, and has eight teams. Furthermore, Venezuela is the second largest exporter of baseball players, surpassed only by the Dominican Republic. In 2008, a total of 729 Venezuelan baseball players had a contract in foreign professional baseball.[426] For the country it is very important to follow the sports career of Venezuelans in the American baseball league. It should be noted that Venezuela appears as one of the world powers in this sport. It also has a women's baseball team that won the bronze medal in the baseball world championship in that category in 2016.[427].
Basketball is considered one of the most popular sports in the country.[428] This sporting discipline is represented by the Venezuelan Basketball Federation (FVB) affiliated with FIBA. Its activity is divided into the Professional League and the National League. In international events, the team participated in the 1992 Barcelona Olympic Games, being its only Olympic participation, and in the 1990, 2002, 2006 and 2023 World Cups. It has also qualified for several Americas Tournaments (Pre-Olympic), FIBA Americas Championships (Pre-World) and Pan American Games. Several Venezuelans have participated in the NBA, the most recognized being Carl Herrera. The greatest feat of Venezuelan basketball so far has been the gold medal in the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship, and no less important the three titles of the South American Basketball Championship in 1991, 2014 and 2016.
Soccer has seen its popularity increase in recent years, becoming a sport that draws crowds in the country. Organized by the Venezuelan Football Federation (FVF), affiliated with FIFA. The increase in victories and quality of play of the Venezuelan soccer team since 2001 has stimulated development in this discipline, as well as the attraction of fans. Venezuela organized a Copa América for the first time in its 42nd edition in 2007, although its best participation in the tournament was in 2011, obtaining fourth place. The greatest achievements of Venezuelan football have been two titles in the South American Women's Under-17 Championship in 2013 and 2016 and a runner-up in the South American Under-17 Football Championship in 2013. It also reached runner-up in the World Cup. U-20 Soccer from 2017. In its variation of futsal, Venezuela has had an important career, becoming champion in the AMF Futsal World Championship in 1997.[429]
beauty pageants
Venezuela is distinguished for being a "beauty queen factory",[431] since it holds the title of Miss Universe 7 times—an international and annual female beauty contest in which overall beauty is judged—, second only to the United States, which has won it 9 times.[431] In fact, it was the Americans who helped introduce the contest in Venezuela. Miss Venezuela began as a beauty pageant in 1952 sponsored by the Pan Am airline and a company that manufactured swimsuits.[432].
The country has more than 200 modeling academies where girls from the age of 4 are trained in disciplines such as makeup, glamour, public speaking, photo-posing, body expression, as well as other skills, since the modeling industry has become one of the most lucrative and efficient businesses in the country. Hence, reigns are part of popular culture in Venezuela, where nearly 600 beauty contests are held each year.[431] Writer Raúl Gallegos noted in his 2016 book, «Crude Nation: How Oil Riches Ruined Venezuela», "oil wealth has nurtured a culture in which appearance is of paramount importance."[432] In turn, Venezuela has one of the highest rates of cosmetic procedures per capita in the country. the world.[432].
Venezuela's fame for producing crown-winning queens has crossed borders, since there are several candidates from other countries, who hire the services of modeling agencies in this country to train them and thus have greater opportunities to win in the competitions in which they participate.[431] The feminist movement in Venezuela has expressed itself over the years against the cult of the pageant.
In 1972, a group of women inspired by the work of Simone de Beauvoir—categorized as the founder of contemporary feminism—gathered at the Municipal Theater of Caracas, where the Miss Venezuela event was taking place. They held signs condemning the event and attempted to spray paint the participants' dresses before the police arrived.[432]
National symbols
In Venezuela, in addition to recognizing the flag, the anthem "National Anthem (Venezuela)") and the shield, as national symbols, other typical elements of the national flora and fauna have been named as symbols of the nation.[433] Namely:.
• - The araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha) has been the national tree since May 29, 1948.[434] Its name is made up of a word of indigenous origin and the combination of Greek words that mean golden flower, in reference to the color yellow.
• - The orchid (Cattleya mossiae) was declared the national flower on May 23, 1951.[435] The species mossiae was discovered in Venezuela in the 1830s.
• - The turpial (Icterus icterus) has been the national bird since May 23, 1958.[436] It is a bird with a wingspan of about 24 centimeters, which is distinguished by its yellow-orange color throughout the body, except for the head and wings, which are black with white parts, and a blue spot around the eyes.
• - Alma llanera is a joropo released in 1914, whose music was composed by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez based on a text by Rafael Bolívar Coronado.[437] It is considered the second national anthem of Venezuela.
• - The liquiliqui is the national typical costume of Venezuela, declared on March 17, 2017.[438] It is mostly used as male attire for parties and social events, as well as for the joropo dance. It consists of a jacket, pants and espadrilles. In some parts it is being made with trims of different colors and used as a common or dance costume with espadrilles.
Festivities
Venezuela is the fourth country in Latin America in number of holidays.[439] There are also very important festivities at the regional level due to their cultural significance, such as that of the Divina Pastora "Divina Pastora (Barquisimeto)") (January 14) in Lara "Lara (state)"),[n 19] the Virgin of Consolation (August 15) in Táchira, the Virgin of Socorro (November 13) in Carabobo and the Virgin of Chiquinquirá (November 18) in Zulia, which is celebrated with the La Chinita Fair.
• - Portal:Venezuela. Content related to Venezuela.
• - Annex: Tallest sculptures in Venezuela.
• - List of ISO 3166-2 codes for Venezuela.
• - Venezuelan passport.
• - Annex: World Heritage in Venezuela.
• - Annex: Memory of the World Program in Venezuela.
• - Wikisource in Spanish contains original works from Venezuela.
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia gallery about Venezuela.
• - Wikinews has news related to Venezuela.
• - Wikiquote hosts famous phrases from or about Venezuela.
• - Wiktionary has definitions and other information about Venezuela.
• - Wikimedia Atlas: Venezuela.
• - Wikiviajes hosts travel guides from or about Venezuela.
• - Office of the President of the Republic.
• - Government of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
• - National Assembly of Venezuela.
• - Simón Bolívar Geographic Institute of Venezuela.
• - Official Site of the Bolivarian National Army.
References
[1] ↑ Reconocido como presidente por 49 países, y por las instituciones del Estado como son; la FANB, el Poder Moral, el CNE, el TSJ y la Asamblea Nacional.
[2] ↑ Anteriormente recibió las denominaciones oficiales de Estado de Venezuela (1830-1856), República de Venezuela (1856-1864), Estados Unidos de Venezuela (1864-1953), y nuevamente República de Venezuela (1953-1999).
[3] ↑ La capitalidad estuvo anteriormente situada en Coro (1527-1545) y El Tocuyo (1545-1577). Caracas fue designada capital oficial en 1577. También fueron designadas provisionalmente como capitales a Maracay (1812), Valencia (1812, 1830 y 1858), y Angostura (hoy Ciudad Bolívar, 1819-1821).
[4] ↑ No se conoce si el General Zamora fue muerto por el bando enemigo o por su propio bando. Una versión afirma que el autor del disparo fue un sargento G. Morón, espaldero de Falcón, quien se había apostado en la torre de una iglesia con su rifle. Información en Historia política de los campesinos latinoamericanos, Vol 3. Pág. 83.: http://books.google.co.ve/books?id=Jb8cQBwLvGgC&printsec=frontcover&hl=es#v=snippet&q=G.%20Mor%C3%B3n&f=false
[5] ↑ Cálculos posteriores estimaron que las bajas, entre civiles y militares, oscilaron entre 150 000 y 200 000. En ambos casos representó casi un 10 % de la población del momento.[cita requerida].
[6] ↑ La Constitución de la República Romana de 1849 fue la primera en la historia de la humanidad en abolir la pena de muerte, pero el Estado desapareció tras la ocupación francesa. Venezuela fue el siguiente país en tomar la misma medida.
[7] ↑ De acuerdo a la Enmienda n.º 1 de la Constitución de la República.
[8] ↑ De acuerdo con la Constitución Nacional de Venezuela de 1999, artículo 11: "El espacio insular de la República comprende el archipiélago de Los Monjes, archipiélago de Las Aves, archipiélago de Los Roques, archipiélago de La Orchila, isla La Tortuga, isla La Blanquilla, archipiélago Los Hermanos, islas de Margarita, Cubagua y Coche, archipiélago de Los Frailes, isla La Sola, archipiélago de Los Testigos, isla de Patos e isla de Aves; y, además, las islas, islotes, cayos y bancos situados o que emerjan dentro del mar territorial, en el que cubre la plataforma continental o dentro de los límites de la zona económica exclusiva.".
[9] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado de 1978 entre los Estados Unidos y Venezuela, efectivo en 1980.
[10] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado de 1978 entre los Países Bajos y Venezuela.
[11] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado sobre delimitación de áreas marinas y submarinas entre la República de Venezuela y la República Dominicana de 1979.
[12] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado venezolano-francés de delimitación de 1980.
[13] ↑ Definidas en el Tratado entre la República de Venezuela y la República de Trinidad y Tobago sobre la delimitación de áreas marinas y submarinas de 1990.
[14] ↑ La cifra se eleva a 1010 km si se toma al río Esequibo como línea fronteriza.
[15] ↑ Según un estudio realizado por el Instituto Geográfico de Venezuela, la Universidad Simón Bolívar y la Universidad del Zulia.
[16] ↑ Después de Argentina y Estados Unidos.
[17] ↑ Después de Francia y Argentina.
[18] ↑ Después de Argentina y Brasil.
[19] ↑ La primera procesión de la Divina Pastora se realizó en 1856.
[20] ↑ a b Asamblea Nacional Constituyente (24 de marzo de 2000). «Constitución de Venezuela». Tribunal Supremo de Justicia. Archivado desde el original el 12 de enero de 2014. Consultado el 10 de enero de 2014. «Artículo 9. El idioma oficial es el castellano. Los idiomas indígenas también son de uso oficial para los pueblos indígenas y deben ser respetados en todo el territorio de la República, por constituir patrimonio cultural de la Nación y de la humanidad.».: https://web.archive.org/web/20140112103019/http://www.tsj.gov.ve/legislacion/constitucion1999.htm
[23] ↑ Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo (PNUD), ed. (2022). «Human Development Insights» (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 26 de marzo de 2024. Consultado el 26 de marzo de 2024.: https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/country-insights#/ranks
[29] ↑ a b Sea Around Us Project (s/f). «EEZ Waters of Venezuela» (en inglés). seaaroundus.org. Consultado el 19 de noviembre de 2012.: http://www.seaaroundus.org/eez/862.aspx
[35] ↑ «La geopolítica petrolera del Gobierno está poniendo las bases para salirse del mercado estadounidense » « los contratos de suministros al sistema Citgo que eran a 10 años son reducidos a una vigencia de 1 año, y 1 año de prórroga»«PDVSA MADURA LA SALIDA DE CITGO». ABC de la Semana. 4 de noviembre de 2010.: http://www.abcdelasemana.com/2010/11/04/pdvsa-madura-la-salida-de-citgo/
[41] ↑ Oficina del Alto Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos, ed. (Junio de 2018). Violaciones de los derechos humanos en la República Bolivariana de Venezuela: una espiral descendente que no parece tener fin (PDF). Consultado el 24 de mayo de 2020.: https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/VE/VenezuelaReport2018_SP.pdf
[42] ↑ a b «500 años del nombre de Venezuela». Universidad de Barcelona. Consultado el 13 de enero de 2009.: http://www.ub.es/geocrit/b3w-152.htm
[43] ↑ «Carta de Colón a los Reyes Católicos (La "Tierra de Gracia")» (PDF). Biblioteca Digital desenvolvida em software livre, Governo Federal do Brasil. Consultado el 10 de marzo de 2010.: http://www.dominiopublico.gov.br/download/texto/bk000066.pdf
[49] ↑ Montaño Fuentes, Tereinés (2008). «IVIC colaboró con la identificación de fósiles de Tigres Dientes de Sable» (PDF). IVIC en Casa (68). Instituto Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas. Archivado desde el original el 22 de julio de 2011. Consultado el 8 de noviembre de 2008.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110722065546/http://www.ivic.ve/bitacora/Imagenes/file/N%2068.pdf
[56] ↑ Bohórquez Morán, Carmen: Francisco de Miranda, Précurseur des indépendances de l'Amérique latine, p. 258, Editions L'Hamattan, París, 1998.
[57] ↑ Briceño Perozo, Manuel y Pérez Vila, Manuel. (2000). Gran Colombia. En Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. Disponible en [CD-ROM]. Caracas. Videodacta.
[58] ↑ Giménez Landínez, Víctor. (2000). Ley de Libertad de Contratos. En Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. Disponible en [CD-ROM]. Caracas. Videodacta.
[61] ↑ «Academia Nacional de la Historia» (PDF). www.anhvenezuela.org. - [http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Decreto+de+garantias+expedido+por+Falcon+(1863).pdf](http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Decreto+de+garantias+expedido+por+Falcon+(1863).pdf)
[62] ↑ «Academia Nacional de la Historia» (PDF). www.anhvenezuela.org. - [http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Constitucion+Federal++(1864).pdf](http://www.anhvenezuela.org/admin/Biblioteca/Textos+Historicos+de+Venezuela/Constitucion+Federal++(1864).pdf)
[84] ↑ «Venezuela: por qué fracasó el golpe». Caracas, Venezuela: El País. 17 de abril de 2002. Consultado el 21 de junio de 2015. «Se impusieron la derecha y el revanchismo, el sector que redactó un decreto-ley que arrasó con la Constitución Bolivariana y determinó el alejamiento de los militares moderados y del principal sindicato de trabajadores.».: http://elpais.com/diario/2002/04/17/internacional/1018994403_850215.html
[86] ↑ Kaiser, Patricia (2003), «Estrategias discursivas antichavistas de los medios de comunicación», Revista Venezolana de Economía y Ciencias Sociales 9 (3).
[101] ↑ e.V., Transparency International. «Venezuela 2013 - World's largest opinion survey on corruption - Transparency International». www.transparency.org. Consultado el 27 de agosto de 2015.: http://www.transparency.org/gcb2013/country/?country=venezuela
[104] ↑ «Venezuela Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption». www.heritage.org. Consultado el 27 de agosto de 2015.: http://www.heritage.org/index/country/venezuela
[117] ↑ José Ignacio Hernández G. (4 de marzo de 2017). «¿Qué validez tiene la memoria y cuenta presentada por el gobierno ante el TSJ?». Prodavinic.com. Falta la |url= (ayuda); |fechaacceso= requiere |url= (ayuda).
[123] ↑ «"Alteración inconstitucional del orden democrático" en Venezuela: la resolución de la OEA tras una turbulenta reunión que Bolivia acusó de "ilegal"». BBC. 4 de abril de 2017. Consultado el 1 de mayo de 2017.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-39487179
[130] ↑ «Crisis en Venezuela: países europeos reconocen a Juan Guaidó como "presidente encargado" y crece la tensión internacional». BBC News Mundo. 4 de febrero de 2019. Consultado el 3 de marzo de 2019.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-47115699
[138] ↑ «Esequibo | "No toleraremos una anexión de nuestro territorio": la respuesta de Guyana a la ley de defensa del Esequibo aprobada por Venezuela». BBC News Mundo. 4 de abril de 2024. Consultado el 6 de junio de 2025.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/articles/cy0zlrny41xo
[149] ↑ «A punto de resolverse diferendo limítrofe entre Colombia y Venezuela por áreas marinas y submarinas». Guía.com.ve. 2007. Consultado el 22 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.guia.com.ve/noticias/?id=12136
[169] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado de Delimitación de Fronteras Marítimas entre la República de Venezuela y los Estados Unidos de América». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (2.290 Extraordinario). 1978.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1978/2290.pdf
[170] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado de Delimitación entre Venezuela y el Reino de los Países Bajos». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (2.291 Extraordinario). 1978.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1978/2291.pdf
[171] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado sobre Áreas Marinas y Submarinas entre la República de Venezuela y la República Dominicana». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (2.642 Extraordinario). 1980.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1980/2642.pdf
[172] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado de Delimitación entre el Gobierno de la República de Venezuela y el Gobierno de la República Francesa». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (3.026 Extraordinario). 1982.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1982/3026.pdf
[173] ↑ «Ley Aprobatoria del Tratado entre la República de Venezuela y la República de Trinidad y Tobago sobre la Delimitación de Áreas Marinas y Submarinas». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (34.745). 1991.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1991/34745.pdf
[175] ↑ a b Deiros, Diego; Hernández, José N.; Hoyer, Melvyn; Márques, Víctor; Pérez, Omar J.; Rodríguez, Carlos; Sué, Nicolás; Velandia, José R. (2005). «Alturas del Pico Bolívar y otras cimas andinas venezolanas a partir de observaciones Gps». Interciencia 30 (4): 213-216. ISSN 0378-1844. Archivado desde el original el 24 de septiembre de 2016. Consultado el 3 de septiembre de 2016.: https://web.archive.org/web/20160924203551/http://www.interciencia.org/v30_04/213_perez.pdf
[183] ↑ De Juana, E; Del Hoyo, J; Fernández-Cruz, M; Ferrer, X; Sáez-Royuela, R; Sargatal, J (2012). «Nombres en castellano de las aves del mundo recomendados por la Sociedad Española de Ornitología (Decimosexta parte: Orden Passeriformes, Familias Thraupidae a Icteridae)». Ardeola. Handbook of the Birds of the World (Madrid: SEO/BirdLife) 59 (1): 157-166. ISSN 0570-7358. Consultado el 16 de mayo de 2014.: https://www.ardeola.org/uploads/articles/docs/1545.pdf
[187] ↑ «Primer Informe de País para la Convención sobre Diversidad Biológica». Ministerio del Ambiente. 2000. Consultado el 14 de noviembre de 2008.: http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ve/ve-nr-01-es.pdf
[192] ↑ a b OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity. «Venezuela (VEN) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners». Consultado el 5 de agosto de 2023.: https://oec.world/en/profile/country/ven#Profile
[193] ↑ Trade Map - List of exporters for the selected product in 2018 (All products). - [https://www.trademap.org/(X(1)S(wxymkd45vpinba45qduyc345))/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7C%7C%7C%7C%7CTOTAL%7C%7C%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1](https://www.trademap.org/(X(1)S(wxymkd45vpinba45qduyc345))/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7C%7C%7C%7C%7CTOTAL%7C%7C%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C1&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1)
[208] ↑ Reporters Without Borders. «Clasificación Mundial de la Libertad de Prensa 2022». Consultado el 16 de diciembre de 2022.: https://rsf.org/es/clasificacion
[211] ↑ Transparency International. «Corruption perceptions index 2021» (en inglés). Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2022.: https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021
[212] ↑ The Heritage Foundation; The Wall Street Journal. «2022 Index of Economic Freedom. Country Rankings» (en inglés). Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2022.: https://www.heritage.org/index/ranking
[215] ↑ Baller, Silja; Di Battista, Atilop; Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno (2016). «Chapter 1.1. The Networked Readiness Index 2016» (PDF). En Baller, Silja; Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno, eds. Insight Report. The Global Information Technology Report 2016. Innovating in the Digital Economy (en inglés). Ginebra: World Economic Forum. ISBN 978-1-944835-03-3. Consultado el 29 de octubre de 2022.: https://www3.weforum.org/docs/GITR2016/WEF_GITR_Full_Report.pdf
[241] ↑ «Por qué Venezuela se quedó sin gasolina y qué consecuencias tiene en medio de la crisis por el coronavirus». BBC News Mundo. 6 de abril de 2020. Consultado el 18 de abril de 2020.: https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-america-latina-52145210
[264] ↑ «OVF: brecha salarial continuó ampliándose en 2024». Finanzas Digital. 20 de diciembre de 2024. «En cuanto al salario mínimo, que cubre principalmente a más de cinco millones de pensionados del Instituto Venezolano de los Seguros Sociales, indicó que sigue sin modificaciones en 130 bolívares equivalentes a 2,50 dólares mensuales desde hace dos años y ocho meses.».: https://finanzasdigital.com/remuneracion-trabajadores-caracas-2024-observatorio-venezolano-de-finanzas/
[267] ↑ «Reconversión monetaria arranca el 20 de agosto con supresión de 5 ceros al bolívar» (html). Banco Central de Venezuela. 25 de julio de 2018. Archivado desde el original el 28 de julio de 2018. Consultado el 27 de julio de 2018. «El presidente de la República, anunció este miércoles que la reconversión monetaria entrará en vigencia el próximo 20 de agosto con la supresión de cinco (5) ceros al cono monetario vigente. Asimismo, el Jefe del Estado venezolano dio a conocer que el Bolívar Soberano tendrá una base de cambio e intercambio sustentada en la criptomoneda Petro, anclaje que permitirá configurar un nuevo sistema monetario.».: https://archive.today/20180728013946/http://www.bcv.org.ve/notas-de-prensa/reconversion-monetaria-arranca-el-20-de-agosto-con-supresion-de-5-ceros-al-bolivar
[268] ↑ «Gaceta Oficial Extraordinaria N° 6.502: Se fija el salario mínimo nacional mensual en doscientos cincuenta mil Bolívares (Bs 250 000), a partir del 1° de enero de 2020». Finanzas Digital. 11 de enero de 2020. Consultado el 2 de agosto de 2021.: https://www.finanzasdigital.com/2020/01/gaceta-oficial-6502-salario-minimo/
[274] ↑ «Gaceta Oficial Extraordinaria N° 6.502: Se fija el salario mínimo nacional mensual en doscientos cincuenta mil bolivares (Bs. 250 mil bolívares) a partir del 1ro de enero de 2020». Finanza Digital. 11 de enero de 2020.: https://www.finanzasdigital.com/2020/01/gaceta-oficial-6502-salario-mínimo/
[295] ↑ «Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision». Esa.un.org (en inglés). 6 de diciembre de 2012. Archivado desde el original el 6 de mayo de 2011. Consultado el 20 de abril de 2013.: https://web.archive.org/web/20110506065230/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm
[310] ↑ Paniz-Mondolfi, Alberto E.; Grillet, María E.; Tami, Adriana; Oliveira-Miranda, María A.; Noguera, Lourdes Delgado; Hotez, Peter; Oletta, José Felix (23 de agosto de 2019). «Venezuela's upheaval threatens Yanomami». Science 365 (6455): 766-767. doi:10.1126/science.aay6003. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.aay6003
[311] ↑ Neel, James V.; Weiss, Kenneth M. (1975). «The genetic structure of a tribal population, the Yanomama Indians. XII. Biodemographic studies». American Journal of Physical Anthropology (en inglés) 42 (1): 25-51. ISSN 1096-8644. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330420105. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.1330420105
[312] ↑ Briceño-León, Roberto; Perdomo, Gloria (19 de agosto de 2019). «Violence against indigenous children and adolescents in Venezuela». Cadernos de Saúde Pública (en inglés) 35: e00084718. ISSN 0102-311X. doi:10.1590/0102-311X00084718. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://www.scielosp.org/article/csp/2019.v35suppl3/e00084718/en/
[313] ↑ Bacci, Massimo Livi (13 de septiembre de 2017). «Venezuela's melting pot: 1500-1800». Revista Brasileira de Estudos de População (en inglés) 34 (2): 199-221. ISSN 1980-5519. doi:10.20947/S0102-3098a0023. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://www.rebep.org.br/revista/article/view/1086
[314] ↑ Angosto-Ferrández, Luis F. (2 de septiembre de 2014). «From ‘café con leche’ to ‘o café, o leche’: National Identity, Mestizaje and Census Politics in Contemporary Venezuela». Journal of Iberian and Latin American Research 20 (3): 373-398. ISSN 1326-0219. doi:10.1080/13260219.2014.995876. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/13260219.2014.995876
[315] ↑ Alvarez, Alana (2 de enero de 2024). «Venezuela’s Mixed-Race People and the Jew: Spectrums of Whiteness in Rufino Blanco Fombona’s Judas Capitolino and Rómulo Gallegos’s “Los inmigrantes”». Journal of Latin American Cultural Studies 33 (1): 85-101. ISSN 1356-9325. doi:10.1080/13569325.2024.2339232. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/13569325.2024.2339232
[317] ↑ Pérez-Artés, María del Carmen (2024). «Numeracy selectivity of Spanish migrants in colonial America (sixteenth–eighteenth centuries)». The Economic History Review (en inglés) 77 (2): 503-522. ISSN 1468-0289. doi:10.1111/ehr.13279. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ehr.13279
[318] ↑ Lynch, John (2001). Lynch, John, ed. Spanish America’s Poor Whites: Canarian Immigrants in Venezuela, 1700–1830 (en inglés). Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 58-73. ISBN 978-0-230-51172-9. doi:10.1057/9780230511729_4. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230511729_4
[319] ↑ Gómez-Carballa, Alberto; Ignacio-Veiga, Ana; Álvarez-Iglesias, Vanesa; Pastoriza-Mourelle, Ana; Ruíz, Yarimar; Pineda, Lennie; Carracedo, Ángel; Salas, Antonio (2012). «A melting pot of multicontinental mtDNA lineages in admixed Venezuelans». American Journal of Physical Anthropology (en inglés) 147 (1): 78-87. ISSN 1096-8644. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21629. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.21629
[321] ↑ Moreno, Aviad (3 de mayo de 2024). «Expanding the dimensions of Moroccan (Jewish) migration: postcolonial perspectives from Venezuela». The Journal of North African Studies 29 (3): 527-554. ISSN 1362-9387. doi:10.1080/13629387.2022.2088522. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/13629387.2022.2088522
[322] ↑ Derham, Michael (2 de septiembre de 2021). «Construction of a culture of privileged immigrants in Venezuela». Journal of Iberian and Latin American Studies 27 (3): 377-401. ISSN 1470-1847. doi:10.1080/14701847.2021.1998989. Consultado el 5 de noviembre de 2025.: https://doi.org/10.1080/14701847.2021.1998989
[324] ↑ A, Ada N. Rodríguez (21 de diciembre de 2018). «De lo negro a lo propio: reflexiones sobre la herencia cultural africana en Venezuela». Dissertare Revista de Investigación en Ciencias Sociales 3 (1): 135-148. ISSN 2542-3177. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://revistas.uclave.org/index.php/dissertare/article/view/1980
[326] ↑ Rivero, Cayetano Núñez; A, Carla Z. Pérez (1 de julio de 2015). «La diversidad cultural como derecho fundamental de los pueblos indígenas». Revista de Derecho de la UNED (RDUNED) (17): 57-71. ISSN 2255-3436. doi:10.5944/rduned.17.2015.16263. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/RDUNED/article/view/16263
[327] ↑ Godinho, Neide Maria de Oliveira (2008). O impacto das migrações na constituição genética de populações latino-americanas. Consultado el 6 de noviembre de 2025.: http://repositorio.unb.br/handle/10482/5542
[328] ↑ Wiedmann, Karl. 1984. Tierra Yanomami. Oscar Todtmann Editores. Caracas. 155p.
[329] ↑ Wagner, Erika. 1991. Más de Quinientos años de Legado Americano al Mundo. Cuadernos Lagoven, Lagoven, S.A. Caracas. 104p. ISBN 980-259-409-1.
[339] ↑ a b c Duque, Maria; Vos, S.; García, M. F.; Brown, Eric C.; Perrino, Tatiana; Trujillo, Juliana Mejía; Pérez-Gómez, A.; Salas-Wright, C. et al. (2025). «The Importance of Motivations for Emigration in Understanding Post-Migration Mental Health Outcomes Among Diasporic Venezuelans in the United States and Colombia». Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. doi:10.1177/00220221251327966. Consultado el 26 de noviembre de 2025. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://consensus.app/papers/the-importance-of-motivations-for-emigration-in-duque-vos/2fa8d1813530551f8be6d7025ece630e/
[351] ↑ «Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas». World Heritage List (en inglés). Unesco. Consultado el 27 de noviembre de 2008.: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/986
[353] ↑ «UIS.Stat». UNESCO INSTITUTE FOR STATISTICS. Consultado el 10 de junio de 2017.: http://data.uis.unesco.org
[354] ↑ Daniel, Ortega; Rodríguez, Francisco (octubre de 2008). «Freed from Illiteracy? A Closer Look at Venezuela’s Misión Robinson Literacy Campaign». Economic Development and Cultural Change (en inglés) (University of Chicago Press) 57 (1): 1-30. doi:10.1086/590461. Consultado el 10 de junio de 2017.: https://archive.org/details/sim_economic-development-and-cultural-change_2008-10_57_1/page/1
[358] ↑ Nelson, Brian A. (2009). The silence and the scorpion: the coup against Chávez and the making of modern Venezuela (en inglés) (Online edición). New York: Nation Books. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-1568584188.: https://archive.org/details/silencescorpionc00nels
[359] ↑ Heritage, Andrew (December 2002). Financial Times World Desk Reference (en inglés). Dorling Kindersley. pp. 618-21. ISBN 9780789488053.
[360] ↑ N.F.R. Crafts (julio de 1996). «The Human Development Index: Some Historical Comparisons». London School of Economics &Political Science: Working Papers in Economic History (en inglés).: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/17436/1/33_96.pdf
[362] ↑ Ulrike Hanemann (2015). «The Evolution and Impact of Literacy Campaigns and Programmes 2000-2014». UIL Research Series (en inglés). UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning. Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2017.: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002341/234154e.pdf
[403] ↑ «Clasificación Mundial de la Libertad de Prensa 2016». Reporteros sin Fronteras. 2016. Consultado el 17 de marzo de 2017.: https://rsf.org/es/clasificacion
[453] ↑ «Resolución por la cual se declara oficialmente al Araguaney (tecoma chrysanta), como Árbol Nacional de Venezuela.». Gaceta Oficial de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela (22.628). 1948. Archivado desde el original el 24 de septiembre de 2015. Consultado el 23 de abril de 2013.: https://web.archive.org/web/20150924072125/http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1948/22628.pdf
[454] ↑ «Resolución por la cual se declara Flor Nacional de Venezuela a la orquídea conocida con el nombre de Flor de Mayo (Cattleya Mossiae).». Gaceta Oficial de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela (23.535). 1951.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1951/23535.pdf
[455] ↑ «Resolución Ejecutiva por la cual es declarado el Turpial como "Ave Nacional de Venezuela."». Gaceta Oficial de la República de Venezuela (25.665). 1958.: http://www.pgr.gob.ve/dmdocuments/1958/25665.pdf
[457] ↑ «Decreto N° 2.760, mediante el cual se declara que la utilización del Liqui Liqui como Traje Nacional, en tanto símbolo emblemático y representativo de la identidad cultural venezolana.». Gaceta Oficial de la República Bolivariana de Venezuela (6.289 Extraoridinario). 2017.: http://www.juris-line.com.ve/data/files/3801.pdf
On the other hand, territorial losses were experienced during this period: starting in 1615 the region west of the Essequibo River began to be invaded by the Dutch, who also militarily took Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire due to the Eighty Years' War, between 1634 and 1636. Subsequently, the British took over the islands of Trinidad and Tobago after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens "Treaty of Amiens (1802)") in 1802, towards the end of the French revolutionary wars.
From New Granada, Bolívar attempted a repeat of the Admirable Campaign to rescue the republic, but due to lack of support he moved to Jamaica to obtain British support, and then to Haiti, where the rest of the patriot leaders took refuge. There, the expedition from the Keys to Tierra Firme was planned, which set sail in March 1816. After taking the island of Margarita, the Republicans continued attacking Carúpano and Maracay"), but were rejected. In a second expedition, Bolívar took command of the Republican troops stationed in Guayana, with which he managed to capture Angostura and from where he refounded the institutions, creating the Third Republic. For his part, José Antonio Páez carried out important military operations to liberate the central region of the country under the command of its llaneros.
The war in the plain continued until 1819. That year, Bolívar attempted to reorganize the State with the installation of the Congress of Angostura, the result of which was the creation of Gran Colombia. In 1820, the Treaty of Armistice and Regularization of War was signed, ending the War to the Death "War to the Death (Venezuela)") and ceasing hostilities until April 28, 1821. On June 24 of that same year, Bolívar faced Miguel de la Torre in the Battle of Carabobo "Battle of Carabobo (1821)"), which resulted in Republican victory. This victory meant the liquidation of the royalist troops in Venezuela, leaving remnants that would be defeated in the naval battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. With the taking of the stronghold of Puerto Cabello by the liberating army, independence was definitively sealed.
According to its Fundamental Law, Gran Colombia integrated the former Captaincy General of Venezuela with the Viceroyalty of New Granada and the Free Province of Guayaquil, which would later be joined by the Court of Quito. The Congress elected in Angostura moved to Villa del Rosario "Villa del Rosario (Norte de Santander)"), where a Constitution was sanctioned in August 1821, and in which the political organization of this State was defined. Bolívar was elected president by majority, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made vice president. Bolívar would continue his liberation campaigns in the south, in which he would promote the liberation of Peru and the creation of Bolivia.
The new State regulated commerce and public institutions, and also decreed the abolition of slavery.[38] But the discrepancy between Bolivarians (centralists) and Santanderistas (federalists) strained the internal order. Coupled with the economic crisis, the lack of infrastructure, idiosyncratic differences and interests, and the desire for autonomy on the part of Venezuelans for their territory, secession germinated. The Cosiata of 1826, led by Páez, forged this disagreement between the department of Venezuela and the government of Bogotá. To calm the upheaval, Bolívar governed by decree from 1828, but this did not prevent the separation of Venezuela, which was finally manifested in November 1829. In May 1830, the Congress of Valencia (provisional capital of the country on the occasion of the congress) was installed to make decisions regarding the steps to be followed by the District of Venezuela in view of the growing and continuing distance from the Central Government. This ended in the secession of Venezuela from Gran Colombia and the birth of the State of Venezuela, when a new constitution was adopted.
blues
el Mocho
February Program
At the end of his term in 1941, Congress appointed Isaías Medina Angarita as president, a military man who enacted a Hydrocarbons Law in 1943 that brought more monetary dividends to the country, limiting multinationals. During his administration, women's suffrage and the legalization of parties were decreed, the return of all exiles and the release of the remaining political prisoners was allowed. He created the first Venezuelan identification plan "Identity Card (Venezuela)"), activated an agrarian reform, supported the Allies of World War II, attempted the annexation of the Netherlands Antilles and signed the 1941 Boundary Treaty between Colombia and Venezuela. Although he accelerated the path to democracy, there were still adversaries such as Rómulo Betancourt and his Democratic Action party. From within it, a military coup was hatched in 1945 with the help of a military group led by lieutenant colonels Marcos Pérez Jiménez, Luis Llovera Páez and Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, who disagreed with the type of presidential election used and with many of Medina's measures.
The 1950s are considered an economic boom that was based on oil production. This went from 1.8 million barrels per day (priced at $2.14) to 2.77 million barrels per day (priced at $2.65), according to data from the Ministry of Energy and Mines. In turn, according to the United Nations Statistics Division in its 1964 Statistical Yearbook, the growth of the Venezuelan economy from 1952 to 1958 was the highest in the Western Hemisphere, above powers such as the United States and the United Kingdom. On the other hand, employment rose 21% between 1952 and 1956, while the highest inflation was 1.6% in 1954.
In 1957, a plebiscite was organized to define his permanence for another five-year period in power. The official bulletins gave him victory, although it was understood in all sectors of the country that it was a fraud.[58] This produced a division in the Armed Forces, giving rise to a failed rebellion on New Year's Day 1958. But the consequent political crisis destabilized the bases of the regime, concluding with his deposition by a civil-military movement on January 23, forcing him to flee to the Dominican Republic to move to Spain. Once the rebellion triumphed, a Civic-Military Government Board was organized, chaired by Rear Admiral Wolfgang Larrazábal. Months later, the Punto Fijo Pact was signed, which provided for the alternation in power of Democratic Action, COPEI and URD, to guide the future politics of the country,[59] excluding other left-wing parties such as the PCV. The election for president "Venezuelan Presidential Election (1958)") ended up opting for Rómulo Betancourt.
Carlos Andrés Pérez was elected again in 1988 and during his term he sought to solve the recession "Economic recession in Venezuela (1983-1998)") by adopting measures that caused large social protests, the largest being the Caracazo of 1989. That same year the first direct elections of regional governors and mayors took place. Subsequently, there were two coup attempts in February and November 1992 led by Hugo Chávez, and Pérez was finally dismissed by Congress in 1993. Octavio Lepage was provisional president for a few days, until the historian and parliamentarian Ramón José Velázquez was appointed as interim president.
Caldera came to power for the second time in 1994, having to manage the severe banking crisis that occurred that year. The collapse and intervention of a dozen banks culminated in capital flight, causing the bankruptcy of companies. To stop the crisis, an economic privatization program called Agenda Venezuela began, but the serious economic situation would continue with the decline of the political parties that had been active since the middle of the century.
Chávez's administration maintained a leftist line that sought to lead the country towards what he called the Socialism of the century. He created aid and social development programs—Bolivarian Missions. He expressed distaste for the political-economic imperialism that, in his words, was managed by the United States government. In turn, it strengthened relations with former rivals of the United States, such as Russia, China and Vietnam, or ideological rivals, such as Cuba, Iran, Belarus and Syria.
In 2005, the Chavista parties gained control of almost all the country's governorships and the National Assembly, elections to which the opposition did not attend, alleging "lack of guarantees."[71] The next presidential elections were held in December 2006, in which Chávez was re-elected against Manuel Rosales, his direct opponent. He later announced that he would promote his political project through reforms to the Constitution, including control of the Armed Forces, new economic controls and indefinite reelection. In this process, the concession for open signal to the RCTV television channel was not renewed, a measure that generated rejection among part of the population and which led to the activation of the Venezuelan student movement. In December 2007, a referendum was held on these proposals, which were finally rejected by the electorate,[72] maintaining the Constitution in its 1999 version.
In November 2008, regional elections were held, in which the ruling United Socialist Party of Venezuela obtained 17 of the 22 governorships in dispute. The opposition, for its part, obtained the governorship of five of the eight most populated states in Venezuela. In February 2009, a new referendum was held on an amendment proposal put forward by Hugo Chávez that would allow lifting the limits on the re-election of all popularly elected positions, including the President of the Republic, which was approved by the electorate.[73].
It is estimated that during his government the public debt multiplied, most of the debt is supported by Sovereign bonds and PDVSA bonds, other debts are due to agreements with countries such as China and Russia and a third group is due to pending payments for the expropriations of transnational companies, which resulted in hyperinflation since 2017.[74][75].
En las elecciones presidenciales de Venezuela para el período 2013-2019, el presidente Chávez fue reelecto para un tercer mandato consecutivo,[76] pero debido a que falleció en marzo de 2013 por complicaciones de un cáncer del colon,[77] el 14 de abril de 2013 se realizó una nueva elección en donde el entonces vicepresidente Nicolás Maduro obtuvo una ajustada victoria a nivel nacional[78] dándole continuidad a la Revolución bolivariana. En estas elecciones hubo 14 988 563 votos válidos, de los cuales Maduro obtuvo 7 587 532 (el 50,61 %), y Henrique Capriles Radonski 7 363 264 (el 49,1 %). La conflictividad política de 2013 por los resultados de la elección presidencial desencadenó en las manifestaciones en Venezuela de 2014,[79][80][81] aunado a la crisis económica, un aumento sostenido de los índices de criminalidad a nivel nacional y denuncias de corrupción en organismos públicos.[82][83][84][85][86].
Las elecciones parlamentarias de 2015, que se celebraron el 6 de diciembre de 2015, resultaron en la victoria de la Mesa de la Unidad Democrática (MUD), principal movimiento de oposición al gobierno del presidente Nicolás Maduro, con el 56,3 % de los votos y 112 de los 167 diputados de la Asamblea Nacional (incluidos 3 diputados por la Representación Indígena a la Asamblea Nacional), correspondiendo a una mayoría cualificada.[87][88] Sin embargo, desde su instalación el 5 de enero de 2016, la mayoría de las leyes aprobadas por la nueva Asamblea Nacional fueron declaradas inconstitucionales por el Tribunal Supremo de Justicia (TSJ) y solamente una ley entró en vigor, creando así un vacío de poder llevado adelante por el tirbunal.[89][90][91] En una secuencia de varias sentencias desde el 1 de agosto de 2016 el TSJ declaró en desacato a la Asamblea y nulos y sin validez todos sus actos por no desincorporar a tres diputados del estado Amazonas, cuya elección está bajo suspensión cautelar por presuntas irregularidades. La desincorporación del 9 de enero de 2017 fue declarada inválida por el TSJ.[91][92][93][94] Con el argumento del desacato, el Tribunal Supremo de Justicia asumió varias competencias que de acuerdo a la Constitución son de la Asamblea Nacional, como la aprobación y la prórroga del estado de excepción,[94][95][96] el control del presupuesto[94][96][97] y el derecho de recibir las cuentas del Gobierno.[94][98] En la sentencia 156 del 29 de marzo de 2017 la Sala Constitucional del TSJ advirtió de manera general «que mientras persista la situación de desacato... las competencias de la Asamblea Nacional serán ejercidas directamente» por ella.[99][100] Luego de una intervención de la fiscal general Luisa Ortega Díaz que habló de «varias violaciones del orden constitucional», el TSJ en una sentencia del 1 de abril de 2017 revirtió su decisión de asumir todas las funciones del Parlamento.[101][102].
At the request of 20 member countries, the Permanent Council of the Organization of American States (OAS) in a session on April 3, 2017 considered "the recent events in Venezuela" and urged "the Government of Venezuela to act to guarantee the separation and independence of constitutional powers and restore the full authority of the National Assembly."[103] The session, in which only 21 members of the OAS were present, is considered illegal by the governments of Bolivia, Venezuela and Nicaragua.[104][105] On April 26, 2017, the Permanent Council of the OAS with a majority of 19 votes agreed to convene a Consultation meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs to consider the situation in Venezuela.[106] The Maduro government maintains that the approved call for foreign ministers violates the OAS Charter and began the official process of Venezuela's withdrawal from the OAS.[107][108].
In 2019, Venezuela's presidential crisis erupted around the legitimacy "Legitimacy (political)") of who occupies the presidency of the country, after on January 10, 2019, the National Assembly of Venezuela declared that Nicolás Maduro was usurping the position of president and Juan Guaidó - as president of the National Assembly - was sworn in as interim president of the country.[109] After assuming the interim presidency, Guaidó proposed three central objectives for his political strategy: the cessation of the usurpation of the government of Nicolás Maduro, the establishment of a transitional government promoted by the National Assembly and the holding of free and transparent elections.[110] Guaidó was recognized by more than fifty countries as interim president of Venezuela, including the Lima Group, with the exception of Mexico, the majority of countries in the European Union, the European Parliament, the United States, Australia, Japan and Israel, among others. others.[111][112][113][114][115][116] Additionally, seven countries recognize the legitimacy of the National Assembly. On the other hand, twenty countries recognize Maduro, including some ALBA countries such as Cuba and Nicaragua, as well as allied countries such as China, Turkey and Russia.[117][118] While seventeen countries have declared themselves neutral to this crisis, along with the United Nations and the Vatican.
On April 3, 2024, Venezuela promulgates the Organic Law for the Defense of Guayana Esequiba, which creates a new state in the disputed territory.[119] By May 2025, the first governor was elected for the State of Guayana Esequiba, with Neil Villamizar the winner.
On July 28, 2024, presidential elections were held in the country, with Nicolás Maduro Moros and Edmundo Gonzáles Urrutia as the main candidates for the ruling party and the opposition respectively. In what have been the most controversial elections in the history of Venezuela, the CNE (National Electoral Council) announced Maduro's victory, which was quickly denied by the opposition led by María Corina Machado. The opposition claimed to have the results records issued by each of the machines used for voting throughout Venezuela, scanning each of the records and publishing them on a page specially enabled for this purpose.[121] This was classified as false by Maduro but the CNE at no time published the records, in contravention of the electoral laws established during the government of Hugo Chávez and drafted by the National Assembly, which at that time was dominated by official parties, while The opposition did publish 85.18% of the valid minutes that showed the victory of the opposition candidate with 7,443,584 votes for 67% against 3,385,155 votes for 30% that Maduro obtained.[121] However; Maduro and the CNE ignored the results and ordered violent repression of the people who came out to protest demanding Maduro's departure.
This led to massive arrests, even of minors, and in the vast majority of cases; of unarmed people. Likewise, there were people who died and others who were tortured in the following days in order to quell the protests in the street. This way; Maduro retained power by establishing himself in what international media, politicians and organizations worldwide have called a dictatorship.[122].
The country's police forces are organized at the national, state and municipal levels, being administered by their respective governorates and mayors' offices as a product of decentralization. However, the National Executive created the Bolivarian National Police (PNB) in 2009, an additional body that is the main security force in the country. The main investigative body in the country is the Scientific, Penal and Criminal Investigation Corps (CICPC), in charge of investigating crimes and crimes throughout the country. Likewise, the security forces include the main intelligence service, the Bolivarian National Intelligence Service (SEBIN) and the General Directorate of Military Counterintelligence (DGCIM). This also has its own university institution called the National Experimental Security University, where through several PNF, TSU and graduates in the different branches of the special forces graduate, in addition to having postgraduate studies.[139][140].
Finally, to the southeast of the Orinoco rises the Guayanés Shield, whose relief of elevated blocks has been subject to fluvial erosion, until it has become a peneplain to the north and southwest. Towards the southeast, however, erosion has excavated deep valleys, creating a secondary relief of small mountain ranges and isolated plateaus called tepuis. The formation rises in stages until forming long mountain chains on the border with Brazil (Tapirapecó, Parima and Pacaraima mountain ranges). The Roraima Formation, in the southeast of the country, is precisely responsible for the presence of the tepuis, among which the Auyantepuy Plateau stands out. From the western slopes of Auyantepuy falls the famous Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world, with free fall over the valley of the Churun River. However, the most outstanding summit of Venezuelan Guyana is the Tepuy Roraima "Roraima (tepuy)").
The area of the Guiana Shield is the oldest, and together with the Shield of Brazil&action=edit&redlink=1 "Shield of Brazil (geology) (not yet written)") they make up one of the oldest continental formations and blocks on the planet, more than 3,500 million years old. Its extension in Venezuela is about 430,000 km², and this is equivalent to almost half of the national territory. It is found deep below the sedimentary layer that constitutes the Venezuelan plains, extending towards Guyana, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. In its basement are the oldest rocks on the planet, both igneous - such as granite - and metamorphic - schist, quartzite and gneiss. To the northeast, however, there is a relief of hills, mountain ranges and plateaus, where the Imataca mountain range and the Nuria plateau stand out. Here the soil is made up of ferruginous quartzites or itabirites—rocks with a high iron content—which explains the existence of abundant reserves of this mineral in the area.
The linnet, the granadilla, the mahogany and the vera are typical of the tree vegetation of the foothills of Barinas (Barinas (state)") and Apureño, although the rest of the vegetation of Los Llanos is of lower altitude and is made up of grasslands and moriche palms associated with bodies of water. There are also chaparros and there are gallery forests. In this region is the araguaney, the nation's emblem tree. The fauna includes deer, anteaters and others. The most representative birds are hawks, ducks and herons. There is a proliferation of crocodiles, slimes, the Orinoco caiman and several species of snakes, finding cachamas, catfish "Bagre (genus)") and guabinas in bodies of water.
In the desert areas of the coast in the north of the country, the primary vegetation is composed of cacti such as cardones, cujíes and prickly pears. The animals that make up its fauna are rabbits, goats, whitetails and snakes, as well as cardinals, turpiales, and hawks.
On the other hand, in the Orinoco delta, Margarita Island, Barlovento and in the coastal areas of Zulia, Falcón and the east of the country, white, black and red mangrove species can be seen.
Other species of mammals that can be found in the country's aquatic spaces are the dolphin, the manatee and the whales. Lizards such as the chameleon, the tuqueque, the iguana, the mata, are some of the best-known species of reptiles in Venezuela.
Among the endangered species in Venezuela are the arrau tortoise, the jaguar, the frontine bear, the condor, the manatee, the anteater or palm tree, and the cardenalito. Also in critical condition are the tapir, the coastal caiman, the Orinoco caiman, the water dog, the green turtle, the hawksbill turtle, the Cardón turtle, the parrot turtle and the yellow-headed parakeet.[168].
Bauxite has been extracted from Los Pijiguaos") since 1987, and these are destined for aluminum producing companies. The coal deposits of Guasare") in Zulia, Carbosuroeste in Táchira, and Fila Maestra and Naricual in Anzoátegui State have also been exploited. There is an abundance of gold in Bolívar "Bolívar (Venezuela)") and Amazonas "Amazon State (Venezuela)"), and their reserves represent 10% of the world total. It is also an important producer of diamonds, limestone and dolomite. Other exploitations of great interest are the phosphate deposits in Táchira, manganese in Guayana and nickel in Aragua and Miranda. On Margarita Island there are minor magnesite reserves.
The main institution in the administration and extraction of the country's mining resources is the Venezuelan Mining Corporation (f. 2013), established as a subsidiary of Petróleos de Venezuela, and whose objectives are to delimit the activity of small mining and prevent the smuggling of resources abroad.[225][226].
Likewise in classical music, Venezuela has stood out in recent years for performing on European stages by the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra, gaining some international fame and positioning itself as one of the best orchestras in the world along with its director Gustavo Dudamel who also directs the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra.[403].
In motor sports, the most prominent Venezuelan has been Johnny Cecotto. He became the youngest world champion in motorcycling history by winning the French Grand Prix in 350cc, adding the 750cc World Championship to his titles. Carlos Lavado also stands out in this discipline, winning the 250cc World Championship twice, and Pastor Maldonado, Formula 1 racing driver, winner of the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix.[430].
On the other hand, in individual sports the most prominent in Venezuela is boxing, with a large fan base. The country has produced great boxers at the international level, and is followed with interest by Venezuelans. In winter sports, Venezuela has stood out in Nordic skiing with César Baena. In terms of athletics, in the triple jump, Venezuela has stood out thanks to Yulimar Rojas who won the silver medal at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, and five years later she would become Olympic champion at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, establishing a world record and Olympic record "with a jump of 15.67 m.
In karate, Venezuela is the only country in Latin America that is among the 15 best in the world, in 12th place specifically, thus reaping so far 3 gold medals, 3 silver and 8 bronze medals for a total of 14 in the World Karate Championship, the most prominent exponent of this sport being Antonio Díaz. "Antonio Díaz (karateka)") Rugby has also been practiced since the 1950s, introduced to the country by oil workers of British origin. Nowadays it is very popular at the university level.
On the other hand, territorial losses were experienced during this period: starting in 1615 the region west of the Essequibo River began to be invaded by the Dutch, who also militarily took Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire due to the Eighty Years' War, between 1634 and 1636. Subsequently, the British took over the islands of Trinidad and Tobago after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens "Treaty of Amiens (1802)") in 1802, towards the end of the French revolutionary wars.
From New Granada, Bolívar attempted a repeat of the Admirable Campaign to rescue the republic, but due to lack of support he moved to Jamaica to obtain British support, and then to Haiti, where the rest of the patriot leaders took refuge. There, the expedition from the Keys to Tierra Firme was planned, which set sail in March 1816. After taking the island of Margarita, the Republicans continued attacking Carúpano and Maracay"), but were rejected. In a second expedition, Bolívar took command of the Republican troops stationed in Guayana, with which he managed to capture Angostura and from where he refounded the institutions, creating the Third Republic. For his part, José Antonio Páez carried out important military operations to liberate the central region of the country under the command of its llaneros.
The war in the plain continued until 1819. That year, Bolívar attempted to reorganize the State with the installation of the Congress of Angostura, the result of which was the creation of Gran Colombia. In 1820, the Treaty of Armistice and Regularization of War was signed, ending the War to the Death "War to the Death (Venezuela)") and ceasing hostilities until April 28, 1821. On June 24 of that same year, Bolívar faced Miguel de la Torre in the Battle of Carabobo "Battle of Carabobo (1821)"), which resulted in Republican victory. This victory meant the liquidation of the royalist troops in Venezuela, leaving remnants that would be defeated in the naval battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823. With the taking of the stronghold of Puerto Cabello by the liberating army, independence was definitively sealed.
According to its Fundamental Law, Gran Colombia integrated the former Captaincy General of Venezuela with the Viceroyalty of New Granada and the Free Province of Guayaquil, which would later be joined by the Court of Quito. The Congress elected in Angostura moved to Villa del Rosario "Villa del Rosario (Norte de Santander)"), where a Constitution was sanctioned in August 1821, and in which the political organization of this State was defined. Bolívar was elected president by majority, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made vice president. Bolívar would continue his liberation campaigns in the south, in which he would promote the liberation of Peru and the creation of Bolivia.
The new State regulated commerce and public institutions, and also decreed the abolition of slavery.[38] But the discrepancy between Bolivarians (centralists) and Santanderistas (federalists) strained the internal order. Coupled with the economic crisis, the lack of infrastructure, idiosyncratic differences and interests, and the desire for autonomy on the part of Venezuelans for their territory, secession germinated. The Cosiata of 1826, led by Páez, forged this disagreement between the department of Venezuela and the government of Bogotá. To calm the upheaval, Bolívar governed by decree from 1828, but this did not prevent the separation of Venezuela, which was finally manifested in November 1829. In May 1830, the Congress of Valencia (provisional capital of the country on the occasion of the congress) was installed to make decisions regarding the steps to be followed by the District of Venezuela in view of the growing and continuing distance from the Central Government. This ended in the secession of Venezuela from Gran Colombia and the birth of the State of Venezuela, when a new constitution was adopted.
blues
el Mocho
February Program
At the end of his term in 1941, Congress appointed Isaías Medina Angarita as president, a military man who enacted a Hydrocarbons Law in 1943 that brought more monetary dividends to the country, limiting multinationals. During his administration, women's suffrage and the legalization of parties were decreed, the return of all exiles and the release of the remaining political prisoners was allowed. He created the first Venezuelan identification plan "Identity Card (Venezuela)"), activated an agrarian reform, supported the Allies of World War II, attempted the annexation of the Netherlands Antilles and signed the 1941 Boundary Treaty between Colombia and Venezuela. Although he accelerated the path to democracy, there were still adversaries such as Rómulo Betancourt and his Democratic Action party. From within it, a military coup was hatched in 1945 with the help of a military group led by lieutenant colonels Marcos Pérez Jiménez, Luis Llovera Páez and Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, who disagreed with the type of presidential election used and with many of Medina's measures.
The 1950s are considered an economic boom that was based on oil production. This went from 1.8 million barrels per day (priced at $2.14) to 2.77 million barrels per day (priced at $2.65), according to data from the Ministry of Energy and Mines. In turn, according to the United Nations Statistics Division in its 1964 Statistical Yearbook, the growth of the Venezuelan economy from 1952 to 1958 was the highest in the Western Hemisphere, above powers such as the United States and the United Kingdom. On the other hand, employment rose 21% between 1952 and 1956, while the highest inflation was 1.6% in 1954.
In 1957, a plebiscite was organized to define his permanence for another five-year period in power. The official bulletins gave him victory, although it was understood in all sectors of the country that it was a fraud.[58] This produced a division in the Armed Forces, giving rise to a failed rebellion on New Year's Day 1958. But the consequent political crisis destabilized the bases of the regime, concluding with his deposition by a civil-military movement on January 23, forcing him to flee to the Dominican Republic to move to Spain. Once the rebellion triumphed, a Civic-Military Government Board was organized, chaired by Rear Admiral Wolfgang Larrazábal. Months later, the Punto Fijo Pact was signed, which provided for the alternation in power of Democratic Action, COPEI and URD, to guide the future politics of the country,[59] excluding other left-wing parties such as the PCV. The election for president "Venezuelan Presidential Election (1958)") ended up opting for Rómulo Betancourt.
Carlos Andrés Pérez was elected again in 1988 and during his term he sought to solve the recession "Economic recession in Venezuela (1983-1998)") by adopting measures that caused large social protests, the largest being the Caracazo of 1989. That same year the first direct elections of regional governors and mayors took place. Subsequently, there were two coup attempts in February and November 1992 led by Hugo Chávez, and Pérez was finally dismissed by Congress in 1993. Octavio Lepage was provisional president for a few days, until the historian and parliamentarian Ramón José Velázquez was appointed as interim president.
Caldera came to power for the second time in 1994, having to manage the severe banking crisis that occurred that year. The collapse and intervention of a dozen banks culminated in capital flight, causing the bankruptcy of companies. To stop the crisis, an economic privatization program called Agenda Venezuela began, but the serious economic situation would continue with the decline of the political parties that had been active since the middle of the century.
Chávez's administration maintained a leftist line that sought to lead the country towards what he called the Socialism of the century. He created aid and social development programs—Bolivarian Missions. He expressed distaste for the political-economic imperialism that, in his words, was managed by the United States government. In turn, it strengthened relations with former rivals of the United States, such as Russia, China and Vietnam, or ideological rivals, such as Cuba, Iran, Belarus and Syria.
In 2005, the Chavista parties gained control of almost all the country's governorships and the National Assembly, elections to which the opposition did not attend, alleging "lack of guarantees."[71] The next presidential elections were held in December 2006, in which Chávez was re-elected against Manuel Rosales, his direct opponent. He later announced that he would promote his political project through reforms to the Constitution, including control of the Armed Forces, new economic controls and indefinite reelection. In this process, the concession for open signal to the RCTV television channel was not renewed, a measure that generated rejection among part of the population and which led to the activation of the Venezuelan student movement. In December 2007, a referendum was held on these proposals, which were finally rejected by the electorate,[72] maintaining the Constitution in its 1999 version.
In November 2008, regional elections were held, in which the ruling United Socialist Party of Venezuela obtained 17 of the 22 governorships in dispute. The opposition, for its part, obtained the governorship of five of the eight most populated states in Venezuela. In February 2009, a new referendum was held on an amendment proposal put forward by Hugo Chávez that would allow lifting the limits on the re-election of all popularly elected positions, including the President of the Republic, which was approved by the electorate.[73].
It is estimated that during his government the public debt multiplied, most of the debt is supported by Sovereign bonds and PDVSA bonds, other debts are due to agreements with countries such as China and Russia and a third group is due to pending payments for the expropriations of transnational companies, which resulted in hyperinflation since 2017.[74][75].
En las elecciones presidenciales de Venezuela para el período 2013-2019, el presidente Chávez fue reelecto para un tercer mandato consecutivo,[76] pero debido a que falleció en marzo de 2013 por complicaciones de un cáncer del colon,[77] el 14 de abril de 2013 se realizó una nueva elección en donde el entonces vicepresidente Nicolás Maduro obtuvo una ajustada victoria a nivel nacional[78] dándole continuidad a la Revolución bolivariana. En estas elecciones hubo 14 988 563 votos válidos, de los cuales Maduro obtuvo 7 587 532 (el 50,61 %), y Henrique Capriles Radonski 7 363 264 (el 49,1 %). La conflictividad política de 2013 por los resultados de la elección presidencial desencadenó en las manifestaciones en Venezuela de 2014,[79][80][81] aunado a la crisis económica, un aumento sostenido de los índices de criminalidad a nivel nacional y denuncias de corrupción en organismos públicos.[82][83][84][85][86].
Las elecciones parlamentarias de 2015, que se celebraron el 6 de diciembre de 2015, resultaron en la victoria de la Mesa de la Unidad Democrática (MUD), principal movimiento de oposición al gobierno del presidente Nicolás Maduro, con el 56,3 % de los votos y 112 de los 167 diputados de la Asamblea Nacional (incluidos 3 diputados por la Representación Indígena a la Asamblea Nacional), correspondiendo a una mayoría cualificada.[87][88] Sin embargo, desde su instalación el 5 de enero de 2016, la mayoría de las leyes aprobadas por la nueva Asamblea Nacional fueron declaradas inconstitucionales por el Tribunal Supremo de Justicia (TSJ) y solamente una ley entró en vigor, creando así un vacío de poder llevado adelante por el tirbunal.[89][90][91] En una secuencia de varias sentencias desde el 1 de agosto de 2016 el TSJ declaró en desacato a la Asamblea y nulos y sin validez todos sus actos por no desincorporar a tres diputados del estado Amazonas, cuya elección está bajo suspensión cautelar por presuntas irregularidades. La desincorporación del 9 de enero de 2017 fue declarada inválida por el TSJ.[91][92][93][94] Con el argumento del desacato, el Tribunal Supremo de Justicia asumió varias competencias que de acuerdo a la Constitución son de la Asamblea Nacional, como la aprobación y la prórroga del estado de excepción,[94][95][96] el control del presupuesto[94][96][97] y el derecho de recibir las cuentas del Gobierno.[94][98] En la sentencia 156 del 29 de marzo de 2017 la Sala Constitucional del TSJ advirtió de manera general «que mientras persista la situación de desacato... las competencias de la Asamblea Nacional serán ejercidas directamente» por ella.[99][100] Luego de una intervención de la fiscal general Luisa Ortega Díaz que habló de «varias violaciones del orden constitucional», el TSJ en una sentencia del 1 de abril de 2017 revirtió su decisión de asumir todas las funciones del Parlamento.[101][102].
At the request of 20 member countries, the Permanent Council of the Organization of American States (OAS) in a session on April 3, 2017 considered "the recent events in Venezuela" and urged "the Government of Venezuela to act to guarantee the separation and independence of constitutional powers and restore the full authority of the National Assembly."[103] The session, in which only 21 members of the OAS were present, is considered illegal by the governments of Bolivia, Venezuela and Nicaragua.[104][105] On April 26, 2017, the Permanent Council of the OAS with a majority of 19 votes agreed to convene a Consultation meeting of Ministers of Foreign Affairs to consider the situation in Venezuela.[106] The Maduro government maintains that the approved call for foreign ministers violates the OAS Charter and began the official process of Venezuela's withdrawal from the OAS.[107][108].
In 2019, Venezuela's presidential crisis erupted around the legitimacy "Legitimacy (political)") of who occupies the presidency of the country, after on January 10, 2019, the National Assembly of Venezuela declared that Nicolás Maduro was usurping the position of president and Juan Guaidó - as president of the National Assembly - was sworn in as interim president of the country.[109] After assuming the interim presidency, Guaidó proposed three central objectives for his political strategy: the cessation of the usurpation of the government of Nicolás Maduro, the establishment of a transitional government promoted by the National Assembly and the holding of free and transparent elections.[110] Guaidó was recognized by more than fifty countries as interim president of Venezuela, including the Lima Group, with the exception of Mexico, the majority of countries in the European Union, the European Parliament, the United States, Australia, Japan and Israel, among others. others.[111][112][113][114][115][116] Additionally, seven countries recognize the legitimacy of the National Assembly. On the other hand, twenty countries recognize Maduro, including some ALBA countries such as Cuba and Nicaragua, as well as allied countries such as China, Turkey and Russia.[117][118] While seventeen countries have declared themselves neutral to this crisis, along with the United Nations and the Vatican.
On April 3, 2024, Venezuela promulgates the Organic Law for the Defense of Guayana Esequiba, which creates a new state in the disputed territory.[119] By May 2025, the first governor was elected for the State of Guayana Esequiba, with Neil Villamizar the winner.
On July 28, 2024, presidential elections were held in the country, with Nicolás Maduro Moros and Edmundo Gonzáles Urrutia as the main candidates for the ruling party and the opposition respectively. In what have been the most controversial elections in the history of Venezuela, the CNE (National Electoral Council) announced Maduro's victory, which was quickly denied by the opposition led by María Corina Machado. The opposition claimed to have the results records issued by each of the machines used for voting throughout Venezuela, scanning each of the records and publishing them on a page specially enabled for this purpose.[121] This was classified as false by Maduro but the CNE at no time published the records, in contravention of the electoral laws established during the government of Hugo Chávez and drafted by the National Assembly, which at that time was dominated by official parties, while The opposition did publish 85.18% of the valid minutes that showed the victory of the opposition candidate with 7,443,584 votes for 67% against 3,385,155 votes for 30% that Maduro obtained.[121] However; Maduro and the CNE ignored the results and ordered violent repression of the people who came out to protest demanding Maduro's departure.
This led to massive arrests, even of minors, and in the vast majority of cases; of unarmed people. Likewise, there were people who died and others who were tortured in the following days in order to quell the protests in the street. This way; Maduro retained power by establishing himself in what international media, politicians and organizations worldwide have called a dictatorship.[122].
The country's police forces are organized at the national, state and municipal levels, being administered by their respective governorates and mayors' offices as a product of decentralization. However, the National Executive created the Bolivarian National Police (PNB) in 2009, an additional body that is the main security force in the country. The main investigative body in the country is the Scientific, Penal and Criminal Investigation Corps (CICPC), in charge of investigating crimes and crimes throughout the country. Likewise, the security forces include the main intelligence service, the Bolivarian National Intelligence Service (SEBIN) and the General Directorate of Military Counterintelligence (DGCIM). This also has its own university institution called the National Experimental Security University, where through several PNF, TSU and graduates in the different branches of the special forces graduate, in addition to having postgraduate studies.[139][140].
Finally, to the southeast of the Orinoco rises the Guayanés Shield, whose relief of elevated blocks has been subject to fluvial erosion, until it has become a peneplain to the north and southwest. Towards the southeast, however, erosion has excavated deep valleys, creating a secondary relief of small mountain ranges and isolated plateaus called tepuis. The formation rises in stages until forming long mountain chains on the border with Brazil (Tapirapecó, Parima and Pacaraima mountain ranges). The Roraima Formation, in the southeast of the country, is precisely responsible for the presence of the tepuis, among which the Auyantepuy Plateau stands out. From the western slopes of Auyantepuy falls the famous Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world, with free fall over the valley of the Churun River. However, the most outstanding summit of Venezuelan Guyana is the Tepuy Roraima "Roraima (tepuy)").
The area of the Guiana Shield is the oldest, and together with the Shield of Brazil&action=edit&redlink=1 "Shield of Brazil (geology) (not yet written)") they make up one of the oldest continental formations and blocks on the planet, more than 3,500 million years old. Its extension in Venezuela is about 430,000 km², and this is equivalent to almost half of the national territory. It is found deep below the sedimentary layer that constitutes the Venezuelan plains, extending towards Guyana, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. In its basement are the oldest rocks on the planet, both igneous - such as granite - and metamorphic - schist, quartzite and gneiss. To the northeast, however, there is a relief of hills, mountain ranges and plateaus, where the Imataca mountain range and the Nuria plateau stand out. Here the soil is made up of ferruginous quartzites or itabirites—rocks with a high iron content—which explains the existence of abundant reserves of this mineral in the area.
The linnet, the granadilla, the mahogany and the vera are typical of the tree vegetation of the foothills of Barinas (Barinas (state)") and Apureño, although the rest of the vegetation of Los Llanos is of lower altitude and is made up of grasslands and moriche palms associated with bodies of water. There are also chaparros and there are gallery forests. In this region is the araguaney, the nation's emblem tree. The fauna includes deer, anteaters and others. The most representative birds are hawks, ducks and herons. There is a proliferation of crocodiles, slimes, the Orinoco caiman and several species of snakes, finding cachamas, catfish "Bagre (genus)") and guabinas in bodies of water.
In the desert areas of the coast in the north of the country, the primary vegetation is composed of cacti such as cardones, cujíes and prickly pears. The animals that make up its fauna are rabbits, goats, whitetails and snakes, as well as cardinals, turpiales, and hawks.
On the other hand, in the Orinoco delta, Margarita Island, Barlovento and in the coastal areas of Zulia, Falcón and the east of the country, white, black and red mangrove species can be seen.
Other species of mammals that can be found in the country's aquatic spaces are the dolphin, the manatee and the whales. Lizards such as the chameleon, the tuqueque, the iguana, the mata, are some of the best-known species of reptiles in Venezuela.
Among the endangered species in Venezuela are the arrau tortoise, the jaguar, the frontine bear, the condor, the manatee, the anteater or palm tree, and the cardenalito. Also in critical condition are the tapir, the coastal caiman, the Orinoco caiman, the water dog, the green turtle, the hawksbill turtle, the Cardón turtle, the parrot turtle and the yellow-headed parakeet.[168].
Bauxite has been extracted from Los Pijiguaos") since 1987, and these are destined for aluminum producing companies. The coal deposits of Guasare") in Zulia, Carbosuroeste in Táchira, and Fila Maestra and Naricual in Anzoátegui State have also been exploited. There is an abundance of gold in Bolívar "Bolívar (Venezuela)") and Amazonas "Amazon State (Venezuela)"), and their reserves represent 10% of the world total. It is also an important producer of diamonds, limestone and dolomite. Other exploitations of great interest are the phosphate deposits in Táchira, manganese in Guayana and nickel in Aragua and Miranda. On Margarita Island there are minor magnesite reserves.
The main institution in the administration and extraction of the country's mining resources is the Venezuelan Mining Corporation (f. 2013), established as a subsidiary of Petróleos de Venezuela, and whose objectives are to delimit the activity of small mining and prevent the smuggling of resources abroad.[225][226].
Likewise in classical music, Venezuela has stood out in recent years for performing on European stages by the Simón Bolívar Symphony Orchestra, gaining some international fame and positioning itself as one of the best orchestras in the world along with its director Gustavo Dudamel who also directs the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra.[403].
In motor sports, the most prominent Venezuelan has been Johnny Cecotto. He became the youngest world champion in motorcycling history by winning the French Grand Prix in 350cc, adding the 750cc World Championship to his titles. Carlos Lavado also stands out in this discipline, winning the 250cc World Championship twice, and Pastor Maldonado, Formula 1 racing driver, winner of the 2012 Spanish Grand Prix.[430].
On the other hand, in individual sports the most prominent in Venezuela is boxing, with a large fan base. The country has produced great boxers at the international level, and is followed with interest by Venezuelans. In winter sports, Venezuela has stood out in Nordic skiing with César Baena. In terms of athletics, in the triple jump, Venezuela has stood out thanks to Yulimar Rojas who won the silver medal at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, and five years later she would become Olympic champion at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games, establishing a world record and Olympic record "with a jump of 15.67 m.
In karate, Venezuela is the only country in Latin America that is among the 15 best in the world, in 12th place specifically, thus reaping so far 3 gold medals, 3 silver and 8 bronze medals for a total of 14 in the World Karate Championship, the most prominent exponent of this sport being Antonio Díaz. "Antonio Díaz (karateka)") Rugby has also been practiced since the 1950s, introduced to the country by oil workers of British origin. Nowadays it is very popular at the university level.