pre-Hispanic culture

The Andean civilization, which developed in the current Peruvian territory, was forged fifteen thousand years ago, with the arrival of the first men to this part of the world. These were in the Upper Paleolithic stage and it was exclusively through their efforts, without foreign influence, that they were able to gradually climb towards high culture. The cultural remains of the first hunter-gatherers have been found in Guitarrero I, Piquimachay, Chivateros (lithic workshop), Toquepala (rock paintings), Paiján "Paiján (archaeological complex)") (lithic points). The first vestiges of agricultural crops are found in Nanchoc "Nanchoc (archaeological site)") (pumpkin and loche squash) and Guitarrero I (beans and pallares), from 6000 BC. C. Other plants that are beginning to be cultivated are sweet potato, annatto, and quinoa. Potato and corn are later crops. The remains of the first fishing village were found in Santo Domingo de Paracas; of the first domesticated camelids, in Telarmachay; and the first domesticated guinea pigs, in Piquimachay.

The presence of the circular temple of Sechín Bajo in 3500 BC. C. marks the beginning of the emergence of complex societies.[8]​[9]​ Then, around 3200 BC. C. The Caral civilization arose in the Peruvian Norte Chico and whose center was the sacred city of Caral and its fishing city, El Áspero. Caral was a contemporary of other great civilizations such as those of China, Egypt, India and Mesopotamia. It is, therefore, one of the few centers that radiate civilization in the world due to its antiquity (at least 5000 years); as well as the only one in the southern hemisphere. Caral flourished for over a thousand years; Among its ruins have been found the first quipu, musical instruments, clay statuettes, among other cultural remains. Contemporary with it were other centers such as Bandurria, Ventarrón, Kotosh (temple of the crossed hands), Cerro Sechín, La Galgada, Las Haldas and El Paraíso "El Paraíso (archaeological site)."[10]​[11]​.

Caral disappeared around 1800 BC. C. but its cultural legacy was maintained, thus continuing the process of Andean civilization. Other cultural centers emerged in present-day Peru, such as Cupisnique, Pacopampa, Kuntur Wasi, Garagay and Chavín de Huántar. Around 900 BC. C. the Chavín culture prevailed over the others, until around 200 BC. C. its influence declined and the development of larger states based on new local cultures such as Mochica, Lima, Nazca, Wari and Tiahuanaco was encouraged. The Wari formed the first known Pan-Andean empire, centered in the city of Wari, near present-day Ayacucho.

With the decline of Wari and Tiahuanaco towards the end of the century, regionalist cultural production was reactivated, such as Chimú, Lambayeque, Cajamarca, Chachapoyas, Chincha, Chanca, Huanca, Chancay and the Quechuas or Incas of Cuzco. The latter, after successively passing through the stages of local lordship and Quechua confederation, in the century they formed the Inca Empire, which annexed all the Andean towns between the Maule and Ancasmayo rivers, reaching an area close to 3,000,000 km², today located in the territories of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile.

The Inca civilization was the pinnacle of Andean culture, the synthesis of all pre-Inca cultures. What the Incas did was assimilate and develop all the cultural influences of the territory they dominated. Its main merit was to create an imperial state whose purpose was the unification of the Andean world, but whose definitive consolidation was truncated by the Spanish invasion. However, Andean culture has followed its own course and has reached the present day; Proof of this are the indigenous communities, the dietary patterns, the languages ​​(Quechua, Aymara), etc.

The Hispanic influence

In the 19th century, Francisco Pizarro's troops, with the support of many towns or ethnic groups ruled by the Incas, conquered this empire for Spain. In 1542, the viceroyalty was established, which initially covered a territory from what is now Panama to the southern tip of the continent. The Spanish empire meant a profound social and economic transformation for Peru. A mercantilist system was implemented, supported by silver mining, commercial monopoly and the exploitation of the common indigenous people.

In the social aspect, the Spanish established a society divided into social classes or estates, differentiated by lineage and race. In the cultural aspect, they introduced the artistic styles that prevailed in Europe, but the mestizos assimilated them until they became their own art. The Peruvian artist captured models and printed his own characteristics. The letters were also the reflection of the literary schools that existed in Europe, but there were writers born in Peru who under that influence stood out by creating peculiar masterpieces, such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Espinoza Medrano, Pedro Peralta and Barnuevo, among others.

From the end of the century and beginning of the century, the viceregal power was slowly weakened by commercial smuggling and separatist insurgency, first indigenous (such as that of Túpac Amaru II) and later also Creole. However, in recent years these were strongly repressed, so none of them achieved their ultimate objective.

It should be noted that in the century there was already the awareness of being Peruvian; This is evidenced through writers and ideologists such as José Eusebio de Llano Zapata, José Baquíjano y Carrillo, Hipólito Unanue, Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza and newspapers such as Mercurio Peruano. Also wise men and scientists such as Jorge Juan, Antonio de Ulloa, Tadeo Haenke and Alexander von Humboldt divulged the wealth and people of Peru.

Development of the Republic of Peru

Peru's emancipation from Spanish political domination is part of a broader process that occurred throughout the Spanish-American world at the beginning of the century. The independence of Peru was a joint work of precursors and heroes, local and foreign, with the decisive help of the people. There are authors who trace the beginning of the emancipation process of Peru to the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II of 1780-1781. Be that as it may, the final stage began in 1820, with the arrival from Chile of the Liberating Expedition of Peru led by the Argentine general José de San Martín, who on July 21, 1821 proclaimed independence and established a new state: the Republic of Peru, whose name is tacitly recorded in the Act of Independence of this country.[12] However, it was not until 1824 that the Venezuelan general Simón Bolívar managed to definitively expel the royalist troops settled in the southern mountains after the battles of Junín and Ayacucho.

Two fundamental themes dominated the beginnings of the nascent Peruvian State: the search for its own system of government and the determination of its territory. The first was defined with the triumph of the republicans over the monarchists; In the second case, the principle of uti possidetis was followed, according to which the territory had to be the same as that of the Viceroyalty of Peru at the beginning of the century. The first territorial disputes occurred with Gran Colombia, which claimed for itself the Peruvian territories of Tumbes, Jaén and Maynas, but after a war with no definitive result, the matter was kept in suspense and only later would Ecuador (one of the three republics into which Gran Colombia was divided) resurrect the claims.

The first years of independence took place between caudillo struggles organized by the military to achieve the Presidency of the Republic. In this context, between 1836 and 1839, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was formed, dissolved after the defeat of Yungay against the United Restoration Army. A new war with Bolivia broke out in 1841, and although the Bolivians won the Battle of Ingavi and invaded southern Peru, they were quickly repelled by Peruvian militias in 1842. This was a key year in which the Peruvian territory, until then under the serious threat of losing its entire southern area to Bolivia, was defined.

The predominance of the military in power was maintained until the 1870s, when civilian leaders appeared, such as Manuel Pardo y Lavalle, president from 1872 to 1876; and Nicolás de Piérola, dictator from 1879 to 1881, in the middle of the war with Chile. This conflict, with a calamitous result for Peru, marked the beginning of a new stage in Peruvian history, based no longer on the exploitation of guano and saltpeter but on other raw materials such as metals, cotton and sugar. It gave way to National Reconstruction, resurfacing militarism in political life, until 1895, when a stage of civilian predominance began, called the Aristocratic Republic, which would last until 1919. Another civilian leader, Augusto B. Leguía, then began another stage known as the Oncenio, which lasted until 1930.

Architecture

In pre-Inca Peru, the first examples of monumental architecture are the pyramids with superimposed terraces, built basically of adobe. Its function was religious (temple) and administrative (palaces). They are typical of coastal cultures, starting with Caral, where the Great Pyramid stands out. They form complexes with other buildings, being called "U Temples", due to the shape of their arrangement: a main pyramid, with two lateral constructions in the shape of arms.[14] Other notable pyramidal constructions are those of the Moche culture, such as the so-called Huacas del Sol and de la Luna. In Lima, the huacas of Pucllana, Maranga "Maranga (archaeological site)"), and Mateo Salado "Mateo Salado (archaeological complex)") stand out. The huacas of the coastal cultures of Peru were as imposing as those of Mesoamerica, but the fact that they were built in adobe has made their full conservation impossible; currently they look more like natural elevations of the terrain, although some of them have been restored.

Other examples of pre-Inca architecture are the temples of Chavín de Huántar, made of carved stone; the constructions of Cahuachi of the Nazca; the adobe buildings of Chan Chan, considered the largest mud city in the world; the temples of Tiahuanaco (Akapana, Kalasasaya, Pumapunku); the city of Wari, with multi-story stone buildings. On the coast the materials preferably used were adobes and rammed earth; in the mountains, the stone.

Inca architecture has three great characteristics: solidity, simplicity and symmetry. It stands out for its refined use of stone, as well as its advanced techniques for using territorial space. To this day, the size of the stones in some buildings is astonishing, such as in the so-called “fortress” of Sacsahuamán. In this and other constructions, one also admires the assembly of stones of different shapes and sizes without using mortar and that fit together so perfectly that not a single sheet of paper passes between their joints. A classic example of this technique is the so-called Stone of the Twelve Angles.[15] Other buildings, such as the Coricancha and the Inca palaces of Cusco, are built with rectangular or square carved stones, aligned symmetrically. But it is undoubtedly Machu Picchu, built on a hill whose top was flattened, the icon of this architecture; It is considered one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

The Spanish brought new architectural techniques, such as the use of the vault, the arch, the column and the use of strong materials such as brick, necessary in places where there was no stone. Viceregal architecture adapted to the environment of each region and developed the prevailing styles in Europe. These were the baroque, with its variants of churrigueresque, plateresque and rococo, which are characterized by their ornate ornamentation; and the neoclassical, which is characterized by the return to straight lines and simplicity. Examples of these styles are seen in religious architecture, that is, temples, churches and convents, as well as in the characteristic balconies of the city of Lima.[16]​.

Republican architecture, like colonial architecture, followed European trends. The first large building built was that of the Lima Penitentiary. Throughout the century the influence of neoclassicism persists (Dos de Mayo National Hospital, Matriz del Callao Church, Chorrillos Military School). During the government of José Balta, the Exhibition Palace was built, in a neo-Renaissance style. Metal architecture imported from France (Tacna Cathedral, the Balta Bridge) was also introduced. In the 19th century, several architectural styles were developed, such as the academic style of French influence (Palace of the Congress of the Republic of Peru, the Crypt of the Heroes, etc.); the neocolonial style (facade of the Archbishop's Palace); the neo-Peruvian style, which is a fusion of colonial and indigenous elements (facades of the School of Fine Arts and that of the Museum of Archeology); the indigenous style (Museum of Peruvian Culture).[17]​.

Sculpture

In pre-Hispanic times, minor sculptures were made, such as idols and statuettes of stone and wood; as well as sculptures of a monumental nature, but these were made mostly by the Chavín (the monolithic Lanzón) and Tiahuanaco (monoliths) cultures. It was also carved in the bedrock or in large stones making designs that look like models (Sayhuite stone). Regarding the Incas, they had a very sober and schematic sculptural art; It is known that they made statues representing their kings, and one of the god Viracocha, in stone. Sculpture was generally a complement to architecture.

Colonial sculpture followed European trends, and like painting, it had the practical purpose of decorating religious environments. Thus, it provided religious furniture to the temples and convents, through its Altarpieces or Altars, Choir Stalls, Pulpits, Drawers and Ceilings or Coffered ceilings, as well as free sculpture, in sacred groups, images of saints, symbolism and funerary sculptures of religious figures or famous donors of the time. An example of all this can still be seen in the churches of Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa, Trujillo, Cajamarca, Ayacucho and many other places in Peru. The names of some of the sculptors are remembered, such as Pedro de Noguera and Baltazar Gavilán, the latter author of the famous sculpture of Death, made of wood.[18]​.

In the Republican era, sculpture workshops continued to produce works with religious themes. Academic sculpture was imported from Europe, as in the case of the statues of the Alameda de los Descalzos, in a neoclassical style. In the first half of the century, national artists emerged, such as David Lozano, Luis Agurto and Artemio Ocaña, who made statues of heroes and heroes to line public squares and avenues. Although monuments continued to be imported at this time, such as the equestrian statue of José de San Martín, raised in the square of his name "Plaza San Martín (Lima)") (1921). When the School of Fine Arts was founded (1918), the Spaniard Manuel Piqueras Cotolí gave a boost to national sculpture, by promoting Spanish-indigenous fusion. Modern sculpture was initiated by Joaquín Roca Rey, around 1948. Years later, figurative modernity manifested itself with Víctor Delfín and Cristina Gálvez.[19]​.

Paint

In pre-Hispanic times, painting was expressed in the murals that decorated the temples, both on the plastered walls and in the high reliefs; as well as in the decoration of ceramic pieces, highlighting the Nazca and Moche cultures in this art. It is also known that the Incas painted historical scenes on panels and fabrics, which were kept in the Puquincancha building, in Cuzco, but of which no specimen is preserved.

In the colonial era, religious painting shone, intended to satisfy the great demand for paintings made by churches, convents and large colonial residences. On the other hand, the colonial nobility also ordered other types of works to be made, especially portraits. The first works were carried out by religious people coming from Spain; Then the Italian artists Bernardo Bitti, Mateo Pérez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro (10th century) arrived. Later, Fray Francisco de Bejarano, Cristóbal Daza, Cristóbal Lozano and José del Pozo stand out. Soon, the Indians and mestizos learned the art of painting and formed their own schools, such as the famous Cusco school, which developed over the centuries, and which is a clear example of miscegenation in the viceregal fine arts. The painters of this school have generally remained anonymous, but some names are mentioned, such as Diego Quispe Tito.[20]​.

The painting of the beginning of the Republic continued under the colonial molds. Then several currents emerged: Costumbrista painting, whose main representative is Pancho Fierro; academic painting, influenced by the schools of Europe, and whose exponents are Ignacio Merino, Francisco Laso, Luis Montero, Francisco Masías, Daniel Hernández Morillo, Teófilo Castillo, Carlos Baca-Flor; indigenous painting, which highlights nationalism and provincial regionalism, was initiated by José Sabogal and had several representatives, such as Julia Codesido, Jorge Vinatea Reinoso, Mario Urteaga Alvarado, Enrique Camino Brent. After indigenism, a group of “independents” emerged, influenced by avant-garde, whose main representatives were Macedonio de la Torre, Ricardo Grau, and Carlos Quizpez Asín. Then come Juan Manuel Ugarte Eléspuru, Sérvulo Gutiérrez, Fernando de Szyszlo, etc. Teodoro Núñez Ureta stands out in mural art.[21]​.

academic music

Peru has great representatives in academic music. In the century and beginning of the century, the composers José María Valle Riestra, author of the opera Ollanta, stand out; Daniel Alomía Robles, author of The Condor Passes…; Ernesto López Mindreau; Luis Duncker Lavalle, who composed waltzes and ballroom pieces; inter alia. The composition of operas predominates at this time.[22]​.

In the century a second generation appears that knows how to use folklore elements, transforming the harmonies and melodies with them (stylization of folklore). Representative musicians of this trend are Theodoro Valcárcel, Alfonso de Silva, Roberto Carpio, Carlos Sánchez Málaga") and Rodolfo Holzmann. A third generation is represented by Enrique Iturriaga, Celso Garrido Lecca, Olga Pozzi Escot, Enrique Pinilla, Francisco Pulgar Vidal, Edgar Valcárcel and Luis Meza; most of them prefer to write orchestrated works.[23]​.

Also worth mentioning are the composers Manuel Bañón, author of the military march The attack of Uchumayo; José Bernardo Alcedo, author of the music of the National Anthem of Peru; Claudio Rebagliati, author of Peruvian Rapsody; and Carlos Valderrama Herrera, author of the famous military march The Peruvians pass.[24]​.

The Peruvian tenors of world importance are Alejandro Granda Relayza, Luis Alva Talledo, Ernesto Palacio "Ernesto Palacio (tenor)"), Francesco Petrozzi and Juan Diego Flórez.

• - José Bernardo Alcedo.

• - Daniel Alomía Robles.

• - Juan Diego Flórez.

Ceramics

The ceramics of pre-Hispanic Peru were very elaborate. It has pictorial decorations of high artistic quality, and many are sculptural in form. These specimens are found in profusion in pre-Hispanic tombs, due to the custom of burying the dead with vessels full of food and drinks.

The oldest ceramic samples detected on Peruvian soil would be those from Kotosh, Wayrajirca phase, dated around 1,850 BC. C.,[25]​ although if we talk about the Andean civilization in general, the oldest ceramics is that of the Valdivia culture, which developed in present-day Ecuador, around 4,000 BC. C. In the sites of the Caral civilization (3,000-1800 BC), no ceramics have been found, but sculptural pieces of raw clay, representing human figures.[26]​.

The art of ceramics began to show notable progress from the Cupisnique culture. Chavín ceramics have excellent specimens of globular shape and with a stirrup handle, decorated with motifs expressed with incisions and highlighted in high flat relief, generally monochrome (a single color: black, gray or red).[25]​.

The peak stage of ceramics corresponds to the Moche and Nazca cultures, which developed in the first half of the first millennium AD, although both had other cultures as antecedents (Salinar and Gallinazo; and Paracas, respectively).[25]​.

"Moche pottery" is considered the best of Ancient Peru and among the best in the world, thanks to the fine and elaborate work that is evident in its specimens. In them they represented, both in a sculptural and pictorial way, divinities, men, animals and significant scenes referring to ceremonial themes and myths that reflected their conception of the world, highlighting the amazing expressiveness, perfection and realism with which they were endowed. Of this art, the portrait huacos and the huacos stand out. erotic

Nazca ceramics are another of the best in Peru, due to their variety and high quality. It stands out above all for its pictorial designs, with a profusion of exceptionally bright colors. Plants, animals and, above all, the figure of a supernatural being were painted, with features of a feline and a bird.[25]​.

Later, Tiahuanaco-Wari ceramics emerged, apparently influenced by the Moche and Nazca; To the first he owes his predilection for the sculptural form, and to the second for the use of a variety of bright colors. A peculiar feature is the representation of a divinity that seems to be the same one that appears on the Cover of the Sun of Tiahuanaco.[25]​.

Then the Chancay ceramics stand out, which is characterized by being bichrome (on a white slip it was brushed with black dye). Also noteworthy are the statues called cuchimilcos.[25]​.

As for Inca ceramics, it is more sober in figurative expressions and little given to reproducing sculptural forms. Its designs are geometric and white, black and red are mostly used as colors.[25] Typical examples of Inca ceramics are the or (pitcher), the (handle plate) and the (glass).[27]​ The best known is the aríbalo, a name given to it by the Spanish due to its distant resemblance to Greek amphorae.

Goldsmithing

The remotest evidence of fine metal working in Ancient Peru and America in general dates back to 1,500 BC. C. It is located in Waywaka, Apurimac, where hammered gold sheets were found associated with tools used for this purpose. But only later did metallurgy in its complex form reach skillful manufacturing, being Chongoyape "Chongoyape (archaeological site)") and Kuntur Wasi, around 1000-200 BC. C., the oldest centers that testify to this flowering.[28]​.

A more extraordinary development of this art belongs to the Moche, Lambayeque or Sicán, Nazca and Chimú cultures of the Peruvian coast.

The Moche were the best metallurgists of their time. They used gold, silver, copper and their alloys, which they melted in furnaces of various types (such as the huayra). The most characteristic alloy was tumbaga (a mixture of gold and copper). They gilded copper long before Europe and knew a variety of techniques, such as rolling, hammering, wiring, welding, etc. An astonishing amount of jewelry was found in the tomb of the Lord of Sipán.

The Lambayeque adopted the techniques of the Moche and for some experts, their creations have a better finish. Representative pieces of Lambayeque art and Peruvian goldsmithing in general are the Lambayeque tumi and the Lambayeque funerary mask, made of gold inlaid with precious stones, and with designs that represent the god Naylamp.

The Chimu inherited the techniques of previous cultures and produced artifacts of extraordinary quality, with a low concentration of gold and some made with arsenical bronze.[28]​.

The Incas adopted the metallurgical techniques of the peoples they dominated and transferred Chimué goldsmiths to Cuzco to carry out their work in the service of the imperial state. At that time the use of cuprotin bronze (alloy of copper and tin) became widespread.[28]​.

It is noteworthy that the culture of Ancient Peru was the only one in America that produced bronze, among other alloys. However, they did not know iron, except for that of meteoric origin, which was used in heavy tools that were carved and polished.[28]​.

• - Gold ornament found in Chongoyape "Chongoyape (archaeological site)").

• - Jewel carved in gold, Chavín style.

• - Moche gold earring inlaid with precious stones.

• - Tumi lambayeque or tumi from Illimo.

• - Gold vessels from the middle Sicán period (Lambayeque).

• - Lambayeque funerary mask found in Batán Grande.

• - Inca gold and silver statuettes, made from embossed and welded sheets.

Textile

Textile making was one of the best developed techniques in Ancient Peru. The Spanish conquerors themselves testified that the Incas were the best dressed in all of pre-Hispanic America, due to the variety and quality of their clothing.[29]​ The raw material for the fabrics was cotton fiber and other plants, as well as the wool of camelids; Sometimes human and bat hair was also used. As an instrument they used the handloom. The custom of burying the dead in their best clothing and the dry climate of the Peruvian coast have made it possible to preserve splendid examples of this technique and art at the same time.

The ancient Peruvians knew practically all textile techniques, from twine, simple cloth and embroidery, to brocade and loom tapestry. Likewise, they decorated their fabrics in the most diverse ways. They even used other peculiar techniques, which are currently impossible to reproduce.[30]​.

The first signs of textiles in Ancient Peru date back to about 5,000 years. Among the first well-preserved examples of this refined art are the painted fabrics from Carhua, on the southern coast, which show Chavín-style motifs, which is why they have been dated to the first millennium BC.[30]​.

But without a doubt the most splendid examples are those of the Topará culture, formerly called Paracas Necropolis, which preferably used the embroidery technique. The famous Paracas cloaks, with which they wrapped their mummies, have rightly won universal admiration. Some of these fabrics contain three hundred threads per square inch. Naturalistic themes (fish, felines, birds, snakes, fruits and flowers) were embroidered on them with great color, as well as mythical and symbolic figures, all with extraordinary taste. The variety, vivacity and intensity of the colors of the coats still maintain their vigor, despite the time that has passed.

Pre-Inca textiles continued with their extraordinary technical and artistic peak, as evidenced in other coastal cultures such as Moche and Nazca. Of the Moche, as no specimens have been preserved, its textile development can be deduced by contemplating the pictorial art of its ceramics. The Nazca, heirs of the Topará or Paracas, abandoned embroidery and developed fine tapestry.[30]​.

Under the Tiahuanaco-Wari era, tapestry reached its splendor and feather art also flourished as a complement to weaving; Its decoration is highly symbolic and has sophisticated lines, especially when it represents the god of staffs, the same one that appears on the Cover of the Sun.[30]​.

Another culture that stands out in this art is the Chancay culture, with its fine tapestry fabrics and painted fabrics; The decorated gauzes are worth highlighting. The Chachapoyas culture also stands out, of which a monumental cotton fabric decorated entirely with bird designs can be mentioned as an example.[30]​.

The Incas inherited and developed pre-Inca techniques. Their vicuña wool fabrics stand out, called cumbis, decorated with small geometric motifs, called tapapus. Currently weaving continues in Peru using ancestral techniques, especially in the southern Andean region.[30]​.

popular music

The music of Peru is the product of fusion over many centuries. There are many genres of Peruvian music: Andean "Andean Music (Peru), Creole and Amazonian"). These can be classified as music and dances of the Peruvian coast, Peruvian highlands and Peruvian Amazon. These manifestations are popularly known as folk music.

Andean or vernacular music comes from time immemorial and although it has received Hispanic influence, it has been perpetuated in huainos, mulizas, etc. It is usually performed especially at festivals with massive attendance and as an accompaniment to dances.

We will limit ourselves to making a brief list of the highest exponents of Peruvian folk music: For Áncash, Ernesto Sánchez, the Gilguero del Huascarán, stands out; María Alvarado, the Shepherd Huaracina; and Angélica Harada, the Little Princess of Yungay; while in the central region, the performers Víctor Alberto Gil, the Hummingbird of the Andes, stand out; Juan Bolívar, El Zorzal Jaujino; and Amanda Portales, the Bride of Peru.

As performers, Jaime Guardia stands out on the charango, Raúl García Zárate, on the guitar, Florencio Coronado Gutiérrez and Tony Medina on the harp; Alejandro Vivanco on the quena and flute; and Máximo Damián, on the violin.

More recent is Creole and Afro-Peruvian music. Guitars, castanets, Peruvian cajon and many other modern instruments are used. The waltz, the polka, the marinera and others express the feelings of the people. With them the “jaranas” and popular festivals are enlivened.

Felipe Pinglo, Manuel Acosta Ojeda, Chabuca Granda, Augusto Polo Campos, Jesús Vásquez, Arturo "Zambo" Cavero, Óscar Avilés and many other performers and composers stand out in this genre.

• - Felipe Pinglo Alva.

• - Chabuca Granda.

• - Augusto Polo Campos.

Peruvian cumbia, popularly known as chicha since its consolidation, is the product of the fusion of Colombian cumbia, rock and native rhythms from the Andes and Amazon of Peru, as well as the presence on a smaller scale of Creole and Afro-Peruvian music. In the eighties, it began to be called Chicha because it had various characteristics that differentiated it from Colombian cumbia. It should be noted, however, that Peruvian cumbia is not a completely unified genre from a stylistic point of view. It has many variants, both geographical and temporal, and is continually merging with international genres. The northern cumbia and the southern cumbia are distinguished.

Dances and dances

Since Peru is a country where about three thousand celebrations are held annually in all its cities and towns, from small patron saint festivals to massive pilgrimages,[31] dances and dances occupy a lot of importance in this context. 120 dances have been declared Cultural Heritage of the Nation.[32]​.

Puno is the department that stands out for its variety of dances, of which about 300 have been catalogued. Among them, the Diablada Puno, the Llamerada, the Pandilla Puneña, the Arayachis, the Arapa Carnival, the Chokelas, the Chunchos de Yahuarmayo, the Kajelo, the Sicuris de Taquile and the Wifala stand out.[31]

In the central region, the Huaylarsh, the Chonguinada, the Huaconada, the Tunantada, the Negritos "Dance of the Negritos (Peru)"), the Avelinos, the Majtada stand out.[31]​.

In the southern mountains the Scissors Dance stands out (Ayacucho, Huancavelica and Apurímac); and Wititi (Arequipa).[31]​.

There are dances of Negroid descent. On the central coast of Peru are the Hatajo de Negritos and the Pallitas. The celebration, the zamacueca, the alcatraz "Alcatraz (dance)"), etc., also have African ancestry and are especially cultivated by the brown people of Peru, as Afro-Peruvians are known.

The Scissor Dance, the Huaconada, the Wititi and the Hatajo de Negritos and the Pallitas have been declared Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.[33]​[34]​.

These songs and dances do not only appear at parties; some are specific to the job; Thus, the harvest songs, in the northern cane fields, harvest songs in the mountains, fishing songs on the coast, etc. The costumes and forms of dress and decorative objects are also characteristic.

• - Couple dancing a marinera.

• - Children dancing tondero.

• - Diablada puneña.

• - Huaylarsh.

• - La Tunantada.

• - The Huaconada de Mito.

• - Dance of the scissors.

• - Wititi.

• - El Huayno.

• - La Morenada.

Craft

Peru is home to one of the most extensive varieties of crafts in the world that have been enriched over time without losing their originality. Work is done in clay, wood, fabrics, stone, gold, silver, nuts, etc. The quality of Peruvian artisans is highly recognized internationally.[35]​.

The most important craft producing centers are:[36]​.

• - The town of Písac and the neighborhood of San Blas, in Cusco (straw hats, alpaca textiles, ceramics, jewelry, etc.). See: Cusco crafts.

• - Chulucanas (Piura), famous for its hand-modeled ceramics, following ancestral techniques (Chulucanas ceramics).

• - Catacaos (Piura), where gold and silver jewelry, wood carvings, and straw and leather items are sold.

• - Quinoa "Quinua (Peru)") (Ayacucho), whose artisans make the famous churches, sculptures modeled in clay that usually adorn the roofs of houses.

• - San Francisco de Yarinacocha (Ucayali), with crafts made by Amazonian natives (woven with geometric figures, bracelets and earrings made with seeds, paintings and wooden objects).

We must also mention Puno as a traditional producer of the Toritos de Pucará; to Ayacucho for its famous sculptures made of Huamanga stone and its Ayacucho altarpieces; and the Mantaro valley (Junín) as the main producer of burilado mates.

• - Pucará bulls.

• - Ceramics from Catacaos.

• - Peruvian textiles.

• - Ceramics from Chulucanas.

• - Quinua Church, Ayacucho.

• - Ayacucho altarpiece.

• - Huamanga stone statuettes.

• - Buriled mates.

• - Taquile textile art.

• - Huaco Moche portrait.

Pre-Hispanic era

The people of Ancient Peru developed various branches of science such as astronomy, mathematics and medicine, and had great technical achievements in agriculture, hydraulics and architecture. Regarding the sciences in Ancient Peru, we must point out that they were empirical knowledge, which was consolidated through millennia of experience, and which had an eminently practical nature. For example, in astronomy they had solar observatories (Intihuatana) and divided the year into 12 months, each one represented with a festival; in mathematics the basic arithmetic operations were known; In medicine, a variety of medicinal plants were used and cranial trepanations were performed. It is worth highlighting an ingenious numerical record based on ropes and knots called quipus, an ancient cultural heritage, since 5,000-year-old specimens were discovered in Caral.[37] Some authors maintain that historical data was preserved with this same technique.

Speaking of American civilizations in general, it is often said as a cliché that the Mayans were scientifically more superior, since they had more advanced astronomical knowledge and knew zero. But in terms of technologies such as agriculture and hydraulics, the ancient Peruvians were much more developed; The Mayans did not go beyond burning forests to expand their agricultural lands; On the other hand, the ancient Peruvians knew a series of technologies to gain agricultural land, such as the platforms "Andén (agriculture)") or terraces, the waru waru or ridges, the huachaques or hoyas, the oxbow lakes or dry pools, etc., as well as the use of fertilizers (island guano, llama manure and guinea pig).[38] They also had laboratories to improve species, such as the one shown below. found in Moray "Moray (Peru)"), where apparently cultivation experiments were carried out at different heights.[39] The ancient Peruvians also had the only livestock in pre-Columbian America, that of South American camelids, and knew techniques for preserving foods such as tubers (chuño, patatasseca")) and charqui meat).[40] The hydraulic engineering of the pre-Incas, which the Incas adopted, was also very advanced; many pre-Hispanic irrigation canals and aqueducts are in use today.[41]

colonial era

The arrival of the Spanish to Peru implied the arrival of Western or European culture, in whose environment the scientific revolution that began in the century would take place.[42]​ As a sign of that time, in the century the so-called Scientific Expeditions arrived in Spanish America, whose purpose was to carry out studies of the physical and biological reality of the American lands, but at the same time many of their members made valuable observations of society, customs and other interesting aspects of life. colonial.[43]​.

In the late colonial period, scientific research was limited to identifying the natural products that should be exploited.[44]​ One of the first Peruvian scientific eminences of that time was the wise Hipólito Unanue, founder of the San Fernando School of Medicine (current Faculty of Medicine of the University of San Marcos) and author of a work that deals with observations of the climate of Lima and its influence on living beings, among other scientific writings.[45]​.

Republican era

During the century, marked with the birth of the Republic, progress in the different disciplines of Peruvian sciences was notable but uneven. In this context, we must mention the renewal of medical teaching under the leadership of Dr. Cayetano Heredia. In 1866 the Faculty of Sciences was created at the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos; and in 1876 the National School of Engineers (current National University of Engineering) "National University of Engineering (Peru)") was founded, both very important institutions in the development of science in Peru. Scientific institutions also emerged, but this development was truncated by the Pacific War.[44]​.

During National Reconstruction, positivism's promotion of science was one of the most important cultural factors in the recovery of Peru. Scientific development was considered essential for progress. The year 1885 was important for the beginning of research into the Peruvian wart disease, the work of Daniel Alcides Carrión, a martyr of Peruvian medicine. In 1888 the Geographic Society of Lima and the National Academy of Medicine "National Academy of Medicine (Peru)" were founded. At the beginning of the century, research in Peru began to recover thanks to the growth of the economy promoted by the Aristocratic Republic. New professions such as agricultural engineering were developed thanks to the arrival of a Belgian mission that organized the School of Agriculture, today La Molina National Agrarian University.[44]​.

In 1938, the National Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences of Peru was founded, intended to promote scientific research and the dissemination of scientific knowledge.[44]​.

At the end of the 1950s, Peru had a group of researchers who predicted great development in science. Some disciplines were renewed by the arrival of foreigners or Peruvians who had studied abroad. In the 1960s, new universities emerged in Lima, such as the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, and others in provinces, such as Arequipa and Trujillo, which offered study and professionalization opportunities for doctors and scientists.[44]​.

In 1968, a National Research Council was created, the predecessor of the current National Council of Science, Technology and Technological Innovation (CONCYTEC), the body in charge of developing the set of policies, plans and programs for research, development and innovation (R+D+i) in Peru.[46]​.

Until that time, Peru had, in the Latin American context, competitive indicators in Research and Development, especially, although not exclusively, in the fields of agriculture, medicine, biology and geophysics.[47]​.

However, this development was truncated by the massification of universities, which threatened the quality of teaching; by the erroneous policies of the military government of the 1970s, which discouraged scientific work; and by the terrorist violence of the 1980s.[44]​.

Scientific personalities

Between the centuries and several representative personalities of the different scientific branches emerged. In the study of natural sciences, an Italian scholar, Antonio Raimondi, stood out, as well as the Peruvians Sebastián Barranca and Fortunato Herrera. In the field of exact sciences, Federico Villareal stood out, making original contributions to the development of both mathematics and engineering; For example, he discovered the method to raise any polynomial to any power. Other notable mathematicians were Cristóbal de Losada y Puga and Godofredo García. In the field of botany, the work of the German professor Augusto Weberbauer is worth highlighting. In medicine, the studies of Dr. Carlos Monge Medrano on altitude sickness stand out. In bacteriology, the work of Alberto Barton is important in the identification of the etiological agent of Carrión's disease, which is named in his honor: Bartonella bacilliformis. Psychiatry was also developed through the work of Honorio Delgado.[44]​.

In the field of physics, Pedro Paulet, pioneer of astronautics, stands out; and Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo, who predicted the existence of the neutron. The inventor Pedro Ruiz Gallo is considered one of the pioneers of aeronautics. It should also be mentioned the geographical studies of Javier Pulgar Vidal, who managed to determine the ecological floors of Peru (The eight natural regions of Peru: Coast or chala, yunga, Quechua, Suni, puna, janca or mountain range, rupa-rupa or high jungle, and omagua or low jungle).

• - Hipólito Unanue.

• - Cayetano Heredia.

• - Daniel Alcides Carrión.

• - Antonio Raimondi.

• - Pedro Ruiz Gallo.

• - Sebastian Barranca.

• - Federico Villarreal.

• - Alberto Barton.

• - Pedro Paulet.

• - Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo.

Scientific and technological institutions and facilities

There are various scientific research institutes such as the Geophysical Institute of Peru, the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), the National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development (CONIDA), the National Council of South American Camelids (CONACS); the Peruvian Antarctic Institute (IAP), the International Potato Center, the Chemical Society of Peru, the National Telecommunications Research and Training Institute, the Peruvian Amazon Research Institute, among others.

The country has a scientific research station established in Antarctica called Machu Picchu Base and astronomical observatories such as Jicamarca and Morro Solar. In nuclear matters, there is the Óscar Miró Quesada de la Guerra Nuclear Power Plant), better known as El Huarangal, whose reactor is used only for research. In the field of volcanology, it has the Southern Volcanological Observatory (OVS), located in Arequipa and whose function is to observe and document the geophysical manifestations of active volcanoes.

In 1980, the Scientific Research Vessel Humboldt was launched into the sea, a scientific platform built through a Peruvian-German agreement in the SIMA-Callao shipyards. Its mission was to carry out oceanographic research cruises in the Peruvian maritime domain and in Antarctica, where the Machu Picchu Base is located. In 1988 he carried out the first Peruvian scientific expedition to Antarctica.[48] In May 2017 it was replaced by the

BAP Carrasco (BOP-171) "BAP Carrasco (BOP-171)"), polar oceanographic vessel of the Peruvian Navy.[49]​.

In 2016, PeruSat-1, the first Peruvian Earth observation satellite, built in France and operated by the Peruvian space agency CONIDA, was launched into space.[50]​.

• - The Jicamarca Radio Observatory, one of the most important in the world.

• - BAP Carrasco (BOP-171) "BAP Carrasco (BOP-171)") Peruvian Antarctic polar oceanographic research vessel.

• - Mockup representing PeruSat-1, the first Peruvian Earth observation satellite.

Pre-Hispanic and colonial literature

Peruvian literature has its first vestige in the anonymous dramatic work Ollantay whose origins are lost in the times of the Inca Empire. In the times of the viceroyalty, literary activity became an extension of Spanish and European literature in general, by following its guidelines expressed in literary currents. But there were writers born in Peru who stood out in a unique way creating masterpieces. First of all, the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539-1617) stands out, the first cultural and racial mestizo of Peru, author of the Royal Commentaries of the Incas, which for many critics is the epic of the Peruvian nationality, which is forged precisely with the fusion of two heritages, the native and the Spanish. Other writers born on Peruvian soil were Juan Espinoza Medrano, "El Lunarejo" (1630?-1688), author of Apologetic in favor of D. Luis de Góngora; and Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo (1664-1743), author of the epic poem Lima Fundada.[51]​ In the midst of emancipation, the figure of the poet Mariano Melgar, a precursor of Romanticism, who died by firing squad for embracing the patriotic cause, emerged.

• - Inca Garcilaso de la Vega.

• - Juan Espinoza Medrano.

• - Pedro Peralta and Barnuevo.

• - Mariano Melgar.

republican literature

Since the Republican era, there have been several exponents of Peruvian literature, such as the costumbrista playwrights Felipe Pardo y Aliaga and Manuel Ascencio Segura, but the greatest writer of the century was Ricardo Palma with his famous Peruvian Traditions. In poetry, in addition to Palma, Carlos Augusto Salaverry and Luis Benjamín Cisneros stand out, all of them representatives of Romanticism.[52] We should also mention the writers Clorinda Matto de Turner and Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera, representatives of Realism.[53]​.

At the end of the century, with the rise of Modernism on a continental level, José Santos Chocano, the "singer of America", and Manuel González Prada, the latter also a notable essayist and thinker, began to stand out in poetry.[54]

An important branch of Peruvian modernism was the so-called Generation of 900, also known as the “Arielista” generation, whose members used elegant prose and were oriented towards issues of national importance. Its main representatives were: José de la Riva Agüero y Osma, Francisco García Calderón Rey, Ventura García Calderón, Víctor Andrés Belaunde and José Gálvez Barrenechea.

Peruvian poetry of the century begins with José María Eguren (symbolist), author of The song of the figures. Shortly after, the avant-garde arrived, whose representatives were Carlos Oquendo de Amat, author of 5 meters of poems; Martín Adán, author of The Cardboard House; and César Vallejo, author of Los heraldos negroes, Trilce and Poemas humanos. Of all of them, it is Vallejo who achieves universal resonance, with his humanist poetry, expressed in a very original way, which shows his deep roots in the family environment and his solidarity with the oppressed and helpless. He is considered one of the capital figures of Latin American poetry of the century, alongside Pablo Neruda. Later, César Moro, Emilio Adolfo Westphalen, Javier Heraud, César Calvo, Alejandro Romualdo, Juan Gonzalo Rose, Carlos Germán Belli, Blanca Varela and many more stood out.

Modern narrative is inaugurated with postmodernism represented by Abraham Valdelomar, author of El Caballero Carmelo "El Caballero Carmelo (story)"); and Ventura García Calderón, author of The Revenge of the Condor.

Then comes the indigenista current, whose main representatives are:.

• - Enrique López Albújar, author of Andean Tales and New Andean Tales, although he is best known for his slave novel Matalaché.

• - Ciro Alegría, author of The Hungry Dogs, The Golden Snake and The World is Wide and Alien.

• - José María Arguedas, author of Yawar Fiesta "Yawar Fiesta (novel)"), The Deep Rivers and All the Bloods.

Mention should also be made of Mario Florián (poetry); and Eleodoro Vargas Vicuña, author of the narratives of Taita Cristo and Ñahuín (neo-indigenism). Manuel Scorza, author of Redoble por Rancas, deserves special mention.

Realistic and city-dwelling narrative has among its greatest representatives Julio Ramón Ribeyro, author of stories collected in The word of the dumb; Alfredo Bryce Echenique, author of A world for Julius; and Mario Vargas Llosa, conspicuous member of the Latin American Boom and winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature. Vargas Llosa's masterpieces are the novels The city and the dogs (1963), The green house (1966), The puppies "The puppies (story)") (1967), Conversation in the Cathedral (1969), The war at the end of the world (1981) and The party of the goat (2000); Although he has continued to publish novels to this day, he has not produced works of the same quality again.

Amazonian literature counts among its most prominent representatives Arturo D. Hernández, author of the adventure novel Sangama; and Francisco Izquierdo Ríos, author of short stories.

Contemporary narrators also include: Oswaldo Reynoso, author of The Innocents; Carlos Eduardo Zavaleta, author of remarkable stories; Edgardo Rivera Martínez, author of País de Jauja "País de Jauja (novel)"); and Miguel Gutiérrez, author of The violence of time. Narrators currently in production are Alonso Cueto, Fernando Ampuero, Santiago Roncagliolo and Renato Cisneros.

In the field of essay writing, it is mandatory to mention José Carlos Mariátegui, author of the 7 essays on the interpretation of Peruvian reality; to Víctor Andrés Belaúnde, author of The national reality; and José de la Riva Agüero y Osma; author of History in Peru.

• - Felipe Pardo y Aliaga.

• - Manuel Ascencio Segura.

• - Carlos Augusto Salaverry.

• - Ricardo Palma.

• - Manuel González Prada.

• - Clorinda Matto de Turner.

• - José Santos Chocano.

• - José Carlos Mariátegui.

• - Abraham Valdelomar.

• - Ventura García Calderón.

• - César Vallejo.

• - Martin Adam.

• - Enrique López Albújar.

• - Ciro Alegría.

• - Alfredo Bryce Echenique.

• - Mario Vargas Llosa.

Tourism in Peru is the third largest industry in the nation, behind fishing and mining. It is mainly directed towards archaeological monuments, as it has more than one hundred thousand sites of interest,[55]​ ecotourism in the Peruvian Amazon, cultural tourism in colonial cities, gastronomic tourism, adventure tourism and beach tourism.

• - Machu Picchu.

• - Sacsayhuamán.

• - Nazca Lines.

• - Kuelap.

• - Historical Center of Lima.

• - Huanchaco.

• - Chan Chan.

• - Tomb of the Lord of Sipán.

• - Iquitos.

• - Colca Canyon.

• - Arequipa.

Religion

Peru is a religious country. The historian Raúl Porras Barrenechea said that the Peruvian was probably the most religious man in the world. And it is that in the territory of Peru, as in other parts of the world, religion has played a vital role in the social and cultural development of societies from its origins in the Andes (12,000 BC), through the gestation processes of its civilization (3,000 BC), the political and cultural formation of pre-Hispanic Andean societies, and finally, the religious transformation following the fall of the Inca Empire and the seizure of power by the Spanish, who imposed Catholicism.

The original Andean religions placed a high value on mutual help, solidarity, assistance to those most in need and full respect for nature.

Christianity in its Catholic branch arrived in Peru accompanying the Spanish conquerors, starting in 1532. The Spanish religious dedicated themselves from the first moment to the task of converting the indigenous people. Although they focused on extirpating “idolatries,” as they called the Andean religions, this meeting produced religious syncretism, present throughout the country in various ways and magnitudes.

During the colonial era a spirit of exalted religiosity reigned. In the main square of each of the cities founded by the Spanish, a main temple (cathedral) was built and large areas of land were allocated for the construction of other temples, convents and monasteries. The greatest faith and devotion reigned in all social classes. The religious festivals were numerous and were celebrated pompously with masses, sermons, processions, allegorical parades and even popular celebrations, such as bullfights and fireworks. Two saints were born in Peruvian land: Martín de Porres and Rosa de Lima "Rosa de Lima (saint)"). Other manifestations of this religiosity are the famous processions of the Señor de los Milagros (Lima) "Lord of Miracles (Lima)") and the Lord of Tremors (Cuzco). During the republican period, this deep-rooted Catholic religiosity was maintained, without being affected by the arrival of the positivist, secular and anticlerical ideas of the late 20th century and early 20th century.

Currently, a little more than 80% of the Peruvian population recognizes themselves as Catholic. Catholicism has been declining in favor of Protestant or evangelical churches of different denominations, which have made their way especially into the popular sectors. There has also been a slow but consistent advance of irreligion especially among young people in urban areas. Also present, due to immigration, are religions such as Judaism and Buddhism, and more recently Hinduism and Islam. In any case, Christian faiths continue to predominate (95% of the population).

Peruvian cuisine is considered one of the most varied in the world. It holds the Guinness record for the greatest variety and diversity of typical dishes in the world (491). Likewise, the French newspaper Le Monde has considered it as one of the great cuisines on the planet, competing alongside French and Chinese cuisine.[56]​.

The great variety of Peruvian gastronomy is mainly due to the following circumstances:

• - To the various culinary heritages: the pre-Columbian (cultures of the coast, mountains and jungle), Spanish and African, to which, since the century, the Sino-Cantonese, Japanese, Italian and French have been added.

• - The tendency towards the fusion or mixture of all these heritages, which has formed a gastronomy of "four continents in a single country", offering an important variety of typical Peruvian dishes in constant evolution. Not even native or indigenous cuisine has escaped the trend toward fusion or “modernization,” as some call it.

• - Peru is a privileged place to produce quality food throughout its territory and throughout the year, as it has 84 of the 114 microclimates that exist in the world and 11 natural ecoregions.[57]​.

• - Peru is recognized as one of the original food centers of the world, that is, the place where various plants and animals were domesticated, contributing significantly to global nutrition. Of the 4,400 native plants it has, 185 are domesticated: 85 are Amazonian, 81 Andean and 8 coastal. And each plant has in turn countless varieties: more than 3,000 varieties of potatoes, 35 of corn, 15 of tomatoes, 1,500 of sweet potatoes, 5 of chili peppers, 1,408 medicinal plants, 1,600 ornamental plants, and 623 fruits. This great genetic variety makes Peru the food pantry of the world. It is enough to remember that the potato saved Europe from famine. The German botanist Augusto Weberbauer identified up to 52 foods as native to Peru, including potatoes, tomatoes, beans, corn, peanuts, pineapples, custard apples, plums, papayas, lucuma, cucumbers and chili peppers.[57]​.

Peruvian gastronomy is a flagship product of Peru. It is one, if not the main one, of Peruvians' reasons for pride, and any derogatory criticism towards it is taken as a serious offense. In the last decade of the century, and the beginning of the century, Peruvian cuisine began to become popular outside its borders. According to a study on innovation in Peruvian gastronomy by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) (2022),[58]​ the emergence and appearance of Peruvian gastronomy in the international market occurred through a reconversion that combined the native with the foreign. This was based on innovation aimed at enhancing its cuisine by applying international haute cuisine techniques supported by the identity, cultural diversity and biodiversity of Peru.

According to the IDB study, one of the keys to the development of Peruvian gastronomy was its differentiation at an international level through its ancient culture and the great diversity of the population throughout its territory. Chef Gastón Acurio maintains that Peruvian culture—both in its miscegenation and in its “pure” expressions—played a central role in the country's gastronomic revolution. At the same time, he points out that this revolution expresses culture and values ​​it, both abroad and in Peru.[58]​.

Due to the rich variety and harmony of its flavor and the foods used, Peruvian gastronomy is constantly awarded internationally and its chefs often obtain international medals that distinguish them. A notable element is its constant openness to innovations and the continuous development of new dishes, incorporating the continuous search for experimentation and the avant-garde into gastronomy. Just as each region preserves its culinary richness, in haute cuisine the mixture of colors and food products stands out,[59] An example of this is the so-called Novo-Andean cuisine, a new culinary style that emerged in Peru due to the interest of local gourmets in returning to food customs from the pre-Hispanic past to recreate them, thus rescuing and revaluing many of the native ingredients.

• - Fish ceviche.

• - Lomo saltado.

• - Pisco sour.

• - Cau cau.

• - Anticucho.

• - Chactado guinea pig.

• - Carapulcra.

• - Grilled chicken.

• - Dry goat.

• - Rice with chicken with potatoes a la huancaína.

• - Purple dungeon.

• - Purple chicha.

• - Salted noodles (chifa cuisine).

In Ancient Peru, although classic-style sports competitions did not exist, the practice of physical exercise was widespread, as training for war activity. Climbing hills, crossing rivers, marching over moors and sandbanks, was part of that training, which served to select the best, who received command positions.[60]​ With the arrival of the Spanish, the practice of the sport changed radically. Later, this was influenced by the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization.

Sports in Peru are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute.

Peru's history in the Olympic Games is very scant; Despite this, it is one of the first South American countries to win a gold medal at the Olympic Games. This happened at the 1948 London Olympic Games, when he won his first and only gold medal in the shooting discipline "Shooting (projectile)"), a free pistol modality, with the shooter Edwin Vásquez Cam.[61] This sport has achieved three of Peru's four Olympic medals: In 1948, in 1984 with Francisco Boza and in 1992 with Juan Giha, the latter two from silver.[61]​ The other silver medal achieved by the country in the Olympic Games corresponds to the discipline of volleyball, when in 1988 in Seoul, the Peruvian team fell 3-2 to the Soviet Union in the final.[62]​ In 2024, the sailer Stefano Peschiera, obtained the bronze medal at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games, also, he took third place, achieving after 32 years an Olympic medal for Peru.

Soccer, the most popular sport in the world, is also the most widely practiced in the country. The Decentralized Championship is the most important club tournament in the nation. The men's team has had some important performances on the world stage. It has participated in the Soccer World Cup five times: the first, in 1930, by invitation, and the remaining four (1970, 1978, 1982 and 2018) winning a place in qualifying tournaments. A well-remembered feat is the elimination of the Argentina team in 1969. Likewise, Peru has been champion of the Copa América on two occasions (1939 and 1975). At the club level, Universitario de Deportes stands out with the runner-up of the Copa Libertadores de América in 1972 and Sporting Cristal also with the runner-up in 1997.[63]​ The only Peruvian clubs with international titles are Cienciano, which won the 2003 Copa Sudamericana and the 2004 Recopa Sudamericana,[64]​ and Universitario de Deportes, champion of the Copa Libertadores U-20 in 2011.[65]​.

Outstanding Peruvian footballers of the century have been: Alejandro Villanueva, Lolo Fernández, Alberto Terry, Valeriano López, Víctor Benítez, Teófilo Cubillas, Héctor Chumpitaz, Hugo Sotil, César Cueto, Guillermo La Rosa, Juan José Muñante, Gerónimo Barbadillo, Julio César Uribe, Franco Navarro, Chemo del Solar, Roberto Palacios, Nolberto Solano. Since the end of the century and in the first two decades of the century, Claudio Pizarro, Paolo Guerrero and Jefferson Farfán have stood out in various leagues around the world.

Another sport with a large number of followers is volleyball. The women's team has won the South American Championship twelve times and has obtained silver and bronze medals in the World Championship and the Pan American Games. As well as the aforementioned silver medal obtained at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. Female stars of this sport have been: Lucha Fuentes, Pilancho Jiménez, Gaby Pérez del Solar, Cecilia Tait, Cenaida Uribe, Natalia Málaga, and others.

Another sporting discipline in which Peru has stood out internationally is surfing, with three individual world titles with Felipe Pomar, Sofía Mulánovich and Analí Gómez; as well as three world team titles.[66]​.

Tennis has also recorded important achievements with Alex Olmedo, a native of Arequipa, champion of the Australian Open and Wimbledon (although representing the United States); and Luis Horna winner of the Roland Garros doubles tournament "Annex: Roland Garros champions (men's doubles)").

In chess, GMI Julio Granda and GMI Emilio Córdova stand out; the first of them won the Children's World Championship at the age of 13 and the second obtained the International Grandmaster standard at the age of 16, becoming the youngest GMI in the country and South America to reach that standard. The brothers Deysi and Jorge Cori Tello, both youth world champions, also stand out in this sport.[67]​.

As for boxing, Mauro Mina, South American champion and the first Peruvian world middleweight challenger in the 1960s, has stood out. In other categories, Kina Malpartida, Linda Lecca and Alberto Rossel have been world champions.

In other combat sports, world champions Alexander Chávez"), Antonina and Valentina Shevchenko (muay Thai); and Miguel Sarria") (kick boxing) have been world champions.

In swimming, a prominent figure has been Walter Ledgard, South American champion (1938-1939) and world masters champion (1975).

In billiards, Adolfo Suárez Perret achieved the title of world champion in the Three-Cushion specialty in 1961.

• - Francisco Boza.

• - Lolo Fernández.

• - Alejandro Villanueva.

• - Teófilo Cubillas.

• - Paolo Guerrero.

• - Claudio Pizarro.

• - Deysi Cori.

• - Julio Granda.

• - Jorge Cori.

• - Gabriela Pérez del Solar.

• - Luisa Fuentes.

• - Cecilia Tait.

• - Cenaida Uribe.

• - Natalia Malaga.

• - Sofia Mulanovich.

• - Kina Malpartida.

• - Valentina Shevchenko.

• - Adolfo Suárez.

• - Kimberly Garcia.

• - Alexandra Grande.

• - Gladys Tejeda.

• - Natalia Cuglievan.

• - Diego Elías.

• - Inés Melchor.

• - Akio Tamashiro.

• - Nicolás Fuchs.

• - Alonso Wong.

• - Angélica Espinoza.

• - Peruvian Agency for International Cooperation.

• - Articles related to Peru.

• - Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

• - Ethnography of Peru.

• - Diplomatic missions of Peru.

• - Media in Peru.

• - Museums of Lima.

• - Intangible cultural heritage of Peru.

• - World Heritage Site in Peru.

• - Peru and the EU.

• - Flag Products of Peru.

• - Information System for the Biological and Environmental Diversity of the Peruvian Amazon.

• - Tourism in Peru.

• - Portal:Peru. Content related to Peru.

• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Culture of Peru.

• - Wikisource contains original works from Culture of Peru.

• - Wikinews has news related to Culture of Peru.

• - Portal of the Peruvian State.

• - Site of the Presidency of Peru.

• - Atlas of Peru.

• - Regions of Peru.

pre-Hispanic culture

The Andean civilization, which developed in the current Peruvian territory, was forged fifteen thousand years ago, with the arrival of the first men to this part of the world. These were in the Upper Paleolithic stage and it was exclusively through their efforts, without foreign influence, that they were able to gradually climb towards high culture. The cultural remains of the first hunter-gatherers have been found in Guitarrero I, Piquimachay, Chivateros (lithic workshop), Toquepala (rock paintings), Paiján "Paiján (archaeological complex)") (lithic points). The first vestiges of agricultural crops are found in Nanchoc "Nanchoc (archaeological site)") (pumpkin and loche squash) and Guitarrero I (beans and pallares), from 6000 BC. C. Other plants that are beginning to be cultivated are sweet potato, annatto, and quinoa. Potato and corn are later crops. The remains of the first fishing village were found in Santo Domingo de Paracas; of the first domesticated camelids, in Telarmachay; and the first domesticated guinea pigs, in Piquimachay.

The presence of the circular temple of Sechín Bajo in 3500 BC. C. marks the beginning of the emergence of complex societies.[8]​[9]​ Then, around 3200 BC. C. The Caral civilization arose in the Peruvian Norte Chico and whose center was the sacred city of Caral and its fishing city, El Áspero. Caral was a contemporary of other great civilizations such as those of China, Egypt, India and Mesopotamia. It is, therefore, one of the few centers that radiate civilization in the world due to its antiquity (at least 5000 years); as well as the only one in the southern hemisphere. Caral flourished for over a thousand years; Among its ruins have been found the first quipu, musical instruments, clay statuettes, among other cultural remains. Contemporary with it were other centers such as Bandurria, Ventarrón, Kotosh (temple of the crossed hands), Cerro Sechín, La Galgada, Las Haldas and El Paraíso "El Paraíso (archaeological site)."[10]​[11]​.

Caral disappeared around 1800 BC. C. but its cultural legacy was maintained, thus continuing the process of Andean civilization. Other cultural centers emerged in present-day Peru, such as Cupisnique, Pacopampa, Kuntur Wasi, Garagay and Chavín de Huántar. Around 900 BC. C. the Chavín culture prevailed over the others, until around 200 BC. C. its influence declined and the development of larger states based on new local cultures such as Mochica, Lima, Nazca, Wari and Tiahuanaco was encouraged. The Wari formed the first known Pan-Andean empire, centered in the city of Wari, near present-day Ayacucho.

With the decline of Wari and Tiahuanaco towards the end of the century, regionalist cultural production was reactivated, such as Chimú, Lambayeque, Cajamarca, Chachapoyas, Chincha, Chanca, Huanca, Chancay and the Quechuas or Incas of Cuzco. The latter, after successively passing through the stages of local lordship and Quechua confederation, in the century they formed the Inca Empire, which annexed all the Andean towns between the Maule and Ancasmayo rivers, reaching an area close to 3,000,000 km², today located in the territories of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile.

The Inca civilization was the pinnacle of Andean culture, the synthesis of all pre-Inca cultures. What the Incas did was assimilate and develop all the cultural influences of the territory they dominated. Its main merit was to create an imperial state whose purpose was the unification of the Andean world, but whose definitive consolidation was truncated by the Spanish invasion. However, Andean culture has followed its own course and has reached the present day; Proof of this are the indigenous communities, the dietary patterns, the languages ​​(Quechua, Aymara), etc.

The Hispanic influence

In the 19th century, Francisco Pizarro's troops, with the support of many towns or ethnic groups ruled by the Incas, conquered this empire for Spain. In 1542, the viceroyalty was established, which initially covered a territory from what is now Panama to the southern tip of the continent. The Spanish empire meant a profound social and economic transformation for Peru. A mercantilist system was implemented, supported by silver mining, commercial monopoly and the exploitation of the common indigenous people.

In the social aspect, the Spanish established a society divided into social classes or estates, differentiated by lineage and race. In the cultural aspect, they introduced the artistic styles that prevailed in Europe, but the mestizos assimilated them until they became their own art. The Peruvian artist captured models and printed his own characteristics. The letters were also the reflection of the literary schools that existed in Europe, but there were writers born in Peru who under that influence stood out by creating peculiar masterpieces, such as Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, Juan Espinoza Medrano, Pedro Peralta and Barnuevo, among others.

From the end of the century and beginning of the century, the viceregal power was slowly weakened by commercial smuggling and separatist insurgency, first indigenous (such as that of Túpac Amaru II) and later also Creole. However, in recent years these were strongly repressed, so none of them achieved their ultimate objective.

It should be noted that in the century there was already the awareness of being Peruvian; This is evidenced through writers and ideologists such as José Eusebio de Llano Zapata, José Baquíjano y Carrillo, Hipólito Unanue, Toribio Rodríguez de Mendoza and newspapers such as Mercurio Peruano. Also wise men and scientists such as Jorge Juan, Antonio de Ulloa, Tadeo Haenke and Alexander von Humboldt divulged the wealth and people of Peru.

Development of the Republic of Peru

Peru's emancipation from Spanish political domination is part of a broader process that occurred throughout the Spanish-American world at the beginning of the century. The independence of Peru was a joint work of precursors and heroes, local and foreign, with the decisive help of the people. There are authors who trace the beginning of the emancipation process of Peru to the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II of 1780-1781. Be that as it may, the final stage began in 1820, with the arrival from Chile of the Liberating Expedition of Peru led by the Argentine general José de San Martín, who on July 21, 1821 proclaimed independence and established a new state: the Republic of Peru, whose name is tacitly recorded in the Act of Independence of this country.[12] However, it was not until 1824 that the Venezuelan general Simón Bolívar managed to definitively expel the royalist troops settled in the southern mountains after the battles of Junín and Ayacucho.

Two fundamental themes dominated the beginnings of the nascent Peruvian State: the search for its own system of government and the determination of its territory. The first was defined with the triumph of the republicans over the monarchists; In the second case, the principle of uti possidetis was followed, according to which the territory had to be the same as that of the Viceroyalty of Peru at the beginning of the century. The first territorial disputes occurred with Gran Colombia, which claimed for itself the Peruvian territories of Tumbes, Jaén and Maynas, but after a war with no definitive result, the matter was kept in suspense and only later would Ecuador (one of the three republics into which Gran Colombia was divided) resurrect the claims.

The first years of independence took place between caudillo struggles organized by the military to achieve the Presidency of the Republic. In this context, between 1836 and 1839, the Peru-Bolivian Confederation was formed, dissolved after the defeat of Yungay against the United Restoration Army. A new war with Bolivia broke out in 1841, and although the Bolivians won the Battle of Ingavi and invaded southern Peru, they were quickly repelled by Peruvian militias in 1842. This was a key year in which the Peruvian territory, until then under the serious threat of losing its entire southern area to Bolivia, was defined.

The predominance of the military in power was maintained until the 1870s, when civilian leaders appeared, such as Manuel Pardo y Lavalle, president from 1872 to 1876; and Nicolás de Piérola, dictator from 1879 to 1881, in the middle of the war with Chile. This conflict, with a calamitous result for Peru, marked the beginning of a new stage in Peruvian history, based no longer on the exploitation of guano and saltpeter but on other raw materials such as metals, cotton and sugar. It gave way to National Reconstruction, resurfacing militarism in political life, until 1895, when a stage of civilian predominance began, called the Aristocratic Republic, which would last until 1919. Another civilian leader, Augusto B. Leguía, then began another stage known as the Oncenio, which lasted until 1930.

Architecture

In pre-Inca Peru, the first examples of monumental architecture are the pyramids with superimposed terraces, built basically of adobe. Its function was religious (temple) and administrative (palaces). They are typical of coastal cultures, starting with Caral, where the Great Pyramid stands out. They form complexes with other buildings, being called "U Temples", due to the shape of their arrangement: a main pyramid, with two lateral constructions in the shape of arms.[14] Other notable pyramidal constructions are those of the Moche culture, such as the so-called Huacas del Sol and de la Luna. In Lima, the huacas of Pucllana, Maranga "Maranga (archaeological site)"), and Mateo Salado "Mateo Salado (archaeological complex)") stand out. The huacas of the coastal cultures of Peru were as imposing as those of Mesoamerica, but the fact that they were built in adobe has made their full conservation impossible; currently they look more like natural elevations of the terrain, although some of them have been restored.

Other examples of pre-Inca architecture are the temples of Chavín de Huántar, made of carved stone; the constructions of Cahuachi of the Nazca; the adobe buildings of Chan Chan, considered the largest mud city in the world; the temples of Tiahuanaco (Akapana, Kalasasaya, Pumapunku); the city of Wari, with multi-story stone buildings. On the coast the materials preferably used were adobes and rammed earth; in the mountains, the stone.

Inca architecture has three great characteristics: solidity, simplicity and symmetry. It stands out for its refined use of stone, as well as its advanced techniques for using territorial space. To this day, the size of the stones in some buildings is astonishing, such as in the so-called “fortress” of Sacsahuamán. In this and other constructions, one also admires the assembly of stones of different shapes and sizes without using mortar and that fit together so perfectly that not a single sheet of paper passes between their joints. A classic example of this technique is the so-called Stone of the Twelve Angles.[15] Other buildings, such as the Coricancha and the Inca palaces of Cusco, are built with rectangular or square carved stones, aligned symmetrically. But it is undoubtedly Machu Picchu, built on a hill whose top was flattened, the icon of this architecture; It is considered one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

The Spanish brought new architectural techniques, such as the use of the vault, the arch, the column and the use of strong materials such as brick, necessary in places where there was no stone. Viceregal architecture adapted to the environment of each region and developed the prevailing styles in Europe. These were the baroque, with its variants of churrigueresque, plateresque and rococo, which are characterized by their ornate ornamentation; and the neoclassical, which is characterized by the return to straight lines and simplicity. Examples of these styles are seen in religious architecture, that is, temples, churches and convents, as well as in the characteristic balconies of the city of Lima.[16]​.

Republican architecture, like colonial architecture, followed European trends. The first large building built was that of the Lima Penitentiary. Throughout the century the influence of neoclassicism persists (Dos de Mayo National Hospital, Matriz del Callao Church, Chorrillos Military School). During the government of José Balta, the Exhibition Palace was built, in a neo-Renaissance style. Metal architecture imported from France (Tacna Cathedral, the Balta Bridge) was also introduced. In the 19th century, several architectural styles were developed, such as the academic style of French influence (Palace of the Congress of the Republic of Peru, the Crypt of the Heroes, etc.); the neocolonial style (facade of the Archbishop's Palace); the neo-Peruvian style, which is a fusion of colonial and indigenous elements (facades of the School of Fine Arts and that of the Museum of Archeology); the indigenous style (Museum of Peruvian Culture).[17]​.

Sculpture

In pre-Hispanic times, minor sculptures were made, such as idols and statuettes of stone and wood; as well as sculptures of a monumental nature, but these were made mostly by the Chavín (the monolithic Lanzón) and Tiahuanaco (monoliths) cultures. It was also carved in the bedrock or in large stones making designs that look like models (Sayhuite stone). Regarding the Incas, they had a very sober and schematic sculptural art; It is known that they made statues representing their kings, and one of the god Viracocha, in stone. Sculpture was generally a complement to architecture.

Colonial sculpture followed European trends, and like painting, it had the practical purpose of decorating religious environments. Thus, it provided religious furniture to the temples and convents, through its Altarpieces or Altars, Choir Stalls, Pulpits, Drawers and Ceilings or Coffered ceilings, as well as free sculpture, in sacred groups, images of saints, symbolism and funerary sculptures of religious figures or famous donors of the time. An example of all this can still be seen in the churches of Lima, Cuzco, Arequipa, Trujillo, Cajamarca, Ayacucho and many other places in Peru. The names of some of the sculptors are remembered, such as Pedro de Noguera and Baltazar Gavilán, the latter author of the famous sculpture of Death, made of wood.[18]​.

In the Republican era, sculpture workshops continued to produce works with religious themes. Academic sculpture was imported from Europe, as in the case of the statues of the Alameda de los Descalzos, in a neoclassical style. In the first half of the century, national artists emerged, such as David Lozano, Luis Agurto and Artemio Ocaña, who made statues of heroes and heroes to line public squares and avenues. Although monuments continued to be imported at this time, such as the equestrian statue of José de San Martín, raised in the square of his name "Plaza San Martín (Lima)") (1921). When the School of Fine Arts was founded (1918), the Spaniard Manuel Piqueras Cotolí gave a boost to national sculpture, by promoting Spanish-indigenous fusion. Modern sculpture was initiated by Joaquín Roca Rey, around 1948. Years later, figurative modernity manifested itself with Víctor Delfín and Cristina Gálvez.[19]​.

Paint

In pre-Hispanic times, painting was expressed in the murals that decorated the temples, both on the plastered walls and in the high reliefs; as well as in the decoration of ceramic pieces, highlighting the Nazca and Moche cultures in this art. It is also known that the Incas painted historical scenes on panels and fabrics, which were kept in the Puquincancha building, in Cuzco, but of which no specimen is preserved.

In the colonial era, religious painting shone, intended to satisfy the great demand for paintings made by churches, convents and large colonial residences. On the other hand, the colonial nobility also ordered other types of works to be made, especially portraits. The first works were carried out by religious people coming from Spain; Then the Italian artists Bernardo Bitti, Mateo Pérez de Alesio and Angelino Medoro (10th century) arrived. Later, Fray Francisco de Bejarano, Cristóbal Daza, Cristóbal Lozano and José del Pozo stand out. Soon, the Indians and mestizos learned the art of painting and formed their own schools, such as the famous Cusco school, which developed over the centuries, and which is a clear example of miscegenation in the viceregal fine arts. The painters of this school have generally remained anonymous, but some names are mentioned, such as Diego Quispe Tito.[20]​.

The painting of the beginning of the Republic continued under the colonial molds. Then several currents emerged: Costumbrista painting, whose main representative is Pancho Fierro; academic painting, influenced by the schools of Europe, and whose exponents are Ignacio Merino, Francisco Laso, Luis Montero, Francisco Masías, Daniel Hernández Morillo, Teófilo Castillo, Carlos Baca-Flor; indigenous painting, which highlights nationalism and provincial regionalism, was initiated by José Sabogal and had several representatives, such as Julia Codesido, Jorge Vinatea Reinoso, Mario Urteaga Alvarado, Enrique Camino Brent. After indigenism, a group of “independents” emerged, influenced by avant-garde, whose main representatives were Macedonio de la Torre, Ricardo Grau, and Carlos Quizpez Asín. Then come Juan Manuel Ugarte Eléspuru, Sérvulo Gutiérrez, Fernando de Szyszlo, etc. Teodoro Núñez Ureta stands out in mural art.[21]​.

academic music

Peru has great representatives in academic music. In the century and beginning of the century, the composers José María Valle Riestra, author of the opera Ollanta, stand out; Daniel Alomía Robles, author of The Condor Passes…; Ernesto López Mindreau; Luis Duncker Lavalle, who composed waltzes and ballroom pieces; inter alia. The composition of operas predominates at this time.[22]​.

In the century a second generation appears that knows how to use folklore elements, transforming the harmonies and melodies with them (stylization of folklore). Representative musicians of this trend are Theodoro Valcárcel, Alfonso de Silva, Roberto Carpio, Carlos Sánchez Málaga") and Rodolfo Holzmann. A third generation is represented by Enrique Iturriaga, Celso Garrido Lecca, Olga Pozzi Escot, Enrique Pinilla, Francisco Pulgar Vidal, Edgar Valcárcel and Luis Meza; most of them prefer to write orchestrated works.[23]​.

Also worth mentioning are the composers Manuel Bañón, author of the military march The attack of Uchumayo; José Bernardo Alcedo, author of the music of the National Anthem of Peru; Claudio Rebagliati, author of Peruvian Rapsody; and Carlos Valderrama Herrera, author of the famous military march The Peruvians pass.[24]​.

The Peruvian tenors of world importance are Alejandro Granda Relayza, Luis Alva Talledo, Ernesto Palacio "Ernesto Palacio (tenor)"), Francesco Petrozzi and Juan Diego Flórez.

• - José Bernardo Alcedo.

• - Daniel Alomía Robles.

• - Juan Diego Flórez.

Ceramics

The ceramics of pre-Hispanic Peru were very elaborate. It has pictorial decorations of high artistic quality, and many are sculptural in form. These specimens are found in profusion in pre-Hispanic tombs, due to the custom of burying the dead with vessels full of food and drinks.

The oldest ceramic samples detected on Peruvian soil would be those from Kotosh, Wayrajirca phase, dated around 1,850 BC. C.,[25]​ although if we talk about the Andean civilization in general, the oldest ceramics is that of the Valdivia culture, which developed in present-day Ecuador, around 4,000 BC. C. In the sites of the Caral civilization (3,000-1800 BC), no ceramics have been found, but sculptural pieces of raw clay, representing human figures.[26]​.

The art of ceramics began to show notable progress from the Cupisnique culture. Chavín ceramics have excellent specimens of globular shape and with a stirrup handle, decorated with motifs expressed with incisions and highlighted in high flat relief, generally monochrome (a single color: black, gray or red).[25]​.

The peak stage of ceramics corresponds to the Moche and Nazca cultures, which developed in the first half of the first millennium AD, although both had other cultures as antecedents (Salinar and Gallinazo; and Paracas, respectively).[25]​.

"Moche pottery" is considered the best of Ancient Peru and among the best in the world, thanks to the fine and elaborate work that is evident in its specimens. In them they represented, both in a sculptural and pictorial way, divinities, men, animals and significant scenes referring to ceremonial themes and myths that reflected their conception of the world, highlighting the amazing expressiveness, perfection and realism with which they were endowed. Of this art, the portrait huacos and the huacos stand out. erotic

Nazca ceramics are another of the best in Peru, due to their variety and high quality. It stands out above all for its pictorial designs, with a profusion of exceptionally bright colors. Plants, animals and, above all, the figure of a supernatural being were painted, with features of a feline and a bird.[25]​.

Later, Tiahuanaco-Wari ceramics emerged, apparently influenced by the Moche and Nazca; To the first he owes his predilection for the sculptural form, and to the second for the use of a variety of bright colors. A peculiar feature is the representation of a divinity that seems to be the same one that appears on the Cover of the Sun of Tiahuanaco.[25]​.

Then the Chancay ceramics stand out, which is characterized by being bichrome (on a white slip it was brushed with black dye). Also noteworthy are the statues called cuchimilcos.[25]​.

As for Inca ceramics, it is more sober in figurative expressions and little given to reproducing sculptural forms. Its designs are geometric and white, black and red are mostly used as colors.[25] Typical examples of Inca ceramics are the or (pitcher), the (handle plate) and the (glass).[27]​ The best known is the aríbalo, a name given to it by the Spanish due to its distant resemblance to Greek amphorae.

Goldsmithing

The remotest evidence of fine metal working in Ancient Peru and America in general dates back to 1,500 BC. C. It is located in Waywaka, Apurimac, where hammered gold sheets were found associated with tools used for this purpose. But only later did metallurgy in its complex form reach skillful manufacturing, being Chongoyape "Chongoyape (archaeological site)") and Kuntur Wasi, around 1000-200 BC. C., the oldest centers that testify to this flowering.[28]​.

A more extraordinary development of this art belongs to the Moche, Lambayeque or Sicán, Nazca and Chimú cultures of the Peruvian coast.

The Moche were the best metallurgists of their time. They used gold, silver, copper and their alloys, which they melted in furnaces of various types (such as the huayra). The most characteristic alloy was tumbaga (a mixture of gold and copper). They gilded copper long before Europe and knew a variety of techniques, such as rolling, hammering, wiring, welding, etc. An astonishing amount of jewelry was found in the tomb of the Lord of Sipán.

The Lambayeque adopted the techniques of the Moche and for some experts, their creations have a better finish. Representative pieces of Lambayeque art and Peruvian goldsmithing in general are the Lambayeque tumi and the Lambayeque funerary mask, made of gold inlaid with precious stones, and with designs that represent the god Naylamp.

The Chimu inherited the techniques of previous cultures and produced artifacts of extraordinary quality, with a low concentration of gold and some made with arsenical bronze.[28]​.

The Incas adopted the metallurgical techniques of the peoples they dominated and transferred Chimué goldsmiths to Cuzco to carry out their work in the service of the imperial state. At that time the use of cuprotin bronze (alloy of copper and tin) became widespread.[28]​.

It is noteworthy that the culture of Ancient Peru was the only one in America that produced bronze, among other alloys. However, they did not know iron, except for that of meteoric origin, which was used in heavy tools that were carved and polished.[28]​.

• - Gold ornament found in Chongoyape "Chongoyape (archaeological site)").

• - Jewel carved in gold, Chavín style.

• - Moche gold earring inlaid with precious stones.

• - Tumi lambayeque or tumi from Illimo.

• - Gold vessels from the middle Sicán period (Lambayeque).

• - Lambayeque funerary mask found in Batán Grande.

• - Inca gold and silver statuettes, made from embossed and welded sheets.

Textile

Textile making was one of the best developed techniques in Ancient Peru. The Spanish conquerors themselves testified that the Incas were the best dressed in all of pre-Hispanic America, due to the variety and quality of their clothing.[29]​ The raw material for the fabrics was cotton fiber and other plants, as well as the wool of camelids; Sometimes human and bat hair was also used. As an instrument they used the handloom. The custom of burying the dead in their best clothing and the dry climate of the Peruvian coast have made it possible to preserve splendid examples of this technique and art at the same time.

The ancient Peruvians knew practically all textile techniques, from twine, simple cloth and embroidery, to brocade and loom tapestry. Likewise, they decorated their fabrics in the most diverse ways. They even used other peculiar techniques, which are currently impossible to reproduce.[30]​.

The first signs of textiles in Ancient Peru date back to about 5,000 years. Among the first well-preserved examples of this refined art are the painted fabrics from Carhua, on the southern coast, which show Chavín-style motifs, which is why they have been dated to the first millennium BC.[30]​.

But without a doubt the most splendid examples are those of the Topará culture, formerly called Paracas Necropolis, which preferably used the embroidery technique. The famous Paracas cloaks, with which they wrapped their mummies, have rightly won universal admiration. Some of these fabrics contain three hundred threads per square inch. Naturalistic themes (fish, felines, birds, snakes, fruits and flowers) were embroidered on them with great color, as well as mythical and symbolic figures, all with extraordinary taste. The variety, vivacity and intensity of the colors of the coats still maintain their vigor, despite the time that has passed.

Pre-Inca textiles continued with their extraordinary technical and artistic peak, as evidenced in other coastal cultures such as Moche and Nazca. Of the Moche, as no specimens have been preserved, its textile development can be deduced by contemplating the pictorial art of its ceramics. The Nazca, heirs of the Topará or Paracas, abandoned embroidery and developed fine tapestry.[30]​.

Under the Tiahuanaco-Wari era, tapestry reached its splendor and feather art also flourished as a complement to weaving; Its decoration is highly symbolic and has sophisticated lines, especially when it represents the god of staffs, the same one that appears on the Cover of the Sun.[30]​.

Another culture that stands out in this art is the Chancay culture, with its fine tapestry fabrics and painted fabrics; The decorated gauzes are worth highlighting. The Chachapoyas culture also stands out, of which a monumental cotton fabric decorated entirely with bird designs can be mentioned as an example.[30]​.

The Incas inherited and developed pre-Inca techniques. Their vicuña wool fabrics stand out, called cumbis, decorated with small geometric motifs, called tapapus. Currently weaving continues in Peru using ancestral techniques, especially in the southern Andean region.[30]​.

popular music

The music of Peru is the product of fusion over many centuries. There are many genres of Peruvian music: Andean "Andean Music (Peru), Creole and Amazonian"). These can be classified as music and dances of the Peruvian coast, Peruvian highlands and Peruvian Amazon. These manifestations are popularly known as folk music.

Andean or vernacular music comes from time immemorial and although it has received Hispanic influence, it has been perpetuated in huainos, mulizas, etc. It is usually performed especially at festivals with massive attendance and as an accompaniment to dances.

We will limit ourselves to making a brief list of the highest exponents of Peruvian folk music: For Áncash, Ernesto Sánchez, the Gilguero del Huascarán, stands out; María Alvarado, the Shepherd Huaracina; and Angélica Harada, the Little Princess of Yungay; while in the central region, the performers Víctor Alberto Gil, the Hummingbird of the Andes, stand out; Juan Bolívar, El Zorzal Jaujino; and Amanda Portales, the Bride of Peru.

As performers, Jaime Guardia stands out on the charango, Raúl García Zárate, on the guitar, Florencio Coronado Gutiérrez and Tony Medina on the harp; Alejandro Vivanco on the quena and flute; and Máximo Damián, on the violin.

More recent is Creole and Afro-Peruvian music. Guitars, castanets, Peruvian cajon and many other modern instruments are used. The waltz, the polka, the marinera and others express the feelings of the people. With them the “jaranas” and popular festivals are enlivened.

Felipe Pinglo, Manuel Acosta Ojeda, Chabuca Granda, Augusto Polo Campos, Jesús Vásquez, Arturo "Zambo" Cavero, Óscar Avilés and many other performers and composers stand out in this genre.

• - Felipe Pinglo Alva.

• - Chabuca Granda.

• - Augusto Polo Campos.

Peruvian cumbia, popularly known as chicha since its consolidation, is the product of the fusion of Colombian cumbia, rock and native rhythms from the Andes and Amazon of Peru, as well as the presence on a smaller scale of Creole and Afro-Peruvian music. In the eighties, it began to be called Chicha because it had various characteristics that differentiated it from Colombian cumbia. It should be noted, however, that Peruvian cumbia is not a completely unified genre from a stylistic point of view. It has many variants, both geographical and temporal, and is continually merging with international genres. The northern cumbia and the southern cumbia are distinguished.

Dances and dances

Since Peru is a country where about three thousand celebrations are held annually in all its cities and towns, from small patron saint festivals to massive pilgrimages,[31] dances and dances occupy a lot of importance in this context. 120 dances have been declared Cultural Heritage of the Nation.[32]​.

Puno is the department that stands out for its variety of dances, of which about 300 have been catalogued. Among them, the Diablada Puno, the Llamerada, the Pandilla Puneña, the Arayachis, the Arapa Carnival, the Chokelas, the Chunchos de Yahuarmayo, the Kajelo, the Sicuris de Taquile and the Wifala stand out.[31]

In the central region, the Huaylarsh, the Chonguinada, the Huaconada, the Tunantada, the Negritos "Dance of the Negritos (Peru)"), the Avelinos, the Majtada stand out.[31]​.

In the southern mountains the Scissors Dance stands out (Ayacucho, Huancavelica and Apurímac); and Wititi (Arequipa).[31]​.

There are dances of Negroid descent. On the central coast of Peru are the Hatajo de Negritos and the Pallitas. The celebration, the zamacueca, the alcatraz "Alcatraz (dance)"), etc., also have African ancestry and are especially cultivated by the brown people of Peru, as Afro-Peruvians are known.

The Scissor Dance, the Huaconada, the Wititi and the Hatajo de Negritos and the Pallitas have been declared Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.[33]​[34]​.

These songs and dances do not only appear at parties; some are specific to the job; Thus, the harvest songs, in the northern cane fields, harvest songs in the mountains, fishing songs on the coast, etc. The costumes and forms of dress and decorative objects are also characteristic.

• - Couple dancing a marinera.

• - Children dancing tondero.

• - Diablada puneña.

• - Huaylarsh.

• - La Tunantada.

• - The Huaconada de Mito.

• - Dance of the scissors.

• - Wititi.

• - El Huayno.

• - La Morenada.

Craft

Peru is home to one of the most extensive varieties of crafts in the world that have been enriched over time without losing their originality. Work is done in clay, wood, fabrics, stone, gold, silver, nuts, etc. The quality of Peruvian artisans is highly recognized internationally.[35]​.

The most important craft producing centers are:[36]​.

• - The town of Písac and the neighborhood of San Blas, in Cusco (straw hats, alpaca textiles, ceramics, jewelry, etc.). See: Cusco crafts.

• - Chulucanas (Piura), famous for its hand-modeled ceramics, following ancestral techniques (Chulucanas ceramics).

• - Catacaos (Piura), where gold and silver jewelry, wood carvings, and straw and leather items are sold.

• - Quinoa "Quinua (Peru)") (Ayacucho), whose artisans make the famous churches, sculptures modeled in clay that usually adorn the roofs of houses.

• - San Francisco de Yarinacocha (Ucayali), with crafts made by Amazonian natives (woven with geometric figures, bracelets and earrings made with seeds, paintings and wooden objects).

We must also mention Puno as a traditional producer of the Toritos de Pucará; to Ayacucho for its famous sculptures made of Huamanga stone and its Ayacucho altarpieces; and the Mantaro valley (Junín) as the main producer of burilado mates.

• - Pucará bulls.

• - Ceramics from Catacaos.

• - Peruvian textiles.

• - Ceramics from Chulucanas.

• - Quinua Church, Ayacucho.

• - Ayacucho altarpiece.

• - Huamanga stone statuettes.

• - Buriled mates.

• - Taquile textile art.

• - Huaco Moche portrait.

Pre-Hispanic era

The people of Ancient Peru developed various branches of science such as astronomy, mathematics and medicine, and had great technical achievements in agriculture, hydraulics and architecture. Regarding the sciences in Ancient Peru, we must point out that they were empirical knowledge, which was consolidated through millennia of experience, and which had an eminently practical nature. For example, in astronomy they had solar observatories (Intihuatana) and divided the year into 12 months, each one represented with a festival; in mathematics the basic arithmetic operations were known; In medicine, a variety of medicinal plants were used and cranial trepanations were performed. It is worth highlighting an ingenious numerical record based on ropes and knots called quipus, an ancient cultural heritage, since 5,000-year-old specimens were discovered in Caral.[37] Some authors maintain that historical data was preserved with this same technique.

Speaking of American civilizations in general, it is often said as a cliché that the Mayans were scientifically more superior, since they had more advanced astronomical knowledge and knew zero. But in terms of technologies such as agriculture and hydraulics, the ancient Peruvians were much more developed; The Mayans did not go beyond burning forests to expand their agricultural lands; On the other hand, the ancient Peruvians knew a series of technologies to gain agricultural land, such as the platforms "Andén (agriculture)") or terraces, the waru waru or ridges, the huachaques or hoyas, the oxbow lakes or dry pools, etc., as well as the use of fertilizers (island guano, llama manure and guinea pig).[38] They also had laboratories to improve species, such as the one shown below. found in Moray "Moray (Peru)"), where apparently cultivation experiments were carried out at different heights.[39] The ancient Peruvians also had the only livestock in pre-Columbian America, that of South American camelids, and knew techniques for preserving foods such as tubers (chuño, patatasseca")) and charqui meat).[40] The hydraulic engineering of the pre-Incas, which the Incas adopted, was also very advanced; many pre-Hispanic irrigation canals and aqueducts are in use today.[41]

colonial era

The arrival of the Spanish to Peru implied the arrival of Western or European culture, in whose environment the scientific revolution that began in the century would take place.[42]​ As a sign of that time, in the century the so-called Scientific Expeditions arrived in Spanish America, whose purpose was to carry out studies of the physical and biological reality of the American lands, but at the same time many of their members made valuable observations of society, customs and other interesting aspects of life. colonial.[43]​.

In the late colonial period, scientific research was limited to identifying the natural products that should be exploited.[44]​ One of the first Peruvian scientific eminences of that time was the wise Hipólito Unanue, founder of the San Fernando School of Medicine (current Faculty of Medicine of the University of San Marcos) and author of a work that deals with observations of the climate of Lima and its influence on living beings, among other scientific writings.[45]​.

Republican era

During the century, marked with the birth of the Republic, progress in the different disciplines of Peruvian sciences was notable but uneven. In this context, we must mention the renewal of medical teaching under the leadership of Dr. Cayetano Heredia. In 1866 the Faculty of Sciences was created at the Universidad Mayor de San Marcos; and in 1876 the National School of Engineers (current National University of Engineering) "National University of Engineering (Peru)") was founded, both very important institutions in the development of science in Peru. Scientific institutions also emerged, but this development was truncated by the Pacific War.[44]​.

During National Reconstruction, positivism's promotion of science was one of the most important cultural factors in the recovery of Peru. Scientific development was considered essential for progress. The year 1885 was important for the beginning of research into the Peruvian wart disease, the work of Daniel Alcides Carrión, a martyr of Peruvian medicine. In 1888 the Geographic Society of Lima and the National Academy of Medicine "National Academy of Medicine (Peru)" were founded. At the beginning of the century, research in Peru began to recover thanks to the growth of the economy promoted by the Aristocratic Republic. New professions such as agricultural engineering were developed thanks to the arrival of a Belgian mission that organized the School of Agriculture, today La Molina National Agrarian University.[44]​.

In 1938, the National Academy of Exact, Physical and Natural Sciences of Peru was founded, intended to promote scientific research and the dissemination of scientific knowledge.[44]​.

At the end of the 1950s, Peru had a group of researchers who predicted great development in science. Some disciplines were renewed by the arrival of foreigners or Peruvians who had studied abroad. In the 1960s, new universities emerged in Lima, such as the Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, and others in provinces, such as Arequipa and Trujillo, which offered study and professionalization opportunities for doctors and scientists.[44]​.

In 1968, a National Research Council was created, the predecessor of the current National Council of Science, Technology and Technological Innovation (CONCYTEC), the body in charge of developing the set of policies, plans and programs for research, development and innovation (R+D+i) in Peru.[46]​.

Until that time, Peru had, in the Latin American context, competitive indicators in Research and Development, especially, although not exclusively, in the fields of agriculture, medicine, biology and geophysics.[47]​.

However, this development was truncated by the massification of universities, which threatened the quality of teaching; by the erroneous policies of the military government of the 1970s, which discouraged scientific work; and by the terrorist violence of the 1980s.[44]​.

Scientific personalities

Between the centuries and several representative personalities of the different scientific branches emerged. In the study of natural sciences, an Italian scholar, Antonio Raimondi, stood out, as well as the Peruvians Sebastián Barranca and Fortunato Herrera. In the field of exact sciences, Federico Villareal stood out, making original contributions to the development of both mathematics and engineering; For example, he discovered the method to raise any polynomial to any power. Other notable mathematicians were Cristóbal de Losada y Puga and Godofredo García. In the field of botany, the work of the German professor Augusto Weberbauer is worth highlighting. In medicine, the studies of Dr. Carlos Monge Medrano on altitude sickness stand out. In bacteriology, the work of Alberto Barton is important in the identification of the etiological agent of Carrión's disease, which is named in his honor: Bartonella bacilliformis. Psychiatry was also developed through the work of Honorio Delgado.[44]​.

In the field of physics, Pedro Paulet, pioneer of astronautics, stands out; and Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo, who predicted the existence of the neutron. The inventor Pedro Ruiz Gallo is considered one of the pioneers of aeronautics. It should also be mentioned the geographical studies of Javier Pulgar Vidal, who managed to determine the ecological floors of Peru (The eight natural regions of Peru: Coast or chala, yunga, Quechua, Suni, puna, janca or mountain range, rupa-rupa or high jungle, and omagua or low jungle).

• - Hipólito Unanue.

• - Cayetano Heredia.

• - Daniel Alcides Carrión.

• - Antonio Raimondi.

• - Pedro Ruiz Gallo.

• - Sebastian Barranca.

• - Federico Villarreal.

• - Alberto Barton.

• - Pedro Paulet.

• - Santiago Antúnez de Mayolo.

Scientific and technological institutions and facilities

There are various scientific research institutes such as the Geophysical Institute of Peru, the National Institute of Agrarian Innovation (INIA), the National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development (CONIDA), the National Council of South American Camelids (CONACS); the Peruvian Antarctic Institute (IAP), the International Potato Center, the Chemical Society of Peru, the National Telecommunications Research and Training Institute, the Peruvian Amazon Research Institute, among others.

The country has a scientific research station established in Antarctica called Machu Picchu Base and astronomical observatories such as Jicamarca and Morro Solar. In nuclear matters, there is the Óscar Miró Quesada de la Guerra Nuclear Power Plant), better known as El Huarangal, whose reactor is used only for research. In the field of volcanology, it has the Southern Volcanological Observatory (OVS), located in Arequipa and whose function is to observe and document the geophysical manifestations of active volcanoes.

In 1980, the Scientific Research Vessel Humboldt was launched into the sea, a scientific platform built through a Peruvian-German agreement in the SIMA-Callao shipyards. Its mission was to carry out oceanographic research cruises in the Peruvian maritime domain and in Antarctica, where the Machu Picchu Base is located. In 1988 he carried out the first Peruvian scientific expedition to Antarctica.[48] In May 2017 it was replaced by the

BAP Carrasco (BOP-171) "BAP Carrasco (BOP-171)"), polar oceanographic vessel of the Peruvian Navy.[49]​.

In 2016, PeruSat-1, the first Peruvian Earth observation satellite, built in France and operated by the Peruvian space agency CONIDA, was launched into space.[50]​.

• - The Jicamarca Radio Observatory, one of the most important in the world.

• - BAP Carrasco (BOP-171) "BAP Carrasco (BOP-171)") Peruvian Antarctic polar oceanographic research vessel.

• - Mockup representing PeruSat-1, the first Peruvian Earth observation satellite.

Pre-Hispanic and colonial literature

Peruvian literature has its first vestige in the anonymous dramatic work Ollantay whose origins are lost in the times of the Inca Empire. In the times of the viceroyalty, literary activity became an extension of Spanish and European literature in general, by following its guidelines expressed in literary currents. But there were writers born in Peru who stood out in a unique way creating masterpieces. First of all, the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega (1539-1617) stands out, the first cultural and racial mestizo of Peru, author of the Royal Commentaries of the Incas, which for many critics is the epic of the Peruvian nationality, which is forged precisely with the fusion of two heritages, the native and the Spanish. Other writers born on Peruvian soil were Juan Espinoza Medrano, "El Lunarejo" (1630?-1688), author of Apologetic in favor of D. Luis de Góngora; and Pedro Peralta y Barnuevo (1664-1743), author of the epic poem Lima Fundada.[51]​ In the midst of emancipation, the figure of the poet Mariano Melgar, a precursor of Romanticism, who died by firing squad for embracing the patriotic cause, emerged.

• - Inca Garcilaso de la Vega.

• - Juan Espinoza Medrano.

• - Pedro Peralta and Barnuevo.

• - Mariano Melgar.

republican literature

Since the Republican era, there have been several exponents of Peruvian literature, such as the costumbrista playwrights Felipe Pardo y Aliaga and Manuel Ascencio Segura, but the greatest writer of the century was Ricardo Palma with his famous Peruvian Traditions. In poetry, in addition to Palma, Carlos Augusto Salaverry and Luis Benjamín Cisneros stand out, all of them representatives of Romanticism.[52] We should also mention the writers Clorinda Matto de Turner and Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera, representatives of Realism.[53]​.

At the end of the century, with the rise of Modernism on a continental level, José Santos Chocano, the "singer of America", and Manuel González Prada, the latter also a notable essayist and thinker, began to stand out in poetry.[54]

An important branch of Peruvian modernism was the so-called Generation of 900, also known as the “Arielista” generation, whose members used elegant prose and were oriented towards issues of national importance. Its main representatives were: José de la Riva Agüero y Osma, Francisco García Calderón Rey, Ventura García Calderón, Víctor Andrés Belaunde and José Gálvez Barrenechea.

Peruvian poetry of the century begins with José María Eguren (symbolist), author of The song of the figures. Shortly after, the avant-garde arrived, whose representatives were Carlos Oquendo de Amat, author of 5 meters of poems; Martín Adán, author of The Cardboard House; and César Vallejo, author of Los heraldos negroes, Trilce and Poemas humanos. Of all of them, it is Vallejo who achieves universal resonance, with his humanist poetry, expressed in a very original way, which shows his deep roots in the family environment and his solidarity with the oppressed and helpless. He is considered one of the capital figures of Latin American poetry of the century, alongside Pablo Neruda. Later, César Moro, Emilio Adolfo Westphalen, Javier Heraud, César Calvo, Alejandro Romualdo, Juan Gonzalo Rose, Carlos Germán Belli, Blanca Varela and many more stood out.

Modern narrative is inaugurated with postmodernism represented by Abraham Valdelomar, author of El Caballero Carmelo "El Caballero Carmelo (story)"); and Ventura García Calderón, author of The Revenge of the Condor.

Then comes the indigenista current, whose main representatives are:.

• - Enrique López Albújar, author of Andean Tales and New Andean Tales, although he is best known for his slave novel Matalaché.

• - Ciro Alegría, author of The Hungry Dogs, The Golden Snake and The World is Wide and Alien.

• - José María Arguedas, author of Yawar Fiesta "Yawar Fiesta (novel)"), The Deep Rivers and All the Bloods.

Mention should also be made of Mario Florián (poetry); and Eleodoro Vargas Vicuña, author of the narratives of Taita Cristo and Ñahuín (neo-indigenism). Manuel Scorza, author of Redoble por Rancas, deserves special mention.

Realistic and city-dwelling narrative has among its greatest representatives Julio Ramón Ribeyro, author of stories collected in The word of the dumb; Alfredo Bryce Echenique, author of A world for Julius; and Mario Vargas Llosa, conspicuous member of the Latin American Boom and winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature. Vargas Llosa's masterpieces are the novels The city and the dogs (1963), The green house (1966), The puppies "The puppies (story)") (1967), Conversation in the Cathedral (1969), The war at the end of the world (1981) and The party of the goat (2000); Although he has continued to publish novels to this day, he has not produced works of the same quality again.

Amazonian literature counts among its most prominent representatives Arturo D. Hernández, author of the adventure novel Sangama; and Francisco Izquierdo Ríos, author of short stories.

Contemporary narrators also include: Oswaldo Reynoso, author of The Innocents; Carlos Eduardo Zavaleta, author of remarkable stories; Edgardo Rivera Martínez, author of País de Jauja "País de Jauja (novel)"); and Miguel Gutiérrez, author of The violence of time. Narrators currently in production are Alonso Cueto, Fernando Ampuero, Santiago Roncagliolo and Renato Cisneros.

In the field of essay writing, it is mandatory to mention José Carlos Mariátegui, author of the 7 essays on the interpretation of Peruvian reality; to Víctor Andrés Belaúnde, author of The national reality; and José de la Riva Agüero y Osma; author of History in Peru.

• - Felipe Pardo y Aliaga.

• - Manuel Ascencio Segura.

• - Carlos Augusto Salaverry.

• - Ricardo Palma.

• - Manuel González Prada.

• - Clorinda Matto de Turner.

• - José Santos Chocano.

• - José Carlos Mariátegui.

• - Abraham Valdelomar.

• - Ventura García Calderón.

• - César Vallejo.

• - Martin Adam.

• - Enrique López Albújar.

• - Ciro Alegría.

• - Alfredo Bryce Echenique.

• - Mario Vargas Llosa.

Tourism in Peru is the third largest industry in the nation, behind fishing and mining. It is mainly directed towards archaeological monuments, as it has more than one hundred thousand sites of interest,[55]​ ecotourism in the Peruvian Amazon, cultural tourism in colonial cities, gastronomic tourism, adventure tourism and beach tourism.

• - Machu Picchu.

• - Sacsayhuamán.

• - Nazca Lines.

• - Kuelap.

• - Historical Center of Lima.

• - Huanchaco.

• - Chan Chan.

• - Tomb of the Lord of Sipán.

• - Iquitos.

• - Colca Canyon.

• - Arequipa.

Religion

Peru is a religious country. The historian Raúl Porras Barrenechea said that the Peruvian was probably the most religious man in the world. And it is that in the territory of Peru, as in other parts of the world, religion has played a vital role in the social and cultural development of societies from its origins in the Andes (12,000 BC), through the gestation processes of its civilization (3,000 BC), the political and cultural formation of pre-Hispanic Andean societies, and finally, the religious transformation following the fall of the Inca Empire and the seizure of power by the Spanish, who imposed Catholicism.

The original Andean religions placed a high value on mutual help, solidarity, assistance to those most in need and full respect for nature.

Christianity in its Catholic branch arrived in Peru accompanying the Spanish conquerors, starting in 1532. The Spanish religious dedicated themselves from the first moment to the task of converting the indigenous people. Although they focused on extirpating “idolatries,” as they called the Andean religions, this meeting produced religious syncretism, present throughout the country in various ways and magnitudes.

During the colonial era a spirit of exalted religiosity reigned. In the main square of each of the cities founded by the Spanish, a main temple (cathedral) was built and large areas of land were allocated for the construction of other temples, convents and monasteries. The greatest faith and devotion reigned in all social classes. The religious festivals were numerous and were celebrated pompously with masses, sermons, processions, allegorical parades and even popular celebrations, such as bullfights and fireworks. Two saints were born in Peruvian land: Martín de Porres and Rosa de Lima "Rosa de Lima (saint)"). Other manifestations of this religiosity are the famous processions of the Señor de los Milagros (Lima) "Lord of Miracles (Lima)") and the Lord of Tremors (Cuzco). During the republican period, this deep-rooted Catholic religiosity was maintained, without being affected by the arrival of the positivist, secular and anticlerical ideas of the late 20th century and early 20th century.

Currently, a little more than 80% of the Peruvian population recognizes themselves as Catholic. Catholicism has been declining in favor of Protestant or evangelical churches of different denominations, which have made their way especially into the popular sectors. There has also been a slow but consistent advance of irreligion especially among young people in urban areas. Also present, due to immigration, are religions such as Judaism and Buddhism, and more recently Hinduism and Islam. In any case, Christian faiths continue to predominate (95% of the population).

Peruvian cuisine is considered one of the most varied in the world. It holds the Guinness record for the greatest variety and diversity of typical dishes in the world (491). Likewise, the French newspaper Le Monde has considered it as one of the great cuisines on the planet, competing alongside French and Chinese cuisine.[56]​.

The great variety of Peruvian gastronomy is mainly due to the following circumstances:

• - To the various culinary heritages: the pre-Columbian (cultures of the coast, mountains and jungle), Spanish and African, to which, since the century, the Sino-Cantonese, Japanese, Italian and French have been added.

• - The tendency towards the fusion or mixture of all these heritages, which has formed a gastronomy of "four continents in a single country", offering an important variety of typical Peruvian dishes in constant evolution. Not even native or indigenous cuisine has escaped the trend toward fusion or “modernization,” as some call it.

• - Peru is a privileged place to produce quality food throughout its territory and throughout the year, as it has 84 of the 114 microclimates that exist in the world and 11 natural ecoregions.[57]​.

• - Peru is recognized as one of the original food centers of the world, that is, the place where various plants and animals were domesticated, contributing significantly to global nutrition. Of the 4,400 native plants it has, 185 are domesticated: 85 are Amazonian, 81 Andean and 8 coastal. And each plant has in turn countless varieties: more than 3,000 varieties of potatoes, 35 of corn, 15 of tomatoes, 1,500 of sweet potatoes, 5 of chili peppers, 1,408 medicinal plants, 1,600 ornamental plants, and 623 fruits. This great genetic variety makes Peru the food pantry of the world. It is enough to remember that the potato saved Europe from famine. The German botanist Augusto Weberbauer identified up to 52 foods as native to Peru, including potatoes, tomatoes, beans, corn, peanuts, pineapples, custard apples, plums, papayas, lucuma, cucumbers and chili peppers.[57]​.

Peruvian gastronomy is a flagship product of Peru. It is one, if not the main one, of Peruvians' reasons for pride, and any derogatory criticism towards it is taken as a serious offense. In the last decade of the century, and the beginning of the century, Peruvian cuisine began to become popular outside its borders. According to a study on innovation in Peruvian gastronomy by the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) (2022),[58]​ the emergence and appearance of Peruvian gastronomy in the international market occurred through a reconversion that combined the native with the foreign. This was based on innovation aimed at enhancing its cuisine by applying international haute cuisine techniques supported by the identity, cultural diversity and biodiversity of Peru.

According to the IDB study, one of the keys to the development of Peruvian gastronomy was its differentiation at an international level through its ancient culture and the great diversity of the population throughout its territory. Chef Gastón Acurio maintains that Peruvian culture—both in its miscegenation and in its “pure” expressions—played a central role in the country's gastronomic revolution. At the same time, he points out that this revolution expresses culture and values ​​it, both abroad and in Peru.[58]​.

Due to the rich variety and harmony of its flavor and the foods used, Peruvian gastronomy is constantly awarded internationally and its chefs often obtain international medals that distinguish them. A notable element is its constant openness to innovations and the continuous development of new dishes, incorporating the continuous search for experimentation and the avant-garde into gastronomy. Just as each region preserves its culinary richness, in haute cuisine the mixture of colors and food products stands out,[59] An example of this is the so-called Novo-Andean cuisine, a new culinary style that emerged in Peru due to the interest of local gourmets in returning to food customs from the pre-Hispanic past to recreate them, thus rescuing and revaluing many of the native ingredients.

• - Fish ceviche.

• - Lomo saltado.

• - Pisco sour.

• - Cau cau.

• - Anticucho.

• - Chactado guinea pig.

• - Carapulcra.

• - Grilled chicken.

• - Dry goat.

• - Rice with chicken with potatoes a la huancaína.

• - Purple dungeon.

• - Purple chicha.

• - Salted noodles (chifa cuisine).

In Ancient Peru, although classic-style sports competitions did not exist, the practice of physical exercise was widespread, as training for war activity. Climbing hills, crossing rivers, marching over moors and sandbanks, was part of that training, which served to select the best, who received command positions.[60]​ With the arrival of the Spanish, the practice of the sport changed radically. Later, this was influenced by the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization.

Sports in Peru are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute.

Peru's history in the Olympic Games is very scant; Despite this, it is one of the first South American countries to win a gold medal at the Olympic Games. This happened at the 1948 London Olympic Games, when he won his first and only gold medal in the shooting discipline "Shooting (projectile)"), a free pistol modality, with the shooter Edwin Vásquez Cam.[61] This sport has achieved three of Peru's four Olympic medals: In 1948, in 1984 with Francisco Boza and in 1992 with Juan Giha, the latter two from silver.[61]​ The other silver medal achieved by the country in the Olympic Games corresponds to the discipline of volleyball, when in 1988 in Seoul, the Peruvian team fell 3-2 to the Soviet Union in the final.[62]​ In 2024, the sailer Stefano Peschiera, obtained the bronze medal at the Paris 2024 Olympic Games, also, he took third place, achieving after 32 years an Olympic medal for Peru.

Soccer, the most popular sport in the world, is also the most widely practiced in the country. The Decentralized Championship is the most important club tournament in the nation. The men's team has had some important performances on the world stage. It has participated in the Soccer World Cup five times: the first, in 1930, by invitation, and the remaining four (1970, 1978, 1982 and 2018) winning a place in qualifying tournaments. A well-remembered feat is the elimination of the Argentina team in 1969. Likewise, Peru has been champion of the Copa América on two occasions (1939 and 1975). At the club level, Universitario de Deportes stands out with the runner-up of the Copa Libertadores de América in 1972 and Sporting Cristal also with the runner-up in 1997.[63]​ The only Peruvian clubs with international titles are Cienciano, which won the 2003 Copa Sudamericana and the 2004 Recopa Sudamericana,[64]​ and Universitario de Deportes, champion of the Copa Libertadores U-20 in 2011.[65]​.

Outstanding Peruvian footballers of the century have been: Alejandro Villanueva, Lolo Fernández, Alberto Terry, Valeriano López, Víctor Benítez, Teófilo Cubillas, Héctor Chumpitaz, Hugo Sotil, César Cueto, Guillermo La Rosa, Juan José Muñante, Gerónimo Barbadillo, Julio César Uribe, Franco Navarro, Chemo del Solar, Roberto Palacios, Nolberto Solano. Since the end of the century and in the first two decades of the century, Claudio Pizarro, Paolo Guerrero and Jefferson Farfán have stood out in various leagues around the world.

Another sport with a large number of followers is volleyball. The women's team has won the South American Championship twelve times and has obtained silver and bronze medals in the World Championship and the Pan American Games. As well as the aforementioned silver medal obtained at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. Female stars of this sport have been: Lucha Fuentes, Pilancho Jiménez, Gaby Pérez del Solar, Cecilia Tait, Cenaida Uribe, Natalia Málaga, and others.

Another sporting discipline in which Peru has stood out internationally is surfing, with three individual world titles with Felipe Pomar, Sofía Mulánovich and Analí Gómez; as well as three world team titles.[66]​.

Tennis has also recorded important achievements with Alex Olmedo, a native of Arequipa, champion of the Australian Open and Wimbledon (although representing the United States); and Luis Horna winner of the Roland Garros doubles tournament "Annex: Roland Garros champions (men's doubles)").

In chess, GMI Julio Granda and GMI Emilio Córdova stand out; the first of them won the Children's World Championship at the age of 13 and the second obtained the International Grandmaster standard at the age of 16, becoming the youngest GMI in the country and South America to reach that standard. The brothers Deysi and Jorge Cori Tello, both youth world champions, also stand out in this sport.[67]​.

As for boxing, Mauro Mina, South American champion and the first Peruvian world middleweight challenger in the 1960s, has stood out. In other categories, Kina Malpartida, Linda Lecca and Alberto Rossel have been world champions.

In other combat sports, world champions Alexander Chávez"), Antonina and Valentina Shevchenko (muay Thai); and Miguel Sarria") (kick boxing) have been world champions.

In swimming, a prominent figure has been Walter Ledgard, South American champion (1938-1939) and world masters champion (1975).

In billiards, Adolfo Suárez Perret achieved the title of world champion in the Three-Cushion specialty in 1961.

• - Francisco Boza.

• - Lolo Fernández.

• - Alejandro Villanueva.

• - Teófilo Cubillas.

• - Paolo Guerrero.

• - Claudio Pizarro.

• - Deysi Cori.

• - Julio Granda.

• - Jorge Cori.

• - Gabriela Pérez del Solar.

• - Luisa Fuentes.

• - Cecilia Tait.

• - Cenaida Uribe.

• - Natalia Malaga.

• - Sofia Mulanovich.

• - Kina Malpartida.

• - Valentina Shevchenko.

• - Adolfo Suárez.

• - Kimberly Garcia.

• - Alexandra Grande.

• - Gladys Tejeda.

• - Natalia Cuglievan.

• - Diego Elías.

• - Inés Melchor.

• - Akio Tamashiro.

• - Nicolás Fuchs.

• - Alonso Wong.

• - Angélica Espinoza.

• - Peruvian Agency for International Cooperation.

• - Articles related to Peru.

• - Truth and Reconciliation Commission.

• - Ethnography of Peru.

• - Diplomatic missions of Peru.

• - Media in Peru.

• - Museums of Lima.

• - Intangible cultural heritage of Peru.

• - World Heritage Site in Peru.

• - Peru and the EU.

• - Flag Products of Peru.

• - Information System for the Biological and Environmental Diversity of the Peruvian Amazon.

• - Tourism in Peru.

• - Portal:Peru. Content related to Peru.

• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Culture of Peru.

• - Wikisource contains original works from Culture of Peru.

• - Wikinews has news related to Culture of Peru.

• - Portal of the Peruvian State.

• - Site of the Presidency of Peru.

• - Atlas of Peru.

• - Regions of Peru.