Graphene is one of the hardest and strongest materials available, it even exceeds the hardness of diamond and is two hundred times stronger than steel. It is highly rigid, in fact, it has a Young's modulus of 1 TPa. Therefore, it withstands large forces without hardly deforming. It is a light material with a density of only 0.77 milligrams per square meter (density indicated in surface units as a result of its laminar structure). It is also worth noting that it withstands high bending forces, that is, it can be bent without breaking.

To get an idea of ​​the capacity of these mechanical properties, the Nobel Prize winner made a comparison with a graphene hammock with a surface area of ​​one square meter and a single atom thick. This graphene hammock could support up to 4kg before breaking (equivalent to the weight of a cat). In total, this hammock would weigh the same as one of the hairs on the cat's mustache, less than a milligram.

Reinforced graphene

This form of graphene features embedded carbon nanotube reinforcing rods (or "rods") and is easier to manipulate, while improving the electrical and mechanical qualities of both materials.

Functionalized single- and multi-wall carbon nanotubes are spin-coated onto copper foils and then heated and cooled, using the nanotubes themselves as a carbon source. Upon heating, the carbon functional groups break down into graphene, while the nanotubes partially split and form in-plane covalent bonds with the graphene, adding strength. The π–π stacking domains add more strength. The nanotubes can be layered, making the material a better conductor than standard CVD-grown graphene. The nanotubes effectively bridge grain boundaries found in conventional graphene. The technique eliminates traces of substrate on which separated sheets were subsequently deposited by epitaxy.

Single-layer stacks have been proposed as a cost-effective and physically flexible substitute for indium tin oxide (ITO) used in displays and photovoltaic cells.

Molded graphene

In 2015, researchers at the University of Illinois (UIUC) developed a new approach to generating 3D shapes from flat 2D graphene sheets. A film of graphene that had been soaked in solvent to make it swell and become malleable was overlaid on an underlying “forming” substrate. The solvent evaporated over time, leaving a layer of graphene that had taken the shape of the underlying structure. In this way, they were able to produce a range of relatively intricate microstructured shapes. Features vary from 3.5 to 50 μm. Pure graphene and gold-decorated graphene were successfully integrated into the substrate[12].

Graphene airgel

It is an airgel made of layers of graphene separated by carbon nanotubes that has been measured at 0.16 milligrams per cubic centimeter. A solution of graphene and carbon nanotubes is freeze-dried in a mold to dehydrate the solution, leaving the airgel. The material has superior elasticity and absorption. It can fully recover after more than 90% compression and absorb up to 900 times its weight in oil, at a speed of 68.8 grams per second.[13]​.

Contenido

El repentino aumento del interés científico por el grafeno puede dar la impresión de que se trata de un material nuevo. En realidad se conoce y ha sido descrito desde hace más de medio siglo. El enlace químico y su estructura se describieron durante los años 1930. Philip Russell Wallace calculó por primera vez (en 1949) la estructura electrónica de bandas.[14]​ Al grafeno se le prestó poca atención durante décadas al pensarse que era un material inestable termodinámicamente ya que se pensaba que las fluctuaciones térmicas destruirían el orden del cristal dando lugar a que el cristal 2D se fundiese. Bajo esta premisa se entiende la revolución que significó que Gueim y Novosiólov consiguiesen aislar el grafeno a temperatura ambiente. La palabra grafeno se adoptó oficialmente en 1994, después de haber sido designada de manera indistinta —en el campo de la ciencia de superficies— «monocapa de grafito».

Además, muchas nanoestructuras recientemente descubiertas, como los nanotubos de carbono, están relacionadas con el grafeno. Tradicionalmente, a estos nanotubos se les ha descrito como «hojas de grafeno enrolladas sobre sí mismas».[15]​ De hecho las propiedades de los nanotubos de carbono se explican y entienden fácilmente a partir de las inherentes al grafeno.[16]​[17]​ Se ha descrito también la preparación de nanotiras") de grafeno mediante nanolitografía, haciendo uso de un microscopio de efecto túnel.[18]​.

Grafeno superrejilla.

El grafeno apilado periódicamente y su isomorfo aislante proporcionan un elemento estructural fascinante en la implementación de superredes altamente funcionales a escala atómica, lo que ofrece posibilidades en el diseño de dispositivos nanoelectrónicos y fotónicos. Se pueden obtener varios tipos de superredes apilando grafeno y sus formas relacionadas.[19]​ La banda de energía en las superredes apiladas en capas es más sensible al ancho de la barrera que en las superredes de semiconductores III-V convencionales. Cuando se agrega más de una capa atómica a la barrera en cada período, el acoplamiento de las funciones de onda electrónicas en los pozos potenciales vecinos se puede reducir significativamente, lo que conduce a la degeneración de subbandas continuas en niveles de energía cuantificados. Al variar el ancho del pozo, los niveles de energía en los pozos potenciales a lo largo de la dirección L-M se comportan de manera distinta a los de la dirección K-H.

Una superrejilla corresponde a una disposición periódica o cuasiperiódica de diferentes materiales, y puede ser descrita por un período de superrejilla que confiere una nueva simetría de traslación al sistema, impactando sus dispersiones fonónicas y posteriormente sus propiedades de transporte térmico. Recientemente, se han sintetizado con éxito estructuras uniformes de grafeno-hBN monocapa mediante patrones de litografía junto con deposición química de vapor (CVD).[20]​ Además, las superredes de grafeno-hBN son sistemas de modelos ideales para la realización y comprensión del transporte térmico de fonones coherente (en forma de onda) e incoherente (en forma de partículas).[21]​[22]​.

Utilization

This work presents a study on the catalytic properties of graphene sheets doped (doping: atoms needed to create a difference in the conductive capabilities of a semiconductor) with transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni), to analyze the absorption energy "Absorption (chemistry)") of molecular oxygen on the graphene sheet. Systems doped with Nickel result in a lower energy barrier against oxygen dissociation, and it can be determined that graphene doped with this metal could be considered as a possible cathodic catalyst (responsible for controlling exhaust pipe emissions, reducing their toxicity.) of the oxygen reduction reaction.[23]​.

This research work seeks to improve the properties of polymeric mixtures of PLA and cassava starch, adding to these nanoplates of graphene, for the creation of films. They were developed by a batch system with a mixer and by extrusion (a transformation operation in which a molten material is forced through a nozzle to produce an article). The incorporation of graphene into the mixture resulted in a material with better mechanical properties and a decrease in oxygen permeability compared to the previous ones. The films developed with Graphene have demonstrated adequate behavior from the point of view of their properties and their degree of biodegradability (a process by which a substance or material**,** can be decomposed by living organisms), demonstrating that they can be an option to the petroleum-derived materials that are currently on the market. Application as a substitute for current petroleum-derived materials.[24]​.

Some works on this matter in Argentina. At the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Physicochemical Research (INIFTA, CONICET-UNLP), there is one of the few groups in the country that is dedicated, among other studies, to obtaining graphene.

At the “Enrique Gaviola” Physics Institute (IFEG, CONICET_Universidad Nacional de Córdoba) another group is focused on the study of electrical and transport properties.

At the Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development of the CNEA and the Balseiro Institute, the electronic and transport properties of electrons in Graphene are studied, as well as the effects that electromagnetic fields have on it.

At the Faculty of Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics of the National University of Córdoba, researchers concluded through calculations that the beam of an infrared laser would interrupt the electrical conductivity of the material, which could then become insulating. If verified experimentally, the discovery would have a great technological impact, since until now its incredible conductivity was also its main weakness, due to the impossibility of “stopping” or interrupting it. This would allow you to “turn on and off” your driving.

The INTI Center for Physics and Metrology is working in collaboration with the National Metrology Institute of the United States (NIST), with the aim of gaining experience in the manufacture of Graphene samples, which will then be characterized in Argentina to determine their possible application in metrology.[25]​.

Las propiedades del grafeno son ideales para utilizarlo como componente de circuitos integrados. Está dotado de alta movilidad de portadores, así como de bajo nivel de «ruido». Ello permite que se le utilice como canal en transistores de efecto campo (FET). La dificultad de utilizar grafeno estriba en la producción del mismo material en el sustrato adecuado. Investigadores están indagando métodos tales como transferencia de hojas de grafeno desde grafito (exfoliación "Exfoliación (mineralogía)")) o crecimiento epitaxial (como la grafitización térmica de la superficie del carburo de silicio: SiC).

En diciembre de 2008, IBM anunció que habían fabricado y caracterizado transistores que operaban a frecuencias de 26 gigahercios (GHz).[28]​ En febrero de 2010, la misma empresa anunció que la velocidad de estos nuevos transistores alcanzó los 100 GHz.[29]​ En septiembre de 2010 se alcanzaron los 300 GHz.[30]​.

Las publicaciones especializadas rebosan de artículos en los que se atribuye a esta estructura de carbono cualidad de «panacea universal» en la tecnología para reemplazo de dispositivos de silicio por grafeno. Pero no toda la comunidad científica comparte este optimismo. El célebre físico holandés Walter de Heer") afirma:.

Además, el grafeno carece de una banda de resistividad, propiedad esencial que le es inherente al silicio. Eso implica que el grafeno no puede dejar de conducir electricidad: no se puede apagar.

High speed cables

Researchers at the University of Cambridge made graphene capable of capturing a large amount of light, which can be used in the creation of very fast fiber optic cables that benefit from another of the material's properties: electrons move quickly in it.

Thus, graphene cables are promised that could move information hundreds of times faster than a current one, which could be implemented in the area of ​​telecommunications for the installation of faster networks, thus increasing the capacity and speed of the Internet, mobile telephony and, ultimately, all the communications that take place on our planet.

Electric super batteries

Perhaps one of the most exciting discoveries is related to the field of electrical accumulators, where today technology allows devices that work for a few hours until requiring an electrical charge that can last several hours, degrading the user experience on mobile phones, tablets and laptops.

Flexible touch screens

Being able to conduct electrons very well almost without heating up in the process, researchers from the University of Texas and the University of South Korea discovered that a sheet of graphene can be used in the development of touch screens, taking advantage of the fact that a sheet of graphene can be totally transparent, ideal for placing over a panel of pixels without reducing the brightness of its backlight.

Furthermore, that thin sheet of graphene sensitive to electrical conduction and that would capture our touches can be very flexible, contributing to what could be future flexible touch screens, which could well be accompanied by flexible OLED technology for the development of this type of technology.

Professional quality headphones and speakers

Qin Zhou and Alex Zettl are two scientists from the University of California who want to revolutionize the audio market thanks to their graphene headphones and speakers. The idea is to create a diaphragm made of graphene that is placed in the middle of two electrodes, after which the graphene vibrates and produces sound.

According to the researchers, without much further work to "tune" the headphones and give them special treatment, they achieved sound on par with today's high-quality products. And since the graphene diaphragm uses a sheet that is very thin, the size and weight of the product can also be very small, so high-quality headphones that are at the same time very small and lightweight could be created.

Cameras with greater sensitivity

A current camera is basically made up of a lens through which light passes and then reaches a sensor, capturing it and transforming it into digital information. What researchers at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore managed to do was create a sensor made of graphene, increasing the sensitivity of the device about a thousand times relative to current CMOS or CCD technologies.

We are talking about an important improvement for sensors for professional and compact cameras, which could allow better captures in low light conditions and in general for any occasion. Furthermore, these new graphene sensors could consume ten times less energy and be five times cheaper to mass produce than conventional ones.

A team of scientists from the University of Manchester has shown that graphene oxide, a modified form of graphene, behaves as an antineoplastic agent that acts directly on cancer cells. Thanks to this, graphene could be used to reduce the size of malignant tumors and prevent the spread of cancer. This discovery continues to be the subject of study.[32]​.

Such a finding is very important, since the current treatment of cancer consists of eliminating cells from the affected area, both cancerous and non-cancerous. With the help of graphene, only cancer cells could be eliminated, thus reducing the number of side effects in the patient.[33]​.

The use of a graphene sheet with 1.8 nm pores to replace the membranes in the reverse osmosis process for water desalination is in the research phase. Its holes are so small that water molecules can pass through, but not salt.

According to current research, much higher efficiencies would be obtained than with current membranes, and there would be lower energy requirements. In the current state, the drawback is the cost of graphene membranes, but it is expected that in the future these costs can be reduced.[34]​.

The main problem that prevents the exploitation of graphene is that the production of large quantities is limited. The different traditional manufacturing techniques in ascending order of scalability are:

The quality of the samples goes in the opposite direction to that of scalability: the more scalable the process, the lower the quality of the samples. However, it is possible to synthesize a greater quantity of graphene nanoplatelets by the mechanical grinding of graphite technique with an appreciable commercial quality.[35]​.

Recently, researchers at Rice University have managed to synthesize graphene from common sugar at 800 °C, the resulting graphene being of high quality. Another new technique comes from the IPCPAS-Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Polish Academy of Sciences, together with the IRI-Interdisciplinary Research Institute of Lille. The manufacturing technique they used was the oxidation of graphite, obtaining a powder called graphite oxide. It is then suspended in water and placed in an ultrasonic cleaner. Ultrasonics separate the oxidized graphene sheets and allow the production of 300 nm thick graphene flakes.

In 2011, NASA's Spitzer space telescope discovered graphene in space as well as other molecules of the fullerene family, specifically the C60 and C70 molecules.[36]​.

Exposure to carbon nanotubes (graphene) reproduces in laboratory mice the symptoms caused by asbestos, from chronic inflammation, loss of tumor suppressor pathways, to eventual and sporadic development of malignant mesothelioma.[37]​ Exposure in humans therefore represents a high health risk.[38]​.

In 2018, experimental physicist Pablo Jarillo-Herrero revolutionized the field of condensed matter physics by successfully rotating two monatomic layers of overlapping graphene. Pablo's group discovered that by rotating these layers at a 'magic' angle of about 1.1 degrees, the graphene bilayer exhibited superconducting behavior. This discovery opened the door for many experimental and theoretical groups to explore the system and reproduce the results. This system has produced great interest in the community due to the richness of its phase diagram and the new physics it can host. It represents a common point between several areas of physics by bringing together physicists who study high-temperature superconductors, topology groups, and strong electronic correlation groups. Recently, the presence of superconductivity has been discovered in 3 superimposed layers of graphene in which the lower and upper ones are aligned and the middle one rotated by about 1.5 degrees.

In this sense, graphene has been defined as an infinitely alternating polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon of rings of only six carbon atoms. The largest molecule of this type contains 222 carbon atoms or 37 separate "benzene units".[5]​.

The figures in the previous sentence are those contained in the summary of the quote. It should be: 111 carbon atoms and 111 hydrogen atoms or, more simply, 222 atoms, which results from 37 × 6 (carbon - or hydrogen - atoms of benzene, formula CH) = 222, or: 18.5 benzene rings: 18.5 x 12 (benzene atoms) = 222.

The "units" option was to obtain a round figure (37), and therefore avoid the fractional expression (18.5).

The previous illustration, relating to the molecular structure of two mesomers "Resonance (chemistry)") of benzene, allows a better understanding of what was previously stated.

Graphene as a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon:

Graphene can be described as a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, composed of benzene rings (C₆H₆) in an extended structure. In this case, graphene can be seen as an infinitely alternating two-dimensional network of rings of six carbon atoms (the same number of atoms in benzene).

Calculation and formula of 222 atoms:

The formula you mention —37 × 6 (carbon atoms of benzene) = 222— is an approximation that seeks to illustrate that graphene can be considered as a structure formed by several benzene units connected in a network. This type of approximation is used to describe a fragment of graphene, not the entire infinite structure of the material.

The 222-atom formula: When you say that graphene has 111 carbon atoms and 111 hydrogen atoms, this implies that you are considering graphene with hydrogen on its surface, which is a valid description if we are talking about hydrogenated graphene (a material derived from graphene, but with hydrogen added to its edges). However, if we are talking about pure graphene in its most basic form, there should be no hydrogen in the formula, since in graphene, the carbon atoms are only bonded to each other.

Calculation of carbon and hydrogen atoms in "benzene units":

The reference to 37 benzene units and the calculation of 222 atoms (37 × 6) is simply a way to visualize that graphene could be composed of repeating units of benzene rings. The mention of 18.5 benzene rings multiplied by 12 (the number of atoms in each benzene ring) is also used to illustrate the idea that each benzene ring has 6 carbon atoms, and in total, 222 carbon atoms would make up a fragment of graphene.

What's wrong:

Benzene units in graphene: Although graphene shares the hexagonal structure with benzene, it cannot be considered as strictly repeating benzene units. Graphene is a continuous material, not a discrete molecule made up of repeating units.

The number of hydrogen atoms: If pure graphene is described, hydrogen should not be included in the formula, since graphene has a structure without hydrogen atoms in its lattice (although hydrogen atoms may exist at the edges of graphene in certain modified compounds).

Conclusion:

Graphene can be conceptualized as a continuous network of benzene rings (C₆H₆) in an infinite arrangement, but the description of 37 benzene units and the formula with 222 atoms is an approximation that describes a fragment of graphene or a modified graphene (with hydrogen, for example). The formula 111 carbon atoms and 111 hydrogen atoms could be valid in the case of hydrogenated graphene.

The important thing is to understand that graphene is an infinite two-dimensional structure of carbon that is not represented as a discrete molecule, but as an extended network.

Graphene is one of the hardest and strongest materials available, it even exceeds the hardness of diamond and is two hundred times stronger than steel. It is highly rigid, in fact, it has a Young's modulus of 1 TPa. Therefore, it withstands large forces without hardly deforming. It is a light material with a density of only 0.77 milligrams per square meter (density indicated in surface units as a result of its laminar structure). It is also worth noting that it withstands high bending forces, that is, it can be bent without breaking.

To get an idea of ​​the capacity of these mechanical properties, the Nobel Prize winner made a comparison with a graphene hammock with a surface area of ​​one square meter and a single atom thick. This graphene hammock could support up to 4kg before breaking (equivalent to the weight of a cat). In total, this hammock would weigh the same as one of the hairs on the cat's mustache, less than a milligram.

Reinforced graphene

This form of graphene features embedded carbon nanotube reinforcing rods (or "rods") and is easier to manipulate, while improving the electrical and mechanical qualities of both materials.

Functionalized single- and multi-wall carbon nanotubes are spin-coated onto copper foils and then heated and cooled, using the nanotubes themselves as a carbon source. Upon heating, the carbon functional groups break down into graphene, while the nanotubes partially split and form in-plane covalent bonds with the graphene, adding strength. The π–π stacking domains add more strength. The nanotubes can be layered, making the material a better conductor than standard CVD-grown graphene. The nanotubes effectively bridge grain boundaries found in conventional graphene. The technique eliminates traces of substrate on which separated sheets were subsequently deposited by epitaxy.

Single-layer stacks have been proposed as a cost-effective and physically flexible substitute for indium tin oxide (ITO) used in displays and photovoltaic cells.

Molded graphene

In 2015, researchers at the University of Illinois (UIUC) developed a new approach to generating 3D shapes from flat 2D graphene sheets. A film of graphene that had been soaked in solvent to make it swell and become malleable was overlaid on an underlying “forming” substrate. The solvent evaporated over time, leaving a layer of graphene that had taken the shape of the underlying structure. In this way, they were able to produce a range of relatively intricate microstructured shapes. Features vary from 3.5 to 50 μm. Pure graphene and gold-decorated graphene were successfully integrated into the substrate[12].

Graphene airgel

It is an airgel made of layers of graphene separated by carbon nanotubes that has been measured at 0.16 milligrams per cubic centimeter. A solution of graphene and carbon nanotubes is freeze-dried in a mold to dehydrate the solution, leaving the airgel. The material has superior elasticity and absorption. It can fully recover after more than 90% compression and absorb up to 900 times its weight in oil, at a speed of 68.8 grams per second.[13]​.

Contenido

El repentino aumento del interés científico por el grafeno puede dar la impresión de que se trata de un material nuevo. En realidad se conoce y ha sido descrito desde hace más de medio siglo. El enlace químico y su estructura se describieron durante los años 1930. Philip Russell Wallace calculó por primera vez (en 1949) la estructura electrónica de bandas.[14]​ Al grafeno se le prestó poca atención durante décadas al pensarse que era un material inestable termodinámicamente ya que se pensaba que las fluctuaciones térmicas destruirían el orden del cristal dando lugar a que el cristal 2D se fundiese. Bajo esta premisa se entiende la revolución que significó que Gueim y Novosiólov consiguiesen aislar el grafeno a temperatura ambiente. La palabra grafeno se adoptó oficialmente en 1994, después de haber sido designada de manera indistinta —en el campo de la ciencia de superficies— «monocapa de grafito».

Además, muchas nanoestructuras recientemente descubiertas, como los nanotubos de carbono, están relacionadas con el grafeno. Tradicionalmente, a estos nanotubos se les ha descrito como «hojas de grafeno enrolladas sobre sí mismas».[15]​ De hecho las propiedades de los nanotubos de carbono se explican y entienden fácilmente a partir de las inherentes al grafeno.[16]​[17]​ Se ha descrito también la preparación de nanotiras") de grafeno mediante nanolitografía, haciendo uso de un microscopio de efecto túnel.[18]​.

Grafeno superrejilla.

El grafeno apilado periódicamente y su isomorfo aislante proporcionan un elemento estructural fascinante en la implementación de superredes altamente funcionales a escala atómica, lo que ofrece posibilidades en el diseño de dispositivos nanoelectrónicos y fotónicos. Se pueden obtener varios tipos de superredes apilando grafeno y sus formas relacionadas.[19]​ La banda de energía en las superredes apiladas en capas es más sensible al ancho de la barrera que en las superredes de semiconductores III-V convencionales. Cuando se agrega más de una capa atómica a la barrera en cada período, el acoplamiento de las funciones de onda electrónicas en los pozos potenciales vecinos se puede reducir significativamente, lo que conduce a la degeneración de subbandas continuas en niveles de energía cuantificados. Al variar el ancho del pozo, los niveles de energía en los pozos potenciales a lo largo de la dirección L-M se comportan de manera distinta a los de la dirección K-H.

Una superrejilla corresponde a una disposición periódica o cuasiperiódica de diferentes materiales, y puede ser descrita por un período de superrejilla que confiere una nueva simetría de traslación al sistema, impactando sus dispersiones fonónicas y posteriormente sus propiedades de transporte térmico. Recientemente, se han sintetizado con éxito estructuras uniformes de grafeno-hBN monocapa mediante patrones de litografía junto con deposición química de vapor (CVD).[20]​ Además, las superredes de grafeno-hBN son sistemas de modelos ideales para la realización y comprensión del transporte térmico de fonones coherente (en forma de onda) e incoherente (en forma de partículas).[21]​[22]​.

Utilization

This work presents a study on the catalytic properties of graphene sheets doped (doping: atoms needed to create a difference in the conductive capabilities of a semiconductor) with transition metals (Fe, Co, Ni), to analyze the absorption energy "Absorption (chemistry)") of molecular oxygen on the graphene sheet. Systems doped with Nickel result in a lower energy barrier against oxygen dissociation, and it can be determined that graphene doped with this metal could be considered as a possible cathodic catalyst (responsible for controlling exhaust pipe emissions, reducing their toxicity.) of the oxygen reduction reaction.[23]​.

This research work seeks to improve the properties of polymeric mixtures of PLA and cassava starch, adding to these nanoplates of graphene, for the creation of films. They were developed by a batch system with a mixer and by extrusion (a transformation operation in which a molten material is forced through a nozzle to produce an article). The incorporation of graphene into the mixture resulted in a material with better mechanical properties and a decrease in oxygen permeability compared to the previous ones. The films developed with Graphene have demonstrated adequate behavior from the point of view of their properties and their degree of biodegradability (a process by which a substance or material**,** can be decomposed by living organisms), demonstrating that they can be an option to the petroleum-derived materials that are currently on the market. Application as a substitute for current petroleum-derived materials.[24]​.

Some works on this matter in Argentina. At the Institute of Theoretical and Applied Physicochemical Research (INIFTA, CONICET-UNLP), there is one of the few groups in the country that is dedicated, among other studies, to obtaining graphene.

At the “Enrique Gaviola” Physics Institute (IFEG, CONICET_Universidad Nacional de Córdoba) another group is focused on the study of electrical and transport properties.

At the Institute of Energy and Sustainable Development of the CNEA and the Balseiro Institute, the electronic and transport properties of electrons in Graphene are studied, as well as the effects that electromagnetic fields have on it.

At the Faculty of Mathematics, Astronomy and Physics of the National University of Córdoba, researchers concluded through calculations that the beam of an infrared laser would interrupt the electrical conductivity of the material, which could then become insulating. If verified experimentally, the discovery would have a great technological impact, since until now its incredible conductivity was also its main weakness, due to the impossibility of “stopping” or interrupting it. This would allow you to “turn on and off” your driving.

The INTI Center for Physics and Metrology is working in collaboration with the National Metrology Institute of the United States (NIST), with the aim of gaining experience in the manufacture of Graphene samples, which will then be characterized in Argentina to determine their possible application in metrology.[25]​.

Las propiedades del grafeno son ideales para utilizarlo como componente de circuitos integrados. Está dotado de alta movilidad de portadores, así como de bajo nivel de «ruido». Ello permite que se le utilice como canal en transistores de efecto campo (FET). La dificultad de utilizar grafeno estriba en la producción del mismo material en el sustrato adecuado. Investigadores están indagando métodos tales como transferencia de hojas de grafeno desde grafito (exfoliación "Exfoliación (mineralogía)")) o crecimiento epitaxial (como la grafitización térmica de la superficie del carburo de silicio: SiC).

En diciembre de 2008, IBM anunció que habían fabricado y caracterizado transistores que operaban a frecuencias de 26 gigahercios (GHz).[28]​ En febrero de 2010, la misma empresa anunció que la velocidad de estos nuevos transistores alcanzó los 100 GHz.[29]​ En septiembre de 2010 se alcanzaron los 300 GHz.[30]​.

Las publicaciones especializadas rebosan de artículos en los que se atribuye a esta estructura de carbono cualidad de «panacea universal» en la tecnología para reemplazo de dispositivos de silicio por grafeno. Pero no toda la comunidad científica comparte este optimismo. El célebre físico holandés Walter de Heer") afirma:.

Además, el grafeno carece de una banda de resistividad, propiedad esencial que le es inherente al silicio. Eso implica que el grafeno no puede dejar de conducir electricidad: no se puede apagar.

High speed cables

Researchers at the University of Cambridge made graphene capable of capturing a large amount of light, which can be used in the creation of very fast fiber optic cables that benefit from another of the material's properties: electrons move quickly in it.

Thus, graphene cables are promised that could move information hundreds of times faster than a current one, which could be implemented in the area of ​​telecommunications for the installation of faster networks, thus increasing the capacity and speed of the Internet, mobile telephony and, ultimately, all the communications that take place on our planet.

Electric super batteries

Perhaps one of the most exciting discoveries is related to the field of electrical accumulators, where today technology allows devices that work for a few hours until requiring an electrical charge that can last several hours, degrading the user experience on mobile phones, tablets and laptops.

Flexible touch screens

Being able to conduct electrons very well almost without heating up in the process, researchers from the University of Texas and the University of South Korea discovered that a sheet of graphene can be used in the development of touch screens, taking advantage of the fact that a sheet of graphene can be totally transparent, ideal for placing over a panel of pixels without reducing the brightness of its backlight.

Furthermore, that thin sheet of graphene sensitive to electrical conduction and that would capture our touches can be very flexible, contributing to what could be future flexible touch screens, which could well be accompanied by flexible OLED technology for the development of this type of technology.

Professional quality headphones and speakers

Qin Zhou and Alex Zettl are two scientists from the University of California who want to revolutionize the audio market thanks to their graphene headphones and speakers. The idea is to create a diaphragm made of graphene that is placed in the middle of two electrodes, after which the graphene vibrates and produces sound.

According to the researchers, without much further work to "tune" the headphones and give them special treatment, they achieved sound on par with today's high-quality products. And since the graphene diaphragm uses a sheet that is very thin, the size and weight of the product can also be very small, so high-quality headphones that are at the same time very small and lightweight could be created.

Cameras with greater sensitivity

A current camera is basically made up of a lens through which light passes and then reaches a sensor, capturing it and transforming it into digital information. What researchers at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore managed to do was create a sensor made of graphene, increasing the sensitivity of the device about a thousand times relative to current CMOS or CCD technologies.

We are talking about an important improvement for sensors for professional and compact cameras, which could allow better captures in low light conditions and in general for any occasion. Furthermore, these new graphene sensors could consume ten times less energy and be five times cheaper to mass produce than conventional ones.

A team of scientists from the University of Manchester has shown that graphene oxide, a modified form of graphene, behaves as an antineoplastic agent that acts directly on cancer cells. Thanks to this, graphene could be used to reduce the size of malignant tumors and prevent the spread of cancer. This discovery continues to be the subject of study.[32]​.

Such a finding is very important, since the current treatment of cancer consists of eliminating cells from the affected area, both cancerous and non-cancerous. With the help of graphene, only cancer cells could be eliminated, thus reducing the number of side effects in the patient.[33]​.

The use of a graphene sheet with 1.8 nm pores to replace the membranes in the reverse osmosis process for water desalination is in the research phase. Its holes are so small that water molecules can pass through, but not salt.

According to current research, much higher efficiencies would be obtained than with current membranes, and there would be lower energy requirements. In the current state, the drawback is the cost of graphene membranes, but it is expected that in the future these costs can be reduced.[34]​.

The main problem that prevents the exploitation of graphene is that the production of large quantities is limited. The different traditional manufacturing techniques in ascending order of scalability are:

The quality of the samples goes in the opposite direction to that of scalability: the more scalable the process, the lower the quality of the samples. However, it is possible to synthesize a greater quantity of graphene nanoplatelets by the mechanical grinding of graphite technique with an appreciable commercial quality.[35]​.

Recently, researchers at Rice University have managed to synthesize graphene from common sugar at 800 °C, the resulting graphene being of high quality. Another new technique comes from the IPCPAS-Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Polish Academy of Sciences, together with the IRI-Interdisciplinary Research Institute of Lille. The manufacturing technique they used was the oxidation of graphite, obtaining a powder called graphite oxide. It is then suspended in water and placed in an ultrasonic cleaner. Ultrasonics separate the oxidized graphene sheets and allow the production of 300 nm thick graphene flakes.

In 2011, NASA's Spitzer space telescope discovered graphene in space as well as other molecules of the fullerene family, specifically the C60 and C70 molecules.[36]​.

Exposure to carbon nanotubes (graphene) reproduces in laboratory mice the symptoms caused by asbestos, from chronic inflammation, loss of tumor suppressor pathways, to eventual and sporadic development of malignant mesothelioma.[37]​ Exposure in humans therefore represents a high health risk.[38]​.

In 2018, experimental physicist Pablo Jarillo-Herrero revolutionized the field of condensed matter physics by successfully rotating two monatomic layers of overlapping graphene. Pablo's group discovered that by rotating these layers at a 'magic' angle of about 1.1 degrees, the graphene bilayer exhibited superconducting behavior. This discovery opened the door for many experimental and theoretical groups to explore the system and reproduce the results. This system has produced great interest in the community due to the richness of its phase diagram and the new physics it can host. It represents a common point between several areas of physics by bringing together physicists who study high-temperature superconductors, topology groups, and strong electronic correlation groups. Recently, the presence of superconductivity has been discovered in 3 superimposed layers of graphene in which the lower and upper ones are aligned and the middle one rotated by about 1.5 degrees.