Medieval history of Spain is the historiographical name of a period of more than a thousand years, between the centuries and , in the complete territorial framework of the Iberian Peninsula, whose identification with today's Spain has been the subject of essentialist debate about what Spain is.[1].
The Germanic invasions of 409[2] and the conquest of Granada of 1492 are usually considered the initial and final milestones.[3].
The Visigoth kingdom, after the battle of Vouillé (507), abandoned its presence in Gaul and focused on the ancient Roman provinces of Hispania. Once the attempt to build a dual society failed, in which the Visigoth minority remained rigidly separated from the Hispano-Roman majority, starting with the Third Council of Toledo (589) the construction of a common society and culture was encouraged, with a great weight of ecclesiastical institutions, well adapted to the pre-feudal structures that had been gradually imposed since late Roman times. Internal weaknesses did not disappear, allowing the rapid success of the Arab invasion of 711, which inaugurated a prolonged Muslim presence in Spain, renamed al-Andalus. In the period of the Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) it reached its peak, becoming an economic and military power and initiating a true cultural "golden age" that lasted far beyond its disappearance as a political entity.
The emergence, consolidation and growth of the Hispano-Christian kingdoms turned that period of eight centuries, from their point of view, into a "Reconquest" and "Repopulation" of the entire peninsular space, which was already called "Spain" in the nascent Romance languages. heavily militarized (like the landscape, which was filled with castles); for which the use of the term "feudalism" is the subject of historiographic debate.[6] What there is a general consensus on is highlighting the fact that, for the configuration of its historical personality, the changing border condition that all areas experienced at one time or another was decisive.[7] However, relations were not always violent: they oscillated between confrontation and tolerance, allowing active demographic, economic and cultural exchanges. Very frequently, Christian hosts were employed by Muslims, and vice versa. Only on a few decisive occasions did clashes occur between extensive coalitions that clearly responded to religious division.
Until the century the predominance was clearly Muslim. In the Middle Ages (the period of the Crusades), between the conquest of Toledo (1085) and the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) the situation went through different points of balance, since the spectacular Christian advances achieved in the face of the Andalusian division into taifas were stopped and even reversed at the times when the North African Almoravid and Almohad empires imposed their unification under religious rigorism. The central decades of the century witnessed decisive Christian conquests, which left the Muslim territory reduced to the Nasrid emirate of Granada, while the peninsular territorial structure formed the so-called "Spain of the five kingdoms" (that of Granada, that of Portugal, that of Navarre and the Crowns of Castile and Aragon).[8] In the following two centuries the reconquering process practically stopped, in a context of general crisis that included major structural transformations (the beginning of the transition from feudalism to capitalism), serious social conflicts and continuous civil wars; while the Spanish institutions of the Old Regime emerged, with great later projection.
Evaluation of old grilles
Introduction
Medieval history of Spain is the historiographical name of a period of more than a thousand years, between the centuries and , in the complete territorial framework of the Iberian Peninsula, whose identification with today's Spain has been the subject of essentialist debate about what Spain is.[1].
The Germanic invasions of 409[2] and the conquest of Granada of 1492 are usually considered the initial and final milestones.[3].
The Visigoth kingdom, after the battle of Vouillé (507), abandoned its presence in Gaul and focused on the ancient Roman provinces of Hispania. Once the attempt to build a dual society failed, in which the Visigoth minority remained rigidly separated from the Hispano-Roman majority, starting with the Third Council of Toledo (589) the construction of a common society and culture was encouraged, with a great weight of ecclesiastical institutions, well adapted to the pre-feudal structures that had been gradually imposed since late Roman times. Internal weaknesses did not disappear, allowing the rapid success of the Arab invasion of 711, which inaugurated a prolonged Muslim presence in Spain, renamed al-Andalus. In the period of the Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031) it reached its peak, becoming an economic and military power and initiating a true cultural "golden age" that lasted far beyond its disappearance as a political entity.
The emergence, consolidation and growth of the Hispano-Christian kingdoms turned that period of eight centuries, from their point of view, into a "Reconquest" and "Repopulation" of the entire peninsular space, which was already called "Spain" in the nascent Romance languages. heavily militarized (like the landscape, which was filled with castles); for which the use of the term "feudalism" is the subject of historiographic debate.[6] What there is a general consensus on is highlighting the fact that, for the configuration of its historical personality, the changing border condition that all areas experienced at one time or another was decisive.[7] However, relations were not always violent: they oscillated between confrontation and tolerance, allowing active demographic, economic and cultural exchanges. Very frequently, Christian hosts were employed by Muslims, and vice versa. Only on a few decisive occasions did clashes occur between extensive coalitions that clearly responded to religious division.
The union of the Catholic Monarchs and their complex marriage policy allowed, in the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age, the construction of a Hispanic Monarchy whose nature and levels of integration are, in themselves, another historiographical problem. Simultaneously, the Age of Discoveries was developing, whose first beneficiary was Portugal, which at that time could be seen as the first authoritarian monarchy in Western Europe to constitute a modern State (or nation-State), a condition that is disputed with Spain itself (from whose common destiny it was not separated until 1640) and the kingdoms of England and France.[9].
Late Antiquity
The end of Roman Hispania
Since the crisis of the century, the elements that led to the decomposition of the Empire were manifested in Roman Hispania: an increase in social conflict (peasant rebellions that lead to banditry - bagaudas -, interpreted as a symptom of the beginning of the secular transition from slavery to feudalism), decline of urban life (which corresponds to the greater archaeological presence of rural villae -ruralization) -), first Germanic invasions, such as that of the Franks in the year 257-258 throughout the eastern half of the Peninsula,[10] narrated by the historians Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Orosius and Saint Jerome "Jerome (saint)") among others,[11] in which Tarragona was particularly sacked.[12] This also gave rise to an ephemeral Gallic Empire that also included Hispania (conquered in the 261) to Britain and Gaul and lasted until the year 274 (battle of Châlons-sur-Marne), when the Emperor Aurelian recovered these provinces for Rome, although Hispania had already returned to Rome in 269. There was still another invasion of Hispania in the year 270 by the Franks and Alemanni, but this time through Roncesvalles, following the Roman road that led from Bordeaux to Astorga and, on the other hand, the Silver Route, sacking Pamplona, Astorga, Mérida "Mérida (Spain)") and Lisbon and the Roman villas that they found along their way.[13] Diocletian's reforms represented a reinforcement of imperial authority, and specifically in Hispania a profound transformation and revitalization of Roman institutions, but in a sense that intensified the processes that in the long term transformed Roman civilization into medieval one. very early in certain areas of Hispania, and became widespread since the century (see history of Christianity in Spain).
At the beginning of the century, Rome was unable to contain the invasion of the Suebi, Vandals and Alans, who crossed the Rhine (December 31, 406) and devastated Gaul. Maximus (one of the military leaders who claimed the imperial dignity, and was considered a usurper by his adversaries – tyranicus exactor is called by Bishop Hydatius–) agreed to incorporate these people into his army as auxiliaries (through a treaty or foedus), and had them cross the Pyrenees. The impossibility of giving them any payment implied consenting to their plundering activities on the ground, although the spatial distribution had to be organized through a predetermined system: the hospitalitas, which provided for the granting of sortus") or lots of land that they were obliged to cede to local owners (this fact, described by Hydatius as a distribution "by lots", in the providentialist context") of his Chronicon can be understood as an evangelical reference to the drawing of lots. of Christ's tunic).
The Visigoths (a Germanic people more Romanized than the previous ones, after centuries of presence within the Empire), settled on their own initiative in Tarraconense. For a brief period, Narbonne and Barcelona were the seats of Ataúlfo's court, in which the queen was the Roman Galla Placidia (taken during the sack of Rome "Sack of Rome (410)") as part of the booty). After a storm annihilated the fleet with which he was trying to cross the Strait of Gibraltar to settle in Africa, King Walia decided to agree with the emperor Honorius "Honorio (emperor)") a foedus (418) that charged him with trying to restore imperial authority in Hispania (in addition to returning Gala Placidia). Only the Suebians managed to resist the Visigothic offensives, settling in the northwestern area of the peninsula where they formed the Suebian kingdom of Braga; while the vandals managed to cross the Strait of Gibraltar, continuing their trajectory through North Africa. The result was not the restoration of Roman imperial authority, but the creation of a political entity completely independent of Rome: the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse. The final disappearance of the Western Empire (476) had no consequences for the old provinces.
Early Middle Ages
Contenido
• - La provincia imperial de Hispania en 409-429.
• - El reino visigodo de Tolosa a mediados del siglo .
• - En tonos anaranjados claros, las zonas de asentamiento principales de los visigodos.
• - A mediados del siglo el dominio visigodo, centrado en la Meseta, se limita a una amplia franja entre Lusitania y Septimania.
• - En el reinado de Leovigildo los visigodos se imponen sobre los suevos y los pueblos de la zona cantábrica, y recortan significativamente la zona de presencia bizantina.
• - Organización territorial del reino visigodo de Toledo en el siglo , que ya comprende toda la Península.
Visigothic Hispania
After the defeat by the Franks in the Battle of Vouillé (507), the Visigoths were forced to retreat to the south, settling mainly around Toledo and areas of the Plateau (Campus Gothorum")).[15] This strategy was compatible with their maintenance as a rigidly separated dominant elite (they maintained their Arian version of Christianity and marriages with the local population were not permitted), but it forced them to leave large areas that were poorly controlled: not only the Swabian kingdom of Braga (which remained independent), but also the Cantabrian mountain range (populated by local communities with little Romanization - Asturians, Cantabrians, Vascones -), Baetica and Lusitania (dominated by the local Hispano-Roman aristocracy, which staged frequent uprisings - Seville, Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)"), Mérida "Mérida (Spain)")–). The coastal strip between Alicante and the Bay of Cádiz, together with the Balearic Islands and North Africa, was the object of the so-called Recuperatio Imperii of Justinian, who organized the Province of Spania, with its capital in Carthago Spartaria (Cartagena), controlling the long-distance trade routes. The hectic political life of the period is evidenced by the fact that in the middle of the century two successive kings had a violent and very brief reigns (Teudiselo and Agila I).
Atanagildo established the capital in Toledo (year 567, from which the Visigothic State is usually called the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo). In the period of Leovigild (573-586) there was a notable strengthening of the monarchy, with monetary reforms and a series of military campaigns that defeated the Suebi and Byzantines. The rebellion of his son Hermenegild, who had converted to Catholicism and obtained the support of the Hispano-Romans of Baetica, was put down in 584, after which he was executed. In the following reign, that of Recaredo, son of Leovigild and brother of Hermenegild, the conversion of the king, the queen Baddo "Baddo (queen)") and most of the Visigothic elite took place (587); solemnizing the new confessional nature of the State with the convocation of the Third Council of Toledo (589), which officially condemned Arianism. The following reigns were again brief and had violent ends. Suintila managed to expel the Byzantines in 620.
Recesvintus undertook a legislative work (Liber Iudiciorum of 654, based on the Codex revisus of Leovigild, which in turn was based on the Codex Euricianus or Code of Euric, 480) which was continued by Wamba "Wamba (king)") and will have a special later significance.
Culturally, a true "Visigoth Renaissance"[16] was produced with figures of the influence of Ildefonso of Toledo, Braulio of Zaragoza or Isidoro of Seville (Etymologies, 627-630) and their brothers Leandro, Fulgencio and Florentina (the four saints of Cartagena), with great repercussion in the rest of Europe (through the later Carolingian Renaissance) and in the future Christian kingdoms of the Reconquista. Monastic life expanded, with its own characteristics (Hispanic monastery, San Fructuoso de Braga and the Bercian Thebaid), and a Hispanic liturgy was developed that remained differentiated from the Roman one. The conversion of the Suebi to Catholicism occurred even before that of the Visigoths, in a very multifaceted religious context (presence of Arianism, Priscillianism and paganism), with figures such as Saint Martin of Dumio, "the apostle of the Suebi", and the Councils of Braga.
Visigothic art, especially its architecture and goldsmithing"),[17] stood out among the rude artistic manifestations of the time in the West.
The list of the Gothic kings, a topic in the history of education in Spain, was proposed as a mnemonic feat for schoolchildren..
"Al-Andaluz does not belong either to an unfailingly Roman and Christian Spain or to a uniform, centralized and homogeneous Islamic civilization. Its specificity undoubtedly comes from the fusion between multiple elements, many of which existed there before 711 and many others had origins as diverse as Persia, Arabia, North Africa and the ancient Byzantine possessions of the Middle East."[18]
[19].
Umayyad Al-Andalus
Starting in the year 702, with the accession of Witiza to the throne, and in the midst of a great famine, there were clashes between his supporters and those of the former king Ervigio, now led by Roderigo. In 710, upon Witiza's death, Rodrigo's noble supporters proclaimed him king, while Witiza's supporters proclaimed one of his sons, Agila II, king. The events of 711 appear in the chronicles and the subsequent epic[21] with all kinds of legendary nuances, and a very graphic narrative (against which all types of divergent historiographic interpretations have been constructed – highlighting, for its provocative approach, that of Ignacio Olagüe, who denies the "invasive" condition of the Islamization of Spain–[22]):.
While Rodrigo went to Pamplona to quell a rebellion, the troops of the Muslim Berber Táriq crossed the Strait, with the connivance of Julián, Count of Ceuta (presumably offended by Rodrigo, who would have had relations in Toledo with his daughter, la Cava). The forces that Rodrigo managed to gather for the battle of Guadalete (or the Janda lagoon) were betrayed by the sons of Witiza and Bishop Oppas, who facilitated their penetration into the interior, in an unstoppable advance. to distribute was the subject of discussions - which ended up leading both leaders to consultations with the Caliph in Damascus, where Musa was tried and later murdered -). 716. They even surpassed the Pyrenees, ending with the Visigothic nucleus of Narbonne (king Ardón "Ardón (king)") –successor of Agila II–) in 720 and facing the Frankish kingdom, which stopped them in the battle of Poitiers (732) "Battle of Poitiers (732)").
The organization of the conquered territory was carried out through capitulation pacts (ama) that allowed the rapid conquest and integration of complete communities in a practically unchanged manner into the new sociopolitical structure. Other groups established clientele pacts (wala), converting to Islam and maintaining certain obligations. Different degrees of local autonomy were granted to the nobles and payment of tributes to each population, depending on the degree of affinity they showed. There was no initial desire to impose the Islamic religion, although conversions took place, giving rise to a Muslim population of Hispano-Roman-Visigothic origin: the Muladíes (like Count Casio, who gave rise to the powerful family of the Banu Qasi, who controlled the Ebro valley and maintained fluid relations with the non-subjugated Christians of the north - with whom they maintained kinship relations -, even allying themselves against the central power of Córdoba). Those who remained Christians, but agreed to submit to the new Muslim authorities, are called Mozarabs (like Teodomiro "Theodomiro (Visigoth)"), who was allowed to maintain an extensive territory in the southeast – the so-called kingdom of Tudmir -).
Christian kingdoms of the northern peninsula
The emergence of the Hispano-Christian kingdoms of the north raises a series of historiographical problems that still remain unresolved. The traditional Gothic interpretation seeks to see them as a continuity of the Visigoths, especially the kingdom of Asturias (which legitimized itself in this way through its Chronicles). The interpretation of Abilio Barbero and Marcelo Vigil[35] gives much greater weight to the pre-Roman peoples of the Cantabrian Mountains (Cantabrians, Asturians and Basques), with precarious Romanization and Christianization (based above all on the hermits) and problematically subject to the Visigoth kingdom. Later historiographic and archaeological interpretations question this.[36] Visigothic continuity was clearer in Septimania (the area northeast of the Pyrenees centered in Narbonne, where Ardón "Ardón (king)") remained as Visigoth king until 720); and it was precisely there where the intervention of the Frankish kingdom was most evident, after the failure of Charlemagne's intervention in Zaragoza (778), with the creation of a Hispanic March that also included the other Pyrenean centers after the conquest of Barcelona (801) and Pamplona (806).
The presence of the Muslim invaders in these marginal areas could not have been very intense. Their defeat in the confrontation known in the Christian chronicles as the battle of Covadonga (722) did not stop the expansionary approaches of the Muslims in other areas, which continued at least until the battle of Poitiers (732) "Battle of Poitiers (732)"). Nor was the independence of these nuclei totally effective, as demonstrated by the Muslim capacity to intervene in their internal politics (replacement of King Mauregato), carry out punishment expeditions (aceifas) when they considered it appropriate, or impose signs of submission (such as the maintenance of hostages in Córdoba or the more or less mythical tribute of the hundred maidens); and, in the religious field, the continuity of dependence on the authority of the bishop of Toledo (perfectly adapted to coexistence with the Muslim authorities) until the restoration of the first local bishoprics (Lugo in 741 – there was no bishop of Oviedo until 802 –) and the apology of Beato de Liébana against Bishop Elipando of Toledo (794). The diocese of Pamplona was maintained precariously (it was able to move to Leyre during the invasion), and its bishop Wilesindo appears as a reference for San Eulogio de Córdoba as early as 851. Something similar happened with the dioceses of Gerona and Barcelona.
While hardly any material testimonies remain from the century, over the centuries construction programs of a certain magnitude were developed, as well as a notable flourishing of manuscript illumination (especially the Beatos). Art historiography uses the labels pre-Romanesque art, Asturian art, Mozarabic art, repopulation art or county art to designate these pieces, not always univocally.[37] The stylistic forms maintain a certain continuity with Visigothic art, and parallels with European pre-Romanesque art (Carolingian art, Ottonian art). For luxury fabrics and sumptuary arts, which are easily imported, the Christian kingdoms of this time (and subsequent centuries) largely resorted to Andalusian art (Leyre casket, Zamora pix, Al-Mughira pix, Palencia casket).[38].
Navarrese hegemony
• - The possessions of Sancho III "the Greater".
• - The peninsular kingdoms around 1030.
With the reign of Sancho III "the Greater" (1005-1035) the kingdom of Pamplona, thanks to its marriage policy and alliances, occupied a central position, which historiography defines as "Navarrean hegemony".[52] It coincided with the end of the Caliphate and the beginning of the taifas. A new conception of the monarchy was developed, based on mutual support with the nobility. It is not clear that it was a feudal monarchy in European use. Feudalism in Spain has many nuances that distance it from the European model. Thus, for the future kingdoms of Castile, Navarra, Aragon and the Muslim taifas, it is considered that there were some elements similar to European feudalism, among which would be institutions such as the Cortes "Cortes (Ancient Regime)"). of the conquered lands was initially carried out by free men (presura in the western nuclei, aprisio in the eastern ones).
Castles were built that dominated the valleys as the repopulation progressed, which were transferred as holdings to the nobles, in exchange for taking an oath of fidelity to the king (homage). The power of Sancho the Elder was exercised without great restrictions within the kingdom; while outwardly it extends its influence on the neighbors. The alliances became more complex, based on their possessions in the counties of Castile and Aragon, through which they extended increasing influence towards León and Catalan counties. The extension of the border to the south was modest and problematic, even suffering Muslim punishment campaigns. He fought against the Zaragoza taifa, initially without success, but managed to antagonize it with the Lérida taifa, which favored the expansion of Pamplona towards the Ebro.
The patrimonial conception of the monarchy caused the lack of continuity of the territorial conglomerate brought together by Sancho the Elder, dividing it among his sons. Such division inaugurated the use of the title of "kingdom" for the two entities with the greatest subsequent projection: Castile and Aragon, which would also, in the end, curtail the Navarrese reconquest expansion with their push.
Its land communications with France made Pamplona the point of contact between Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. Changes in economic structures show modernization. Monetary circulation (from the collection of pariahs) allowed more fluid exchanges, and the development of commerce was a key to the urban flourishing linked to the opening of the Camino de Santiago, with Sancho the Elder being the first king to offer effective protection to pilgrims.
Repopulation went from being an initiative of kings, magnates or farmers on barren lands, to becoming the constitution of feudal lordships that kept peasants in a servile dependence.
Middle Ages
• - Año de la toma cristiana en las principales ciudades.
• - Avance de la Reconquista por periodos.
• - Comunidades de villa y tierra en la Extremadura castellana (el territorio "más allá del Duero").
• - La España de los cinco reinos,[8] desde mediados del siglo a finales del siglo .
• - Territorios de las órdenes militares.
Territorial balances
The centuries before (which in different historiographical periodizations are considered as the first of the Late Middle Ages or a distinct era called the Full Middle Ages) meant in the Iberian Peninsula a period of alternatives in the balance between Christians and Muslims.
The initial Christian predominance over the taifa kingdoms was manifested in the conquest of Toledo (1085, Alfonso VI), which allowed the western kingdoms to repopulate the space north of the Tagus. This decisive social process was carried out by granting privileges (territorial privileges) to powerful urban councils "Council (history)") that were surrounded by a rural alfoz "Alfoz (urbanism)") (village and land communities).
The threat of disappearance led the taifas to accept, willingly or by force, the intervention of the Almoravid empire, which managed to stop and even reverse the Christian advances (battle of Sagrajas, 1086, Muslim recovery of Aledo - a Christian enclave maintained in Murcia between 1088 and 1091 -, Muslim recovery of Valencia - a kingdom maintained by El Cid and his widow between 1094 and 1102 -, Battle of Uclés "Battle of Uclés (1108)"), 1108).
The division of the second taifas once again allowed a new Christian expansion in the century: in 1118 Zaragoza was conquered and the following year Tudela (both by the Navarrese-Aragonese kingdom of Alfonso I the Battler - who even carried out a prolonged expedition through Andalusia between 1125 and 1126), in 1147 Lisbon (by the kingdom of Portugal of Alfonso Enríquez), in 1148 Tortosa and the following year Lérida (incorporated as "marquisates" to the set of Catalan counties of Ramón Berenguer IV), in 1171 Teruel (incorporated into the kingdom of Aragon of Alfonso II), in 1177 Cuenca "Cuenca (Spain)") (by the kingdom of Castile of Alfonso VIII). Such progress made it possible to begin the repopulation of the space between the Tagus and Sierra Morena in the western kingdoms (Alentejo, Extremadura, La Mancha) and the Ebro valley, the Iberian System and the Maestrazgo in the eastern ones. In these new frontier lands, the repopulating role of the military orders was fundamental (those common to all of Christendom - Templars, Hospitallers and the Holy Sepulchre - and those of the peninsular kingdoms - Avis, Santiago, Alcántara, Calatrava and Montesa -).
A new North African intervention, that of the Almohad empire, pushed back the Christian borders (battle of Alarcos and capture of Calatrava la Vieja, 1195) and once again unified the Muslim space. At the peak of his power came his defeat, in what is considered the most decisive battle of the Reconquista: Las Navas de Tolosa (July 16, 1212), which allowed in the following decades the Christian conquest of the most populated areas: the Guadalquivir valley (Fernando III "the saint") and the kingdoms of Mallorca, Valencia and Murcia "Kingdom of Murcia (Crown of Castile)") (Jaime I "the conqueror", in the last case, together with his son-in-law Alfonso The repopulation of these territories was carried out with the repartimiento system, which implied compensation equivalent to the military contribution in the conquest (which benefited the nobles and institutions with greater capacity to mobilize hosts).
Political entities were made and unmade with great fluidity, following the feudal-vassal dynamics and dynastic games (even for a brief period a two-headed monarchy between Urraca de León and Alfonso I of Aragón seemed possible). Castile, Crown of Aragon, and Nasrid Emirate of Granada (the only surviving Muslim State).[8].
Structures, institutions and ideology
The political instability of the taifas did not imply a decline in either their culture or their structures: it occurred paradoxically at the same time as economic and demographic growth;[58] which intensified the extractive capacity of the Christian kingdoms, aware of their lower level of initial development and eager to grow at their expense. Some cases were extraordinary: of Sancho VII of Navarra (the one who managed to break the chains of the emir's tent in Las Navas - chains that he incorporated into his shield -), it is said that the loot he accumulated was such that he became "the banker of the kings".[59] The economic strength that the Christian kingdoms achieved allowed them to undertake construction and artistic programs of extraordinary magnitude, in contemporary styles (Romanesque and Gothic), in both cases with local characteristics. which are called Mudejar art (Mudejar Romanesque, Mudejar Gothic) when they have a very marked Andalusian influence (often, because they are made by Muslim artisans). The expansion of the monasteries of the Benedictine order linked to French houses (first the Cluniacs and then the Cistercians) was encouraged by the kings (who were also dynastically linked with central European houses - the Jimena dynasty with the Burgundian dynasty -) and powerful families, consolidating an estate society typical of feudalism. The social conflict generated by this socioeconomic context was expressed in movements that on some occasions had a documentary reflection, such as the bourgeois revolts of Sahagún (since 1111) and the revolt of Santiago "against Bishop Gelmírez (1136).[60].
• - Victory of Saint Thomas Aquinas over Averroes, by Benozzo Gozzoli, 1468-1484. The Andalusian philosopher appears lying down, while Plato and Aristotle appear standing, flanking the saint.
• - Ark of the Ivories (San Isidoro de León) "Ark of the Ivories (San Isidoro de León)"), 1059.
• - The miracle of Fanjeaux or The trial by fire (the books of the Albigensians burn, while that of Santo Domingo de Guzmán does not). Painting by Pedro Berruguete, ca. 1495.
The institutionalization of the feudal monarchy included the creation of the Cortes "Cortes (Ancient Regime)"), expansion of the "Curia Regis "Curia regia (Spain)") until a representative assembly of the nobility, the clergy and the cities of each kingdom was formed. The alternatives of dynastic politics determined inheritances and marriages that divided and merged kingdoms (Castilla y León on several occasions, until its definitive unification with Fernando III "the Saint"). Faced with the greater internal power that the kings of the Crown of Castile managed to accumulate, the opposite case was that of Aragon: converted into a kingdom after its separation from Navarre, it could have become a territory in charge of military orders if the will of Alfonso I the Battler had been fulfilled; The nobles agreed to ignore him, and elevate to the throne Ramiro II the Monk (he of the legendary bell of Huesca) who, a year after ensuring the succession with the birth of his daughter Petronila, agreed to her marriage with the count of Barcelona Ramón Berenguer IV, to whom he left the government of the kingdom, returning to his monastery (in 1137 - the wedding had to wait thirteen years -). The resulting political entity (Crown of Aragon) incorporated the successive conquests with a similar separation criterion: federated territories with differentiated institutions.
The birth of the Romance languages and their literatures
It is at this time that the first written testimonies of the Romance or Neo-Latin languages appeared. Latin had ceased to be sufficiently intelligible, and it became necessary for some documents to include words, entire phrases or glosses in the vulgar language: in the century the Nodicia de Kesos, in the century the Silenses and Emiliano glosses in Castilian (they also include words in Basque, which is not Romance, but pre-Roman")), and some examples of Catalan (a feudal oath, some greuges") or complaints); At the end of the century and the beginning of the century there were already great texts, such as the Homilies of Organyà, the Cantar de Mio Cid or the cantiga de escarnio Ora faz ost'o senhor de Navarra. Much earlier (end of the century and beginning of the century), the southern or Mozarabic romances left testimony in the jarchas (parts of longer poetic compositions, in Hispanic Arabic, where phrases in the Mozarabic language are used as a literary resource), written by Andalusian Muslims or Jews, in Arabic characters. Western or Galician-Portuguese romance became a prestigious literary language (it was the one chosen by Alfonso X for the Cantigas de Santa María). Of all the central romances (Leonese, Asturian, Navarro-Aragonese) only the Castilian one was consolidated, prestigious for its courtly use and for the strength of its literature, both popular and cultured (mester of minstrelsy and mester of clergy, in Gonzalo de Berceo's terms). The oriental or Catalan romance spread through Valencia (Valenciano), Mallorca (Mallorca) and, later, part of Sardinia (Alguerés).
Art from the 11th to the 13th centuries
The political weakness of the taifas did not produce a cultural decline, but quite the opposite, a greater refinement and diffusion throughout the Andalusian territory, due to the multiplication of competitive courts. Above the numerous fortified palaces or citadels (Almería, Málaga), the Aljafería palace in Zaragoza stands out. A unique building is the Bañuelo de Granada (from the Zirid period, 19th century).
Very few remains remain of Almoravid art, such as a qubba (dome) from the old palace of Seville (today in the Patio de Banderas of the Real Alcázar),[66] and the castle of Monteagudo. Al-Idrisi reports that the textile workshops of Almería reached great perfection in the manufacture of attabi"), comparable to Persian silks.
Notable buildings have remained of Almohad art in Seville: the Torre del Oro and the Giralda (former minaret of the mosque), which maintains the initial decoration on its walls - the upper bodies are from the Christian period -) and the Patio del Yeso) of the Real Alcázar.[67].
Andalusian ceramics and Andalusian sumptuary arts") had a great development.
From the century onwards, European artistic influence (especially Burgundian – Cluniac monasteries – and Lombard – Lombard arches –) was superimposed on local artistic traditions (Visigothic, Andalusian, Asturian, Mozarabic and Mudejar) giving rise to an art of marked personality. The Romanesque was a Christian art that was limited to the northern third of the peninsula, with practically no presence south of the Ebro and the Tagus.
The chronology in the penetration of architectural forms is visible in a display from east to west, being the first examples in Catalonia (San Pedro de Roda, 1022) and developing around the Camino de Santiago those of Aragon (Cathedral of Jaca, since 1054), Navarra (San Pedro de Leyre, 1057), Castile (San Martín de Frómista "Iglesia de San Martín (Frómista)"), 1066) and León (San Isidoro – portico of 1067–), ending in Galicia, where the most notable work was built: the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (begun in 1075 with the pilgrimage plan"), characteristic of most of the churches along the way, from that of San Sernin in Toulouse. The century marked the culmination of the style (monastery of Ripoll, churches of). Bohí and Tahull -in Catalonia-, Loarre castle, monastery of San Juan de la Peña -in Aragon-, Royal Palace of Estella "Palace of the Kings of Navarra (Estella)"), San Miguel de Estella, Santa María de Eunate, San Pedro de Olite "Church of San Pedro (Olite)") -in Navarra-, Segovian porticoed churches, Santo Domingo de Soria "Church of Santo Domingo (Soria)"), San Juan de Duero -in Castilla-, Zamora Cathedral, Old Cathedral of Salamanca -in León-). Since the end of the century the transition from Romanesque to Gothic has been identified (Tarragona Cathedral, Lérida Cathedral "Catedral de la Seo Vieja (Lérida)").
Late Middle Ages
El "óptimo climático medieval" que se mantuvo hasta finales del siglo había permitido un incremento demográfico notable, lo que explica la facilidad repobladora de núcleos preexistentes y la fundación de las numerosas "villanuevas"). El cambio se evidenció con las malas cosechas y hambrunas de la primera mitad del siglo y, sobre todo, a partir de la peste negra de 1348, que supuso la muerte de un tercio a un quinto de las poblaciones de distintas zonas geográficas (incluyendo a un rey: Alfonso XI).
Las consecuencias económicas y sociales fueron trascendentales: el abandono de tierras de cultivo llevó al aumento de la importancia de la ganadería (controlada por la aristocracia a través de instituciones como la Mesta o la Casa de Ganaderos de Zaragoza y sus redes de cañadas); el incremento de la presión feudal (no de la servidumbre, que ya había decaído)[6] llevó a revueltas campesinas como las de los irmandiños en Galicia o los payeses de remensa en Cataluña;[71] se produjo una polarización social transversal a los estamentos (entre alta y baja nobleza, entre alta y baja burguesía) cuyos divergentes intereses económicos se expresaron en conflictos como el desencadenado entre los bandos barceloneses denominados la Biga y la Busca. En la Corona de Castilla fueron especialmente importantes los bandos creados en torno a los grupos sociales interesados en mantener la exportación en crudo de lana a Flandes a través de la red de ferias (Medina del Campo) y las ciudades mercantiles de la periferia (Sevilla o Burgos -desde donde salía la lana hacia los puertos del Cantábrico como Santander "Santander (España)"), Laredo "Laredo (Cantabria)") o Bilbao, fundada en 1300-) o su elaboración como paños en las ciudades artesanas del interior (Segovia, Cuenca "Cuenca (España)") o Toledo). Determinaron incluso la política exterior (alianza con Francia o con Inglaterra). Las derrotas inglesas en las fases finales de la Guerra de los Cien Años (1337-1453) cerraron a la lana inglesa el mercado flamenco, y se lo abrieron a la castellana; encumbrando a la aristocracia mesteña y a la alta burguesía de financieros y mercaderes, y frustrando la evolución social del patriciado urbano.[72].
El potencial de conflicto social tuvo un peculiar mecanismo de desviación hacia un objetivo fácil de identificar: los judíos, objeto de las revueltas de 1391 que provocaron matanzas y conversiones masivas, a partir de los cuales se inició una nueva categoría social: los judeoconversos. Lejos de acabar con sus problemas, su prosperidad (un significativo número de ellos ocuparon altos cargos en la Iglesia y la Haciencia real) les convirtieron en objeto de una creciente discriminación y ataques (revuelta de Pedro Sarmiento en Toledo, 1449, estatutos de limpieza de sangre), expresados en la generalizada acusación de ser marranos "Marrano (judeoconverso)") (practicar ocultamente el judaísmo); lo que condujo a la creación de la Inquisición española y a la pretensión de los Reyes Católicos de cortar todo tipo de lazos con los judíos mediante la expulsión de los judíos de sus reinos en 1492, seguida por la del reino de Portugal") en 1497.
Tras las tomas de Niebla (1262, una de las operaciones militares en que está atestiguada la utilización de primitivas armas de fuego) y Cádiz (1264), que dejaron bajo control cristiano todo el suroeste peninsular, el proceso reconquistador se detuvo, con pocas modificaciones fronterizas en los siguientes doscientos años. Las únicas de importancia en ese periodo fueron la toma cristiana de Tarifa "Tarifa (Cádiz)") (1292) y Gibraltar (1309), contrarrestradas por la recuperación musulmana de Algeciras (1329) y el mismo Gibraltar (1333), con ayuda de los benimerines norteafricanos. Mayor importancia tuvo la batalla del Salado (1340), a partir de la cual los cristianos demostraron su capacidad de controlar la navegación por el Estrecho, facilitando una ruta comercial entre los focos económicos más dinámicos de Europa (Flandes e Italia). En el puerto de Sevilla (una escala idónea) se creó una activa colonia de mercaderes y financieros genoveses. Las victorias cristianas en la conquista de Antequera (1410) o en la batalla de la Higueruela (1431), más que consecuencias territoriales las tuvieron políticas, prestigiando, en cada caso, a Fernando de Trastamara (futuro rey de Aragón), y a Álvaro de Luna (valido de Juan II de Castilla). La definitiva toma cristiana de Gibraltar se produjo en 1462, veinte años antes de la guerra de Granada. Los activos puertos comerciales de la Corona de Aragón (Valencia y Barcelona) sentaron las bases económicas de una expansión por el Mediterráneo que llevó a la incorporación de Sicilia (vísperas sicilianas, 1282), Cerdeña y Nápoles (1420 y 1443, con Alfonso V de Aragón) e incluso los ducados de Atenas y Neopatria (expedición de los almogávares de la Gran Compañía Catalana de Roger de Flor, 1302-1391). La expansión castellana y portuguesa no se detuvo en el Estrecho, y continuó por las rutas marítimas del Atlántico, bordeando la costa africana (conquista de Ceuta por Portugal, 1415, conquista de Canarias por Castilla, desde 1402, escuela de Sagres fundada por Enrique el Navegante, 1417).
• - Expansión de la Corona de Aragón por el Mediterráneo.
• - Expansión castellana y portuguesa por el Atlántico (de norte a sur: Azores [1431], Madeira [1418], Canarias [desde 1402] y Cabo Verde [1462]).
Pocos años después de la conquista de los valles del Guadalquivir y del Segura, se produjo en esas zonas una gran rebelión mudéjar (1264), que conllevó una salida masiva de población hacia las zonas bajo control musulmán, donde la dinastía de los nazaríes consolidó su poder en el emirato o sultanato de Granada.
Desde finales del siglo los conflictos internos, expresados en disputas sucesorias, llevaron a constantes guerras civiles en todos los reinos peninsulares, tanto en el musulmán como en los cristianos, especialmente en Navarra (guerra de la Navarrería, guerra civil de Navarra), y en la corona de Castilla (entre los partidarios de Alfonso X el Sabio y los de su hijo Sancho, entre los partidarios de los infantes de la Cerda y los de Fernando IV "el emplazado", entre los de Pedro I "el Cruel" y Enrique II "el de las mercedes" -de la nueva dinastía Trastamara-, entre los de Juana "la Beltraneja" y los de Isabel "la Católica"). Muchos de ellos se inscribieron en conflictos de dimensión europea, como la Guerra de los Cien Años, o entre reinos cristianos peninsulares, como la Guerra de los Dos Pedros (1356-1369, entre Castilla y Aragón) y la batalla de Aljubarrota (1385, entre Castilla y Portugal). La alianza anglo-portuguesa (1373) demostró tener una extraordinaria proyección (se ha prolongado, bajo distintas formas, hasta el día de hoy). En la Corona de Aragón, la ausencia de heredero directo llevó a las Cortes a elegir como rey a Fernando "el de Antequera", emparentado con los Trastamara castellanos (compromiso de Caspe de 1412).
El incremento del poder real en Castilla propició una intensa actividad legislativa y recopilatoria (Código de las Siete Partidas, Ordenamiento de Alcalá); formando una monarquía autoritaria basada en una Hacienda en gran medida en manos de las poderosas familias judeoconversas y una burocracia que permitió el encumbramiento de letrados de modesta extracción social (Chancillería de Valladolid, secretarios reales "Secretario de Estado (Antiguo Régimen en España)"), Consejo de Castilla). En la Corona de Aragón, el mayor poder de las ciudades y la nobleza llevó a la concentración en las Cortes y las Generalidades de funciones que en Castilla ejercía directamente el poder real, y al desarrollo de un particularismo local fundamentado en una ideología pactista.
Art and culture of the 14th and 15th centuries
In the kingdom of Granada, Nasrid art was developed, of which the refined palace complex of the Alhambra stands out. In 1349 Yusuf I founded the madrassa of Granada.
• - Patio de los Arrayanes.
• - Courtyard of the Lions.
• - Plasterwork and tiles.
For Christian art, the centuries meant a continuity of Gothic, which became increasingly complex and speculative (late Gothic, flamboyant Gothic, international Gothic, florid Gothic). Some novel characteristics of the art of the century, especially the Flemish and Italian influences, turn the era into a transition to the Renaissance or Pre-Renaissance in Spain; although forms of unequivocal local tradition (Mudejar) were maintained. The designations of styles for the period include the label "Hispano-Flamenco", the "Elizabethan Gothic" or "Catholic Monarchs style" and the "Manuelino" (after King Manuel I of Portugal, who arrived in the first decades of the century - when the Cisneros style and the last phases of the Plateresque already occurred in Castile). Decorative elements acquired particular importance, not only in stonework, but also in furniture art (gridwork, chairs,[74] etc.).
The last centuries of the Middle Ages saw a true flowering of intellectual life, multiplying educational institutions, with the competitive presence of religious orders (especially Dominicans, Franciscans and Augustinians). Universities and colleges became a training mechanism for ecclesiastical and bureaucratic elites, through which clientelist networks were established. To those already existing in Salamanca, Valladolid and Murcia, and to the institutions known as studium arabicum et hebraicum (Toledo, Murcia, Seville, Barcelona); The University of Lérida (1300), the University of Coimbra (1308, transferred from Lisbon), the University of Perpignan (1350), the Sertoriana University of Huesca (1353), the University of Valencia (1414), the University of Barcelona (1450) and the University of Santiago de Compostela (1495) were added.
The arrival of the printing press in Spain took a few years after its appearance and diffusion throughout Central Europe and Italy, but it was very early; and it was due to the concern of the humanist Juan Arias Dávila, bishop of Segovia, to reform the customs of the clergy (Sinodal de Aguilafuente, 1472). In the following years, printing workshops were opened in Barcelona, Valencia, Seville and Salamanca. By the end of the century there were almost thirty in operation. It was also an ecclesiastical reform, the one proposed by Cardinal Cisneros (called Cisnerian reform), which motivated the refoundation of the University of Alcalá "Universidad de Alcalá (historical)") in 1499 (on a studium pre-existing since 1293).
Medievalism in Spain
Medievalism understood as a study of the Middle Ages has had a privileged field in historiography and the history of Spanish literature, both due to the relative abundance of documents (compared to other areas) and the intellectual quality of those who have dedicated themselves to it, both Spaniards and foreign Hispanists.
The construction of a national history was in Spain, as in other countries, an essential step in the process of construction of national consciousness or Spanish nationalism; competing since the end of the century with peripheral nationalisms. In both cases, the claim as "national glories" of medieval characters was a widely used resource (beyond whether such use was justified or not).
Understood as historicism in aesthetic fields, Spanish romanticism had, like that of other countries, a special predilection for the Middle Ages (in fact, many romantics from other countries had a predilection for the Spanish Middle Ages, such as Washington Irving -Tales of the Alhambra-). Medievalist reconstructions occurred both in Spanish romantic theater (Hartzenbusch, The Lovers of Teruel) and in the Spanish historical novel (Pedro Montengón -El Rodrigo-, Larra -El doncel de don Enrique el doliente–, Enrique Gil y Carrasco -El Señor de Bembibre-, Manuel Fernández y González -El tributo de las centenaras dicellas-) or the Leyendas&action=edit&redlink=1 "Leyendas (Bécquer) (not yet written)") by Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Also in history painting (very notable are the collections of the Palace of the Cortes and the Senate Palace "Palacio del Senate (Spain)"), as well as that gathered in the Prado Museum) and in sculptural monuments, which are urban landmarks in many towns. Spanish architecture, in addition to following the international neo-Gothic fashion, contributed neo-Mudejar as its own characteristic.
• - Filming of El Cid in front of the Belmonte castle. For the scenes located in Valencia, the Peñíscola castle was used, which, because it did not seem "medieval" enough, was equipped with battlements that have not been removed.[75].
• - Bust of the medievalist Claudio Sánchez Albornoz.
• - Ramón Menéndez Pidal and María Goyri on their honeymoon along the Cid route, in 1900.
• - Conversion of Recaredo, by Muñoz Degrain.
• - The creation of the coat of arms of the house of Barcelona or The death of Wifredo 'the hairy', by Claudio Lorenzale.
• - Statue of Abderramán I in Almuñécar.
• - Equestrian statue of “El Cid” in Burgos.
• - Cathedral of the Good Shepherd of San Sebastián.
• - Laredo Palace in Alcalá de Henares.
It is significant that, in public monuments, the traditional preference for Christian figures has recently given way to a demand for Muslim figures who, in many cases, have a special connection with the cities that honor them (for example, around the vestiges of the Muslim wall of Madrid, a park dedicated to Mohamed I, the emir who founded Magerit, has been opened).
The historiography of art in Spain, after condemning everything that is not properly "academic" (Viage de España by Antonio Ponz), had in Jovellanos the first great revaluation of the Middle Ages (despite the crudeness of his interpretation - he defined Asturian art by identifying it with the Romanesque -); Villaamil made about monuments that were deteriorating at an accelerated pace since the confiscation. The poet Bécquer and his brother Valeriano were also interested in this task.
• - Royal Monastery of Santa Engracia, by Pérez Villaamil.
• - Tomb of Juana Manuel, by Carderera.
The parody that Muñoz Seca made of historical dramas set in the Spanish Middle Ages (The Revenge of Don Mendo) had the virtue of putting an end to them; bridging distances, the same effect that Don Quixote de la Mancha had with the books of chivalry. The baroque plays located in the medieval period responded to other literary and ideological criteria (The best mayor, the king or Fuenteovejuna, by Lope de Vega, Reinar ater dying"), by Luis Vélez de Guevara, Las mocedades del Cid, by Guillén de Castro - converted by Corneille into his classic El Cid "El Cid (Corneille)")-).
There has also been the use of medieval settings in poetry.
Historical cinema had its peak in the Spanish post-war period, and among other historical periods, the Middle Ages were also covered. In some cases, previous works were adapted, such as the novel Amaya or the Basques in the Century (by Francisco Navarro Villoslada). Even Hollywood became interested in medieval Spain, making the blockbuster El Cid "El Cid (film)") (1961).
Since the end of the century the medievalist revival have become popular as cultural activities widely spread throughout the Spanish geography (Teruel –"the lovers"–, Hospital de Órbigo –"the honorable step"–, Hita -"the archpriest"-, Aguilafuente -"the Sinodal"-, Argüeso, etc.). Much older are local traditions such as the Moors and Christians festivals (in many towns, especially in Levante), the procession or tribute of the cantaderas of León (which remembers the tribute of the hundred maidens) or the waving of flags from the Granada town hall (which commemorates the conquest of the city).
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Medieval History of Spain.
• - The Andalusian legacy Foundation (Junta de Andalucía).
• - Medieval Catalonia (catalogue, with text by Joan Ainaud de Lasarte, from the exhibition from May 20 to August 10, Barcelona 1992 - Generalitat de Catalunya, Department of Culture -not accessible-).
• - (May 26 to July 26, 1992, commissioner Luis Adao da Fonseca") -Republic of Portugal, Banco de Santander Foundation and Madrid European Capital of Culture Consortium 1992-).
• - The Ages of Man Foundation (holds exhibitions with funds from the dioceses of Castilla y León).
[3] ↑ La ceremonia de entrega de la ciudad fue el 2 de enero, y se sigue recordando anualmente en esa ciudad con un tremolar de banderas en el Ayuntamiento.
[4] ↑
[5] ↑ La expresión, que obviamente tiene uso muy anterior, es el subtítulo de España en su historia - Cristianos, moros y judíos (Losada, 1948). Fue posteriormente popularizada en la forma judíos, moros y cristianos, por haber sido escogida por Camilo José Cela para titular una de sus obras (Judíos, moros y cristianos, Destino, 1989, ISBN 8423304825).
[6] ↑ a b La determinación de la naturaleza de la condición servil o libre de los campesinos, de las prestaciones de trabajo (corveas o sernas), de la distribución del terrazgo, de la propiedad alodial o sometida a distintas formas de dominio compartido (útil, eminente) o de vinculación (eclesiástica -abadengo, señorío eclesiástico- nobiliaria -mayorazgos-, concejil -propios y comunales- o de otras instituciones -universidades, colegios mayores, todo tipo de fundaciones-), de los señoríos (territoriales o jurisdiccionales, según la diferenciación a posteriori que pretendió delimitarse en la revolución liberal española), de la extensión del realengo y otros extremos del feudalismo en España (o su negación por no acomodarse al modelo carolingio-francés -excepto en Cataluña-) es un problema o debate historiográfico clásico. En cualquier caso, para el siglo XIV la servidumbre era marginal en España, como en toda Europa occidental, mientras que comienza a desarrollarse en Europa oriental. En cambio, la definición de relaciones de producción feudales en el campo no tiene por qué depender de la condición jurídica servil, dado que lo sustancial (en terminología propia del materialismo histórico) es la extracción del excedente mediante coerción extraeconómica (Marta Harnecker, Marc Bloch, Perry Anderson). Ejemplos de uso de "desaparición de la servidumbre" en el contexto de la España bajomedieval: Luis Suárez Fernández Archivado el 8 de abril de 2014 en Wayback Machine., José María Mínguez, Vicente Risco. Salustiano Moreta (1978) Señores contra labradores: el malhechor feudal en la literatura:
[11] ↑ Aurelio Víctor, Epit. de Caes. 33, 3: (Gallienus) rem romanam quasi naufragio dedit... adeo uti ... francorum gentes direpta Gallia Hispaniam possiderent, uastato ac paene direpto Tarraconensium oppido, nactisque in tempore nauigiis pars in usque Africam permearet.... Eutropio, 9, 8, 2: Germani usque ad Hispanias penetrauerunt et ciuitatem nobilem Tarraconem
[14] ↑ Citado por Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, Lecturas históricas, 1929 (recogido en cervantesvirtual Archivado el 18 de agosto de 2012 en Wayback Machine.). Compárese con un pasaje muy similar de la Primera Crónica General de España, que se recoge a continuación en la misma web.: http://bib.cervantesvirtual.com/historia/textos/medieval/alta_edad_media1.shtml
[18] ↑ Rucquoi, Adeline (2000). «“Españoles” frente a “Cristianos”: La España Tripartita». Historia Medieval de la Península Ibérica. El Colegio de Michoacán. p. 76.
[21] ↑ Un subgénero completo del romancero son los Romances de la pérdida de España, y referencias parciales aparecen en muchos otros, como el Poema de Fernán González. Es muy significativo que Rodrigo aparezca bien tratado a pesar de su derrota, y de responsabilizarle de ella por sus pecados. En algún caso, incluso se le termina santificando, atribuyéndole una terrible muerte a la que se somete voluntariamente, tiempo después de darle por desaparecido en la batalla de Guadalete: «La culebra me comía / cómeme ya por la parte / que todo lo merecía / por donde fue el principio / de la mi muy gran desdicha» / El ermitaño lo esfuerza, / el buen rey así moría. / Aquí acabó el rey Rodrigo, / al cielo derecho se iba. (n.º 605 del Romancero General de Agustín Durán, que anota: la lección de Cervantes en estos versos es: Ya me comen, ya me comen / por do más pecado había –Quijote, parte II, cap. XXXVI–, Rivadeneyra, 1834, pg. 411).: http://books.google.es/books?id=HgYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA411&lpg=PA411&dq=%22ya+me+comen%22+%22por+do+m%C3%A1s+pecado+hab%C3%ADa%22&source=bl&ots=pWXARLly8U&sig=KoZOZsMS8zycx0G4HPcruBuyrjk&hl=es#v=onepage&q=%22ya%20me%20comen%22%20%22por%20do%20m%C3%A1s%20pecado%20hab%C3%ADa%22&f=false
[22] ↑ La revolución islámica en Occidente, 1966-1974.
[23] ↑ Agila y los demás hijos de Witiza, así como su tío Oppas, obispo de Toledo, son presentados de forma inmisericorde en la cronística y la épica cristianas; y aparecen también en las crónicas árabes, que los denominan Alamund, Waqula y Artubas (Alamundo u Olmundo, Agila y Artobás o Ardabasto). En una de estas crónicas, la viuda de Witiza es quien gobierna en Toledo, y Rodrigo es un usurpador a quien los hijos de Witiza quieren apartar con ayuda de Táriq. El acuerdo a que llegan con éste les garantiza tres mil aldeas (safaya al-muluk), pero sólo fue efectivo tras que Musa les envíe a Damasco para que lo confirme el Califa Walid I. Alamundo recibió Sevilla y Artobás Córdoba. Desposeído éste por aquél, la hija de Artobás, Sara, reclama justicia en Damasco. El califa no sólo le concedió lo que demandaba, sino que la casó con Isa ben Muhazim, con quien tuvo dos hijos (uno de los cuales fue antepasado de Ibn al-Qutiyya –"hijo de la goda"–, autor de esta crónica). La visita de Sara a Damasco fue la que permitió a Abderramán I establecer los contactos con la élite andalusí que con el tiempo le permitieron convertirse en emir de Córdoba en 756. La continuidad de Agila tras la derrota de Rodrigo está confirmada por la numismática, pues acuñó moneda en Zaragoza, Gerona, Tarragona y Narbona. Algunas de esas monedas han aparecido en el yacimiento de El Bovalar (provincia de Lérida), que fue destruido violentamente en algún momento del siglo VIII. Este rey Agila también aparece citado en un latérculo (definición de este término) de los reyes visigodos escrito en algún lugar de Cataluña (quizá Septimania) en 822, atribuyéndosele el reinado siguiente a Witiza; habría durado tres años (de 710 a 713), seguido por el de Ardo o Ardón, quien habría reinado siete años más, siendo el último. Eduardo Manzano, Conquistadores, Emires Y Califas: Los Omeyas Y la Formación de Al-Andalus, Crítica, 2006, ISBN 8484326748, pg. 44 y ss.: http://books.google.es/books?id=lpSp5sfmEXEC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=lat%C3%A9rculo&source=bl&ots=dZN4YfgyVZ&sig=NPhf8Zmb2nWR1Nwk5AVY9_DsOQE&hl=es#v=onepage&q=lat%C3%A9rculo&f=false
[34] ↑ Educación comparada - Guía de estudio, pg. 41. Un ejemplo de valoración comparativa con las universidades medievales La Mezquita-Catedral, primer icono para Córdoba 2016 Archivado el 8 de abril de 2014 en Wayback Machine.:
[36] ↑ García Fitz, Francisco (1 de enero de 2009). «La Reconquista: un estado de la cuestión». Clío & Crimen: Revista del Centro de Historia del Crimen de Durango (6): 142-215. ISSN 1698-4374. Consultado el 30 de septiembre de 2016.: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3158663
[39] ↑ * Isidro Bango Torviso, Alta Edad Media: de la tradición hispanogoda al románico, Introducción al Arte Español, Sílex Ediciones, 1994, ISBN 8477370141
[43] ↑ Las iglesias juraderas, en Revista Bascongada. Véase también Jura de Santa Gadea, Ermita de Nuestra Señora del Salcinar y del Rosario, Casa Consistorial de Miranda de Ebro#Iglesias juraderas medievales, Iglesia del Espíritu Santo (Miranda de Ebro), Iglesia de San Miguel Arcángel (Vitoria), Basílica de San Vicente (Ávila), Iglesia de San Miguel de los Octoes, Casa de Juntas de Guernica.
[47] ↑ La fecha y valoración de la trascendencia de tal asamblea de Tolosa no es la misma en toda la bibliografía: Los historiadores consideran como acto fundacional de la Marca Hispánica el acuerdo de una asamblea de Tolosa, convocada por Ludovico Pío –hijo de Carlomagno–, en 797, de reconstruir las fortalezas fronterizas de Ausona, Cardona y Casseres, de cuya defensa fue encargado el conde Borrell de Urgel-Cerdaña. No es de esa opinión, sin embargo, R. de Abadal (Manuel Mourelle de Lema, La identidad etnolingüística de Valencia, Grugalma, 1996, ISBN 848808109X, pg. 7). Se indica la presencia de delegados asturianos, y que Ludovico Pío emprendió una campaña con ayuda de Alfonso II de Asturias para controlar Pamplona y Aragón. José Luis Orella et al., Historia de Euskal Herria, Txalaparta, 1996, ISBN 8481369462, pg. 90. Las denominaciones, divisiones y límites de la Marca son muy variables en cada documento (Marca de Gocia, Marca de Tolosa). Josefina Mateu, Colectánea paleográfica de la Corona de Aragón I, Universitat de Barcelona, 1991, ISBN 8475286941, pg. 35.: http://books.google.es/books?id=zlNiAAAAMAAJ&q=%22marca+hisp%C3%A1nica%22+%22ludovico+p%C3%ADo%22+tolosa&dq=%22marca+hisp%C3%A1nica%22+%22ludovico+p%C3%ADo%22+tolosa&source=bl&ots=UR7YvBQVBE&sig=kZiFnHJjhhZz-whys2WKsYPMUqw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=nMVIUIT8NcmKhQem14HIAw&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBA
[48] ↑ Suárez, op. cit., pg. 188.
[49] ↑ * Historia de la diplomacia española, Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1991, ISBN 8487661092, vol. 3, pg. 102: Parece en efecto claro que en la segunda década del siglo IX, Alhakem I y Carlomagno concertaron una tregua y que los soberanos carolingios y los emires cordobeses firmaban paces o ajustaban armisticios, y que lo hacían por el medio habitual y consagrado del envío de embajadores.
[50] ↑ Martín de Riquer, Història de la Literatura Catalana, vol. 1, Barcelona: Ariel. Fuente citada en Liber feudorum Ceritaniae.
[57] ↑ Mario Agudo, Biografía de Doña Urraca - Reina de León y Castilla, en Arteguías: una monarquía con dos titulares para un imperio hispánico, el resultado fue la carta de arras de Alfonso I y la carta de donación de Urraca, ambas firmadas en diciembre de 1109 bajo el valimento de Pedro Ansúrez. En estas capitulaciones, ambos cónyuges se otorgaban recíprocamente el reconocimiento del dominatus y principatum sobre sus respectivos estados y vasallos, como fundamento para ejercer ambos la potestas en los dominios del otro.: http://www.arteguias.com/biografia/donaurraca.htm
[58] ↑ Es probable que hacia el siglo XI Siyasa iniciara su despliegue demográfico, como ocurrió en muchos lugares de Sarq al-Andalus, entre ellas Murcia y Valencia, a pesar de que este fue un periodo de intestabilidad política y de debilidad frente a los cada vez más poderosos reinos cristianos (Julio Navarro Palazón, Pedro Jiménez Castillo, Siyasa: Estudio Arqueológico Del Despoblado Andalusí(Ss. XI-XIII), Fundación El legado andalusì, 2007, ISBN 8496395278, pg. 54).: http://books.google.es/books?id=FiwBpybo_zQC&dq=econom%C3%ADa+taifas&hl=es&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[59] ↑ «Se ha supuesto que sus riquezas provenían de los tesoros traídos de su viaje a Andalucia, pero si algo recibió -lo que no está probado- no podía dar para tanto, ya que el monarca siguió manejando grandes cantidades hasta el fin de su vida, y un autor contemporáneo estima que al morir dejaba en el tesoro 1.700.000 libras. » véase en Lacarra, José María (2000). Caja de Ahorros de Navarra, ed. Historia del reino de Navarra en la Edad Media (2 edición). pp. 130-131. ISBN 84-500-7465-7. Archivado desde el original el 1 de noviembre de 2020. Consultado el 6 de diciembre de 2020. . El botín fue enorme y su saldo pasó a fortalecer el erario de los reinos cristianos. Durante algún tiempo, Sancho el Fuerte, rey de Navarra, fue el prestamista más importante de Europa occidental (Stanley Payne, La España medieval, pg. 99). Es posible intuir los efectos de esta campaña militar sobre los recursos de, al menos, un individuo: el rey de Navarra. Sancho VII fue uno de los monarcas más ricos de su época y ya hemos dejado constancia de su actividad como prestamista de otros reyes. ... llegándose inevitablemente a la conclusión de que «el botín de Las Navas de Tolosa supuso sin duda una notable inyección (Francisco García Fitz, Las Navas de Tolosa, pg. 178).: https://web.archive.org/web/20201101001752/https://www.fundacioncajanavarra.es/sites/default/files/reino_nav_em_can000050000000000000000000000410.pdf
[71] ↑ En otros lugares también se produjo conflictividad campesina, aunque de forma menos espectacular (Miguel Larrañaga Zulueta, En torno a la conflictividad campesina navarra bajomedieval Archivado el 17 de octubre de 2017 en Wayback Machine.).: http://www.liceus.com/cgi-bin/aco/his/03/02/0280.asp
[74] ↑ Dorothée Heim, Las intarsias de la sillería del coro de Plasencia: influencia italiana temprana en el núcleo artístico toledano Archivado el 20 de febrero de 2017 en Wayback Machine.. Entre otras fuentes, cita: H.L. ARENA, “Las sillerías de coro del maestro Rodrigo Alemán. Las sillerías del gótico tardío en España”, Boletín del Seminario de Estudios de Arte y Arqueología, 32 (1966), pp. 102-106; y J.I. HERNÁNDEZ REDONDO y M. ARIAS MARTÍNEZ, “La silla de Rodrigo Alemán en el Museo Nacional de Escultura”, Homenaje al Profesor Martín González, Valladolid, 1995, p. 379.: http://www.revistas.ucm.es%2Findex.php%2FANHA%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F39081%2F37694&ei=BjxDUPHfFIeBhQee9YHYBQ&usg=AFQjCNE5lVzSmjOE7LyYJ58iuqkJ9NBO5Q
[78] ↑ Muerto el 4 de julio de 1990. Carlos Estepa El pensamiento historiográfico de Abilio Barbero, Revista de historia Jerónimo Zurita, N.º 73, 1998, pags. 41-48.: http://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/15162
Until the century the predominance was clearly Muslim. In the Middle Ages (the period of the Crusades), between the conquest of Toledo (1085) and the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) the situation went through different points of balance, since the spectacular Christian advances achieved in the face of the Andalusian division into taifas were stopped and even reversed at the times when the North African Almoravid and Almohad empires imposed their unification under religious rigorism. The central decades of the century witnessed decisive Christian conquests, which left the Muslim territory reduced to the Nasrid emirate of Granada, while the peninsular territorial structure formed the so-called "Spain of the five kingdoms" (that of Granada, that of Portugal, that of Navarre and the Crowns of Castile and Aragon).[8] In the following two centuries the reconquering process practically stopped, in a context of general crisis that included major structural transformations (the beginning of the transition from feudalism to capitalism), serious social conflicts and continuous civil wars; while the Spanish institutions of the Old Regime emerged, with great later projection.
The union of the Catholic Monarchs and their complex marriage policy allowed, in the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age, the construction of a Hispanic Monarchy whose nature and levels of integration are, in themselves, another historiographical problem. Simultaneously, the Age of Discoveries was developing, whose first beneficiary was Portugal, which at that time could be seen as the first authoritarian monarchy in Western Europe to constitute a modern State (or nation-State), a condition that is disputed with Spain itself (from whose common destiny it was not separated until 1640) and the kingdoms of England and France.[9].
Late Antiquity
The end of Roman Hispania
Since the crisis of the century, the elements that led to the decomposition of the Empire were manifested in Roman Hispania: an increase in social conflict (peasant rebellions that lead to banditry - bagaudas -, interpreted as a symptom of the beginning of the secular transition from slavery to feudalism), decline of urban life (which corresponds to the greater archaeological presence of rural villae -ruralization) -), first Germanic invasions, such as that of the Franks in the year 257-258 throughout the eastern half of the Peninsula,[10] narrated by the historians Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, Orosius and Saint Jerome "Jerome (saint)") among others,[11] in which Tarragona was particularly sacked.[12] This also gave rise to an ephemeral Gallic Empire that also included Hispania (conquered in the 261) to Britain and Gaul and lasted until the year 274 (battle of Châlons-sur-Marne), when the Emperor Aurelian recovered these provinces for Rome, although Hispania had already returned to Rome in 269. There was still another invasion of Hispania in the year 270 by the Franks and Alemanni, but this time through Roncesvalles, following the Roman road that led from Bordeaux to Astorga and, on the other hand, the Silver Route, sacking Pamplona, Astorga, Mérida "Mérida (Spain)") and Lisbon and the Roman villas that they found along their way.[13] Diocletian's reforms represented a reinforcement of imperial authority, and specifically in Hispania a profound transformation and revitalization of Roman institutions, but in a sense that intensified the processes that in the long term transformed Roman civilization into medieval one. very early in certain areas of Hispania, and became widespread since the century (see history of Christianity in Spain).
At the beginning of the century, Rome was unable to contain the invasion of the Suebi, Vandals and Alans, who crossed the Rhine (December 31, 406) and devastated Gaul. Maximus (one of the military leaders who claimed the imperial dignity, and was considered a usurper by his adversaries – tyranicus exactor is called by Bishop Hydatius–) agreed to incorporate these people into his army as auxiliaries (through a treaty or foedus), and had them cross the Pyrenees. The impossibility of giving them any payment implied consenting to their plundering activities on the ground, although the spatial distribution had to be organized through a predetermined system: the hospitalitas, which provided for the granting of sortus") or lots of land that they were obliged to cede to local owners (this fact, described by Hydatius as a distribution "by lots", in the providentialist context") of his Chronicon can be understood as an evangelical reference to the drawing of lots. of Christ's tunic).
The Visigoths (a Germanic people more Romanized than the previous ones, after centuries of presence within the Empire), settled on their own initiative in Tarraconense. For a brief period, Narbonne and Barcelona were the seats of Ataúlfo's court, in which the queen was the Roman Galla Placidia (taken during the sack of Rome "Sack of Rome (410)") as part of the booty). After a storm annihilated the fleet with which he was trying to cross the Strait of Gibraltar to settle in Africa, King Walia decided to agree with the emperor Honorius "Honorio (emperor)") a foedus (418) that charged him with trying to restore imperial authority in Hispania (in addition to returning Gala Placidia). Only the Suebians managed to resist the Visigothic offensives, settling in the northwestern area of the peninsula where they formed the Suebian kingdom of Braga; while the vandals managed to cross the Strait of Gibraltar, continuing their trajectory through North Africa. The result was not the restoration of Roman imperial authority, but the creation of a political entity completely independent of Rome: the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse. The final disappearance of the Western Empire (476) had no consequences for the old provinces.
Early Middle Ages
Contenido
• - La provincia imperial de Hispania en 409-429.
• - El reino visigodo de Tolosa a mediados del siglo .
• - En tonos anaranjados claros, las zonas de asentamiento principales de los visigodos.
• - A mediados del siglo el dominio visigodo, centrado en la Meseta, se limita a una amplia franja entre Lusitania y Septimania.
• - En el reinado de Leovigildo los visigodos se imponen sobre los suevos y los pueblos de la zona cantábrica, y recortan significativamente la zona de presencia bizantina.
• - Organización territorial del reino visigodo de Toledo en el siglo , que ya comprende toda la Península.
Visigothic Hispania
After the defeat by the Franks in the Battle of Vouillé (507), the Visigoths were forced to retreat to the south, settling mainly around Toledo and areas of the Plateau (Campus Gothorum")).[15] This strategy was compatible with their maintenance as a rigidly separated dominant elite (they maintained their Arian version of Christianity and marriages with the local population were not permitted), but it forced them to leave large areas that were poorly controlled: not only the Swabian kingdom of Braga (which remained independent), but also the Cantabrian mountain range (populated by local communities with little Romanization - Asturians, Cantabrians, Vascones -), Baetica and Lusitania (dominated by the local Hispano-Roman aristocracy, which staged frequent uprisings - Seville, Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)"), Mérida "Mérida (Spain)")–). The coastal strip between Alicante and the Bay of Cádiz, together with the Balearic Islands and North Africa, was the object of the so-called Recuperatio Imperii of Justinian, who organized the Province of Spania, with its capital in Carthago Spartaria (Cartagena), controlling the long-distance trade routes. The hectic political life of the period is evidenced by the fact that in the middle of the century two successive kings had a violent and very brief reigns (Teudiselo and Agila I).
Atanagildo established the capital in Toledo (year 567, from which the Visigothic State is usually called the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo). In the period of Leovigild (573-586) there was a notable strengthening of the monarchy, with monetary reforms and a series of military campaigns that defeated the Suebi and Byzantines. The rebellion of his son Hermenegild, who had converted to Catholicism and obtained the support of the Hispano-Romans of Baetica, was put down in 584, after which he was executed. In the following reign, that of Recaredo, son of Leovigild and brother of Hermenegild, the conversion of the king, the queen Baddo "Baddo (queen)") and most of the Visigothic elite took place (587); solemnizing the new confessional nature of the State with the convocation of the Third Council of Toledo (589), which officially condemned Arianism. The following reigns were again brief and had violent ends. Suintila managed to expel the Byzantines in 620.
Recesvintus undertook a legislative work (Liber Iudiciorum of 654, based on the Codex revisus of Leovigild, which in turn was based on the Codex Euricianus or Code of Euric, 480) which was continued by Wamba "Wamba (king)") and will have a special later significance.
Culturally, a true "Visigoth Renaissance"[16] was produced with figures of the influence of Ildefonso of Toledo, Braulio of Zaragoza or Isidoro of Seville (Etymologies, 627-630) and their brothers Leandro, Fulgencio and Florentina (the four saints of Cartagena), with great repercussion in the rest of Europe (through the later Carolingian Renaissance) and in the future Christian kingdoms of the Reconquista. Monastic life expanded, with its own characteristics (Hispanic monastery, San Fructuoso de Braga and the Bercian Thebaid), and a Hispanic liturgy was developed that remained differentiated from the Roman one. The conversion of the Suebi to Catholicism occurred even before that of the Visigoths, in a very multifaceted religious context (presence of Arianism, Priscillianism and paganism), with figures such as Saint Martin of Dumio, "the apostle of the Suebi", and the Councils of Braga.
Visigothic art, especially its architecture and goldsmithing"),[17] stood out among the rude artistic manifestations of the time in the West.
The list of the Gothic kings, a topic in the history of education in Spain, was proposed as a mnemonic feat for schoolchildren..
"Al-Andaluz does not belong either to an unfailingly Roman and Christian Spain or to a uniform, centralized and homogeneous Islamic civilization. Its specificity undoubtedly comes from the fusion between multiple elements, many of which existed there before 711 and many others had origins as diverse as Persia, Arabia, North Africa and the ancient Byzantine possessions of the Middle East."[18]
[19].
Umayyad Al-Andalus
Starting in the year 702, with the accession of Witiza to the throne, and in the midst of a great famine, there were clashes between his supporters and those of the former king Ervigio, now led by Roderigo. In 710, upon Witiza's death, Rodrigo's noble supporters proclaimed him king, while Witiza's supporters proclaimed one of his sons, Agila II, king. The events of 711 appear in the chronicles and the subsequent epic[21] with all kinds of legendary nuances, and a very graphic narrative (against which all types of divergent historiographic interpretations have been constructed – highlighting, for its provocative approach, that of Ignacio Olagüe, who denies the "invasive" condition of the Islamization of Spain–[22]):.
While Rodrigo went to Pamplona to quell a rebellion, the troops of the Muslim Berber Táriq crossed the Strait, with the connivance of Julián, Count of Ceuta (presumably offended by Rodrigo, who would have had relations in Toledo with his daughter, la Cava). The forces that Rodrigo managed to gather for the battle of Guadalete (or the Janda lagoon) were betrayed by the sons of Witiza and Bishop Oppas, who facilitated their penetration into the interior, in an unstoppable advance. to distribute was the subject of discussions - which ended up leading both leaders to consultations with the Caliph in Damascus, where Musa was tried and later murdered -). 716. They even surpassed the Pyrenees, ending with the Visigothic nucleus of Narbonne (king Ardón "Ardón (king)") –successor of Agila II–) in 720 and facing the Frankish kingdom, which stopped them in the battle of Poitiers (732) "Battle of Poitiers (732)").
The organization of the conquered territory was carried out through capitulation pacts (ama) that allowed the rapid conquest and integration of complete communities in a practically unchanged manner into the new sociopolitical structure. Other groups established clientele pacts (wala), converting to Islam and maintaining certain obligations. Different degrees of local autonomy were granted to the nobles and payment of tributes to each population, depending on the degree of affinity they showed. There was no initial desire to impose the Islamic religion, although conversions took place, giving rise to a Muslim population of Hispano-Roman-Visigothic origin: the Muladíes (like Count Casio, who gave rise to the powerful family of the Banu Qasi, who controlled the Ebro valley and maintained fluid relations with the non-subjugated Christians of the north - with whom they maintained kinship relations -, even allying themselves against the central power of Córdoba). Those who remained Christians, but agreed to submit to the new Muslim authorities, are called Mozarabs (like Teodomiro "Theodomiro (Visigoth)"), who was allowed to maintain an extensive territory in the southeast – the so-called kingdom of Tudmir -).
Christian kingdoms of the northern peninsula
The emergence of the Hispano-Christian kingdoms of the north raises a series of historiographical problems that still remain unresolved. The traditional Gothic interpretation seeks to see them as a continuity of the Visigoths, especially the kingdom of Asturias (which legitimized itself in this way through its Chronicles). The interpretation of Abilio Barbero and Marcelo Vigil[35] gives much greater weight to the pre-Roman peoples of the Cantabrian Mountains (Cantabrians, Asturians and Basques), with precarious Romanization and Christianization (based above all on the hermits) and problematically subject to the Visigoth kingdom. Later historiographic and archaeological interpretations question this.[36] Visigothic continuity was clearer in Septimania (the area northeast of the Pyrenees centered in Narbonne, where Ardón "Ardón (king)") remained as Visigoth king until 720); and it was precisely there where the intervention of the Frankish kingdom was most evident, after the failure of Charlemagne's intervention in Zaragoza (778), with the creation of a Hispanic March that also included the other Pyrenean centers after the conquest of Barcelona (801) and Pamplona (806).
The presence of the Muslim invaders in these marginal areas could not have been very intense. Their defeat in the confrontation known in the Christian chronicles as the battle of Covadonga (722) did not stop the expansionary approaches of the Muslims in other areas, which continued at least until the battle of Poitiers (732) "Battle of Poitiers (732)"). Nor was the independence of these nuclei totally effective, as demonstrated by the Muslim capacity to intervene in their internal politics (replacement of King Mauregato), carry out punishment expeditions (aceifas) when they considered it appropriate, or impose signs of submission (such as the maintenance of hostages in Córdoba or the more or less mythical tribute of the hundred maidens); and, in the religious field, the continuity of dependence on the authority of the bishop of Toledo (perfectly adapted to coexistence with the Muslim authorities) until the restoration of the first local bishoprics (Lugo in 741 – there was no bishop of Oviedo until 802 –) and the apology of Beato de Liébana against Bishop Elipando of Toledo (794). The diocese of Pamplona was maintained precariously (it was able to move to Leyre during the invasion), and its bishop Wilesindo appears as a reference for San Eulogio de Córdoba as early as 851. Something similar happened with the dioceses of Gerona and Barcelona.
While hardly any material testimonies remain from the century, over the centuries construction programs of a certain magnitude were developed, as well as a notable flourishing of manuscript illumination (especially the Beatos). Art historiography uses the labels pre-Romanesque art, Asturian art, Mozarabic art, repopulation art or county art to designate these pieces, not always univocally.[37] The stylistic forms maintain a certain continuity with Visigothic art, and parallels with European pre-Romanesque art (Carolingian art, Ottonian art). For luxury fabrics and sumptuary arts, which are easily imported, the Christian kingdoms of this time (and subsequent centuries) largely resorted to Andalusian art (Leyre casket, Zamora pix, Al-Mughira pix, Palencia casket).[38].
Navarrese hegemony
• - The possessions of Sancho III "the Greater".
• - The peninsular kingdoms around 1030.
With the reign of Sancho III "the Greater" (1005-1035) the kingdom of Pamplona, thanks to its marriage policy and alliances, occupied a central position, which historiography defines as "Navarrean hegemony".[52] It coincided with the end of the Caliphate and the beginning of the taifas. A new conception of the monarchy was developed, based on mutual support with the nobility. It is not clear that it was a feudal monarchy in European use. Feudalism in Spain has many nuances that distance it from the European model. Thus, for the future kingdoms of Castile, Navarra, Aragon and the Muslim taifas, it is considered that there were some elements similar to European feudalism, among which would be institutions such as the Cortes "Cortes (Ancient Regime)"). of the conquered lands was initially carried out by free men (presura in the western nuclei, aprisio in the eastern ones).
Castles were built that dominated the valleys as the repopulation progressed, which were transferred as holdings to the nobles, in exchange for taking an oath of fidelity to the king (homage). The power of Sancho the Elder was exercised without great restrictions within the kingdom; while outwardly it extends its influence on the neighbors. The alliances became more complex, based on their possessions in the counties of Castile and Aragon, through which they extended increasing influence towards León and Catalan counties. The extension of the border to the south was modest and problematic, even suffering Muslim punishment campaigns. He fought against the Zaragoza taifa, initially without success, but managed to antagonize it with the Lérida taifa, which favored the expansion of Pamplona towards the Ebro.
The patrimonial conception of the monarchy caused the lack of continuity of the territorial conglomerate brought together by Sancho the Elder, dividing it among his sons. Such division inaugurated the use of the title of "kingdom" for the two entities with the greatest subsequent projection: Castile and Aragon, which would also, in the end, curtail the Navarrese reconquest expansion with their push.
Its land communications with France made Pamplona the point of contact between Europe and the Iberian Peninsula. Changes in economic structures show modernization. Monetary circulation (from the collection of pariahs) allowed more fluid exchanges, and the development of commerce was a key to the urban flourishing linked to the opening of the Camino de Santiago, with Sancho the Elder being the first king to offer effective protection to pilgrims.
Repopulation went from being an initiative of kings, magnates or farmers on barren lands, to becoming the constitution of feudal lordships that kept peasants in a servile dependence.
Middle Ages
• - Año de la toma cristiana en las principales ciudades.
• - Avance de la Reconquista por periodos.
• - Comunidades de villa y tierra en la Extremadura castellana (el territorio "más allá del Duero").
• - La España de los cinco reinos,[8] desde mediados del siglo a finales del siglo .
• - Territorios de las órdenes militares.
Territorial balances
The centuries before (which in different historiographical periodizations are considered as the first of the Late Middle Ages or a distinct era called the Full Middle Ages) meant in the Iberian Peninsula a period of alternatives in the balance between Christians and Muslims.
The initial Christian predominance over the taifa kingdoms was manifested in the conquest of Toledo (1085, Alfonso VI), which allowed the western kingdoms to repopulate the space north of the Tagus. This decisive social process was carried out by granting privileges (territorial privileges) to powerful urban councils "Council (history)") that were surrounded by a rural alfoz "Alfoz (urbanism)") (village and land communities).
The threat of disappearance led the taifas to accept, willingly or by force, the intervention of the Almoravid empire, which managed to stop and even reverse the Christian advances (battle of Sagrajas, 1086, Muslim recovery of Aledo - a Christian enclave maintained in Murcia between 1088 and 1091 -, Muslim recovery of Valencia - a kingdom maintained by El Cid and his widow between 1094 and 1102 -, Battle of Uclés "Battle of Uclés (1108)"), 1108).
The division of the second taifas once again allowed a new Christian expansion in the century: in 1118 Zaragoza was conquered and the following year Tudela (both by the Navarrese-Aragonese kingdom of Alfonso I the Battler - who even carried out a prolonged expedition through Andalusia between 1125 and 1126), in 1147 Lisbon (by the kingdom of Portugal of Alfonso Enríquez), in 1148 Tortosa and the following year Lérida (incorporated as "marquisates" to the set of Catalan counties of Ramón Berenguer IV), in 1171 Teruel (incorporated into the kingdom of Aragon of Alfonso II), in 1177 Cuenca "Cuenca (Spain)") (by the kingdom of Castile of Alfonso VIII). Such progress made it possible to begin the repopulation of the space between the Tagus and Sierra Morena in the western kingdoms (Alentejo, Extremadura, La Mancha) and the Ebro valley, the Iberian System and the Maestrazgo in the eastern ones. In these new frontier lands, the repopulating role of the military orders was fundamental (those common to all of Christendom - Templars, Hospitallers and the Holy Sepulchre - and those of the peninsular kingdoms - Avis, Santiago, Alcántara, Calatrava and Montesa -).
A new North African intervention, that of the Almohad empire, pushed back the Christian borders (battle of Alarcos and capture of Calatrava la Vieja, 1195) and once again unified the Muslim space. At the peak of his power came his defeat, in what is considered the most decisive battle of the Reconquista: Las Navas de Tolosa (July 16, 1212), which allowed in the following decades the Christian conquest of the most populated areas: the Guadalquivir valley (Fernando III "the saint") and the kingdoms of Mallorca, Valencia and Murcia "Kingdom of Murcia (Crown of Castile)") (Jaime I "the conqueror", in the last case, together with his son-in-law Alfonso The repopulation of these territories was carried out with the repartimiento system, which implied compensation equivalent to the military contribution in the conquest (which benefited the nobles and institutions with greater capacity to mobilize hosts).
Political entities were made and unmade with great fluidity, following the feudal-vassal dynamics and dynastic games (even for a brief period a two-headed monarchy between Urraca de León and Alfonso I of Aragón seemed possible). Castile, Crown of Aragon, and Nasrid Emirate of Granada (the only surviving Muslim State).[8].
Structures, institutions and ideology
The political instability of the taifas did not imply a decline in either their culture or their structures: it occurred paradoxically at the same time as economic and demographic growth;[58] which intensified the extractive capacity of the Christian kingdoms, aware of their lower level of initial development and eager to grow at their expense. Some cases were extraordinary: of Sancho VII of Navarra (the one who managed to break the chains of the emir's tent in Las Navas - chains that he incorporated into his shield -), it is said that the loot he accumulated was such that he became "the banker of the kings".[59] The economic strength that the Christian kingdoms achieved allowed them to undertake construction and artistic programs of extraordinary magnitude, in contemporary styles (Romanesque and Gothic), in both cases with local characteristics. which are called Mudejar art (Mudejar Romanesque, Mudejar Gothic) when they have a very marked Andalusian influence (often, because they are made by Muslim artisans). The expansion of the monasteries of the Benedictine order linked to French houses (first the Cluniacs and then the Cistercians) was encouraged by the kings (who were also dynastically linked with central European houses - the Jimena dynasty with the Burgundian dynasty -) and powerful families, consolidating an estate society typical of feudalism. The social conflict generated by this socioeconomic context was expressed in movements that on some occasions had a documentary reflection, such as the bourgeois revolts of Sahagún (since 1111) and the revolt of Santiago "against Bishop Gelmírez (1136).[60].
• - Victory of Saint Thomas Aquinas over Averroes, by Benozzo Gozzoli, 1468-1484. The Andalusian philosopher appears lying down, while Plato and Aristotle appear standing, flanking the saint.
• - Ark of the Ivories (San Isidoro de León) "Ark of the Ivories (San Isidoro de León)"), 1059.
• - The miracle of Fanjeaux or The trial by fire (the books of the Albigensians burn, while that of Santo Domingo de Guzmán does not). Painting by Pedro Berruguete, ca. 1495.
The institutionalization of the feudal monarchy included the creation of the Cortes "Cortes (Ancient Regime)"), expansion of the "Curia Regis "Curia regia (Spain)") until a representative assembly of the nobility, the clergy and the cities of each kingdom was formed. The alternatives of dynastic politics determined inheritances and marriages that divided and merged kingdoms (Castilla y León on several occasions, until its definitive unification with Fernando III "the Saint"). Faced with the greater internal power that the kings of the Crown of Castile managed to accumulate, the opposite case was that of Aragon: converted into a kingdom after its separation from Navarre, it could have become a territory in charge of military orders if the will of Alfonso I the Battler had been fulfilled; The nobles agreed to ignore him, and elevate to the throne Ramiro II the Monk (he of the legendary bell of Huesca) who, a year after ensuring the succession with the birth of his daughter Petronila, agreed to her marriage with the count of Barcelona Ramón Berenguer IV, to whom he left the government of the kingdom, returning to his monastery (in 1137 - the wedding had to wait thirteen years -). The resulting political entity (Crown of Aragon) incorporated the successive conquests with a similar separation criterion: federated territories with differentiated institutions.
The birth of the Romance languages and their literatures
It is at this time that the first written testimonies of the Romance or Neo-Latin languages appeared. Latin had ceased to be sufficiently intelligible, and it became necessary for some documents to include words, entire phrases or glosses in the vulgar language: in the century the Nodicia de Kesos, in the century the Silenses and Emiliano glosses in Castilian (they also include words in Basque, which is not Romance, but pre-Roman")), and some examples of Catalan (a feudal oath, some greuges") or complaints); At the end of the century and the beginning of the century there were already great texts, such as the Homilies of Organyà, the Cantar de Mio Cid or the cantiga de escarnio Ora faz ost'o senhor de Navarra. Much earlier (end of the century and beginning of the century), the southern or Mozarabic romances left testimony in the jarchas (parts of longer poetic compositions, in Hispanic Arabic, where phrases in the Mozarabic language are used as a literary resource), written by Andalusian Muslims or Jews, in Arabic characters. Western or Galician-Portuguese romance became a prestigious literary language (it was the one chosen by Alfonso X for the Cantigas de Santa María). Of all the central romances (Leonese, Asturian, Navarro-Aragonese) only the Castilian one was consolidated, prestigious for its courtly use and for the strength of its literature, both popular and cultured (mester of minstrelsy and mester of clergy, in Gonzalo de Berceo's terms). The oriental or Catalan romance spread through Valencia (Valenciano), Mallorca (Mallorca) and, later, part of Sardinia (Alguerés).
Art from the 11th to the 13th centuries
The political weakness of the taifas did not produce a cultural decline, but quite the opposite, a greater refinement and diffusion throughout the Andalusian territory, due to the multiplication of competitive courts. Above the numerous fortified palaces or citadels (Almería, Málaga), the Aljafería palace in Zaragoza stands out. A unique building is the Bañuelo de Granada (from the Zirid period, 19th century).
Very few remains remain of Almoravid art, such as a qubba (dome) from the old palace of Seville (today in the Patio de Banderas of the Real Alcázar),[66] and the castle of Monteagudo. Al-Idrisi reports that the textile workshops of Almería reached great perfection in the manufacture of attabi"), comparable to Persian silks.
Notable buildings have remained of Almohad art in Seville: the Torre del Oro and the Giralda (former minaret of the mosque), which maintains the initial decoration on its walls - the upper bodies are from the Christian period -) and the Patio del Yeso) of the Real Alcázar.[67].
Andalusian ceramics and Andalusian sumptuary arts") had a great development.
From the century onwards, European artistic influence (especially Burgundian – Cluniac monasteries – and Lombard – Lombard arches –) was superimposed on local artistic traditions (Visigothic, Andalusian, Asturian, Mozarabic and Mudejar) giving rise to an art of marked personality. The Romanesque was a Christian art that was limited to the northern third of the peninsula, with practically no presence south of the Ebro and the Tagus.
The chronology in the penetration of architectural forms is visible in a display from east to west, being the first examples in Catalonia (San Pedro de Roda, 1022) and developing around the Camino de Santiago those of Aragon (Cathedral of Jaca, since 1054), Navarra (San Pedro de Leyre, 1057), Castile (San Martín de Frómista "Iglesia de San Martín (Frómista)"), 1066) and León (San Isidoro – portico of 1067–), ending in Galicia, where the most notable work was built: the cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (begun in 1075 with the pilgrimage plan"), characteristic of most of the churches along the way, from that of San Sernin in Toulouse. The century marked the culmination of the style (monastery of Ripoll, churches of). Bohí and Tahull -in Catalonia-, Loarre castle, monastery of San Juan de la Peña -in Aragon-, Royal Palace of Estella "Palace of the Kings of Navarra (Estella)"), San Miguel de Estella, Santa María de Eunate, San Pedro de Olite "Church of San Pedro (Olite)") -in Navarra-, Segovian porticoed churches, Santo Domingo de Soria "Church of Santo Domingo (Soria)"), San Juan de Duero -in Castilla-, Zamora Cathedral, Old Cathedral of Salamanca -in León-). Since the end of the century the transition from Romanesque to Gothic has been identified (Tarragona Cathedral, Lérida Cathedral "Catedral de la Seo Vieja (Lérida)").
Late Middle Ages
El "óptimo climático medieval" que se mantuvo hasta finales del siglo había permitido un incremento demográfico notable, lo que explica la facilidad repobladora de núcleos preexistentes y la fundación de las numerosas "villanuevas"). El cambio se evidenció con las malas cosechas y hambrunas de la primera mitad del siglo y, sobre todo, a partir de la peste negra de 1348, que supuso la muerte de un tercio a un quinto de las poblaciones de distintas zonas geográficas (incluyendo a un rey: Alfonso XI).
Las consecuencias económicas y sociales fueron trascendentales: el abandono de tierras de cultivo llevó al aumento de la importancia de la ganadería (controlada por la aristocracia a través de instituciones como la Mesta o la Casa de Ganaderos de Zaragoza y sus redes de cañadas); el incremento de la presión feudal (no de la servidumbre, que ya había decaído)[6] llevó a revueltas campesinas como las de los irmandiños en Galicia o los payeses de remensa en Cataluña;[71] se produjo una polarización social transversal a los estamentos (entre alta y baja nobleza, entre alta y baja burguesía) cuyos divergentes intereses económicos se expresaron en conflictos como el desencadenado entre los bandos barceloneses denominados la Biga y la Busca. En la Corona de Castilla fueron especialmente importantes los bandos creados en torno a los grupos sociales interesados en mantener la exportación en crudo de lana a Flandes a través de la red de ferias (Medina del Campo) y las ciudades mercantiles de la periferia (Sevilla o Burgos -desde donde salía la lana hacia los puertos del Cantábrico como Santander "Santander (España)"), Laredo "Laredo (Cantabria)") o Bilbao, fundada en 1300-) o su elaboración como paños en las ciudades artesanas del interior (Segovia, Cuenca "Cuenca (España)") o Toledo). Determinaron incluso la política exterior (alianza con Francia o con Inglaterra). Las derrotas inglesas en las fases finales de la Guerra de los Cien Años (1337-1453) cerraron a la lana inglesa el mercado flamenco, y se lo abrieron a la castellana; encumbrando a la aristocracia mesteña y a la alta burguesía de financieros y mercaderes, y frustrando la evolución social del patriciado urbano.[72].
El potencial de conflicto social tuvo un peculiar mecanismo de desviación hacia un objetivo fácil de identificar: los judíos, objeto de las revueltas de 1391 que provocaron matanzas y conversiones masivas, a partir de los cuales se inició una nueva categoría social: los judeoconversos. Lejos de acabar con sus problemas, su prosperidad (un significativo número de ellos ocuparon altos cargos en la Iglesia y la Haciencia real) les convirtieron en objeto de una creciente discriminación y ataques (revuelta de Pedro Sarmiento en Toledo, 1449, estatutos de limpieza de sangre), expresados en la generalizada acusación de ser marranos "Marrano (judeoconverso)") (practicar ocultamente el judaísmo); lo que condujo a la creación de la Inquisición española y a la pretensión de los Reyes Católicos de cortar todo tipo de lazos con los judíos mediante la expulsión de los judíos de sus reinos en 1492, seguida por la del reino de Portugal") en 1497.
Tras las tomas de Niebla (1262, una de las operaciones militares en que está atestiguada la utilización de primitivas armas de fuego) y Cádiz (1264), que dejaron bajo control cristiano todo el suroeste peninsular, el proceso reconquistador se detuvo, con pocas modificaciones fronterizas en los siguientes doscientos años. Las únicas de importancia en ese periodo fueron la toma cristiana de Tarifa "Tarifa (Cádiz)") (1292) y Gibraltar (1309), contrarrestradas por la recuperación musulmana de Algeciras (1329) y el mismo Gibraltar (1333), con ayuda de los benimerines norteafricanos. Mayor importancia tuvo la batalla del Salado (1340), a partir de la cual los cristianos demostraron su capacidad de controlar la navegación por el Estrecho, facilitando una ruta comercial entre los focos económicos más dinámicos de Europa (Flandes e Italia). En el puerto de Sevilla (una escala idónea) se creó una activa colonia de mercaderes y financieros genoveses. Las victorias cristianas en la conquista de Antequera (1410) o en la batalla de la Higueruela (1431), más que consecuencias territoriales las tuvieron políticas, prestigiando, en cada caso, a Fernando de Trastamara (futuro rey de Aragón), y a Álvaro de Luna (valido de Juan II de Castilla). La definitiva toma cristiana de Gibraltar se produjo en 1462, veinte años antes de la guerra de Granada. Los activos puertos comerciales de la Corona de Aragón (Valencia y Barcelona) sentaron las bases económicas de una expansión por el Mediterráneo que llevó a la incorporación de Sicilia (vísperas sicilianas, 1282), Cerdeña y Nápoles (1420 y 1443, con Alfonso V de Aragón) e incluso los ducados de Atenas y Neopatria (expedición de los almogávares de la Gran Compañía Catalana de Roger de Flor, 1302-1391). La expansión castellana y portuguesa no se detuvo en el Estrecho, y continuó por las rutas marítimas del Atlántico, bordeando la costa africana (conquista de Ceuta por Portugal, 1415, conquista de Canarias por Castilla, desde 1402, escuela de Sagres fundada por Enrique el Navegante, 1417).
• - Expansión de la Corona de Aragón por el Mediterráneo.
• - Expansión castellana y portuguesa por el Atlántico (de norte a sur: Azores [1431], Madeira [1418], Canarias [desde 1402] y Cabo Verde [1462]).
Pocos años después de la conquista de los valles del Guadalquivir y del Segura, se produjo en esas zonas una gran rebelión mudéjar (1264), que conllevó una salida masiva de población hacia las zonas bajo control musulmán, donde la dinastía de los nazaríes consolidó su poder en el emirato o sultanato de Granada.
Desde finales del siglo los conflictos internos, expresados en disputas sucesorias, llevaron a constantes guerras civiles en todos los reinos peninsulares, tanto en el musulmán como en los cristianos, especialmente en Navarra (guerra de la Navarrería, guerra civil de Navarra), y en la corona de Castilla (entre los partidarios de Alfonso X el Sabio y los de su hijo Sancho, entre los partidarios de los infantes de la Cerda y los de Fernando IV "el emplazado", entre los de Pedro I "el Cruel" y Enrique II "el de las mercedes" -de la nueva dinastía Trastamara-, entre los de Juana "la Beltraneja" y los de Isabel "la Católica"). Muchos de ellos se inscribieron en conflictos de dimensión europea, como la Guerra de los Cien Años, o entre reinos cristianos peninsulares, como la Guerra de los Dos Pedros (1356-1369, entre Castilla y Aragón) y la batalla de Aljubarrota (1385, entre Castilla y Portugal). La alianza anglo-portuguesa (1373) demostró tener una extraordinaria proyección (se ha prolongado, bajo distintas formas, hasta el día de hoy). En la Corona de Aragón, la ausencia de heredero directo llevó a las Cortes a elegir como rey a Fernando "el de Antequera", emparentado con los Trastamara castellanos (compromiso de Caspe de 1412).
El incremento del poder real en Castilla propició una intensa actividad legislativa y recopilatoria (Código de las Siete Partidas, Ordenamiento de Alcalá); formando una monarquía autoritaria basada en una Hacienda en gran medida en manos de las poderosas familias judeoconversas y una burocracia que permitió el encumbramiento de letrados de modesta extracción social (Chancillería de Valladolid, secretarios reales "Secretario de Estado (Antiguo Régimen en España)"), Consejo de Castilla). En la Corona de Aragón, el mayor poder de las ciudades y la nobleza llevó a la concentración en las Cortes y las Generalidades de funciones que en Castilla ejercía directamente el poder real, y al desarrollo de un particularismo local fundamentado en una ideología pactista.
Art and culture of the 14th and 15th centuries
In the kingdom of Granada, Nasrid art was developed, of which the refined palace complex of the Alhambra stands out. In 1349 Yusuf I founded the madrassa of Granada.
• - Patio de los Arrayanes.
• - Courtyard of the Lions.
• - Plasterwork and tiles.
For Christian art, the centuries meant a continuity of Gothic, which became increasingly complex and speculative (late Gothic, flamboyant Gothic, international Gothic, florid Gothic). Some novel characteristics of the art of the century, especially the Flemish and Italian influences, turn the era into a transition to the Renaissance or Pre-Renaissance in Spain; although forms of unequivocal local tradition (Mudejar) were maintained. The designations of styles for the period include the label "Hispano-Flamenco", the "Elizabethan Gothic" or "Catholic Monarchs style" and the "Manuelino" (after King Manuel I of Portugal, who arrived in the first decades of the century - when the Cisneros style and the last phases of the Plateresque already occurred in Castile). Decorative elements acquired particular importance, not only in stonework, but also in furniture art (gridwork, chairs,[74] etc.).
The last centuries of the Middle Ages saw a true flowering of intellectual life, multiplying educational institutions, with the competitive presence of religious orders (especially Dominicans, Franciscans and Augustinians). Universities and colleges became a training mechanism for ecclesiastical and bureaucratic elites, through which clientelist networks were established. To those already existing in Salamanca, Valladolid and Murcia, and to the institutions known as studium arabicum et hebraicum (Toledo, Murcia, Seville, Barcelona); The University of Lérida (1300), the University of Coimbra (1308, transferred from Lisbon), the University of Perpignan (1350), the Sertoriana University of Huesca (1353), the University of Valencia (1414), the University of Barcelona (1450) and the University of Santiago de Compostela (1495) were added.
The arrival of the printing press in Spain took a few years after its appearance and diffusion throughout Central Europe and Italy, but it was very early; and it was due to the concern of the humanist Juan Arias Dávila, bishop of Segovia, to reform the customs of the clergy (Sinodal de Aguilafuente, 1472). In the following years, printing workshops were opened in Barcelona, Valencia, Seville and Salamanca. By the end of the century there were almost thirty in operation. It was also an ecclesiastical reform, the one proposed by Cardinal Cisneros (called Cisnerian reform), which motivated the refoundation of the University of Alcalá "Universidad de Alcalá (historical)") in 1499 (on a studium pre-existing since 1293).
Medievalism in Spain
Medievalism understood as a study of the Middle Ages has had a privileged field in historiography and the history of Spanish literature, both due to the relative abundance of documents (compared to other areas) and the intellectual quality of those who have dedicated themselves to it, both Spaniards and foreign Hispanists.
The construction of a national history was in Spain, as in other countries, an essential step in the process of construction of national consciousness or Spanish nationalism; competing since the end of the century with peripheral nationalisms. In both cases, the claim as "national glories" of medieval characters was a widely used resource (beyond whether such use was justified or not).
Understood as historicism in aesthetic fields, Spanish romanticism had, like that of other countries, a special predilection for the Middle Ages (in fact, many romantics from other countries had a predilection for the Spanish Middle Ages, such as Washington Irving -Tales of the Alhambra-). Medievalist reconstructions occurred both in Spanish romantic theater (Hartzenbusch, The Lovers of Teruel) and in the Spanish historical novel (Pedro Montengón -El Rodrigo-, Larra -El doncel de don Enrique el doliente–, Enrique Gil y Carrasco -El Señor de Bembibre-, Manuel Fernández y González -El tributo de las centenaras dicellas-) or the Leyendas&action=edit&redlink=1 "Leyendas (Bécquer) (not yet written)") by Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Also in history painting (very notable are the collections of the Palace of the Cortes and the Senate Palace "Palacio del Senate (Spain)"), as well as that gathered in the Prado Museum) and in sculptural monuments, which are urban landmarks in many towns. Spanish architecture, in addition to following the international neo-Gothic fashion, contributed neo-Mudejar as its own characteristic.
• - Filming of El Cid in front of the Belmonte castle. For the scenes located in Valencia, the Peñíscola castle was used, which, because it did not seem "medieval" enough, was equipped with battlements that have not been removed.[75].
• - Bust of the medievalist Claudio Sánchez Albornoz.
• - Ramón Menéndez Pidal and María Goyri on their honeymoon along the Cid route, in 1900.
• - Conversion of Recaredo, by Muñoz Degrain.
• - The creation of the coat of arms of the house of Barcelona or The death of Wifredo 'the hairy', by Claudio Lorenzale.
• - Statue of Abderramán I in Almuñécar.
• - Equestrian statue of “El Cid” in Burgos.
• - Cathedral of the Good Shepherd of San Sebastián.
• - Laredo Palace in Alcalá de Henares.
It is significant that, in public monuments, the traditional preference for Christian figures has recently given way to a demand for Muslim figures who, in many cases, have a special connection with the cities that honor them (for example, around the vestiges of the Muslim wall of Madrid, a park dedicated to Mohamed I, the emir who founded Magerit, has been opened).
The historiography of art in Spain, after condemning everything that is not properly "academic" (Viage de España by Antonio Ponz), had in Jovellanos the first great revaluation of the Middle Ages (despite the crudeness of his interpretation - he defined Asturian art by identifying it with the Romanesque -); Villaamil made about monuments that were deteriorating at an accelerated pace since the confiscation. The poet Bécquer and his brother Valeriano were also interested in this task.
• - Royal Monastery of Santa Engracia, by Pérez Villaamil.
• - Tomb of Juana Manuel, by Carderera.
The parody that Muñoz Seca made of historical dramas set in the Spanish Middle Ages (The Revenge of Don Mendo) had the virtue of putting an end to them; bridging distances, the same effect that Don Quixote de la Mancha had with the books of chivalry. The baroque plays located in the medieval period responded to other literary and ideological criteria (The best mayor, the king or Fuenteovejuna, by Lope de Vega, Reinar ater dying"), by Luis Vélez de Guevara, Las mocedades del Cid, by Guillén de Castro - converted by Corneille into his classic El Cid "El Cid (Corneille)")-).
There has also been the use of medieval settings in poetry.
Historical cinema had its peak in the Spanish post-war period, and among other historical periods, the Middle Ages were also covered. In some cases, previous works were adapted, such as the novel Amaya or the Basques in the Century (by Francisco Navarro Villoslada). Even Hollywood became interested in medieval Spain, making the blockbuster El Cid "El Cid (film)") (1961).
Since the end of the century the medievalist revival have become popular as cultural activities widely spread throughout the Spanish geography (Teruel –"the lovers"–, Hospital de Órbigo –"the honorable step"–, Hita -"the archpriest"-, Aguilafuente -"the Sinodal"-, Argüeso, etc.). Much older are local traditions such as the Moors and Christians festivals (in many towns, especially in Levante), the procession or tribute of the cantaderas of León (which remembers the tribute of the hundred maidens) or the waving of flags from the Granada town hall (which commemorates the conquest of the city).
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Medieval History of Spain.
• - The Andalusian legacy Foundation (Junta de Andalucía).
• - Medieval Catalonia (catalogue, with text by Joan Ainaud de Lasarte, from the exhibition from May 20 to August 10, Barcelona 1992 - Generalitat de Catalunya, Department of Culture -not accessible-).
• - (May 26 to July 26, 1992, commissioner Luis Adao da Fonseca") -Republic of Portugal, Banco de Santander Foundation and Madrid European Capital of Culture Consortium 1992-).
• - The Ages of Man Foundation (holds exhibitions with funds from the dioceses of Castilla y León).
[3] ↑ La ceremonia de entrega de la ciudad fue el 2 de enero, y se sigue recordando anualmente en esa ciudad con un tremolar de banderas en el Ayuntamiento.
[4] ↑
[5] ↑ La expresión, que obviamente tiene uso muy anterior, es el subtítulo de España en su historia - Cristianos, moros y judíos (Losada, 1948). Fue posteriormente popularizada en la forma judíos, moros y cristianos, por haber sido escogida por Camilo José Cela para titular una de sus obras (Judíos, moros y cristianos, Destino, 1989, ISBN 8423304825).
[6] ↑ a b La determinación de la naturaleza de la condición servil o libre de los campesinos, de las prestaciones de trabajo (corveas o sernas), de la distribución del terrazgo, de la propiedad alodial o sometida a distintas formas de dominio compartido (útil, eminente) o de vinculación (eclesiástica -abadengo, señorío eclesiástico- nobiliaria -mayorazgos-, concejil -propios y comunales- o de otras instituciones -universidades, colegios mayores, todo tipo de fundaciones-), de los señoríos (territoriales o jurisdiccionales, según la diferenciación a posteriori que pretendió delimitarse en la revolución liberal española), de la extensión del realengo y otros extremos del feudalismo en España (o su negación por no acomodarse al modelo carolingio-francés -excepto en Cataluña-) es un problema o debate historiográfico clásico. En cualquier caso, para el siglo XIV la servidumbre era marginal en España, como en toda Europa occidental, mientras que comienza a desarrollarse en Europa oriental. En cambio, la definición de relaciones de producción feudales en el campo no tiene por qué depender de la condición jurídica servil, dado que lo sustancial (en terminología propia del materialismo histórico) es la extracción del excedente mediante coerción extraeconómica (Marta Harnecker, Marc Bloch, Perry Anderson). Ejemplos de uso de "desaparición de la servidumbre" en el contexto de la España bajomedieval: Luis Suárez Fernández Archivado el 8 de abril de 2014 en Wayback Machine., José María Mínguez, Vicente Risco. Salustiano Moreta (1978) Señores contra labradores: el malhechor feudal en la literatura:
[11] ↑ Aurelio Víctor, Epit. de Caes. 33, 3: (Gallienus) rem romanam quasi naufragio dedit... adeo uti ... francorum gentes direpta Gallia Hispaniam possiderent, uastato ac paene direpto Tarraconensium oppido, nactisque in tempore nauigiis pars in usque Africam permearet.... Eutropio, 9, 8, 2: Germani usque ad Hispanias penetrauerunt et ciuitatem nobilem Tarraconem
[14] ↑ Citado por Claudio Sánchez Albornoz, Lecturas históricas, 1929 (recogido en cervantesvirtual Archivado el 18 de agosto de 2012 en Wayback Machine.). Compárese con un pasaje muy similar de la Primera Crónica General de España, que se recoge a continuación en la misma web.: http://bib.cervantesvirtual.com/historia/textos/medieval/alta_edad_media1.shtml
[18] ↑ Rucquoi, Adeline (2000). «“Españoles” frente a “Cristianos”: La España Tripartita». Historia Medieval de la Península Ibérica. El Colegio de Michoacán. p. 76.
[21] ↑ Un subgénero completo del romancero son los Romances de la pérdida de España, y referencias parciales aparecen en muchos otros, como el Poema de Fernán González. Es muy significativo que Rodrigo aparezca bien tratado a pesar de su derrota, y de responsabilizarle de ella por sus pecados. En algún caso, incluso se le termina santificando, atribuyéndole una terrible muerte a la que se somete voluntariamente, tiempo después de darle por desaparecido en la batalla de Guadalete: «La culebra me comía / cómeme ya por la parte / que todo lo merecía / por donde fue el principio / de la mi muy gran desdicha» / El ermitaño lo esfuerza, / el buen rey así moría. / Aquí acabó el rey Rodrigo, / al cielo derecho se iba. (n.º 605 del Romancero General de Agustín Durán, que anota: la lección de Cervantes en estos versos es: Ya me comen, ya me comen / por do más pecado había –Quijote, parte II, cap. XXXVI–, Rivadeneyra, 1834, pg. 411).: http://books.google.es/books?id=HgYWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA411&lpg=PA411&dq=%22ya+me+comen%22+%22por+do+m%C3%A1s+pecado+hab%C3%ADa%22&source=bl&ots=pWXARLly8U&sig=KoZOZsMS8zycx0G4HPcruBuyrjk&hl=es#v=onepage&q=%22ya%20me%20comen%22%20%22por%20do%20m%C3%A1s%20pecado%20hab%C3%ADa%22&f=false
[22] ↑ La revolución islámica en Occidente, 1966-1974.
[23] ↑ Agila y los demás hijos de Witiza, así como su tío Oppas, obispo de Toledo, son presentados de forma inmisericorde en la cronística y la épica cristianas; y aparecen también en las crónicas árabes, que los denominan Alamund, Waqula y Artubas (Alamundo u Olmundo, Agila y Artobás o Ardabasto). En una de estas crónicas, la viuda de Witiza es quien gobierna en Toledo, y Rodrigo es un usurpador a quien los hijos de Witiza quieren apartar con ayuda de Táriq. El acuerdo a que llegan con éste les garantiza tres mil aldeas (safaya al-muluk), pero sólo fue efectivo tras que Musa les envíe a Damasco para que lo confirme el Califa Walid I. Alamundo recibió Sevilla y Artobás Córdoba. Desposeído éste por aquél, la hija de Artobás, Sara, reclama justicia en Damasco. El califa no sólo le concedió lo que demandaba, sino que la casó con Isa ben Muhazim, con quien tuvo dos hijos (uno de los cuales fue antepasado de Ibn al-Qutiyya –"hijo de la goda"–, autor de esta crónica). La visita de Sara a Damasco fue la que permitió a Abderramán I establecer los contactos con la élite andalusí que con el tiempo le permitieron convertirse en emir de Córdoba en 756. La continuidad de Agila tras la derrota de Rodrigo está confirmada por la numismática, pues acuñó moneda en Zaragoza, Gerona, Tarragona y Narbona. Algunas de esas monedas han aparecido en el yacimiento de El Bovalar (provincia de Lérida), que fue destruido violentamente en algún momento del siglo VIII. Este rey Agila también aparece citado en un latérculo (definición de este término) de los reyes visigodos escrito en algún lugar de Cataluña (quizá Septimania) en 822, atribuyéndosele el reinado siguiente a Witiza; habría durado tres años (de 710 a 713), seguido por el de Ardo o Ardón, quien habría reinado siete años más, siendo el último. Eduardo Manzano, Conquistadores, Emires Y Califas: Los Omeyas Y la Formación de Al-Andalus, Crítica, 2006, ISBN 8484326748, pg. 44 y ss.: http://books.google.es/books?id=lpSp5sfmEXEC&pg=PA172&lpg=PA172&dq=lat%C3%A9rculo&source=bl&ots=dZN4YfgyVZ&sig=NPhf8Zmb2nWR1Nwk5AVY9_DsOQE&hl=es#v=onepage&q=lat%C3%A9rculo&f=false
[34] ↑ Educación comparada - Guía de estudio, pg. 41. Un ejemplo de valoración comparativa con las universidades medievales La Mezquita-Catedral, primer icono para Córdoba 2016 Archivado el 8 de abril de 2014 en Wayback Machine.:
[36] ↑ García Fitz, Francisco (1 de enero de 2009). «La Reconquista: un estado de la cuestión». Clío & Crimen: Revista del Centro de Historia del Crimen de Durango (6): 142-215. ISSN 1698-4374. Consultado el 30 de septiembre de 2016.: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=3158663
[39] ↑ * Isidro Bango Torviso, Alta Edad Media: de la tradición hispanogoda al románico, Introducción al Arte Español, Sílex Ediciones, 1994, ISBN 8477370141
[43] ↑ Las iglesias juraderas, en Revista Bascongada. Véase también Jura de Santa Gadea, Ermita de Nuestra Señora del Salcinar y del Rosario, Casa Consistorial de Miranda de Ebro#Iglesias juraderas medievales, Iglesia del Espíritu Santo (Miranda de Ebro), Iglesia de San Miguel Arcángel (Vitoria), Basílica de San Vicente (Ávila), Iglesia de San Miguel de los Octoes, Casa de Juntas de Guernica.
[47] ↑ La fecha y valoración de la trascendencia de tal asamblea de Tolosa no es la misma en toda la bibliografía: Los historiadores consideran como acto fundacional de la Marca Hispánica el acuerdo de una asamblea de Tolosa, convocada por Ludovico Pío –hijo de Carlomagno–, en 797, de reconstruir las fortalezas fronterizas de Ausona, Cardona y Casseres, de cuya defensa fue encargado el conde Borrell de Urgel-Cerdaña. No es de esa opinión, sin embargo, R. de Abadal (Manuel Mourelle de Lema, La identidad etnolingüística de Valencia, Grugalma, 1996, ISBN 848808109X, pg. 7). Se indica la presencia de delegados asturianos, y que Ludovico Pío emprendió una campaña con ayuda de Alfonso II de Asturias para controlar Pamplona y Aragón. José Luis Orella et al., Historia de Euskal Herria, Txalaparta, 1996, ISBN 8481369462, pg. 90. Las denominaciones, divisiones y límites de la Marca son muy variables en cada documento (Marca de Gocia, Marca de Tolosa). Josefina Mateu, Colectánea paleográfica de la Corona de Aragón I, Universitat de Barcelona, 1991, ISBN 8475286941, pg. 35.: http://books.google.es/books?id=zlNiAAAAMAAJ&q=%22marca+hisp%C3%A1nica%22+%22ludovico+p%C3%ADo%22+tolosa&dq=%22marca+hisp%C3%A1nica%22+%22ludovico+p%C3%ADo%22+tolosa&source=bl&ots=UR7YvBQVBE&sig=kZiFnHJjhhZz-whys2WKsYPMUqw&hl=es&sa=X&ei=nMVIUIT8NcmKhQem14HIAw&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBA
[48] ↑ Suárez, op. cit., pg. 188.
[49] ↑ * Historia de la diplomacia española, Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, 1991, ISBN 8487661092, vol. 3, pg. 102: Parece en efecto claro que en la segunda década del siglo IX, Alhakem I y Carlomagno concertaron una tregua y que los soberanos carolingios y los emires cordobeses firmaban paces o ajustaban armisticios, y que lo hacían por el medio habitual y consagrado del envío de embajadores.
[50] ↑ Martín de Riquer, Història de la Literatura Catalana, vol. 1, Barcelona: Ariel. Fuente citada en Liber feudorum Ceritaniae.
[57] ↑ Mario Agudo, Biografía de Doña Urraca - Reina de León y Castilla, en Arteguías: una monarquía con dos titulares para un imperio hispánico, el resultado fue la carta de arras de Alfonso I y la carta de donación de Urraca, ambas firmadas en diciembre de 1109 bajo el valimento de Pedro Ansúrez. En estas capitulaciones, ambos cónyuges se otorgaban recíprocamente el reconocimiento del dominatus y principatum sobre sus respectivos estados y vasallos, como fundamento para ejercer ambos la potestas en los dominios del otro.: http://www.arteguias.com/biografia/donaurraca.htm
[58] ↑ Es probable que hacia el siglo XI Siyasa iniciara su despliegue demográfico, como ocurrió en muchos lugares de Sarq al-Andalus, entre ellas Murcia y Valencia, a pesar de que este fue un periodo de intestabilidad política y de debilidad frente a los cada vez más poderosos reinos cristianos (Julio Navarro Palazón, Pedro Jiménez Castillo, Siyasa: Estudio Arqueológico Del Despoblado Andalusí(Ss. XI-XIII), Fundación El legado andalusì, 2007, ISBN 8496395278, pg. 54).: http://books.google.es/books?id=FiwBpybo_zQC&dq=econom%C3%ADa+taifas&hl=es&source=gbs_navlinks_s
[59] ↑ «Se ha supuesto que sus riquezas provenían de los tesoros traídos de su viaje a Andalucia, pero si algo recibió -lo que no está probado- no podía dar para tanto, ya que el monarca siguió manejando grandes cantidades hasta el fin de su vida, y un autor contemporáneo estima que al morir dejaba en el tesoro 1.700.000 libras. » véase en Lacarra, José María (2000). Caja de Ahorros de Navarra, ed. Historia del reino de Navarra en la Edad Media (2 edición). pp. 130-131. ISBN 84-500-7465-7. Archivado desde el original el 1 de noviembre de 2020. Consultado el 6 de diciembre de 2020. . El botín fue enorme y su saldo pasó a fortalecer el erario de los reinos cristianos. Durante algún tiempo, Sancho el Fuerte, rey de Navarra, fue el prestamista más importante de Europa occidental (Stanley Payne, La España medieval, pg. 99). Es posible intuir los efectos de esta campaña militar sobre los recursos de, al menos, un individuo: el rey de Navarra. Sancho VII fue uno de los monarcas más ricos de su época y ya hemos dejado constancia de su actividad como prestamista de otros reyes. ... llegándose inevitablemente a la conclusión de que «el botín de Las Navas de Tolosa supuso sin duda una notable inyección (Francisco García Fitz, Las Navas de Tolosa, pg. 178).: https://web.archive.org/web/20201101001752/https://www.fundacioncajanavarra.es/sites/default/files/reino_nav_em_can000050000000000000000000000410.pdf
[71] ↑ En otros lugares también se produjo conflictividad campesina, aunque de forma menos espectacular (Miguel Larrañaga Zulueta, En torno a la conflictividad campesina navarra bajomedieval Archivado el 17 de octubre de 2017 en Wayback Machine.).: http://www.liceus.com/cgi-bin/aco/his/03/02/0280.asp
[74] ↑ Dorothée Heim, Las intarsias de la sillería del coro de Plasencia: influencia italiana temprana en el núcleo artístico toledano Archivado el 20 de febrero de 2017 en Wayback Machine.. Entre otras fuentes, cita: H.L. ARENA, “Las sillerías de coro del maestro Rodrigo Alemán. Las sillerías del gótico tardío en España”, Boletín del Seminario de Estudios de Arte y Arqueología, 32 (1966), pp. 102-106; y J.I. HERNÁNDEZ REDONDO y M. ARIAS MARTÍNEZ, “La silla de Rodrigo Alemán en el Museo Nacional de Escultura”, Homenaje al Profesor Martín González, Valladolid, 1995, p. 379.: http://www.revistas.ucm.es%2Findex.php%2FANHA%2Farticle%2Fdownload%2F39081%2F37694&ei=BjxDUPHfFIeBhQee9YHYBQ&usg=AFQjCNE5lVzSmjOE7LyYJ58iuqkJ9NBO5Q
[78] ↑ Muerto el 4 de julio de 1990. Carlos Estepa El pensamiento historiográfico de Abilio Barbero, Revista de historia Jerónimo Zurita, N.º 73, 1998, pags. 41-48.: http://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/15162
At strategic points the Muslim authorities maintained some military garrisons (whose main purpose was to ensure the collection of revenues). They have survived in toponymy with the root qalat. In the Duero Valley, an attempt was made to install Berber contingents; repopulating (with native population) long-abandoned settlements, even from pre-Roman times. Such enclaves were fortified with castles, aimed more at maintaining a certain independence from Córdoba than at defending themselves from the Christians in the north.
Tax collection and distribution of the loot was carried out by dividing assets into two categories: movable property (amwal")) and real estate (aradi") –especially land–), with a different tax regime for each case. Starting in 730, the tax regime was tightened, at a critical juncture of poor harvests, which coincided with an uprising of the Berbers (which began in North Africa and became a great revolt in 740 that affected the entire Spanish peninsula). The leading Arab minority sought support from the political center of the Islamic West (Maghreb), which at that time was in Ifriqiya (Kairouan, former Carthage, present-day Tunisia), including a Syrian military contingent. The revolt was put down, but it resulted in the Berbers abandoning strategic points of the peninsula, such as the Duero Valley, concentrating around Mérida "Mérida (Spain)").
The Berber abandonment of the Duero Valley, added to the Asturian punitive expeditions (Alfonso I), which stimulated the local population to retreat to the Cantabrian mountain range, motivated Claudio Sánchez Albornoz to coin the disputed historiographic concept of "Duro desert".
The need to increase fiscal pressure to satisfy the needs of a growing Muslim ruling elite on a decreasing population of dimmies (non-Muslims) led to the breach of the capitulation pacts.
An event that occurred in the center of the Islamic world had momentous consequences: in 750 the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, murdering the entire family with the exception of Abd al-Rahman I, who managed to escape, crossing all of North Africa and taking refuge in al-Andalus, where he took the title of emir of Córdoba (756) and ruled independently of the new caliphs, who changed the Muslim capital from Damascus to Baghdad.
Abd al-Rahman, his son Hisam I and their successors intensified the Islamization and Arabization of al-Andalus, bringing Alfaquis from North Africa. A religious pressure group was created, which made itself felt against the Mozarabs and the Christian nuclei of the north (independent in fact, but theoretically subordinated to the authority of Córdoba). Al Hakam I sought to enforce in all its rigor the old conditions of capitulation of the Visigoths, and put pressure on both the so-called dhimmies (Christians and Jews) and the koras "Cora (territorial division)") on the northern border, which were governed very autonomously (upper mark – Zaragoza, dominated by the Muladíes –, lower mark – Mérida, dominated by the Berbers – and middle mark –Toledo, with a great Mozarabic presence–). An episode of very strong repression occurred on the day of the Toledo moat (797). In Córdoba itself, the Arrabal revolt took place (818), harshly put down.[25].
Abd al-Rahman II multiplied sumptuary expenses. The emirate began a visible crisis in the increase of internal revolts (Toledo revolt –Sindola"), 853–,[26] revolts in Tudela de Muza ibn Muza –a Banu Qasi, who relied on his Christian relatives from Pamplona, the Arista–, 842-850,[27]). Between 850 and 859 the crisis of the Mozarabs occurred. Cordoba followers of Saint Eulogius "Eulogius (saint)") who voluntarily faced martyrdom by provoking the Muslim authorities. The capitulation pacts, which had been maintained to a greater or lesser extent since the 19th century, ceased to be valid. The first Viking incursion occurred in 844. After being rejected on the Cantabrian coast (by Ramiro I of Asturias), they skirted the Atlantic coast, sacked Lisbon and went up the coast. Guadalquivir to Seville. Abderramán II was forced to divert the troops from the upper mark to defeat them. In the time of Muhammad I, another Norman raid sacked Galicia, Lisbon and Algeciras "Siege of Algeciras (859)"), and going up the course of the Ebro he managed to take the king of Pamplona prisoner. As a result of this episode, the kingdom of Pamplona began to seek Christian support compared to its previous support from the Muladíes of Tudela.
Numerous revolts even sought the support of northern Christians, increasing the weakness of the central power and the situation of insecurity, which gave rise to autonomous local powers. Of particular importance was the rebellion of Omar ibn Hafsún, a muladi who renounced Islam and converted to Christianity, gaining control of a large territory around Bobastro from the year 880, which his son maintained until 928.
Both these autonomous powers and the governors loyal to the emir resorted to fortification. The existence of defensive towers on the coast and ribats (regions controlled by fortifications run by religious-military groups dedicated to holy war –Jihad–, predecessors of the Christian military orders) that guarded access to coastal areas and river valleys are confirmed. In the fortified districts there was progressive feudalization. Although the theoretical dependence on Córdoba was maintained, those who held local positions of power did so in a patrimonial form, like a tasgil") ("lordship")[28] that the emir could only ratify. The iqtá assumed a patrimonial base of lands and income.[29].
In the year 929, the emir Abd al-Rahman III put an end to the theoretical religious dependence of the Andalusian Muslims on Baghdad and proclaimed himself caliph (successor of the Prophet and head of the believers). The title, used by his heirs until the first years of the century, also questioned the rights of the Fatimids who, from North Africa, sought to reunify the Muslim world as successors of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet; threatening the trade routes controlled by the merchants of Al-Andalus. After receiving the oath of allegiance from Muhammad ben Jazar"), chief of the Zanata Berber tribes, Umayyad troops controlled Tangier, Melilla (927) and Ceuta (931). Andalusian control of the area (a true protectorate) reached its maximum at the end of the century, with the campaigns against the Idrisids, which allowed the taking of Asilah (986) and Oran (998); and to the south the enclave caravanner of Siyilmasa. The Fatimids were forced to direct their interest to the east, conquering Egypt (969) and moving their capital from Ifriqiya to Cairo. Although much of the historiography focuses on the peninsular dimension of the Caliphate, their main strategic concern was North African.[31].
Abd al-Rahman III also modified the military organization, introducing Berber mercenaries and saqaliba into the army (a term for "slaves" bought in European markets, especially those recognizable by their light skin and blonde hair, which gave rise to the term "Slav", although not all would have this ethnic origin).
His construction program around Córdoba was not limited to the expansion of the Mosque (a tradition begun with Abd al-Rahman I and maintained by practically all the main emirs and caliphs), but included an entire palatine city of legendary magnificence: Medina Azahara, planned to dazzle the embassies arriving from all over the known world.
The Caliphate of Córdoba became a great economic and military power, and culturally it reached a true "golden age": not only the caliphs, but a large number of figures from the social elite, competed to maintain around them large or small retinues of poets and musicians, and large libraries (although the function they intended was not so much to expand knowledge, but to give prestige to the owner). Al-Hakem II's library, which included a notary's office and a bookbinding workshop, gathered thousands of books from all types of sources in its library (the catalog occupied forty-four volumes). Upon their death, the Malikíes managed to have many of them (on problematic topics, such as philosophy and astronomy) burned or thrown into a well.[32] It is impossible to specify the level of literacy reached, but it was undoubtedly much higher than in other areas.[33] The fluid exchange of ideas between theologians, jurists, doctors, mathematicians and scientists from the most diverse fields (many of them specialists in several of these fields) stimulated intellectual progress. The school or madrassa of the mosque of Córdoba") in the time of Hixem II was a center of knowledge not only comparable, but probably superior to other similar centers in the Islamic sphere, and far superior to the precarious monastic and cathedral schools of contemporary Christian Europe (the comparison with the later concepts of studium generale and medieval university, which is frequently made, is unnecessarily anachronistic).[34]
At the end of the century the caliphs became figures without effective power, who delegated their exercise, with the position of hijab, to an ambitious character: Almanzor. Both to legitimize his position and to stop the development of the Christian kingdoms of the north and to obtain loot, he organized the famous aceifas, razzias or Almanzor campaigns; a series of fifty-two looting expeditions that he repeated with an almost annual frequency (although he carried out five in a single year, 981), in the summer months (aceifa comes from sayf – "summer", "harvest"–), very often from the base of Medinaceli. The objective was not territorial expansion, except in the area south of the Duero, where the capture of Rueda, Sepúlveda and Atienza in 981 earned him his nickname: al-mansur ("the victorious").
The city of León was sacked four times, but Pamplona and Barcelona were also affected, reaching as far as Narbonne. In the sacking of Santiago de Compostela in 997 he had the cathedral bells taken to Córdoba, carried by the slaves who were taken. The Muslim military predominance of the time was evident, and on few occasions it encountered effective opposition, except in some cases in which it had to face Christian coalitions (battle of Cervera, year 1000).
The death of Almanzor (legendarily, in the battle of Calatañazor, 1002) did not immediately mean the end of the Umayyad Caliphate or Muslim predominance, but it did show the internal political tensions that led to its decomposition; which, however, would take more than twenty years to occur, after prolonged confrontations between rival military leaders, including Almanzor's own sons (Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar and Abderramán Sanchuelo).
In 1008 Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, the son of Almanzor, had made the last punitive raid against the Christians of the north taking loot and collecting tribute. Between 1009 and 1010, the revolts and uprisings led by Muhammad II al-Mahdi, with the intervention of Christian mercenaries provided by the counts of Barcelona and Urgel, began the final crisis of the Caliphate. Although this did not cease to have a title until the death of Hixam III (1031), many territories had previously become independent at the initiative of the provincial governors of the koras "Cora (territorial division)") (already administered from the emirate with great autonomy and ethnic and tribal diversity) which were called taifas (a word that in Arabic means "side" or "faction"), imposing on their leaders the pretentious titles of walí or emir.
There were taifas governed by Berbers (taifa of Badajoz, taifa of Toledo, taifa of Granada) and by saqaliba or Slavs (those of the Levant). The bureaucratic elites, whether landowners or of military origin, surrounded themselves with armed entourages and came to form a new aristocracy that, regardless of their real ethnic origin, Arabized themselves or presented themselves as Arabs, gaining prestige over the majority of the Muladi population and those of Berber origin.
As Andalusian society evolved towards great political and social complexity and cultural refinement, military needs increased. The leaders of the taifas increasingly resorted to Christian mercenaries, who ended up imposing their military rule and began to charge not for their military services, but precisely for not using them against their paymasters (the charge called parias "Parias (tribute)")). The growing participation of the Christian kingdoms, increasingly stronger, in the internal affairs of the taifas, led to a degree of political subordination that turned them into true vassal states.
The evidence of the possibility of a Christian conquest, the increase in tax pressure (above Islamic norms) and the preachings of the Alfaquíes sparked constant revolts. After the fall of the taifa of Toledo (1085), Al Mutamid of Seville and other taifa kings decided to call to their aid the Almoravid sultan, Yusuf ibn Tasufin, who had unified North Africa under a rigorist doctrine. Such intervention meant the end of the independence of the taifas themselves.
Evolution of traditional gentile society with the incorporation of Muladí and Mozarabic influence. Transformation of the heads of tribes and clans into heads of feudal aristocratic lineages. Constitution of territorial powers. A prince appears who sometimes has the title of king and other times of count: the Asturian monarchy, supported by the Church that presents it as a representation of the Christian monarchy and defender of Christian Spain. In the process of institutionalization of the monarchy, the influence of the Mozarabic clerics emigrated from the south, incorporates the "neo-Gothic" ideal as a purpose of "reconquest": rebuilding the old Gothic kingdom and its monarchy; regardless of the fact that the Visigoth kingdom had a problematic presence in the Cantabrian area.
The economic structure, initially based on extensive livestock farming, incorporates stabling and an increasing weight of agriculture, until it becomes the main activity. The society, initially tribal and semi-nomadic, becomes sedentary; and the property, initially communal, is ceding more and more land to private property.
There is hardly any news about King Don Pelayo, the winner of the Battle of Covadonga in 722, which suggests the possibility that he was a nobleman of the Visigoth court who settled in the mountains of Asturias when fleeing the Muslim invasion. More than that battle (possibly an initial skirmish without major consequences that the chronicles mythologized) was the harassment maintained during the following years, which caused the evacuation of the small Muslim garrisons present in the cities (Oviedo, Gijón) and achieved control of the ports of the mountain range, which allowed Pelayo's group to become the effective local power.
Initially the Asturian monarchy was elective, similar to the Visigothic, but also to the tradition that archeology detects for pre-existing leaderships in the communities of local clans and tribes, based on matrilineal and matrilocal kinship networks. It is very significant that the second king, Favila, died while trying to carry out the ancient ritual of confronting a bear. As happened with the Visigothic monarchy, over time the concept of hereditary monarchy began to prevail. Alliances were established with communities throughout the Cantabrian Mountains, from the ancient Roman and Visigoth province of Gallaecia to the territory of Duke Pedro of Cantabria (of a confusing location - identified with the Visigoth duchy of Cantabria or with a larger area inhabited by Basques -), who was the father of Alfonso I (son-in-law of Pelayo and successor of Favila).
The constitution in the Duero Valley of a "no man's land (war)" of strategic depth in the middle of the century (reign of Alfonso I) was decisive for the personality of the new kingdom. Both the failure of the Berbers to settle in the area (due to internal causes) and the punitive expeditions that destroyed the area's defenses and attracted the local population to the northern mountains contributed to this.
During the reign of Alfonso II "the Chaste", in addition to maintaining military pressure (Battle of Lutos, 794), an event of great later significance occurred: the discovery of the tomb of Santiago (the so-called "invention of Teodomiro "Teodomiro (bishop)")", 813 - "invention" is the term used for "discovery" -); understandable within the process of religious legitimation in which the local clergy was engaged, very interested in differentiating themselves from the Mozarabs who remained in Toledo and the rest of Muslim Spain (controversy between Beatus and Elipandus, restoration and creation of bishoprics and monasteries – that of Santo Toribio de Liébana claimed prestige by stating that it had a fragment of the Lignum Crucis sent from Rome–). Totally mythical, although set in the historical relationship between Alfonso II and Charlemagne, is the story of Bernardo del Carpio.
Ramiro I undertook a construction program that gave its name to the local pre-Romanesque style (Ramirense).
Throughout the century, coinciding with the time of crisis in the Emirate of Córdoba, the repopulation of the area between the Cantabrian Mountains and the Duero River took place. The city of León "León (Spain)") became the capital of the kingdom with Ordoño I in 856. With Alfonso III "the Great" the extension of what is now called the kingdom of León is of considerable size, half of the northern third of the peninsula. The process of patrimonialization of the monarchy "had been completed in such a way that upon his death the kingdom was divided among his sons (910), beginning a time of confrontations between these new political entities, which also affected the neighboring kingdom of Navarra.
The repopulation process in this extensive border land, exposed to Muslim incursions, was initially carried out with the institution of pressure, which allowed anyone who could cultivate and defend a land for themselves to consider it their own; Sometimes repopulation was stimulated by granting local jurisdictions or privileges through documents, such as the Carta Puebla de Brañosera. Over the centuries, as the border moved southward, and as each area became relatively safe, the descendants of the primitive repopulators were subjected to socio-political conditions of less personal freedom, becoming linked to the lordships established by lay or ecclesiastical nobles.
At the beginning of the century the line of the Duero had been crossed, and not even a powerful army gathered by Abd al-Rahman III could prevail over a Christian coalition (Battle of Simancas, 930). But in the following period, coinciding with the height of the power of the Caliphate and the annual campaigns of Almanzor, which stopped the repopulation and forced the payment of tributes, the Leonese monarchy went through its period of greatest weakness, both against the Muslims and against the local aristocratic powers. Despite this, political institutionalization continued to develop, even producing the pretentious titles of rex magnus or imperator that appear in the diplomacy of the kings of León with other Christian kingdoms (and that seem to indicate a recognition of protocol superiority when used by Abbot Oliba of Ripoll or Sancho Garcés III of Navarra)[41] or in the minutes of some councils (such as the one convened by Alfonso V of León to which they attended bishops, courtiers and great magnates of León and Asturias).
The chronicles present the first Castilians being governed by judges (judges of Castile), rather than by kings, in a sought-after parallel with biblical history. They also record their aversion to the written law of Visigothic origin that was in force in the kingdom of León (the Fuero Juzgo, of which they burned all the copies they could gather). The independent personality of this region was based on its border condition, on several fronts: Muslims from the Ebro and the Meseta – who from Tudela or Medinaceli, respectively, launched frequent razzias – and Navarrese Christians (with whom the Castilians disputed the Rioja "La Rioja (Spain)") or Álava). The border was a much more permanent condition here than in the east of the kingdom, and the ability of the peasants to defend the very land on which the pressure system was based became permanent. Such a condition was expressed in the name "villainous knight" which was attributed to anyone who had sufficient resources to maintain a horse and appropriate weapons. Even when, later, the border receded and new feudal customs were established, some lordships were established as "behetrías", that is, they were granted to the lord chosen by the affected community who, if dissatisfied, could change their ownership to another lord. The corresponding administrative divisions were called merindades "Merindad (administrative division)"). Another institution that characterized Castile was that of the open council through which local life was governed by assembly, without the need to appoint municipal officials. The set of all these institutions was mythologized by romantic historiography, which understood them as proof of the existence of an original democracy full of freedoms. Current historiography dismisses such an interpretation as anachronistic, emphasizing that such institutions can only be understood in their context.
[43].
The county of Portucale (present-day Porto) was founded with the conquest of that city by Vímara Pérez in 868. With the countess consort Muniadona Díaz, the castle of Guimaraes (Vimaranes) was built, which protected the county court and a monastery dedicated to Saint Mamés where she herself retired (monastery of Saint Mamés or monastery of Guimarães "Church of Our Lady of Oliveira (Guimarães)"), 959).[45] The last member of this dynasty, Nuno Mendes, died in the battle of Pedroso (1071) against King García of Galicia, who the following year was defeated in turn by Alfonso VI of León (in the context of the fratricidal clashes resulting from the complex patrimonial division of the inheritance of Sancho the Elder).
Around 1095, Alfonso established a Portucalense county increased with the lands of the old county of Coimbra and those of the diocese of Tuy; which he offered to his future son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy. His successors converted the county into an independent kingdom, considering Alfonso Henriques its first king (treaty of Tuy, 1137, battle of Ourique, 1139, tournament of Valdevez, 1140, treaty of Zamora, 1143, infeudation with the papacy, confirmed in 1179).
Throughout the Pyrenees, other centers of resistance to Muslim power were consolidated. Their development was much more modest than that of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom, given that, unlike the latter, they were restricted by the vicinity of the Frankish kingdom to the north and the Upper March of al-Andalus (the Ebro valley, much closer to Navarre, Aragon or Catalonia than the Middle March - Toledo - to Asturias) to the south.
Charlemagne's army, returning from its failed expedition to Zaragoza, dismantled the defenses of Pamplona, and when crossing the Roncesvalles pass (August 15, 778) it would suffer harassment from local forces whose identification has been the subject of various mythologies (in the Song of Roland they appear as Saracens, in post-romantic nationalist literature they appear as a symbol of the continuity of a timeless Basque people).[46]
In 798 Ludovico Pío, son of Charlemagne, received homage in Tolosa from an assembly of leaders of the Hispanic March, the southern border region of the Frankish kingdom, who, in the presence of delegates from the kingdom of Asturias, were entrusted with fortifying their territories. The extension and subdivisions of such Marca were very imprecise, generic and variable over time (the western Pyrenean valleys - the future Navarra -, central - the future Aragon - and eastern - the future Catalan counties, with which the toponym "Marca Hispánica" would end up being identified -). In a similar way to what happened with the other Carolingian demarcations, over time they became hereditary fiefdoms, independent in practice; even more than in other areas, given their isolation (the Velascos") in Navarra, the Aznárez in Aragón, the house of Barcelona in Catalonia).[47].
With the Frankish kingdom already converted into the Carolingian Empire (since the year 800), a certain mutual recognition was established with the Emirate of Córdoba (like the truce that had to be agreed in 812), allowing a precarious organization of the Hispanic Mark (which some authors prefer to call Limes hispanicus – "Hispanic border"– given its limited depth, except in Catalonia), while Muslim control of the Ebro valley from the Mediterranean to La Rioja.[48][49].
The recovery of control of the area around Pamplona by the Emirate must have encountered enough local opposition so that it was not completed, but it did not mean Christian control, but rather an alternation between the supporters of the Carolingians led by Count Velasco (al-Yalasqí or Balask al-Yalasqi), whom Ludovico Pío would name count of Pamplona in 812; and the supporters of Jimeno of Pamplona and his descendants called Arista or Íñiguez (or Jimena dynasty), related to the Muladíes of Tudela (Musa ibn Musa, of the Banu Qasi). It was these who, late in the century, became an independent power, with sufficient presence in the western Pyrenean valleys; and that they were even able to intervene in the neighboring county of Aragón.
With the decomposition of the Carolingian Empire, the county of Pamplona gravitated its dependence from the Franks in the north to the Muslims in the south. That county or kingdom of Pamplona, which later became definitively known as the kingdom of Navarre), remained for more than a century in a precarious balance between the Emirate of Córdoba and the Carolingian Empire (or its successor entities –Caliphate of Córdoba from 929 and kingdom of France from 843–), often as a tributary state of one or the other; and it was not consolidated until the beginning of the century with Sancho Garcés I, of the Jimena dynasty, the first to be documented with the title of "rex"; But throughout this period, secular and ecclesiastical institutions were created on the French feudal model, based on local noble families who, like the royal house itself, established marital ties with the elites of other kingdoms.
There was a territorial expansion of the kingdom towards the Ebro valley (Rioja "La Rioja (Spain)") and the current provinces of Guipúzcoa and Álava, spaces that were occupied sometimes in collaboration and sometimes in competition or open hostility with the kingdom of León (or with the county of Castile when it became independent). As new territories were incorporated and emigrants were received, a multiethnic population base was formed (Basques, Mozarabs, Franks, Jews, and since the century Muslims – most of Hispano-Roman-Visigoth origin).
The southern valleys of the central Pyrenees (Hecho, Ansó and Canfranc), very isolated due to their natural defenses, were not of interest to the Muslim conquerors, who limited themselves to maintaining the fortifications of the upper mark for the protection of Zaragoza and the rest of the Ebro valley.
The Carolingian organization of the Hispanic March included this territory centered in Jaca, providing it with fortifications and monastic foundations (San Pedro de Siresa) and linking it to the region of Aquitaine. The first count was a Frank, Aureolo "Aureolo (count)"), son of the Count of Perigoux. He was succeeded in 809 by Aznar I Galíndez, who was dispossessed of the county by a Navarrese invasion, who imposed García Galíndez (son-in-law of Íñigo Arista, first king of Pamplona) as count. The Empire rewarded Aznar with the counties of Urgel and Cerdaña; and attempted a retaliatory expedition that was defeated by a Navarrese-Aragonese-Andalusian coalition (824). However, Galindo I Aznárez, the son of the first Aznar, occupied the county of Aragón in 844, after having successively obtained and lost the county offices of Pallars, Ribagorza and Pamplona. The complex political-dynastic alternations, in the midst of the simultaneous decomposition of the Carolingian Empire, determined the political dependence of the Aragonese county on the Muladíes and the kingdom of Navarre.
An expansion took place towards the east (first through the valleys of Tena, Aurín and Gállego, and then to Ribagorza, Sobrarbe and Pallars). The intense Muslim implantation in the southern area prevented progress in that direction, limiting the Aragonese territory for centuries to a narrow strip longitudinal to the mountain range.
The hereditary condition of the county was manifested with the Countess Andregoto Galíndez, who transmitted her rights to her son Sancho Garcés II, heir of both Aragón and Pamplona (970). Both territories remained united until 1035.
The ecclesiastical dependence of the Aragonese county on the Mozarabs of the bishopric of Huesca (in Muslim territory) was cut off in the 2nd century, when an episcopal see was created in the Monastery of San Adrián de Sasabe. It was not until 1077 that it moved to Jaca.
The eastern Pyrenean area was more extensive, populated and urbanized, and had a large region north of the mountain range (Septimania). Their sociopolitical conditions were also more complex. Already during the Visigothic kingdom, the local nobility maintained contacts with the Frankish nobility; So it was not very difficult for him, after submitting to Islamic rule, to turn to the Carolingians, becoming their vassals. After the failure of the attempted conquest of the Ebro Valley, the Frankish presence was limited to a fortified border district (the Hispanic March), entrusted to counts drawn from both local families and the rest of the Frankish kingdom. The interest shown in expanding this area obtained progressive advances: to Gerona in 783 and to Barcelona in 801, leaving the course of the Llobregat as the border.
In the face of Carolingian rule, initiatives arose to establish alternative local powers, such as the rebellion of Count Bera, who sought the support of the Muslim authorities of Córdoba with little success, and was defeated (820).
The territory of the so-called Old Catalonia was fortified with castles from which the repopulation was articulated, through the institution of aprisio, similar to the Castilian "pressure". Count Wifredo el Velloso, after repopulating the area of Vallés "Vallés (Catalonia)") and the Plana de Vich (later the county of Osona, 878-881), made the county of Barcelona hereditary, separating it from any legitimation of the Emperor or the king of France, and directing his interest towards expansion towards the south and peninsular affairs. It was the decomposition of the Carolingian Empire (divided between Charlemagne's grandsons in the treaties of Verdun, 843, and Mersen, 870), from which neither support nor control could any longer be expected, which led to the de facto independence of the Catalan counties, whose initial atomization came to be grouped around the Barcelona-Gerona-Olot complex (whose sovereign used the title of Count of Barcelona – house of Barcelona–). In the county of Urgel, its own distinct dynasty was established.
• - Eastern Pyrenean counties. The thin black line is the border between the current autonomous communities of Aragon and Catalonia.
The promotion of intellectual activities was very important in some areas (the Toledo school of translators -Domingo Gundisalvo, Juan Hispalense-, protection of the first studia generalia -universities of Palencia, Salamanca, Valladolid, Alcalá "Universidad de Alcalá de Henares (historical)") and Lisbon, all of them founded in the century -), which turned the Spain of the centuries into a crucial space for the formation of Western civilization: in order for the so-called renaissance of the century to occur, contact had to be established between the great Andalusian intellectuals (the Muslim Averroes or the Jewish Maimonides - who explored the limits between reason and faith -) with European scholasticism. Raimundo Lulio tried unsuccessfully to convert Muslims by intellectual persuasion, but in his effort, which led him to master several languages, he produced what are probably the first philosophical works in the vulgar language. We must not anachronistically confuse these contacts, or the periods of greater tolerance, with some type of multiculturalism: despite the purpose of knowing the reasons of the other, the will of everyone (Muslims, Jews and Christians) is to remain in their faith, and in most cases, to impose themselves even violently on others.[61] As for the different interpretations within each of these laws (law of Muhammad, law of Moses, law of Christ), there was no compromise or tolerance: those defined as heresies from the point of view of orthodoxy were strongly persecuted. A Spanish saint, Domingo de Guzmán, founded the Order of Preachers ("Dominicans") in 1215 to combat heretics, both through persuasion and through inquisitorial processes.
The main examples of the Romanesque sculpture of the century are the gables of San Isidoro de León, the Puerta de las Platerías de Santiago (by Maestro Esteban) and the cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos. In the century, the cover of Ripoll, that of Santa María la Real de Sangüesa and the cloister of San Juan de la Peña stand out. The transition to Gothic is visible in the works from the end of the century: the apostolate of the Holy Chamber of Oviedo, the cover of San Vicente de Ávila "Basilica de San Vicente (Ávila)") and the Portico of Glory of Santiago (by Master Mateo).
The Spanish Romanesque frescoes are very outstanding: Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro de León, preserved in situ, or those torn from their places of origin (hermitage of San Baudelio de Berlanga, hermitage of the Vera Cruz de Maderuelo "Ermita de la Vera Cruz (Maderuelo)") –both in the Prado Museum– and the collection gathered in the National Museum of Art in Catalonia).[69].
The continuity of the relationship with France was manifested in the continuity of the influence of trans-Pyrenean artistic forms, which from the end of the century came through the establishment of Cistercian monasteries (Cistercian art). The Spanish architecture of the initial and full Gothic period was characterized by less interest in height than in the French cathedrals, reaching the extreme in the Crown of Aragon, where the horizontal line was predominant.
Stone sculpture followed the French models of Chartres or Reims; while the polychrome wood carving, which composed increasingly complex altarpieces, followed its own models that in the following centuries would receive Flemish and Italian influence, just as happened with painting.[70].
At strategic points the Muslim authorities maintained some military garrisons (whose main purpose was to ensure the collection of revenues). They have survived in toponymy with the root qalat. In the Duero Valley, an attempt was made to install Berber contingents; repopulating (with native population) long-abandoned settlements, even from pre-Roman times. Such enclaves were fortified with castles, aimed more at maintaining a certain independence from Córdoba than at defending themselves from the Christians in the north.
Tax collection and distribution of the loot was carried out by dividing assets into two categories: movable property (amwal")) and real estate (aradi") –especially land–), with a different tax regime for each case. Starting in 730, the tax regime was tightened, at a critical juncture of poor harvests, which coincided with an uprising of the Berbers (which began in North Africa and became a great revolt in 740 that affected the entire Spanish peninsula). The leading Arab minority sought support from the political center of the Islamic West (Maghreb), which at that time was in Ifriqiya (Kairouan, former Carthage, present-day Tunisia), including a Syrian military contingent. The revolt was put down, but it resulted in the Berbers abandoning strategic points of the peninsula, such as the Duero Valley, concentrating around Mérida "Mérida (Spain)").
The Berber abandonment of the Duero Valley, added to the Asturian punitive expeditions (Alfonso I), which stimulated the local population to retreat to the Cantabrian mountain range, motivated Claudio Sánchez Albornoz to coin the disputed historiographic concept of "Duro desert".
The need to increase fiscal pressure to satisfy the needs of a growing Muslim ruling elite on a decreasing population of dimmies (non-Muslims) led to the breach of the capitulation pacts.
An event that occurred in the center of the Islamic world had momentous consequences: in 750 the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads, murdering the entire family with the exception of Abd al-Rahman I, who managed to escape, crossing all of North Africa and taking refuge in al-Andalus, where he took the title of emir of Córdoba (756) and ruled independently of the new caliphs, who changed the Muslim capital from Damascus to Baghdad.
Abd al-Rahman, his son Hisam I and their successors intensified the Islamization and Arabization of al-Andalus, bringing Alfaquis from North Africa. A religious pressure group was created, which made itself felt against the Mozarabs and the Christian nuclei of the north (independent in fact, but theoretically subordinated to the authority of Córdoba). Al Hakam I sought to enforce in all its rigor the old conditions of capitulation of the Visigoths, and put pressure on both the so-called dhimmies (Christians and Jews) and the koras "Cora (territorial division)") on the northern border, which were governed very autonomously (upper mark – Zaragoza, dominated by the Muladíes –, lower mark – Mérida, dominated by the Berbers – and middle mark –Toledo, with a great Mozarabic presence–). An episode of very strong repression occurred on the day of the Toledo moat (797). In Córdoba itself, the Arrabal revolt took place (818), harshly put down.[25].
Abd al-Rahman II multiplied sumptuary expenses. The emirate began a visible crisis in the increase of internal revolts (Toledo revolt –Sindola"), 853–,[26] revolts in Tudela de Muza ibn Muza –a Banu Qasi, who relied on his Christian relatives from Pamplona, the Arista–, 842-850,[27]). Between 850 and 859 the crisis of the Mozarabs occurred. Cordoba followers of Saint Eulogius "Eulogius (saint)") who voluntarily faced martyrdom by provoking the Muslim authorities. The capitulation pacts, which had been maintained to a greater or lesser extent since the 19th century, ceased to be valid. The first Viking incursion occurred in 844. After being rejected on the Cantabrian coast (by Ramiro I of Asturias), they skirted the Atlantic coast, sacked Lisbon and went up the coast. Guadalquivir to Seville. Abderramán II was forced to divert the troops from the upper mark to defeat them. In the time of Muhammad I, another Norman raid sacked Galicia, Lisbon and Algeciras "Siege of Algeciras (859)"), and going up the course of the Ebro he managed to take the king of Pamplona prisoner. As a result of this episode, the kingdom of Pamplona began to seek Christian support compared to its previous support from the Muladíes of Tudela.
Numerous revolts even sought the support of northern Christians, increasing the weakness of the central power and the situation of insecurity, which gave rise to autonomous local powers. Of particular importance was the rebellion of Omar ibn Hafsún, a muladi who renounced Islam and converted to Christianity, gaining control of a large territory around Bobastro from the year 880, which his son maintained until 928.
Both these autonomous powers and the governors loyal to the emir resorted to fortification. The existence of defensive towers on the coast and ribats (regions controlled by fortifications run by religious-military groups dedicated to holy war –Jihad–, predecessors of the Christian military orders) that guarded access to coastal areas and river valleys are confirmed. In the fortified districts there was progressive feudalization. Although the theoretical dependence on Córdoba was maintained, those who held local positions of power did so in a patrimonial form, like a tasgil") ("lordship")[28] that the emir could only ratify. The iqtá assumed a patrimonial base of lands and income.[29].
In the year 929, the emir Abd al-Rahman III put an end to the theoretical religious dependence of the Andalusian Muslims on Baghdad and proclaimed himself caliph (successor of the Prophet and head of the believers). The title, used by his heirs until the first years of the century, also questioned the rights of the Fatimids who, from North Africa, sought to reunify the Muslim world as successors of Fatima, the daughter of the prophet; threatening the trade routes controlled by the merchants of Al-Andalus. After receiving the oath of allegiance from Muhammad ben Jazar"), chief of the Zanata Berber tribes, Umayyad troops controlled Tangier, Melilla (927) and Ceuta (931). Andalusian control of the area (a true protectorate) reached its maximum at the end of the century, with the campaigns against the Idrisids, which allowed the taking of Asilah (986) and Oran (998); and to the south the enclave caravanner of Siyilmasa. The Fatimids were forced to direct their interest to the east, conquering Egypt (969) and moving their capital from Ifriqiya to Cairo. Although much of the historiography focuses on the peninsular dimension of the Caliphate, their main strategic concern was North African.[31].
Abd al-Rahman III also modified the military organization, introducing Berber mercenaries and saqaliba into the army (a term for "slaves" bought in European markets, especially those recognizable by their light skin and blonde hair, which gave rise to the term "Slav", although not all would have this ethnic origin).
His construction program around Córdoba was not limited to the expansion of the Mosque (a tradition begun with Abd al-Rahman I and maintained by practically all the main emirs and caliphs), but included an entire palatine city of legendary magnificence: Medina Azahara, planned to dazzle the embassies arriving from all over the known world.
The Caliphate of Córdoba became a great economic and military power, and culturally it reached a true "golden age": not only the caliphs, but a large number of figures from the social elite, competed to maintain around them large or small retinues of poets and musicians, and large libraries (although the function they intended was not so much to expand knowledge, but to give prestige to the owner). Al-Hakem II's library, which included a notary's office and a bookbinding workshop, gathered thousands of books from all types of sources in its library (the catalog occupied forty-four volumes). Upon their death, the Malikíes managed to have many of them (on problematic topics, such as philosophy and astronomy) burned or thrown into a well.[32] It is impossible to specify the level of literacy reached, but it was undoubtedly much higher than in other areas.[33] The fluid exchange of ideas between theologians, jurists, doctors, mathematicians and scientists from the most diverse fields (many of them specialists in several of these fields) stimulated intellectual progress. The school or madrassa of the mosque of Córdoba") in the time of Hixem II was a center of knowledge not only comparable, but probably superior to other similar centers in the Islamic sphere, and far superior to the precarious monastic and cathedral schools of contemporary Christian Europe (the comparison with the later concepts of studium generale and medieval university, which is frequently made, is unnecessarily anachronistic).[34]
At the end of the century the caliphs became figures without effective power, who delegated their exercise, with the position of hijab, to an ambitious character: Almanzor. Both to legitimize his position and to stop the development of the Christian kingdoms of the north and to obtain loot, he organized the famous aceifas, razzias or Almanzor campaigns; a series of fifty-two looting expeditions that he repeated with an almost annual frequency (although he carried out five in a single year, 981), in the summer months (aceifa comes from sayf – "summer", "harvest"–), very often from the base of Medinaceli. The objective was not territorial expansion, except in the area south of the Duero, where the capture of Rueda, Sepúlveda and Atienza in 981 earned him his nickname: al-mansur ("the victorious").
The city of León was sacked four times, but Pamplona and Barcelona were also affected, reaching as far as Narbonne. In the sacking of Santiago de Compostela in 997 he had the cathedral bells taken to Córdoba, carried by the slaves who were taken. The Muslim military predominance of the time was evident, and on few occasions it encountered effective opposition, except in some cases in which it had to face Christian coalitions (battle of Cervera, year 1000).
The death of Almanzor (legendarily, in the battle of Calatañazor, 1002) did not immediately mean the end of the Umayyad Caliphate or Muslim predominance, but it did show the internal political tensions that led to its decomposition; which, however, would take more than twenty years to occur, after prolonged confrontations between rival military leaders, including Almanzor's own sons (Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar and Abderramán Sanchuelo).
In 1008 Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar, the son of Almanzor, had made the last punitive raid against the Christians of the north taking loot and collecting tribute. Between 1009 and 1010, the revolts and uprisings led by Muhammad II al-Mahdi, with the intervention of Christian mercenaries provided by the counts of Barcelona and Urgel, began the final crisis of the Caliphate. Although this did not cease to have a title until the death of Hixam III (1031), many territories had previously become independent at the initiative of the provincial governors of the koras "Cora (territorial division)") (already administered from the emirate with great autonomy and ethnic and tribal diversity) which were called taifas (a word that in Arabic means "side" or "faction"), imposing on their leaders the pretentious titles of walí or emir.
There were taifas governed by Berbers (taifa of Badajoz, taifa of Toledo, taifa of Granada) and by saqaliba or Slavs (those of the Levant). The bureaucratic elites, whether landowners or of military origin, surrounded themselves with armed entourages and came to form a new aristocracy that, regardless of their real ethnic origin, Arabized themselves or presented themselves as Arabs, gaining prestige over the majority of the Muladi population and those of Berber origin.
As Andalusian society evolved towards great political and social complexity and cultural refinement, military needs increased. The leaders of the taifas increasingly resorted to Christian mercenaries, who ended up imposing their military rule and began to charge not for their military services, but precisely for not using them against their paymasters (the charge called parias "Parias (tribute)")). The growing participation of the Christian kingdoms, increasingly stronger, in the internal affairs of the taifas, led to a degree of political subordination that turned them into true vassal states.
The evidence of the possibility of a Christian conquest, the increase in tax pressure (above Islamic norms) and the preachings of the Alfaquíes sparked constant revolts. After the fall of the taifa of Toledo (1085), Al Mutamid of Seville and other taifa kings decided to call to their aid the Almoravid sultan, Yusuf ibn Tasufin, who had unified North Africa under a rigorist doctrine. Such intervention meant the end of the independence of the taifas themselves.
Evolution of traditional gentile society with the incorporation of Muladí and Mozarabic influence. Transformation of the heads of tribes and clans into heads of feudal aristocratic lineages. Constitution of territorial powers. A prince appears who sometimes has the title of king and other times of count: the Asturian monarchy, supported by the Church that presents it as a representation of the Christian monarchy and defender of Christian Spain. In the process of institutionalization of the monarchy, the influence of the Mozarabic clerics emigrated from the south, incorporates the "neo-Gothic" ideal as a purpose of "reconquest": rebuilding the old Gothic kingdom and its monarchy; regardless of the fact that the Visigoth kingdom had a problematic presence in the Cantabrian area.
The economic structure, initially based on extensive livestock farming, incorporates stabling and an increasing weight of agriculture, until it becomes the main activity. The society, initially tribal and semi-nomadic, becomes sedentary; and the property, initially communal, is ceding more and more land to private property.
There is hardly any news about King Don Pelayo, the winner of the Battle of Covadonga in 722, which suggests the possibility that he was a nobleman of the Visigoth court who settled in the mountains of Asturias when fleeing the Muslim invasion. More than that battle (possibly an initial skirmish without major consequences that the chronicles mythologized) was the harassment maintained during the following years, which caused the evacuation of the small Muslim garrisons present in the cities (Oviedo, Gijón) and achieved control of the ports of the mountain range, which allowed Pelayo's group to become the effective local power.
Initially the Asturian monarchy was elective, similar to the Visigothic, but also to the tradition that archeology detects for pre-existing leaderships in the communities of local clans and tribes, based on matrilineal and matrilocal kinship networks. It is very significant that the second king, Favila, died while trying to carry out the ancient ritual of confronting a bear. As happened with the Visigothic monarchy, over time the concept of hereditary monarchy began to prevail. Alliances were established with communities throughout the Cantabrian Mountains, from the ancient Roman and Visigoth province of Gallaecia to the territory of Duke Pedro of Cantabria (of a confusing location - identified with the Visigoth duchy of Cantabria or with a larger area inhabited by Basques -), who was the father of Alfonso I (son-in-law of Pelayo and successor of Favila).
The constitution in the Duero Valley of a "no man's land (war)" of strategic depth in the middle of the century (reign of Alfonso I) was decisive for the personality of the new kingdom. Both the failure of the Berbers to settle in the area (due to internal causes) and the punitive expeditions that destroyed the area's defenses and attracted the local population to the northern mountains contributed to this.
During the reign of Alfonso II "the Chaste", in addition to maintaining military pressure (Battle of Lutos, 794), an event of great later significance occurred: the discovery of the tomb of Santiago (the so-called "invention of Teodomiro "Teodomiro (bishop)")", 813 - "invention" is the term used for "discovery" -); understandable within the process of religious legitimation in which the local clergy was engaged, very interested in differentiating themselves from the Mozarabs who remained in Toledo and the rest of Muslim Spain (controversy between Beatus and Elipandus, restoration and creation of bishoprics and monasteries – that of Santo Toribio de Liébana claimed prestige by stating that it had a fragment of the Lignum Crucis sent from Rome–). Totally mythical, although set in the historical relationship between Alfonso II and Charlemagne, is the story of Bernardo del Carpio.
Ramiro I undertook a construction program that gave its name to the local pre-Romanesque style (Ramirense).
Throughout the century, coinciding with the time of crisis in the Emirate of Córdoba, the repopulation of the area between the Cantabrian Mountains and the Duero River took place. The city of León "León (Spain)") became the capital of the kingdom with Ordoño I in 856. With Alfonso III "the Great" the extension of what is now called the kingdom of León is of considerable size, half of the northern third of the peninsula. The process of patrimonialization of the monarchy "had been completed in such a way that upon his death the kingdom was divided among his sons (910), beginning a time of confrontations between these new political entities, which also affected the neighboring kingdom of Navarra.
The repopulation process in this extensive border land, exposed to Muslim incursions, was initially carried out with the institution of pressure, which allowed anyone who could cultivate and defend a land for themselves to consider it their own; Sometimes repopulation was stimulated by granting local jurisdictions or privileges through documents, such as the Carta Puebla de Brañosera. Over the centuries, as the border moved southward, and as each area became relatively safe, the descendants of the primitive repopulators were subjected to socio-political conditions of less personal freedom, becoming linked to the lordships established by lay or ecclesiastical nobles.
At the beginning of the century the line of the Duero had been crossed, and not even a powerful army gathered by Abd al-Rahman III could prevail over a Christian coalition (Battle of Simancas, 930). But in the following period, coinciding with the height of the power of the Caliphate and the annual campaigns of Almanzor, which stopped the repopulation and forced the payment of tributes, the Leonese monarchy went through its period of greatest weakness, both against the Muslims and against the local aristocratic powers. Despite this, political institutionalization continued to develop, even producing the pretentious titles of rex magnus or imperator that appear in the diplomacy of the kings of León with other Christian kingdoms (and that seem to indicate a recognition of protocol superiority when used by Abbot Oliba of Ripoll or Sancho Garcés III of Navarra)[41] or in the minutes of some councils (such as the one convened by Alfonso V of León to which they attended bishops, courtiers and great magnates of León and Asturias).
The chronicles present the first Castilians being governed by judges (judges of Castile), rather than by kings, in a sought-after parallel with biblical history. They also record their aversion to the written law of Visigothic origin that was in force in the kingdom of León (the Fuero Juzgo, of which they burned all the copies they could gather). The independent personality of this region was based on its border condition, on several fronts: Muslims from the Ebro and the Meseta – who from Tudela or Medinaceli, respectively, launched frequent razzias – and Navarrese Christians (with whom the Castilians disputed the Rioja "La Rioja (Spain)") or Álava). The border was a much more permanent condition here than in the east of the kingdom, and the ability of the peasants to defend the very land on which the pressure system was based became permanent. Such a condition was expressed in the name "villainous knight" which was attributed to anyone who had sufficient resources to maintain a horse and appropriate weapons. Even when, later, the border receded and new feudal customs were established, some lordships were established as "behetrías", that is, they were granted to the lord chosen by the affected community who, if dissatisfied, could change their ownership to another lord. The corresponding administrative divisions were called merindades "Merindad (administrative division)"). Another institution that characterized Castile was that of the open council through which local life was governed by assembly, without the need to appoint municipal officials. The set of all these institutions was mythologized by romantic historiography, which understood them as proof of the existence of an original democracy full of freedoms. Current historiography dismisses such an interpretation as anachronistic, emphasizing that such institutions can only be understood in their context.
[43].
The county of Portucale (present-day Porto) was founded with the conquest of that city by Vímara Pérez in 868. With the countess consort Muniadona Díaz, the castle of Guimaraes (Vimaranes) was built, which protected the county court and a monastery dedicated to Saint Mamés where she herself retired (monastery of Saint Mamés or monastery of Guimarães "Church of Our Lady of Oliveira (Guimarães)"), 959).[45] The last member of this dynasty, Nuno Mendes, died in the battle of Pedroso (1071) against King García of Galicia, who the following year was defeated in turn by Alfonso VI of León (in the context of the fratricidal clashes resulting from the complex patrimonial division of the inheritance of Sancho the Elder).
Around 1095, Alfonso established a Portucalense county increased with the lands of the old county of Coimbra and those of the diocese of Tuy; which he offered to his future son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy. His successors converted the county into an independent kingdom, considering Alfonso Henriques its first king (treaty of Tuy, 1137, battle of Ourique, 1139, tournament of Valdevez, 1140, treaty of Zamora, 1143, infeudation with the papacy, confirmed in 1179).
Throughout the Pyrenees, other centers of resistance to Muslim power were consolidated. Their development was much more modest than that of the Asturian-Leonese kingdom, given that, unlike the latter, they were restricted by the vicinity of the Frankish kingdom to the north and the Upper March of al-Andalus (the Ebro valley, much closer to Navarre, Aragon or Catalonia than the Middle March - Toledo - to Asturias) to the south.
Charlemagne's army, returning from its failed expedition to Zaragoza, dismantled the defenses of Pamplona, and when crossing the Roncesvalles pass (August 15, 778) it would suffer harassment from local forces whose identification has been the subject of various mythologies (in the Song of Roland they appear as Saracens, in post-romantic nationalist literature they appear as a symbol of the continuity of a timeless Basque people).[46]
In 798 Ludovico Pío, son of Charlemagne, received homage in Tolosa from an assembly of leaders of the Hispanic March, the southern border region of the Frankish kingdom, who, in the presence of delegates from the kingdom of Asturias, were entrusted with fortifying their territories. The extension and subdivisions of such Marca were very imprecise, generic and variable over time (the western Pyrenean valleys - the future Navarra -, central - the future Aragon - and eastern - the future Catalan counties, with which the toponym "Marca Hispánica" would end up being identified -). In a similar way to what happened with the other Carolingian demarcations, over time they became hereditary fiefdoms, independent in practice; even more than in other areas, given their isolation (the Velascos") in Navarra, the Aznárez in Aragón, the house of Barcelona in Catalonia).[47].
With the Frankish kingdom already converted into the Carolingian Empire (since the year 800), a certain mutual recognition was established with the Emirate of Córdoba (like the truce that had to be agreed in 812), allowing a precarious organization of the Hispanic Mark (which some authors prefer to call Limes hispanicus – "Hispanic border"– given its limited depth, except in Catalonia), while Muslim control of the Ebro valley from the Mediterranean to La Rioja.[48][49].
The recovery of control of the area around Pamplona by the Emirate must have encountered enough local opposition so that it was not completed, but it did not mean Christian control, but rather an alternation between the supporters of the Carolingians led by Count Velasco (al-Yalasqí or Balask al-Yalasqi), whom Ludovico Pío would name count of Pamplona in 812; and the supporters of Jimeno of Pamplona and his descendants called Arista or Íñiguez (or Jimena dynasty), related to the Muladíes of Tudela (Musa ibn Musa, of the Banu Qasi). It was these who, late in the century, became an independent power, with sufficient presence in the western Pyrenean valleys; and that they were even able to intervene in the neighboring county of Aragón.
With the decomposition of the Carolingian Empire, the county of Pamplona gravitated its dependence from the Franks in the north to the Muslims in the south. That county or kingdom of Pamplona, which later became definitively known as the kingdom of Navarre), remained for more than a century in a precarious balance between the Emirate of Córdoba and the Carolingian Empire (or its successor entities –Caliphate of Córdoba from 929 and kingdom of France from 843–), often as a tributary state of one or the other; and it was not consolidated until the beginning of the century with Sancho Garcés I, of the Jimena dynasty, the first to be documented with the title of "rex"; But throughout this period, secular and ecclesiastical institutions were created on the French feudal model, based on local noble families who, like the royal house itself, established marital ties with the elites of other kingdoms.
There was a territorial expansion of the kingdom towards the Ebro valley (Rioja "La Rioja (Spain)") and the current provinces of Guipúzcoa and Álava, spaces that were occupied sometimes in collaboration and sometimes in competition or open hostility with the kingdom of León (or with the county of Castile when it became independent). As new territories were incorporated and emigrants were received, a multiethnic population base was formed (Basques, Mozarabs, Franks, Jews, and since the century Muslims – most of Hispano-Roman-Visigoth origin).
The southern valleys of the central Pyrenees (Hecho, Ansó and Canfranc), very isolated due to their natural defenses, were not of interest to the Muslim conquerors, who limited themselves to maintaining the fortifications of the upper mark for the protection of Zaragoza and the rest of the Ebro valley.
The Carolingian organization of the Hispanic March included this territory centered in Jaca, providing it with fortifications and monastic foundations (San Pedro de Siresa) and linking it to the region of Aquitaine. The first count was a Frank, Aureolo "Aureolo (count)"), son of the Count of Perigoux. He was succeeded in 809 by Aznar I Galíndez, who was dispossessed of the county by a Navarrese invasion, who imposed García Galíndez (son-in-law of Íñigo Arista, first king of Pamplona) as count. The Empire rewarded Aznar with the counties of Urgel and Cerdaña; and attempted a retaliatory expedition that was defeated by a Navarrese-Aragonese-Andalusian coalition (824). However, Galindo I Aznárez, the son of the first Aznar, occupied the county of Aragón in 844, after having successively obtained and lost the county offices of Pallars, Ribagorza and Pamplona. The complex political-dynastic alternations, in the midst of the simultaneous decomposition of the Carolingian Empire, determined the political dependence of the Aragonese county on the Muladíes and the kingdom of Navarre.
An expansion took place towards the east (first through the valleys of Tena, Aurín and Gállego, and then to Ribagorza, Sobrarbe and Pallars). The intense Muslim implantation in the southern area prevented progress in that direction, limiting the Aragonese territory for centuries to a narrow strip longitudinal to the mountain range.
The hereditary condition of the county was manifested with the Countess Andregoto Galíndez, who transmitted her rights to her son Sancho Garcés II, heir of both Aragón and Pamplona (970). Both territories remained united until 1035.
The ecclesiastical dependence of the Aragonese county on the Mozarabs of the bishopric of Huesca (in Muslim territory) was cut off in the 2nd century, when an episcopal see was created in the Monastery of San Adrián de Sasabe. It was not until 1077 that it moved to Jaca.
The eastern Pyrenean area was more extensive, populated and urbanized, and had a large region north of the mountain range (Septimania). Their sociopolitical conditions were also more complex. Already during the Visigothic kingdom, the local nobility maintained contacts with the Frankish nobility; So it was not very difficult for him, after submitting to Islamic rule, to turn to the Carolingians, becoming their vassals. After the failure of the attempted conquest of the Ebro Valley, the Frankish presence was limited to a fortified border district (the Hispanic March), entrusted to counts drawn from both local families and the rest of the Frankish kingdom. The interest shown in expanding this area obtained progressive advances: to Gerona in 783 and to Barcelona in 801, leaving the course of the Llobregat as the border.
In the face of Carolingian rule, initiatives arose to establish alternative local powers, such as the rebellion of Count Bera, who sought the support of the Muslim authorities of Córdoba with little success, and was defeated (820).
The territory of the so-called Old Catalonia was fortified with castles from which the repopulation was articulated, through the institution of aprisio, similar to the Castilian "pressure". Count Wifredo el Velloso, after repopulating the area of Vallés "Vallés (Catalonia)") and the Plana de Vich (later the county of Osona, 878-881), made the county of Barcelona hereditary, separating it from any legitimation of the Emperor or the king of France, and directing his interest towards expansion towards the south and peninsular affairs. It was the decomposition of the Carolingian Empire (divided between Charlemagne's grandsons in the treaties of Verdun, 843, and Mersen, 870), from which neither support nor control could any longer be expected, which led to the de facto independence of the Catalan counties, whose initial atomization came to be grouped around the Barcelona-Gerona-Olot complex (whose sovereign used the title of Count of Barcelona – house of Barcelona–). In the county of Urgel, its own distinct dynasty was established.
• - Eastern Pyrenean counties. The thin black line is the border between the current autonomous communities of Aragon and Catalonia.
The promotion of intellectual activities was very important in some areas (the Toledo school of translators -Domingo Gundisalvo, Juan Hispalense-, protection of the first studia generalia -universities of Palencia, Salamanca, Valladolid, Alcalá "Universidad de Alcalá de Henares (historical)") and Lisbon, all of them founded in the century -), which turned the Spain of the centuries into a crucial space for the formation of Western civilization: in order for the so-called renaissance of the century to occur, contact had to be established between the great Andalusian intellectuals (the Muslim Averroes or the Jewish Maimonides - who explored the limits between reason and faith -) with European scholasticism. Raimundo Lulio tried unsuccessfully to convert Muslims by intellectual persuasion, but in his effort, which led him to master several languages, he produced what are probably the first philosophical works in the vulgar language. We must not anachronistically confuse these contacts, or the periods of greater tolerance, with some type of multiculturalism: despite the purpose of knowing the reasons of the other, the will of everyone (Muslims, Jews and Christians) is to remain in their faith, and in most cases, to impose themselves even violently on others.[61] As for the different interpretations within each of these laws (law of Muhammad, law of Moses, law of Christ), there was no compromise or tolerance: those defined as heresies from the point of view of orthodoxy were strongly persecuted. A Spanish saint, Domingo de Guzmán, founded the Order of Preachers ("Dominicans") in 1215 to combat heretics, both through persuasion and through inquisitorial processes.
The main examples of the Romanesque sculpture of the century are the gables of San Isidoro de León, the Puerta de las Platerías de Santiago (by Maestro Esteban) and the cloister of Santo Domingo de Silos. In the century, the cover of Ripoll, that of Santa María la Real de Sangüesa and the cloister of San Juan de la Peña stand out. The transition to Gothic is visible in the works from the end of the century: the apostolate of the Holy Chamber of Oviedo, the cover of San Vicente de Ávila "Basilica de San Vicente (Ávila)") and the Portico of Glory of Santiago (by Master Mateo).
The Spanish Romanesque frescoes are very outstanding: Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro de León, preserved in situ, or those torn from their places of origin (hermitage of San Baudelio de Berlanga, hermitage of the Vera Cruz de Maderuelo "Ermita de la Vera Cruz (Maderuelo)") –both in the Prado Museum– and the collection gathered in the National Museum of Art in Catalonia).[69].
The continuity of the relationship with France was manifested in the continuity of the influence of trans-Pyrenean artistic forms, which from the end of the century came through the establishment of Cistercian monasteries (Cistercian art). The Spanish architecture of the initial and full Gothic period was characterized by less interest in height than in the French cathedrals, reaching the extreme in the Crown of Aragon, where the horizontal line was predominant.
Stone sculpture followed the French models of Chartres or Reims; while the polychrome wood carving, which composed increasingly complex altarpieces, followed its own models that in the following centuries would receive Flemish and Italian influence, just as happened with painting.[70].