Ancient Age

The pyramids in ancient Egypt, ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, the Appian Way and the Colosseum, Teotihuacán, and the Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur, among many other structures, stand as a testament to the inventiveness and skill of the civil and military engineers of ancient times. Other monuments or structures, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the most important Seven Wonders of the ancient world.

The classic six simple machines were known in the ancient Near East. The wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.[5]​ The wheel, along with the wheel-and-axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[6]​ The lever mechanism first appeared about 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple scale,[7]​ and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.[8]​ The The lever was also used in the shadoof (water-lifting device), the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia around the year 7 and then in ancient Egyptian technology around the year 9. The oldest evidence of pulleys dates back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC. C.,[10]​ and to ancient Egypt during the 12th Dynasty (1991-).[11]​ The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented,[12]​ appeared for the first time in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC. C.[10]​ The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge and the lever, to create structures such as the Great Pyramid of Giza.[13]​.

The first civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[14] As one of the Pharaoh's officials, Djosèr probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser" (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara, Egypt around 2630.[15] The first practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and water mill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, a beginning of the century BC.[16]​.

Sakia developed in Kush during the century BC. C., which relied on animal energy rather than human energy.[17]​ Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water, as well as to drive irrigation.[18]​ Sappers were used to build causeways during military campaigns.[19]​ Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 20.​​ Low furnaces and blast furnaces were also created during the century. a. C. in Kush.[21]​[22]​[23]​[24]​.

Ancient Greece developed machines in both civil and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, an early known mechanical analog computer,[25][26]​ and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gears or epicyclic gears, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and which are still widely used in various fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.[27]

The ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hun armies used military machines and inventions such as artillery, which was developed by the Greeks around the century BC,[28]​ the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed.

Middle Ages

The first practical wind machines, the windmill and the wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, in the century AD. C.[29][30][31][32]​ The first practical steam engine was a spindle rotator powered by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.[33][34]​.

The cotton gin was invented in India in the century AD. C..[35]​ and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world at the beginning of the century,[36]​ both fundamental inventions for the growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning gin, which was a key development during the Industrial Revolution early in the 20th century.[37]​ The crankshaft and camshaft were invented by Al Jazarí in northern Mesopotamia around 1206,[38][39][40]​ and later became fundamental to modern machinery, such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine, and controls. automatic.[41]​.

The first programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument, was the first type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automatic flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the 19th century.[42]​[43]​ In 1206, Al Jazarí invented programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.[44]​ The Castle Clock, a mechanical astronomical clock powered by water power was invented by Al-Jazari, and was the first analog programmable computer.[45][46][47]​.

Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by craftsmen, such as millers, watchmakers, instrument makers, and surveyors. Apart from these professions, universities were not believed to have much practical importance for technology.[48]​.

A standard reference for the state of the mechanical arts during the Renaissance is the mining engineering treatise "De re metallica" (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemical reference for the next 180 years.[48]​.

Modern Age

The science of classical mechanics, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis for much of modern engineering.[48] With the emergence of engineering as a profession in the 19th century, the term was applied more narrowly to fields in which mathematics and science were applied for these purposes. Similarly, in addition to civil and military engineering, fields then known as mechanical arts were incorporated into engineering.

The construction of canals was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.[49]​.

John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and often considered the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, ports and lighthouses. He was also a skilled mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Using a waterwheel model, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.[50] Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears in waterwheels.[48] Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755-1759), where he pioneered the use of "hydraulic lime" (a form of mortar that solidifies under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed granite blocks in the construction of the lighthouse. The rediscovery and development of modern cement is important in history, because it identified the compositional requirements necessary to obtain "hydraulics" in lime; work that ultimately led to the invention of Portland cement.

Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the strength of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin, who built an experimental model of steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method of raising water similar to a coffee pot. Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office about a steam pump design read by Thomas Savery. In 1698, Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend." It used both vacuum and pressure.[51] Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, had no scientific training.[50]

The use of steam-driven cast iron blowing cylinders to provide pressurized air for blast furnaces led to a large increase in iron production at the turn of the century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with high steam output allowed the use of more lime in blast furnaces, allowing the transition from coal to coke.[52] These innovations reduced the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The pudding process, patented by Henry Cort in 1784, produced large quantities of wrought iron. The Hot Blast", patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, considerably reduced the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high-pressure steam engine, the power-to-weight ratio of steam engines made the operation of steamships and locomotives feasible. [55] New steelmaking processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open-hearth furnace, ushered in an area of ​​heavy engineering at the turn of the century.

One of the most famous engineers of the mid-century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who built railways, shipyards and steamships.

The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of various machine tools. It was not possible to drill cast iron cylinders accurately until John Wilkinson "John Wilkinson (industrial)") invented his drilling machine, which is considered the first machine tool. Other machine tools included the screw hobbing lathe, the milling machine, the turret lathe, and the metal planer. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the century. These included the use of jigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts led to large-scale industrial production by the end of the century.

The 1850 United States Census listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000. Electrical.[55]​.

There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[56]​.

The foundations of electrical engineering in the century included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Clerk Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations) and Heinrich Hertz at the end of the century gave rise to the field of electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers now outnumber their colleagues in any other engineering specialty.[4] Chemical engineering was developed at the turn of the century.[4] Industrial-scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large-scale chemical production was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the large-scale development and manufacturing of chemicals in new plants. industrial.[4]​ The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these plants and chemical processes.[4]​.

The Odeillo solar oven in the Pyrénées-Orientales in France can reach temperatures of up to 3500 °C. Aeronautical engineering deals with the design of aircraft design processes, while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the scope of the discipline to include the design of spacecraft. Its origins date back to aviation pioneers at the turn of the century, although Sir George Cayley's work has recently been dated to the last decade of the century. Initial knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.

The first doctorate in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States was to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; It was also the second doctorate in science awarded in the US.

Only a decade after the successful flights of the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through the development of military aircraft that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental scientific background continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.

Contenido

La ingeniería ha existido desde la antigüedad, cuando el hombre ideó inventos como la cuña "Cuña (máquina)"), la palanca, la rueda, la polea, entre otros muchos inventos.

El término ingeniería se deriva de la palabra ingeniero, que a su vez se remonta al siglo cuando un ingeniero (literalmente, uno que construye u opera una máquina de asedio) se refería a «un constructor de máquinas militares».[2]​ En este contexto, ahora obsoleto, un «motor» se refería a una máquina militar, es decir, un artilugio mecánico utilizado en la guerra (por ejemplo, una catapulta). Ejemplos notables del uso obsoleto que han sobrevivido hasta el día de hoy son los cuerpos de ingenieros militares, por ejemplo, el Cuerpo de Ingenieros del Ejército de los Estados Unidos.

La palabra «motor» (en inglés «engine») en sí es de origen aún más antiguo, y en última instancia deriva del latín ingenium (c.), que significa «cualidad innata, especialmente poder mental, por lo tanto, una invención inteligente».[3]​.

Más tarde, a medida que el diseño de estructuras civiles, como puentes y edificios, maduró como disciplina técnica, el término ingeniería civil[4]​ entró en el léxico como una forma de distinguir entre los que se especializan en la construcción de tales proyectos no militares y los involucrado en la disciplina de la ingeniería militar.

Ancient Age

The pyramids in ancient Egypt, ziggurats of Mesopotamia, the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, the Appian Way and the Colosseum, Teotihuacán, and the Brihadisvara temple of Thanjavur, among many other structures, stand as a testament to the inventiveness and skill of the civil and military engineers of ancient times. Other monuments or structures, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the most important Seven Wonders of the ancient world.

The classic six simple machines were known in the ancient Near East. The wedge and the inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times.[5]​ The wheel, along with the wheel-and-axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC.[6]​ The lever mechanism first appeared about 5,000 years ago in the Near East, where it was used in a simple scale,[7]​ and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology.[8]​ The The lever was also used in the shadoof (water-lifting device), the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia around the year 7 and then in ancient Egyptian technology around the year 9. The oldest evidence of pulleys dates back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC. C.,[10]​ and to ancient Egypt during the 12th Dynasty (1991-).[11]​ The screw, the last of the simple machines to be invented,[12]​ appeared for the first time in Mesopotamia during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609) BC. C.[10]​ The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge and the lever, to create structures such as the Great Pyramid of Giza.[13]​.

The first civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[14] As one of the Pharaoh's officials, Djosèr probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser" (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara, Egypt around 2630.[15] The first practical water-powered machines, the water wheel and water mill, first appeared in the Persian Empire, in what are now Iraq and Iran, a beginning of the century BC.[16]​.

Sakia developed in Kush during the century BC. C., which relied on animal energy rather than human energy.[17]​ Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water, as well as to drive irrigation.[18]​ Sappers were used to build causeways during military campaigns.[19]​ Kushite ancestors built speos during the Bronze Age between 3700 and 20.​​ Low furnaces and blast furnaces were also created during the century. a. C. in Kush.[21]​[22]​[23]​[24]​.

Ancient Greece developed machines in both civil and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, an early known mechanical analog computer,[25][26]​ and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as the Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gears or epicyclic gears, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and which are still widely used in various fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.[27]

The ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hun armies used military machines and inventions such as artillery, which was developed by the Greeks around the century BC,[28]​ the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed.

Middle Ages

The first practical wind machines, the windmill and the wind pump, first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age, in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, in the century AD. C.[29][30][31][32]​ The first practical steam engine was a spindle rotator powered by a steam turbine, described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt.[33][34]​.

The cotton gin was invented in India in the century AD. C..[35]​ and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world at the beginning of the century,[36]​ both fundamental inventions for the growth of the cotton industry. The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning gin, which was a key development during the Industrial Revolution early in the 20th century.[37]​ The crankshaft and camshaft were invented by Al Jazarí in northern Mesopotamia around 1206,[38][39][40]​ and later became fundamental to modern machinery, such as the steam engine, internal combustion engine, and controls. automatic.[41]​.

The first programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer, a programmable musical instrument, was the first type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automatic flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices, in the 19th century.[42]​[43]​ In 1206, Al Jazarí invented programmable automata/robots. He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine, where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns.[44]​ The Castle Clock, a mechanical astronomical clock powered by water power was invented by Al-Jazari, and was the first analog programmable computer.[45][46][47]​.

Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by craftsmen, such as millers, watchmakers, instrument makers, and surveyors. Apart from these professions, universities were not believed to have much practical importance for technology.[48]​.

A standard reference for the state of the mechanical arts during the Renaissance is the mining engineering treatise "De re metallica" (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemical reference for the next 180 years.[48]​.

Modern Age

The science of classical mechanics, sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis for much of modern engineering.[48] With the emergence of engineering as a profession in the 19th century, the term was applied more narrowly to fields in which mathematics and science were applied for these purposes. Similarly, in addition to civil and military engineering, fields then known as mechanical arts were incorporated into engineering.

The construction of canals was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution.[49]​.

John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and often considered the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, ports and lighthouses. He was also a skilled mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Using a waterwheel model, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency.[50] Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears in waterwheels.[48] Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to the Newcomen steam engine. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755-1759), where he pioneered the use of "hydraulic lime" (a form of mortar that solidifies under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed granite blocks in the construction of the lighthouse. The rediscovery and development of modern cement is important in history, because it identified the compositional requirements necessary to obtain "hydraulics" in lime; work that ultimately led to the invention of Portland cement.

Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the strength of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin, who built an experimental model of steam engines and demonstrated the use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method of raising water similar to a coffee pot. Samuel Morland, a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office about a steam pump design read by Thomas Savery. In 1698, Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend." It used both vacuum and pressure.[51] Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen, who built the first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, had no scientific training.[50]

The use of steam-driven cast iron blowing cylinders to provide pressurized air for blast furnaces led to a large increase in iron production at the turn of the century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with high steam output allowed the use of more lime in blast furnaces, allowing the transition from coal to coke.[52] These innovations reduced the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The pudding process, patented by Henry Cort in 1784, produced large quantities of wrought iron. The Hot Blast", patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, considerably reduced the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high-pressure steam engine, the power-to-weight ratio of steam engines made the operation of steamships and locomotives feasible. [55] New steelmaking processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open-hearth furnace, ushered in an area of ​​heavy engineering at the turn of the century.

One of the most famous engineers of the mid-century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel, who built railways, shipyards and steamships.

The Industrial Revolution created a demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of various machine tools. It was not possible to drill cast iron cylinders accurately until John Wilkinson "John Wilkinson (industrial)") invented his drilling machine, which is considered the first machine tool. Other machine tools included the screw hobbing lathe, the milling machine, the turret lathe, and the metal planer. Precision machining techniques were developed in the first half of the century. These included the use of jigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts led to large-scale industrial production by the end of the century.

The 1850 United States Census listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with a count of 2,000. Electrical.[55]​.

There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier.[56]​.

The foundations of electrical engineering in the century included the experiments of Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Clerk Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations) and Heinrich Hertz at the end of the century gave rise to the field of electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers now outnumber their colleagues in any other engineering specialty.[4] Chemical engineering was developed at the turn of the century.[4] Industrial-scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large-scale chemical production was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the large-scale development and manufacturing of chemicals in new plants. industrial.[4]​ The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these plants and chemical processes.[4]​.

The Odeillo solar oven in the Pyrénées-Orientales in France can reach temperatures of up to 3500 °C. Aeronautical engineering deals with the design of aircraft design processes, while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the scope of the discipline to include the design of spacecraft. Its origins date back to aviation pioneers at the turn of the century, although Sir George Cayley's work has recently been dated to the last decade of the century. Initial knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.

The first doctorate in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States was to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; It was also the second doctorate in science awarded in the US.

Only a decade after the successful flights of the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through the development of military aircraft that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental scientific background continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.