La clasificación del arte ha tenido una evolución paralela al concepto mismo de arte: durante la antigüedad clásica se consideraba arte todo tipo de habilidad manual y destreza, de tipo racional y sujeta a reglas, por lo que entraban en esa denominación tanto las actuales bellas artes como la artesanía y las ciencias.[6]​ En el siglo Galeno dividió el arte en artes liberales y artes vulgares, según si tenían un origen intelectual o manual. En el Renacimiento empezó a considerarse que la arquitectura, la pintura y la escultura eran actividades que requerían no solo oficio y destreza, sino también un tipo de concepción intelectual que las hacían superiores a otros tipos de manualidades.[7]​ En 1746, Charles Batteux estableció en Las bellas artes reducidas a un único principio la concepción actual de bellas artes, donde incluyó la pintura, la escultura, la música, la poesía y la danza, mientras que mantuvo el término «artes mecánicas» para el resto de actividades artísticas, y señaló como actividades entre ambas categorías la arquitectura. Con el tiempo esta lista sufrió variaciones y, a fecha de hoy, no está del todo cerrada, pero en general sentó una base comúnmente aceptada.[8]​.

Los términos «artes decorativas», «artes aplicadas», «artes industriales» o «artes menores» surgieron por oposición a las «bellas artes» o «artes mayores», aunque a menudo la frontera no está del todo clara.[9]​ En general, dentro de las artes plásticas la función decorativa se considera secundaria: así, si la pintura tiene por sí sola una autonomía como obra de arte, en su aplicación a un objeto pierde esa singularidad para cumplir una función subordinada, la de embellecer ese objeto. Si la pintura puede representar una visión del mundo en la libertad conceptual del artista, la pintura decorativa se moverá en un círculo cerrado de temas y motivos.[10]​.

Probablemente la separación entre artes mayores y menores vino de la distinción por parte de la crítica de arte de lo «bello» y lo «útil»: a lo primero se le concedió una categoría más elevada, pues parecía dirigirse más directamente al intelecto y/o el espíritu, mientras que lo segundo tenía una finalidad más práctica y mundana. Esta distinción no dejaba de ser subjetiva, puesto que una actividad como la arquitectura, englobada en las artes mayores, es ciertamente útil, mientras que muchas artes menores, aun siendo útiles, pueden ser bellas.[11]​.

Aunque las artes decorativas eran consideradas como un arte menor, desde el siglo adquirieron cierta autonomía y, desde entonces, se empezó a valorar más su aspecto estético frente al utilitario y numerosas de sus producciones fueron valoradas como obras de arte con una singularidad propia.[10]​ Sin embargo, las artes decorativas aplicadas a la industria —más propiamente llamadas hoy día «artes industriales»— se fueron separando de este concepto, por cuanto en este tipo de objetos la decoración es por lo general algo secundario; así, la estética funcionalista tendió a valorar más los objetos por su utilidad, rechazando una decoración a menudo sobreañadida.[10]​.

El término «artes decorativas» se forjó en el tercer tercio del siglo , principalmente como sustitución del término «artes menores», que resultaba peyorativo.[12]​ En la génesis de las artes decorativas o industriales están indefectiblemente unidos la practicidad y la estética. Así, la producción de objetos englobados en este término debe tener en cuenta la finalidad del producto (enseres, vestidos, utensilios, mobiliario) tanto como su aspecto formal. Así, no entrarían en esta categoría un objeto utilitario que sea posteriormente decorado o, por el contrario, otro de aspecto artístico que no cumpla una función práctica.[13]​ Pese a todo, a menudo se han considerado artes decorativas productos con una simple función ornamental, pero producidos en serie, con lo que se alejarían del concepto de obra única del arte con mayúsculas.[14]​.

Un factor decisivo en la nueva concienciación de las artes decorativas fue la publicación entre 1860 y 1863 del libro Der Stil in den technischen und tectonischen künsten der praktische Aestetik, de Gottfried Semper, donde prestaba una especial atención a las artes decorativas dentro de la historia del arte. Esta obra influyó en el historiador formalista Alois Riegl, quien en sus análisis de la historia del arte en función del estilo incluyó igualmente las artes decorativas. Para Riegl, quien fue conservador del Museo de Artes Decorativas de Viena, las técnicas usadas en la producción artística marcaban la evolución de las formas artísticas.[15]​.

Este tipo de técnicas entra dentro del concepto de arte (del latín ars, artis, y este del griego τέχνη téchnē),[4]​ una manifestación creativa del ser humano entendida generalmente como cualquier actividad o producto realizado con una finalidad estética y comunicativa, mediante la cual se expresan ideas, emociones o, en general, una visión del mundo, a través de diversos recursos y materiales. El arte es un componente de la cultura, que refleja en su concepción los sustratos económicos y sociales, así como la transmisión de ideas y valores inherentes a cualquier cultura humana a lo largo del espacio y el tiempo.[5]​.

La clasificación del arte ha tenido una evolución paralela al concepto mismo de arte: durante la antigüedad clásica se consideraba arte todo tipo de habilidad manual y destreza, de tipo racional y sujeta a reglas, por lo que entraban en esa denominación tanto las actuales bellas artes como la artesanía y las ciencias.[6]​ En el siglo Galeno dividió el arte en artes liberales y artes vulgares, según si tenían un origen intelectual o manual. En el Renacimiento empezó a considerarse que la arquitectura, la pintura y la escultura eran actividades que requerían no solo oficio y destreza, sino también un tipo de concepción intelectual que las hacían superiores a otros tipos de manualidades.[7]​ En 1746, Charles Batteux estableció en Las bellas artes reducidas a un único principio la concepción actual de bellas artes, donde incluyó la pintura, la escultura, la música, la poesía y la danza, mientras que mantuvo el término «artes mecánicas» para el resto de actividades artísticas, y señaló como actividades entre ambas categorías la arquitectura. Con el tiempo esta lista sufrió variaciones y, a fecha de hoy, no está del todo cerrada, pero en general sentó una base comúnmente aceptada.[8]​.

Los términos «artes decorativas», «artes aplicadas», «artes industriales» o «artes menores» surgieron por oposición a las «bellas artes» o «artes mayores», aunque a menudo la frontera no está del todo clara.[9]​ En general, dentro de las artes plásticas la función decorativa se considera secundaria: así, si la pintura tiene por sí sola una autonomía como obra de arte, en su aplicación a un objeto pierde esa singularidad para cumplir una función subordinada, la de embellecer ese objeto. Si la pintura puede representar una visión del mundo en la libertad conceptual del artista, la pintura decorativa se moverá en un círculo cerrado de temas y motivos.[10]​.

Probablemente la separación entre artes mayores y menores vino de la distinción por parte de la crítica de arte de lo «bello» y lo «útil»: a lo primero se le concedió una categoría más elevada, pues parecía dirigirse más directamente al intelecto y/o el espíritu, mientras que lo segundo tenía una finalidad más práctica y mundana. Esta distinción no dejaba de ser subjetiva, puesto que una actividad como la arquitectura, englobada en las artes mayores, es ciertamente útil, mientras que muchas artes menores, aun siendo útiles, pueden ser bellas.[11]​.

Aunque las artes decorativas eran consideradas como un arte menor, desde el siglo adquirieron cierta autonomía y, desde entonces, se empezó a valorar más su aspecto estético frente al utilitario y numerosas de sus producciones fueron valoradas como obras de arte con una singularidad propia.[10]​ Sin embargo, las artes decorativas aplicadas a la industria —más propiamente llamadas hoy día «artes industriales»— se fueron separando de este concepto, por cuanto en este tipo de objetos la decoración es por lo general algo secundario; así, la estética funcionalista tendió a valorar más los objetos por su utilidad, rechazando una decoración a menudo sobreañadida.[10]​.

El término «artes decorativas» se forjó en el tercer tercio del siglo , principalmente como sustitución del término «artes menores», que resultaba peyorativo.[12]​ En la génesis de las artes decorativas o industriales están indefectiblemente unidos la practicidad y la estética. Así, la producción de objetos englobados en este término debe tener en cuenta la finalidad del producto (enseres, vestidos, utensilios, mobiliario) tanto como su aspecto formal. Así, no entrarían en esta categoría un objeto utilitario que sea posteriormente decorado o, por el contrario, otro de aspecto artístico que no cumpla una función práctica.[13]​ Pese a todo, a menudo se han considerado artes decorativas productos con una simple función ornamental, pero producidos en serie, con lo que se alejarían del concepto de obra única del arte con mayúsculas.[14]​.

Un factor decisivo en la nueva concienciación de las artes decorativas fue la publicación entre 1860 y 1863 del libro Der Stil in den technischen und tectonischen künsten der praktische Aestetik, de Gottfried Semper, donde prestaba una especial atención a las artes decorativas dentro de la historia del arte. Esta obra influyó en el historiador formalista Alois Riegl, quien en sus análisis de la historia del arte en función del estilo incluyó igualmente las artes decorativas. Para Riegl, quien fue conservador del Museo de Artes Decorativas de Viena, las técnicas usadas en la producción artística marcaban la evolución de las formas artísticas.[15]​.

• - Chorioplasty: leather work has two main modalities: cordovan, tanned goat or goat leather, which appeared in Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)") in the Andalusian period, used as a complement to furniture; and the guadamecí, tanned and carved sheepskin, and later polychrome, gold or silver, used as an ornament for altarpieces, canopies and altars or as wall coverings, curtains or furniture, sometimes even as carpets. There are various techniques for working with leather: engraving, embossing, recessing, chiseling, carving, stamping, ironing, cutting, etc. Embroidery, gold, silver or tin sheets, or applications of hardware or nails can be added to the leather, and it can be polychromed with mineral products (potash "Potash (mineral)") or chemicals (anilines), or with oil or tempera paint.[49] Other modalities are morocco, a burnished goatskin finer than cordovan, preferably used in bookbinding; and Moroccan, sheepskin used especially in furniture upholstery.[50]​.

• Cameo: it is the carving of figures in relief on stratified hard stones, such as agate "Agate (mineral)"), sardonic, coral and shell, which generally have layers of different colors, which provides intense chromatic contrasts.

• Chiseling: consists of working the precious metal with a chisel, making hollowed-out decorations or finishing work, with chisels of different shapes and thicknesses.

• Damascene (or coffin): the drawing is traced with a fine point on a metal support, then an incision is made with burins and scalpels and, finally, a filigree of metals of different colors is applied.

• Filigree "Filigree (craft)"): it is practiced with precious metal threads, with which the piece is made by braiding or twisting the threads until the desired shape is obtained.

• Fusion: are works executed in a mold, made in two ways: "permanent fusion", made with a bivalve mold, with the shape already worked, made of stone or terracotta; «lost wax», where the object is modeled in wax, to which a funnel with vents is applied, covering it with chalk "Creta (rock)"), which once dry is heated until the wax is expelled, then filled with molten metal.

• Granulation: it is a procedure by which tiny gold spheres are obtained with which geometric drawings or decorations are made.

• Nielado: consists of engraving a drawing on a sheet of metal—generally silver—, filling the grooves with niello, an alloy of silver, copper and lead, with sulfur and borax, which produces a black and shiny mixture.

• Opus interrasile: technique of Roman origin that consists of making small incisions in the sheets of precious metal, performing an openwork function that gives the work a lace appearance.

• Embossing: it is the relief decoration made on gold, silver or copper plates, working the back of the plate with a hammer and chisel.[53]​.

• - Glass and enamel: there are various types of glass: "soda glass" (the most basic, made from silica), crystal (silica and lead or potassium oxide), "chalcedonium glass" (silica and metal oxides) and "dairy glass" (silica, manganese dioxide and tin oxide). The main technique for working with it is blowing, where it can be given any shape and thickness. As for decoration, it can be painted, sgraffito, carved, with tweezers, in filigree "Filigree (craft)"), etc. The enamel is a glass paste (silica, lime, potash, lead and minium), on a metal support, worked according to various techniques: cloisonné, small filaments of gold or copper, with which the figure is drawn on the support, to separate the enamel into partitions; champlevé, which is made by lowering the support in alveoli and hollowing out the material in concavities, filled with enamel; ajouré, gold surface where the shapes are cut out with saws or files, filling the removed part with enamel.[54]​.

• - Ceramics: it is made with clay, in four kinds: red-yellowish porous fired clay (pottery, terracotta, sponge cake); white porous fired clay (earthenware); gray, brown or brown non-porous fired clay (stoneware); compact non-porous half-transparent white clay (porcelain). Other variants are majolica and faience, both made of stanniferous earthenware: the first term is used mainly in Italy and the second in the rest of Europe. It can be made manually or mechanically - with a wheel -, then it is fired in the oven - at temperatures between 400 and 1300 °C, depending on the type -, and decorated with enamel or paint.[55]​ The decoration can be: exquisite, relief applications made with clay; incised, a drawing drawn on the still tender clay; with molds, applied on the soft surface of the clay; polishing, carried out on the baked clay; sgraffito, application of various colors that are then torn according to the desired effect; and marbled, a mixture of various dyes with a fat, creating veins in the ceramic.[56]​.

• - Lacquer: it is a shiny, thick and solid varnish, which is extracted from mineral or vegetable resins and comes from the Far East. This varnish is applied to objects made of various materials: wood, metal, ceramic, paper or leather. The lacquer technique begins with a first application of coarse lacquer, which is covered with several layers of fine lacquer, the last of which will be of the desired shade; Next, the decoration is done, which can be painting with a brush, by carving or incision, with inlays of other materials, or by spraying gold or silver; Finally, a final lacquer is done with several layers of translucent lacquer.[57]​.

• - Eboraria: it is the work of ivory, which is obtained from elephant horns. It can be applied to inlay and, as an individual work, to carved, openwork and painted ivories. The carving begins with cutting the tusk into pieces or "boats", with which the object is shaped and subsequently decorated and, sometimes, polychrome. The openwork is similar to the previous one, with a more refined technique that imitates the openwork carving of wood. The paintings used to be ivory plates on a wooden frame, on which pigments were applied with a brush.[58]​.

• - Jet: jet is a fossil substance, a variety of lignite, black in color and shiny surface. They are generally small pieces, which are worked with a file and lathe, in relief or carved, with a final polishing phase. They are often linked to other works of sculpture or goldsmithing, being quite common in luxury arts.[59]​.

• - Plumeria: feathers are keratinous structures of the skin of birds. They are typically attached to other supports—usually woven—by sewing, gluing, or piecing. Its main use occurred in pre-Columbian America.[60]​.

• - Basket making: one of the oldest crafts in the world is that of containers made of plant fibers linked together. The oldest technique is spiral basketry, made with reeds, straw or fibers twisted into ropes and wound into a spiral giving them the desired shape, generally spherical or ovoid. Another technique is braiding, which is made by rolling long pleats sewn with fibers. Thirdly, interweaving is achieved by weaving the fibers over a wicker frame.[61]​.

• - Fan: this instrument for breathing has frequently been an object of decoration and, on occasions, has been placed inside homes as a decorative object. They can be rigid, but most are foldable. They are generally made up of a folding surface (country) of fabric, paper, gauze, lace or kid, with rods (guides) of wood, ivory, mother-of-pearl, lacquer or shell; The two rods at the ends are called blades. The exposed part of the rods (fonts) can be decorated with openwork, gilding or other techniques.[62]​.

• - Glyptic: it is the art of carving precious or semi-precious stones for the making of stamps "Seal (stamp)"), coins or medals. It is generally made in a cameo or engraved form, and sometimes in a round shape, usually in small pieces. The work of these pieces is carried out with abrasives and grinding wheels with blunt or sharp heads.[63]​.

• - Binding: the covers of a book have the main function of preserving its content from external agents, although they have often been the object of ornamentation. Joining the folds can be done with sewing, gluing or other procedures. The covers can be made of papyrus, wood, leather, leather (gilded, chiseled or embossed), papier-mâché or other materials, sometimes with applications of enamel, goldsmithing or eboraria.[64]​.

• - Horology: this instrument for measuring time has often been the object of ornamentation and, over time, has evolved both technologically and stylistically. There are numerous types of clocks: sun clock, water clock, sand clock, ring clock, bracket, poster, grandfather clock, banjo clock, tall case clock, carriage clock, globe clock, lantern clock, pedestal clock, skeleton clock, parliamentary clock, regulator clock, etc.[65]​.

• - Toy store: toys primarily fulfill the practical function for which they are created, children's games, but on occasion they have been used as ornamental objects in interior decoration. Built in numerous typologies and materials, their utilitarian function has often been a drawback for their conservation, which is why it is also difficult to establish a historical evolution. Some of the most used modalities in decoration have been dolls and doll houses, automatons "Automata (mechanical)"), puppets and marionettes, tin soldiers, rocking horses, kites "Comet (toy)"), reproductions of weapons, trains and automobiles, etc.[66]​.

This is the name given to the multiple styles developed in Europe from the coronation of Charlemagne (year 800) until around the year 1000, where the appearance of the Romanesque will mean the dissemination of the same unitary style throughout the entire European continent. This meaning is simply a way of encompassing a series of independent styles with few or no common factors, with the only unifying factor being that they were predecessors of the internationalization of Romanesque.[101]​.

• - Carolingian art: it is that developed in the Holy Roman Empire since the coronation of Charlemagne in the year 800. Miniature was notably developed, in which several schools can be distinguished: the Palatine, the Tours, the Reims and the Saint-Denis. (Milan)"), work of Vuolvinus).[113]​.

• - Ottonian art: this is the name given to art developed in the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of the Ottonian dynasty (- centuries). The miniature was heir to Carolingian art, especially the Reims school, again with Byzantine influence. In goldsmithing, the enamel tradition continued, with works such as the Basel altar (Cluny Museum), the cross of the Abbess Matilda (Essen) and the crown of Conrad II (Vienna).[114]

• - Celtic art: developed in the British Isles, a miniature school of Carolingian influence developed, with a main production center in Winchester (Pontifical of Saint Aethelwold, British Museum). In goldsmithing, the so-called King Alfred jewel (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) and the case of Saint Patrick's bell (Dublin Museum) deserve to be highlighted.[115]​.

• - Viking art: the people of Scandinavia mainly made movable art, generally weapons, fibulae and belts, of which the most notable were the fibulae with long needles and the swords with terminal button and rings on the hilt, decorated in damascene, cloisonné and filigree.[116]​.

• - Asturian art: with the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (711-726) Christians were reduced to the region of Asturias. Asturian art occurred in the 19th century, in three stages: pre-Ramirense, Ramirense and post-Ramirense, depending on the reign of Ramiro I (842-850). The goldsmithing also stands out, where the Carolingian influence is denoted (Cross of Angels, Cross of Victory and Box of Agates in the Holy Chamber of the Cathedral of San Salvador in Oviedo).[117]​.

• - Mozarabic art: Christians who lived under Islamic domination are called Mozarabs and who, when they returned to territory reconquered by Christians, practiced a type of art with great Islamic influence. It developed especially in the 19th century, mainly north of the Duero, in the upper Ebro, southern Galicia, Cantabria and the Pyrenees. It is worth highlighting in miniature the blessed, illustrations from the Commentary to the Apocalypse of the Blessed of Liébana, as well as the works of goldsmithing (cross of Santiago de Peñalba, Archaeological Museum of León; bell of Abbot Samsón, Museum of Córdoba; chalice of Santo Domingo de Silos).[118]​.

Romanesque art represents the first international style of Western European culture, with an identity fully consolidated after the passage from Latin to vernacular languages. Eminently religious in nature, almost all Romanesque art was aimed at the exaltation and dissemination of Christianity. Emerging in the middle of the century, it developed fundamentally during the century, at the end of which it began to coexist with the incipient Gothic.[119]​.

Within the architectural framework, ornamental sculpture had great relevance, especially that of the tympanum "Tympanum (architecture)") of church facades and that of the capitals of columns.[120] The mosaic continued to be used especially on pavements, such as that of the Ascension of Alexander of the cathedral of Orvieto (1163-1166) or the signs of the zodiac of the basilica of San Miniato in Monte (Florence, 1207).[121] Two schools predominated in miniature: the Italian, of Byzantine influence; and the English, where the Winchester school stands out.[122]​.

At this time, goldsmithing stood out, with abundant use of gold and precious stones, as in the Reliquary of the Three Wise Men (Cologne Cathedral), the work of Nicolás de Verdún, and the Chalice of Doña Urraca (San Isidoro de León). Textile works were also relevant, especially embroidery, such as the Bayeux Tapestry (century) or the Creation Tapestry of Gerona Cathedral (century).[123]​ Glasswork was developed as an enclosure for openings between the end of the 19th and beginning of the 19th century, when it was also the object of support for the embodiment of iconographic programs related to Christianity.[124]​ In metalwork, the use of bronze predominated, as in the doors of the church of San Miguel de Hildesheim,[125]​ or the cathedral of Verona.[126]​ Iron was mainly used in the bars for choirs "Choir (architecture)").[127]​ Simplicity and severity predominated in cabinetmaking, as corresponded to the predominant religion, Christianity, which advocated poverty and austerity. Chests proliferated, serving to store clothes and, at the same time, as seats.[128]​.

Gothic art[note 1]​ developed between the 19th and 2nd centuries, a time of great economic and cultural development. The end of the feudal era meant the consolidation of centralized states, with greater predominance of cities over the countryside, while an increasing sector of society had access to culture, which was no longer the exclusive heritage of the Church. The rise of universities led to an increase in scientific, philosophical and literary studies, and laid the foundations of modern culture. The decorative arts had great relevance during the Gothic period, favored by the new urban classes of merchants and artisans.[130]​.

One of the main specialties of the Gothic was the stained glass window, which added to its illuminating function a symbolic aspect of divine transcendence. The evolution of Gothic architecture allowed the opening of large windows that filled the interior with light, which gained transparency and luminosity.[131]​ Some exponents were the stained glass windows of the cathedrals of Chartres, Reims, Amiens or the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.[132]​.

The Gothic miniature was developed especially in France, with miniatures of rich chromaticism, abundant use of gold and borders of vegetal type (Psalter of Queen Blanca of Castile, Arsenal Library, Paris).[133]​ In the goldsmithing, the monstrances and reliquaries stood out especially, where the name of Enrique de Arfe stands out (custody of the Cathedral of Córdoba, 1518; processional monstrance of the Cathedral of Toledo, 1517-1524).[134]​ Ceramics stood out in Faenza and Manises, and glass in Venice and Catalonia.[134]​ In metalwork, the Dinant workshop (Belgium) stood out. Also worth mentioning as a notable work are the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery "Baptistery of San Juan (Florence)"), by Andrea Pisano.

At this time tapestry developed significantly, with two main workshops in Paris and Arras. One of the best productions is the Tapestry of the Apocalypse (Angers Castle, 1375-1379). From the end of the century, Flemish workshops stood out.[136]​ In Gothic cabinetmaking, a decoration inspired by the architecture of cathedrals became fashionable, with ogives, rosettes and multi-lobed windows.[137]​ The most used piece of furniture was the chest, which served as both a closet and a bench or table, generally made of oak and armed with hardware.[138]​ The first engravings come from this period. in Europe, made with woodcut: the first preserved is the Saint Christopher from the Germanic Museum in Nuremberg, from 1423. Intaglio appeared in the 1430s. Engraving contributed to the popularization and cheapening of art, and allowed the artist a new means of expression.[139]​.

At this time, the graphic arts developed significantly, especially thanks to the invention of the printing press. Most engraving techniques appeared or were perfected: intaglio (etching, aquatint, burin engraving, halftone engraving or drypoint engraving), linocut, woodcut, etc. In Germany, the work of Durer, a specialist in the burin technique, stood out, although he also made woodcuts. In France, engraving was practiced by the Fontainebleau school. In Flanders, notable engravers emerged in the city of Antwerp, such as the Wierix brothers or Hieronymus Cock.[150]​.

The Baroque[note 3]​ developed between the century and the beginning of the 19th century. It was a time of great disputes in the political and religious field, in which a division arose between the counter-reformist Catholic countries, where the absolutist state was established, and the Protestant countries, of a more parliamentary nature. Art became more refined and ornate, with the survival of a certain classicist rationalism but with more dynamic and effective forms, with a taste for the surprising and anecdotal, for optical illusions and effects.[152]​.

In general, the Baroque decorative arts stand out for their ornateness, sumptuousness and pompous character, with a predominance of the curved line over the straight one, a taste for lighting contrasts and illusionistic effects, a certain scenographic and appearance character, thoroughness of detail, use of diverse materials and mixtification of techniques, and a taste for the exotic that is evident in the importation of products from the Far East and, later, in their imitation (chinoiseries and japonesairies).[153]​ In some countries, specific stylistic varieties emerged, such as the Louis XIV and Regency styles "Regency Style (France)") in France or the Jacobean, Restoration, William and Mary, and Queen Anne styles in England.

The decorative arts had a great expansion in the 19th century, mainly due to the decorative and ornamental character of Baroque art. In France, the luxurious project of the Palace of Versailles led to the creation of the Manufacture Royale des Gobelins —directed by the king's painter, Charles Le Brun—, where all types of decorative objects were manufactured, mainly furniture, upholstery and goldsmithing. The making of tapestries had a significant increase in its production and was aimed at imitating painting, with the collaboration in numerous cases of renowned painters who produced cardboard for tapestries "Carton (art)"), such as Simon Vouet, Le Brun himself or Rubens in Flanders.[154] Goldsmithing also reached high levels of production, especially in silver and precious stones. Ceramics and glass generally continued with the same production techniques as in the Renaissance period: white and blue ceramics from Delft (Holland) and polished and carved glass from Bohemia stood out. In bronze, the baldachin of Saint Peter and the chair of Saint Peter stand out, both by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.[156]​.

At this time, cabinetmaking stood out especially, which was characterized by undulating surfaces (concave and convex), with scrolls and various motifs such as cartouches and shells. In Spain, the bargueño emerged, a rectangular chest with handles, with numerous drawers and compartments, as well as the armchair called frailero (or missionary in Latin America). At the end of the century the technique of marquetry was developed in the Netherlands. The golden age of cabinetmaking occurred in the France of the Louis, where high levels of quality and refinement were achieved, especially thanks to the work of André-Charles Boulle.[157]​ The graphic arts were widely disseminated during the Baroque, continuing the boom that this sector had during the Renaissance. The most used techniques were etching and drypoint engraving,[158]​ In the century in which Guido Reni, Claude Lorrain, Abraham Bosse, Jacques Bellange, Jacques Callot, Peter Paul Rubens, Lucas Vorsterman I, Anton van Dyck, José de Ribera, Francisco Ribalta, Francisco Herrera the Elder and, especially, Rembrandt, stood out.[158]​.

The Rococo[note 4]​ developed in the century—coexisting at the beginning of the century with the Baroque and, at the end, with Neoclassicism—and meant the survival of the main artistic manifestations of the Baroque, with a more emphasized sense of decoration and ornamental taste, which were taken to a paroxysm of richness, sophistication and elegance.[160]​ Stylistically, in France the Louis XV and Louis styles occurred. XVI. In 1766, the École Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs was founded in France, the first renowned training center for decorative arts.

The decorative arts had special relevance, since Rococo was an art with a bourgeois air dedicated to ostentation and luxury.[161] Interior design was notably developed, with special emphasis on furniture, mirrors, silks, tapestries and porcelain objects. The latter was widely disseminated, especially that of Meissen and Sèvres, with delicate ornamental motifs, preferably in an oriental style.[162]​ In Spain, the production of ceramics continued in Talavera, Alcora and Manises, where a type of tile plinth with hunting scenes or landscapes became fashionable.[163]​.

Glass also had a great boom, with Venice still at the forefront of production, as well as Bohemia, where transparent, colorless glass was obtained that replaced the rock crystal used since the Renaissance. The tapestry had a large production center in Lyon, where oriental and exotic motifs (Chinese, Indian, Turkish) became fashionable.[164]​ In Spain, the tapestries from the Royal Tapestry Factory of Santa Bárbara (created in 1720) gained notoriety, some of them designed by Goya.[165]​ The goldsmith's work also had a dissemination center in France, where the work of Goya stands out. Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier.[166]​ In metalwork, the iron bars for the Place Stanislas in Nancy stand out, the work of Jean Lamour (1750-1758).[167]​.

In cabinetmaking, the French Louis one of its best exponents was Jean-Henri Riesener.[168]​ In the United Kingdom, the work of Thomas Chippendale stood out, who gave rise to the so-called "Chippendale style" (second half of the century), characterized by eclecticism "Eclecticism (art)"), with a mixture of Gothic, Rococo, Palladian and Chinese elements.[169]​ At this time, lithography appeared, a new type of engraving on limestone, invented by Aloys Senefelder in 1796. It was used by painters such as Goya, Gainsborough or Géricault.[170]​.

The rise of the bourgeoisie after the French Revolution favored the resurgence of classical forms, purer and austere, in contrast to the ornamental excesses of the Baroque and Rococo, identified with the aristocracy. This environment of appreciation of the Greco-Roman classical legacy was influenced by the archaeological discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, along with the dissemination of an ideology of perfection of classical forms carried out by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who postulated that perfect beauty existed in ancient Greece, which generated a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still conditions the perception of art today.[171]​ In France, the Directory and Empire styles occurred, while in In the United Kingdom, the Georgian style—named for the reigns of George I, George II, and George III—developed, followed by the Regency style "Regency Style (United Kingdom)"). Its equivalent in the United States was the federal style. The decorative arts return to classic themes (laurel, garlands, sphinxes) and austere coloring, often monochrome, with compact volumes and simple shapes.[172]​.

In ceramics, the work of Josiah Wedgwood stands out, who created a type of cream-colored earthenware that had great international success. Sèvres porcelain also continued, this time imitating ancient themes.[173] In glass, the French Royal Glassworks of Saint Louis produced pieces of potash glass in imitation of Bohemian glassware (façon de Bohême), while in Bohemia itself it successfully continued its production of high-quality glassware, with a more sober style than in the Rococo era. Venetian glass also prospered, especially with white opals that imitated porcelain.[174]​ Goldsmithing evolved like the rest of the arts to more austere forms and themes of classical inspiration.[175]​ In the metal arts, the grille of the Palace of Justice in Paris (1783-1785) and the grille of the choir of Notre-Dame in Paris (1809) stand out.[176]​.

Cabinetmaking returned to more classical forms, represented mainly in the United Kingdom by Robert Adam, George Hepplewhite and Thomas Sheraton.[177] In France, with the so-called Directory style (1795-1805) there was a return to a more sober type of furniture, with a preponderance of the constructive over the decorative and the use of the pure colors of the wood compared to the pastel tones of the Rococo. The Empire style developed in Napoleonic France, from where it spread to the rest of Europe, replacing sobriety with ostentation and luxury, with a sumptuous style, with a preference for exotic and oriental themes, preferably Egyptian (égyptiennerie), due to the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt (1798-1801).[178]​.

Historicist architecture was based on eclecticism "Eclecticism (art)") and the revival of previous styles reinterpreted according to modern concepts, which produced movements such as neo-Romanesque, neo-Gothic, neo-baroque, etc. Inspiration in these styles of the past led to a greater concern for historical accuracy, for imitating to the greatest perfection all the details of the replicated style. To achieve this, both bibliographical references and museum exponents of these styles were frequently used. In 1857 the Victoria & Albert Museum in London was founded with the aim of establishing the fundamental parameters to define the fundamental premises of contemporary design.[188]​.

One of the greatest sources of inspiration was the medieval past, as denoted in the decoration of Neuschwanstein Castle, promoted by King Ludwig II of Bavaria.[188] Neo-Gothic emerged in the United Kingdom already in the middle of the century, but was developed especially in the 19th century, with local varieties such as the Troubadour and Second Empire styles in France and the Elizabethan in Spain. It occurred especially in furniture, but also in other ornamental details applied to architecture. Neo-Gothic influenced modernism at the end of the century, especially in Catalonia.[189]​ One of the greatest theorists of this movement was Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, while as a designer the architect Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin stood out, who designed furniture, jewelry and silverware based strictly on medieval precedents.[189]​ In the United Kingdom there was a revival of the Queen Anne style in the middle of the century, which consisted of the development of reproductions—especially furniture and silverware—from that period, as seen in the cabriole-leg chairs and tables.[190]​ One of its greatest exponents was Edward William Godwin, an architect and designer linked to the aesthetic movement, greatly influenced by Japanese art, to the point that he designed a type of furniture called "Anglo-Japanese."[191]​.

In the last third of the century, the British Arts & Crafts movement, promoted by John Ruskin and William Morris, had special relevance. This current defended a revaluation of artisanal work and advocated a return to traditional forms of manufacturing, stipulating that art must be as useful as it is beautiful.[192] Following the approaches of Ruskin and Morris, Charles Robert Ashbee was the main organizer of the movement. In 1888 he founded the Guild and School of Handicraft in Toynbee Hall (London), where he designed furniture, silverware and metalwork in a style close to modernism.[193]​.

Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo, founder of the Century Guild interior decoration workshop, worked in Morris's orbit, where he made furniture that stood out for its lines and right angles, such as his famous chair from 1881. products.[195]​ In general, these artists abandoned the neo-Gothic for a simpler, lighter and more elegant style, inspired in part by the Queen Anne style. In the 1890s the modernist influence was received, but soon after Philip Webb returned to a more rustic and austere style. Around 1900 the movement was diluted, mainly due to the contradiction generated by the fact that their artisanal production made the product more expensive and they could only sell to select clientele, which clashed with their ideology close to utopian socialism, while to reach the masses they would have had to resort to serial manufacturing, which contravened their defense of manual craftsmanship.[196]​.

Modernism "Modernism (art)") was an architectural movement that emerged around 1880 in several countries, depending on which it received different names: Art Nouveau in France, Modern Style in the United Kingdom, Jugendstil in Germany, Sezession in Austria, Liberty "Modernism (art)") in Italy and modernism in Spain, a country in which Catalan modernism stood out. It lasted until the beginning of the First World War.[9]​ This style, due to its ornamental character, represented a great revitalization of the decorative arts, with a new conception more focused on the creative act and on the comparison with the rest of the plastic arts, to the point that its creators proposed for the first time the "unity of the arts." Modernist design generally proposed the revaluation of the intrinsic properties of each material, with organicist-type forms inspired by nature.[197] Although theoretically opposed to historicism, they were inspired by numerous styles of the past, especially medieval, Celtic, Oriental and Rococo art. On the other hand, some designs by Hector Guimard pointed to abstract art, while Henry Van de Velde, initiated into modernism, represents the transition between modernism and industrial design.[198]​.

A clear example of an architect concerned with interior design was Antoni Gaudí, who designed many of the furniture for his works, both civil and religious, made wrought iron designs (such as his famous dragon from the Güell pavilions), and innovated in the field of mosaic with his trencadís technique, a type of ceramic cladding made with waste pieces that he arranged in original and fanciful combinations, such as his undulating park bench. Güell.[199]​ Other architects who made ornamental designs were Victor Horta, Hector Guimard (creator of the grille for Paris metro stations, which became one of the visual icons of Art Nouveau),[200]​ Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Josef Hoffmann and Joseph Maria Olbrich. There were also references in painting and illustration, such as Alfons Mucha, Koloman Moser and Émile-Victor Prouvé.

In glass, Émile Gallé made pieces inlaid with gold or silver leaves, mica plates and asbestos fibers, inspired by nature.[201] Louis Comfort Tiffany was influenced by Gallé, from which he innovated technically and stylistically, as in his Favrile Glass, a technique of blown glass and subsequently iridized by exposure to molten metal fumes.[202] René Lalique, goldsmith and glassmaker, created works simpler, far from the sinuous shapes in fashion until then, generally with serial production.[202] In goldsmithing, Peter Carl Fabergé also stood out, creator of highly fantasy pieces, among which his "Easter eggs" stand out, which he made for the Russian royal family.[203] The furniture stood out for its harmonious and proportionate design, with a predominance of undulating shapes. Some of its best exponents were: Arthur Liberty, Henry Van de Velde, Émile Gallé, Louis Majorelle, Carlo Bugatti and Gaspar Homar.[204]​ In ceramics, Auguste Delaherche stood out, author of porcelain and stoneware vases decorated with varnishes.[205]​ In upholstery, Hermann Obrist designed embroideries of plant shapes that were very successful, especially the one known as The whip.[206]​.

In the century the decorative arts had a rapid evolution, marked by the use of new materials and more advanced technologies. With a clear commitment to design as a creative basis, in this century the intellectual aspect of these creations was highlighted compared to the mere material realization traditionally granted to crafts. However, the mass production of ornamental objects led experts such as Gérald Gassiot-Talabot to affirm that "the decorative arts are dead", a circumstance that dates back to the 1930s, with movements such as the Bauhaus and the first industrial designs. Loewy—, which affects the commercial aspect of the product.[208]​.

The traditional decorative arts continued to a more or less extent, although often relegated to the concept of craftsmanship in the face of new industrial design. Mosaic had a new rebirth in Italy thanks to the work of the sculptor Gino Severini, who founded a workshop in Paris in 1951 that later became the Gino Severini School of Fine Arts.[209] In ceramics, new techniques and materials were also explored. As in other fields, he linked up with artists of recognized prestige, such as Georges Rouault, Raoul Dufy, Pablo Picasso and Joan Miró. The latter, in collaboration with the ceramicist Josep Llorens i Artigas, created large ceramic murals such as those at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris, Harvard University, the Maeght Foundation and the Barcelona airport.[210]​.

Stained glass followed two paths: the traditional one and the one that used new techniques and materials, such as reinforced cement instead of leaded and plastic or polyester instead of glass.[211] As for glassware, glass from Murano (Venice) endured, as well as glass from Bohemia, which made an effort to renew itself through cut glass. In Finland, Tapio Wirkkala manufactured glass with bubbles and, in Sweden, glass with figurative or abstract engraved decoration was made.[212]​ In goldsmithing, the most used material was diamond, as well as precious stones.[213]​.

The furniture followed a more functional design, with the use of new materials such as steel, aluminum and plastic. Some exponents, such as the cantilever chair by Mart Stam, the tubular steel armchair by Marcel Breuer or the plastic corolla chair designed by Eero Saarinen, initiated industrial design in furniture. A clear example of the new furniture of innovative design was the famous red and blue chair by Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1923), with geometric shapes and primary colors. Wood was once again revalued in the Nordic countries, with artists such as Alvar Aalto, Kaare Klint and Børge Mogensen, as well as in the United States with Charles Eames.[214] Tapestry became remarkably close to painting, since many works by painters such as Georges Rouault, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Raoul Dufy, Henri Matisse, Fernand Léger and Joan Miró were brought to the loom Instead, Jean Lurçat renewed the tapestry and returned it to its initial concept, linked to architecture - which is its original framework - and away from painting.[215]​.

Engraving was practiced by numerous painters, such as Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, André Derain, Max Slevogt, Henri Matisse, Marc Chagall, Vasili Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, Salvador Dalí, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Eduardo Chillida and Antoni Tàpies. The most used methods were woodcut, lithography and etching, and new techniques were developed such as color aquatint and silkscreen, as well as offset printing.[216]​.

In 1925 the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes was held in Paris, which was the starting point of art deco.[note 6]​ In reality, the 1925 exhibition was the officialization of a movement that had been brewing for a few years—since the end of the First World War—as a successor style to modernism: in 1919 Louis Süe and André Mare") created the Compagnie des Arts Français, characterized by traditionally inspired furniture but exuberant decoration. This style, which lasted until the beginning of the Second World War, was a revolution for interior design and the graphic and industrial arts. It was characterized by the predilection for curved lines and symmetrical flourishes in graphic arts, and square and geometric shapes in furniture and interior decoration. Aimed mainly at a bourgeois public, it stood out for its ostentation and luxury, and was developed. notably in advertising illustration (Erté) and poster design (Cassandre).[218]​ However, the kitsch aspect of many of his productions caused him to be reviled by avant-garde currents and it was not until the 1960s when he was revalued by movements such as pop art, which sought inspiration in some of his works.[219]​.

One of the areas where this style flourished the most was furniture, where Jacques Émile Ruhlmann stood out, a decorator and furniture designer with great commercial sense, always attentive to capturing the latest in fashion trends.[220]​ In goldsmithing, some productions by the modernist René Lalique made at this time stand out, while another notable name was Jean Puiforcat, who made high-quality silverware pieces, with an austere but luxurious appearance.[221]​ In metalworking, mention should be made of Jean Dunand, author of metal and lacquer pieces, with a geometric design, generally vases inlaid with gold, silver, enamel or other materials.[222]​ In glass, Maurice Marinot preferably made bowls and jars of a more ornamental than practical conception, with solid-looking sculptural forms, with or without color, sometimes enamelled and, occasionally, with etching drawings.[223]​.

One of the most innovative movements in the field of design was the Bauhaus School[note 7]​ which, compared to the excessive ornamentation of art deco, introduced a more rational and functional design concept, more adapted to the real needs of people. This school aimed to break the barriers between art and crafts, with a clear commitment to industrial production. It was born in 1919, when the architect Walter Gropius took over the direction of the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts, which he renamed Das Staatliche Bauhaus Weimar. Its objective was "the collective work of art, the Building, within which there are no barriers that separate the structural arts from the decorative arts." Students at the school learned theories of form and design, as well as workshops in stone, wood, metal, clay, glass, weaving and painting. Gropius rejected industrial production, with a position close to the Arts & Crafts movement, and defended cooperative work, as well as the social responsibility of the designer. The Bauhaus moved to Dessau in 1925 and to Berlin in 1932. Gropius was succeeded by Hannes Meyer in 1928, followed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in 1930. The school was closed by the Nazis in 1933.[225]

Its design was based on simplicity, geometric abstraction and the use of primary colors and new technologies, as was evident in the tubular steel furniture created by Marcel Breuer, the Barcelona chair by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, the conglomerate furniture by Alvar Aalto, or the lamps designed by Marianne Brandt. In this school, creators such as László Moholy-Nagy, Oskar Schlemmer, Johannes Itten, Paul Klee, Josef Albers, Vasili Kandinski, Lilly Reich, Gerhard Marcks and Wilhelm Wagenfeld stood out.[226]​.

In the century, industrial design led interior design to the path of intellectual creation and functional design, with a progressive increase in experimentation with new materials (plastic, fiberglass) and greater attention to market needs.[227] Although there is no unanimously accepted definition, industrial design is generally considered to be the design of products designed to be manufactured in series using mechanical processes (assembly lines). Intrinsically, an industrial design must be planned in its entirety before entering the manufacturing process, without subsequent manipulations.[228]​.

In Germany, architects and designers such as Peter Behrens, Richard Riemerschmid and Bruno Paul, and workshops and associations such as Deutsche Werkstätten and Deutsche Werkbund, laid the foundations of industrial design in an early phase. The Bauhaus took over, where industrial design moved to the academic field, and its postulates were also adopted by rationalist architecture (or International Style). After the closure of the Bauhaus by the Nazis in 1933, most of its components moved to the United Kingdom or the United States, countries that took up the baton of industrial design. After the Second World War, the ideals of the Bauhaus were taken up in Germany by Max Bill, founder of the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm (1951).[229] In France the pioneer was the architect Le Corbusier, who proclaimed the "absolute expressive autonomy of industrially produced objects" and pointed out as basic aspects of the new design the purity of lines, the functionality of materials and the luminosity of surfaces.[230] In The United States was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, until the emergence of design in the 1930s with figures such as Henry Dreyfuss, Raymond Loewy and Walter Dorwin Teague. In that decade, some Bauhaus masters such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and László Moholy-Nagy also established themselves, who taught a new generation of designers. Later Charles Eames, George Nelson and Harry Bertoia stood out.[231]​.

Later, in Europe, industrial design had two main currents: the Scandinavian and the Italian. The first, represented by Arne Jacobsen, Alvar Aalto, Eero Saarinen and Poul Kjærholm, had its roots in popular art and was based on the naturalness and simplicity of forms as a fundamental premise of design. For its part, Italian design was more daring and extravagant, with a predilection for bright colors, use of artificial materials such as resin, plastic and conglomerate, as well as steel and more "noble" materials such as marble. He was mainly represented by Ettore Sottsass, Joe Colombo and Gae Aulenti.[232]

Since the Second World War, traditional decorative arts and industrial design have coexisted with new currents of the artistic avant-garde that have occasionally made inroads into the field of design. One of the artistic styles that entered this field was pop art, which emerged in the United Kingdom and the United States around 1955 as a movement to reject abstract expressionism, with a marked component of popular inspiration. The furniture designed by Verner Panton stands out or that of the Italian team formed by Jonathan de Pas"), Donato d'Urbino") and Paolo Lomazzi"), creators of the Blow inflatable chair (1967) and the Joe Sofa (1971).[233] Another movement interested in design was organic abstract art, which is characterized by the use of rounded shapes inspired by nature. One of its main representatives was Isamu Noguchi, author of furniture, lamps and other objects made with a sculptural conception, such as his famous coffee table with a wooden base and glass top (1947).[234]​.

Between the 1950s and 1960s, the so-called Neoliberty style arose in Italy, with a predominance of curved lines, represented by Gae Aulenti, Franco Albini, Vittorio Gregotti and Carlo Mollino. plastic.[236] Between the years 1960 and 1970 there was a trend in architecture and design known as "anti-design" (also "counter-design" or "radical design"), represented by the British studio Archigram and the Italians Archizoom and Superstudio. One of his best creations was the Mies chair from Archizoom (1969).[237]​.

Since 1975, postmodern art predominated, so called in opposition to modern art, since the failure of avant-garde movements is assumed to be the failure of the modern project. This movement represents a return to traditional forms and styles of art that, however, are reinterpreted and mixed in a free and arbitrary way. Designers such as Ettore Sottsass, Alessandro Mendini, Michele de Lucchi") and Philippe Starck stood out, as well as in the graphic arts Wolfgang Weingart"), Neville Brody and Javier Mariscal.[238]​.

The new millennium began with a thread of continuity with the previous century, both in the survival of traditional techniques, increasingly relegated to the consideration of craftsmanship, and in the evolution of industrial design. Stylistically, at the beginning of the century postmodern art continued to predominate, although the influence of architectural movements such as high-tech and deconstructivism was also noted. A social phenomenon at the turn of the century was the new concept of self-assembling furniture and the sale of design products by catalog or in department stores, which had its paradigm in the Swedish company Ikea, founded in 1943 by Ingvar Kamprad. In general, the trend of the new millennium has been that of eclecticism "Eclecticism (art)"), the mixture of styles, as well as the search for simplicity and comfort. In interior design, there was also greater concern for environmental sustainability and a great boom in the use of new technologies. Among the most prominent designers of the transition of the century we can mention Ron Arad "Ron Arad (industrial designer)"), close to deconstructivism, who made works of recycled materials with a sculptural appearance; and Andrée Putman, a designer with an eclectic style that mixes rococo, high-tech and postmodern elements.[239]​.

Pre-Columbian art is called art produced on the American continent before the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Various cultures flourished here over time, among which the Mayans and Aztecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru stand out.[246]​.

One of its main manifestations was ceramics, made without a wheel, in modeling or casting. In Mexico, funerary urns and vases with caricature-shaped heads have been found among the Toltecs, Mixtec vases, Mayan vases and tripods, or Totonac terracotta masks. But the best creations are from Peru, with some first exponents in the culture of Chavín "Chavín (culture)"), in that of the Mochicas, the Chimús and in Nazca, until leading to the Mayans, among which the pointed amphorae with two handles stand out, with painted decoration of a geometric type.[247] Goldsmithing had great relevance in pre-Columbian cultures, especially in Peru, where gold work has been confirmed since the century BC C. and silver from the century BC. C.[248]​ In Mexico, the treasure found in tomb 7 of Monte Albán stands out, where a gold pectoral representing the god of the dead Mictlantecuhtli was found. In Colombia, where there is a good sample in the Bogotá Gold Museum, the anthropomorphic pectorals of the Quimbaya culture "Quimbaya (ethnic group)") stand out, as well as the tumbaga pieces, an alloy of gold and copper. Platinum was worked for the first time in Ecuador.[249]​ In Peru, a notable textile industry emerged, perhaps the first in the world—there are vestiges from the century BC. C.—, spun on a loom with threads of almost two hundred different colors.[250]​ Tapestries, gauze and brocades were made, with both figurative and abstract and geometric ornamental motifs.[251]​.

Various tribes lived in North America adapted to the multiple habitats of this continent, such as arctic regions, jungles, deserts, forests and grasslands. Although each of them had their own artistic idiosyncrasy, in general they practiced a furniture art made with materials such as skins, plant fibers, feathers, stone, wood, copper, mica, shells, porcupine quills, etc. The main techniques practiced were ceramics, textiles and basket weaving. One of the typical elements of the nomadic tribes were the tipis, tents generally made of buffalo skin and drawn with tribal and family emblems. Ceramics were developed especially in the American southwest, with notable pieces among the Mimbre tribe, authors of bowls decorated with paintings of birds, animals and human beings.[252]​.

Chinese art has had a more uniform evolution than Western art, with a cultural and aesthetic background common to successive artistic stages, marked by its reigning dynasties. Like most oriental art, it has an important religious content (mainly Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism) and communion with nature. Unlike in the West, the Chinese valued calligraphy, ceramics, silk or porcelain equally, as well as architecture, painting or sculpture, while art is fully integrated into their philosophy and culture. Han (206 BC-220 AD), Six Dynasties period (220-618), Tang (618-907), Song (960-1279), Yuan (1280-1368), Ming (1368-1644), and Qing (1644-1911).

One of the main expressions of Chinese decorative arts is ceramics: the first vestiges are from the Neolithic era, around 2500 BC. C. In the Shang period, fine clay vessels decorated by incision were made, and during the Zhou dynasty a stoneware protoporcelain glazed with feldspar and impure kaolin appeared. In the Han era, there was a type of ceramic glazed with a lead glaze. During the Ming dynasty, a type of translucent white porcelain of great technical perfection was produced. Finally, in the Qing period, both monochrome and polychrome pieces were made, with a thematic predilection for picturesque scenes.[254] Jade also stood out, which has been worked in China since the 3rd millennium BC. C., used as a ritual object, ornament, jewel, amulet, sword decoration or belt buckle.[255]​.

Goldsmithing is scarce, due to the poverty of Chinese territory in gold and silver. The greatest production was during the Tang dynasty, especially necklaces, earrings and bracelets with an abundance of pearls. The Song era highlighted the use of filigree, and the Yuan excelled in silversmithing. The Qing dynasty maintained the previous styles, in pieces of great sumptuousness with an abundance of pearls, jade, coral and other precious materials.[256] In metal work, bronze works stand out, of which notable achievements were created as early as 1700 BC. C. In addition to glasses, helmets and weapons, bells, tripod cauldrons (jue), mirrors, knives and cutlery were made. In the Zhou era, the hu glass proliferated, with large dimensions. In the Han period, bronze became more sumptuous, inlaid with precious materials. During the Ming dynasty, the decoration of bronze vessels in cloisonné enamel began.[257]​.

The furniture presents two main typologies: the chest or box and the frame, generally with an architectural design and rectangular structure, with simple and austere shapes. The Tang had more luxurious furniture, with inlays of gold, silver, mother-of-pearl or ivory, sometimes lacquered.[258] Another great exponent of Chinese decorative arts is lacquer, which has been made since the century BC. C. The heyday of lacquer was during the Han dynasty, a period in which the technique was perfected, sometimes with gold, silver or mother-of-pearl inlays.[259] As for textile art, silk stands out, discovered in China in the 3rd millennium BC. C. It flourished especially since the Han dynasty, a period in which it began to be exported through the Silk Road.[260]​.

Japanese art has been marked by its insularity, although at intervals it has been influenced by continental civilizations, especially China and Korea. Much of the art produced in Japan has been of a religious type: to the Shinto religion, the most typically Japanese, formed around the 19th century, Buddhism was added around the 19th century, forging a religious syncretism that still endures today. Like Chinese art, Japanese art is imbued with a deep love of nature, which has sometimes translated in some artistic objects into a decorative austerity motivated by their imitation of natural objects.[261] Japanese art is divided into historical periods: Jōmon (5000-200 BC), Yayoi (200 BC-200 AD), Kofun (200-600), Asuka (552-646), Nara (646-794), Heian (794-1185), Kamakura (1185-1392), Muromachi (1333-1573), Momoyama (1573-1615), Edo (1615-1868) and Meiji (1865-1911).

In Japan, during the Jōmon period, the oldest pottery produced by humans was produced (7000 BC), made by hand and decorated with incisions or rope impressions.[262] In the Kofun period (around the 2nd century) wheel work appears, probably due to Korean influence. During the Kamakura period, the production of what would be the most typically Japanese ceramics began, with a highly relevant production center, the Seto workshop "Seto (Aichi)") in Owari. In the Muromachi era, the influence of Zen Buddhism led to the creation of the tea ceremony, which led to a great boom in ceramics. In the Momoyama period, ceramics reached a peak, with Seto as one of the first centers of production. In the Edo period, ceramics had one of its largest production centers in Kyoto, with the influence of Chinese and Korean art, and the first porcelains were produced, with a first production center in Arita.[263]​.

In metalwork they stood out notably in the work of bronze, used since the Yayoi era in the making of bells, weapons, mirrors and other liturgical and utilitarian objects,[264]​ while iron was mainly used in armor and swords (katana).[265]​ Wood was rarely used for furniture, since the Japanese tradition is to sit or stretch out on rice straw mats, although low-height tables, chests, shelves, desks and other minor modalities.[266]​ A relevant element is the screen, a movable screen with a wooden frame and panels of upholstery, paper, leather, lacquer or other materials.[267]​ As in China, Japanese art stood out in lacquer, which used to make cabinets, reliquaries, screens, boxes and chests, masks, musical instruments, etc. As authors, in the Momoyama period the name of Honami Kōetsu stands out and, in the Edo period, Ōgata Kōrin.[268]​ In textile art, silk work stands out, whose main typology is the kimono.[269]​.

Indian art has a mainly religious character, which serves as a vehicle for the transmission of the different religions that have marked India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity, mainly. The Indian subcontinent has not produced as copious a production in decorative arts as neighboring China or Japan, on the one hand due to its history of division into small kingdoms, often with foreign occupations, as well as the fact that the majority of the population could not afford the possession of sumptuous products, reserved for an aristocratic elite; and, on the other hand, due to the perishable nature of many of its productions, especially wood and fabric, in not very favorable weather conditions, due to the monsoons.[270]​.

Ceramics are of little relevance, mainly clay utensils of a utilitarian nature. The most notable are the painted vessels of the Indus culture (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro). In the Gupta period reliefs and terracotta tiles were given to decorate temples. Already in the Mughal era, Islamic porcelain was introduced.[271] Goldsmithing stood out more: in the Indus culture, gold and pearl necklaces and bracelets were found. Jewelry of Hellenistic influence has been found in Gandhāra, made by incision, embossing, honeycombing, inlay or filigree. In India there was also a large production of jade which, unlike Chinese, is usually inlaid with enamel or precious stones with a gold setting.[272] Bronze has been worked since the time of the Indus culture: in Mohenjo-Daro a statuette of a bronze dancer dressed in jewels was found. Since the century BC. C. steel was also worked, mainly in weapons, sometimes damascened in gold and silver.[273]​.

Wood was little used in furniture, since mats or seats made of cane or bamboo were more common. The presence of furniture occurred more in the religious sphere, especially tables and chests, where a certain influence from the Middle East is denoted. In colonial times, there was a type of Indo-Portuguese style furniture, characterized by the use of dark woods with gold or ivory inlays, as well as Indo-Dutch, ebony and light lacquered woods.[274] As for weaving, wool and cotton were worked for dresses and tapestries, while silk was imported from China.[275] It is also worth highlighting from the Mughal period the miniature, which was luxuriously developed into books. decorated, which were considered objects of great value. One of the best miniaturists was Basawan, creator of the classic style of Mughal miniature, with a narrative style.[276]​.

With the Hegira of Muhammad in the year 622, a new religion arose, Islam, which spread rapidly from the Near East through North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula, as well as through the Balkan area after the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Over time, the new religion brought together a great diversity of peoples and cultures, so its art was a reflection of this disparity, which produced numerous manifestations and variants. stylistics depending on the region where it was produced.[277] In Islamic art, the decorative arts had a great development, mainly due to the prohibition of the representation of living beings, which subtracted one of the main motifs of painting and sculpture. Added to this is the consideration of architecture as a mere craft, not as an art, which is why the decorative arts became the main Islamic artistic manifestation.[278] The main historical and artistic periods within Islam were the Umayyad, Abbasid, Seljuk, Timurid, Safavid and Ottoman periods in the Near East; Tuluni, Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk in Egypt; and Umayyad, Almoravid, Almohad and Nasrid in al-Andalus.[279]​.

Stucco was widely used in architecture, reaching levels of great technical perfection, especially in the Abbasid era and in North Africa, as well as in Muslim Spain, where it is found in the Aljafería in Zaragoza and the Alhambra in Granada, and where it influenced Mudejar art.[280] Ceramics were heirs of the enameled brick of the Near East, while also denoting Chinese influence. The tilework also stands out, used profusely in the mosques of Istanbul. In al-Andalus, ceramics with a metallic reflection were produced, with a special quality in the workshops of Malaga, Paterna and Manises.[281]​.

Islamic glass was of much higher quality than that made at the time in medieval Europe, being heir to the blowing workshops of Egypt and Syria, of Hellenistic tradition.[282]​ Goldwork was scarce, mainly rings and earrings, of Iranian influence.[283]​ Metalwork was mainly in copper and bronze, to a lesser extent in iron.[284]​ Furniture has been scarce in the Muslim world, due to their predilection for carpets. Most of the furniture was for the religious sphere, such as tables, desks for reading the Koran and pulpits (almimbares). Eboraria was also practiced, especially in chests and urns, such as the so-called Zamora boat (964, National Archaeological Museum "Museo Arqueológico Nacional (Spain)"), Madrid).[285]​.

Another of the arts of relevance in the Islamic world was textiles, heir to Byzantine and Sassanian art. They developed and perfected numerous techniques, such as damask "Damascus (fabric)"), tiraz, velvet and muslin, in dresses, carpets, tapestries, printed fabrics and other fabrics.[286] Another area of relevance was chorioplasty, especially in Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)"), where the cordoban technique was created, which together with guadamecí were the main modalities produced in Muslim Spain and exported throughout Europe.[287]​.

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• - Chorioplasty: leather work has two main modalities: cordovan, tanned goat or goat leather, which appeared in Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)") in the Andalusian period, used as a complement to furniture; and the guadamecí, tanned and carved sheepskin, and later polychrome, gold or silver, used as an ornament for altarpieces, canopies and altars or as wall coverings, curtains or furniture, sometimes even as carpets. There are various techniques for working with leather: engraving, embossing, recessing, chiseling, carving, stamping, ironing, cutting, etc. Embroidery, gold, silver or tin sheets, or applications of hardware or nails can be added to the leather, and it can be polychromed with mineral products (potash "Potash (mineral)") or chemicals (anilines), or with oil or tempera paint.[49] Other modalities are morocco, a burnished goatskin finer than cordovan, preferably used in bookbinding; and Moroccan, sheepskin used especially in furniture upholstery.[50]​.

• Cameo: it is the carving of figures in relief on stratified hard stones, such as agate "Agate (mineral)"), sardonic, coral and shell, which generally have layers of different colors, which provides intense chromatic contrasts.

• Chiseling: consists of working the precious metal with a chisel, making hollowed-out decorations or finishing work, with chisels of different shapes and thicknesses.

• Damascene (or coffin): the drawing is traced with a fine point on a metal support, then an incision is made with burins and scalpels and, finally, a filigree of metals of different colors is applied.

• Filigree "Filigree (craft)"): it is practiced with precious metal threads, with which the piece is made by braiding or twisting the threads until the desired shape is obtained.

• Fusion: are works executed in a mold, made in two ways: "permanent fusion", made with a bivalve mold, with the shape already worked, made of stone or terracotta; «lost wax», where the object is modeled in wax, to which a funnel with vents is applied, covering it with chalk "Creta (rock)"), which once dry is heated until the wax is expelled, then filled with molten metal.

• Granulation: it is a procedure by which tiny gold spheres are obtained with which geometric drawings or decorations are made.

• Nielado: consists of engraving a drawing on a sheet of metal—generally silver—, filling the grooves with niello, an alloy of silver, copper and lead, with sulfur and borax, which produces a black and shiny mixture.

• Opus interrasile: technique of Roman origin that consists of making small incisions in the sheets of precious metal, performing an openwork function that gives the work a lace appearance.

• Embossing: it is the relief decoration made on gold, silver or copper plates, working the back of the plate with a hammer and chisel.[53]​.

• - Glass and enamel: there are various types of glass: "soda glass" (the most basic, made from silica), crystal (silica and lead or potassium oxide), "chalcedonium glass" (silica and metal oxides) and "dairy glass" (silica, manganese dioxide and tin oxide). The main technique for working with it is blowing, where it can be given any shape and thickness. As for decoration, it can be painted, sgraffito, carved, with tweezers, in filigree "Filigree (craft)"), etc. The enamel is a glass paste (silica, lime, potash, lead and minium), on a metal support, worked according to various techniques: cloisonné, small filaments of gold or copper, with which the figure is drawn on the support, to separate the enamel into partitions; champlevé, which is made by lowering the support in alveoli and hollowing out the material in concavities, filled with enamel; ajouré, gold surface where the shapes are cut out with saws or files, filling the removed part with enamel.[54]​.

• - Ceramics: it is made with clay, in four kinds: red-yellowish porous fired clay (pottery, terracotta, sponge cake); white porous fired clay (earthenware); gray, brown or brown non-porous fired clay (stoneware); compact non-porous half-transparent white clay (porcelain). Other variants are majolica and faience, both made of stanniferous earthenware: the first term is used mainly in Italy and the second in the rest of Europe. It can be made manually or mechanically - with a wheel -, then it is fired in the oven - at temperatures between 400 and 1300 °C, depending on the type -, and decorated with enamel or paint.[55]​ The decoration can be: exquisite, relief applications made with clay; incised, a drawing drawn on the still tender clay; with molds, applied on the soft surface of the clay; polishing, carried out on the baked clay; sgraffito, application of various colors that are then torn according to the desired effect; and marbled, a mixture of various dyes with a fat, creating veins in the ceramic.[56]​.

• - Lacquer: it is a shiny, thick and solid varnish, which is extracted from mineral or vegetable resins and comes from the Far East. This varnish is applied to objects made of various materials: wood, metal, ceramic, paper or leather. The lacquer technique begins with a first application of coarse lacquer, which is covered with several layers of fine lacquer, the last of which will be of the desired shade; Next, the decoration is done, which can be painting with a brush, by carving or incision, with inlays of other materials, or by spraying gold or silver; Finally, a final lacquer is done with several layers of translucent lacquer.[57]​.

• - Eboraria: it is the work of ivory, which is obtained from elephant horns. It can be applied to inlay and, as an individual work, to carved, openwork and painted ivories. The carving begins with cutting the tusk into pieces or "boats", with which the object is shaped and subsequently decorated and, sometimes, polychrome. The openwork is similar to the previous one, with a more refined technique that imitates the openwork carving of wood. The paintings used to be ivory plates on a wooden frame, on which pigments were applied with a brush.[58]​.

• - Jet: jet is a fossil substance, a variety of lignite, black in color and shiny surface. They are generally small pieces, which are worked with a file and lathe, in relief or carved, with a final polishing phase. They are often linked to other works of sculpture or goldsmithing, being quite common in luxury arts.[59]​.

• - Plumeria: feathers are keratinous structures of the skin of birds. They are typically attached to other supports—usually woven—by sewing, gluing, or piecing. Its main use occurred in pre-Columbian America.[60]​.

• - Basket making: one of the oldest crafts in the world is that of containers made of plant fibers linked together. The oldest technique is spiral basketry, made with reeds, straw or fibers twisted into ropes and wound into a spiral giving them the desired shape, generally spherical or ovoid. Another technique is braiding, which is made by rolling long pleats sewn with fibers. Thirdly, interweaving is achieved by weaving the fibers over a wicker frame.[61]​.

• - Fan: this instrument for breathing has frequently been an object of decoration and, on occasions, has been placed inside homes as a decorative object. They can be rigid, but most are foldable. They are generally made up of a folding surface (country) of fabric, paper, gauze, lace or kid, with rods (guides) of wood, ivory, mother-of-pearl, lacquer or shell; The two rods at the ends are called blades. The exposed part of the rods (fonts) can be decorated with openwork, gilding or other techniques.[62]​.

• - Glyptic: it is the art of carving precious or semi-precious stones for the making of stamps "Seal (stamp)"), coins or medals. It is generally made in a cameo or engraved form, and sometimes in a round shape, usually in small pieces. The work of these pieces is carried out with abrasives and grinding wheels with blunt or sharp heads.[63]​.

• - Binding: the covers of a book have the main function of preserving its content from external agents, although they have often been the object of ornamentation. Joining the folds can be done with sewing, gluing or other procedures. The covers can be made of papyrus, wood, leather, leather (gilded, chiseled or embossed), papier-mâché or other materials, sometimes with applications of enamel, goldsmithing or eboraria.[64]​.

• - Horology: this instrument for measuring time has often been the object of ornamentation and, over time, has evolved both technologically and stylistically. There are numerous types of clocks: sun clock, water clock, sand clock, ring clock, bracket, poster, grandfather clock, banjo clock, tall case clock, carriage clock, globe clock, lantern clock, pedestal clock, skeleton clock, parliamentary clock, regulator clock, etc.[65]​.

• - Toy store: toys primarily fulfill the practical function for which they are created, children's games, but on occasion they have been used as ornamental objects in interior decoration. Built in numerous typologies and materials, their utilitarian function has often been a drawback for their conservation, which is why it is also difficult to establish a historical evolution. Some of the most used modalities in decoration have been dolls and doll houses, automatons "Automata (mechanical)"), puppets and marionettes, tin soldiers, rocking horses, kites "Comet (toy)"), reproductions of weapons, trains and automobiles, etc.[66]​.

This is the name given to the multiple styles developed in Europe from the coronation of Charlemagne (year 800) until around the year 1000, where the appearance of the Romanesque will mean the dissemination of the same unitary style throughout the entire European continent. This meaning is simply a way of encompassing a series of independent styles with few or no common factors, with the only unifying factor being that they were predecessors of the internationalization of Romanesque.[101]​.

• - Carolingian art: it is that developed in the Holy Roman Empire since the coronation of Charlemagne in the year 800. Miniature was notably developed, in which several schools can be distinguished: the Palatine, the Tours, the Reims and the Saint-Denis. (Milan)"), work of Vuolvinus).[113]​.

• - Ottonian art: this is the name given to art developed in the Holy Roman Empire during the reign of the Ottonian dynasty (- centuries). The miniature was heir to Carolingian art, especially the Reims school, again with Byzantine influence. In goldsmithing, the enamel tradition continued, with works such as the Basel altar (Cluny Museum), the cross of the Abbess Matilda (Essen) and the crown of Conrad II (Vienna).[114]

• - Celtic art: developed in the British Isles, a miniature school of Carolingian influence developed, with a main production center in Winchester (Pontifical of Saint Aethelwold, British Museum). In goldsmithing, the so-called King Alfred jewel (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford) and the case of Saint Patrick's bell (Dublin Museum) deserve to be highlighted.[115]​.

• - Viking art: the people of Scandinavia mainly made movable art, generally weapons, fibulae and belts, of which the most notable were the fibulae with long needles and the swords with terminal button and rings on the hilt, decorated in damascene, cloisonné and filigree.[116]​.

• - Asturian art: with the Muslim invasion of the Iberian Peninsula (711-726) Christians were reduced to the region of Asturias. Asturian art occurred in the 19th century, in three stages: pre-Ramirense, Ramirense and post-Ramirense, depending on the reign of Ramiro I (842-850). The goldsmithing also stands out, where the Carolingian influence is denoted (Cross of Angels, Cross of Victory and Box of Agates in the Holy Chamber of the Cathedral of San Salvador in Oviedo).[117]​.

• - Mozarabic art: Christians who lived under Islamic domination are called Mozarabs and who, when they returned to territory reconquered by Christians, practiced a type of art with great Islamic influence. It developed especially in the 19th century, mainly north of the Duero, in the upper Ebro, southern Galicia, Cantabria and the Pyrenees. It is worth highlighting in miniature the blessed, illustrations from the Commentary to the Apocalypse of the Blessed of Liébana, as well as the works of goldsmithing (cross of Santiago de Peñalba, Archaeological Museum of León; bell of Abbot Samsón, Museum of Córdoba; chalice of Santo Domingo de Silos).[118]​.

Romanesque art represents the first international style of Western European culture, with an identity fully consolidated after the passage from Latin to vernacular languages. Eminently religious in nature, almost all Romanesque art was aimed at the exaltation and dissemination of Christianity. Emerging in the middle of the century, it developed fundamentally during the century, at the end of which it began to coexist with the incipient Gothic.[119]​.

Within the architectural framework, ornamental sculpture had great relevance, especially that of the tympanum "Tympanum (architecture)") of church facades and that of the capitals of columns.[120] The mosaic continued to be used especially on pavements, such as that of the Ascension of Alexander of the cathedral of Orvieto (1163-1166) or the signs of the zodiac of the basilica of San Miniato in Monte (Florence, 1207).[121] Two schools predominated in miniature: the Italian, of Byzantine influence; and the English, where the Winchester school stands out.[122]​.

At this time, goldsmithing stood out, with abundant use of gold and precious stones, as in the Reliquary of the Three Wise Men (Cologne Cathedral), the work of Nicolás de Verdún, and the Chalice of Doña Urraca (San Isidoro de León). Textile works were also relevant, especially embroidery, such as the Bayeux Tapestry (century) or the Creation Tapestry of Gerona Cathedral (century).[123]​ Glasswork was developed as an enclosure for openings between the end of the 19th and beginning of the 19th century, when it was also the object of support for the embodiment of iconographic programs related to Christianity.[124]​ In metalwork, the use of bronze predominated, as in the doors of the church of San Miguel de Hildesheim,[125]​ or the cathedral of Verona.[126]​ Iron was mainly used in the bars for choirs "Choir (architecture)").[127]​ Simplicity and severity predominated in cabinetmaking, as corresponded to the predominant religion, Christianity, which advocated poverty and austerity. Chests proliferated, serving to store clothes and, at the same time, as seats.[128]​.

Gothic art[note 1]​ developed between the 19th and 2nd centuries, a time of great economic and cultural development. The end of the feudal era meant the consolidation of centralized states, with greater predominance of cities over the countryside, while an increasing sector of society had access to culture, which was no longer the exclusive heritage of the Church. The rise of universities led to an increase in scientific, philosophical and literary studies, and laid the foundations of modern culture. The decorative arts had great relevance during the Gothic period, favored by the new urban classes of merchants and artisans.[130]​.

One of the main specialties of the Gothic was the stained glass window, which added to its illuminating function a symbolic aspect of divine transcendence. The evolution of Gothic architecture allowed the opening of large windows that filled the interior with light, which gained transparency and luminosity.[131]​ Some exponents were the stained glass windows of the cathedrals of Chartres, Reims, Amiens or the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.[132]​.

The Gothic miniature was developed especially in France, with miniatures of rich chromaticism, abundant use of gold and borders of vegetal type (Psalter of Queen Blanca of Castile, Arsenal Library, Paris).[133]​ In the goldsmithing, the monstrances and reliquaries stood out especially, where the name of Enrique de Arfe stands out (custody of the Cathedral of Córdoba, 1518; processional monstrance of the Cathedral of Toledo, 1517-1524).[134]​ Ceramics stood out in Faenza and Manises, and glass in Venice and Catalonia.[134]​ In metalwork, the Dinant workshop (Belgium) stood out. Also worth mentioning as a notable work are the bronze doors of the Florence Baptistery "Baptistery of San Juan (Florence)"), by Andrea Pisano.

At this time tapestry developed significantly, with two main workshops in Paris and Arras. One of the best productions is the Tapestry of the Apocalypse (Angers Castle, 1375-1379). From the end of the century, Flemish workshops stood out.[136]​ In Gothic cabinetmaking, a decoration inspired by the architecture of cathedrals became fashionable, with ogives, rosettes and multi-lobed windows.[137]​ The most used piece of furniture was the chest, which served as both a closet and a bench or table, generally made of oak and armed with hardware.[138]​ The first engravings come from this period. in Europe, made with woodcut: the first preserved is the Saint Christopher from the Germanic Museum in Nuremberg, from 1423. Intaglio appeared in the 1430s. Engraving contributed to the popularization and cheapening of art, and allowed the artist a new means of expression.[139]​.

At this time, the graphic arts developed significantly, especially thanks to the invention of the printing press. Most engraving techniques appeared or were perfected: intaglio (etching, aquatint, burin engraving, halftone engraving or drypoint engraving), linocut, woodcut, etc. In Germany, the work of Durer, a specialist in the burin technique, stood out, although he also made woodcuts. In France, engraving was practiced by the Fontainebleau school. In Flanders, notable engravers emerged in the city of Antwerp, such as the Wierix brothers or Hieronymus Cock.[150]​.

The Baroque[note 3]​ developed between the century and the beginning of the 19th century. It was a time of great disputes in the political and religious field, in which a division arose between the counter-reformist Catholic countries, where the absolutist state was established, and the Protestant countries, of a more parliamentary nature. Art became more refined and ornate, with the survival of a certain classicist rationalism but with more dynamic and effective forms, with a taste for the surprising and anecdotal, for optical illusions and effects.[152]​.

In general, the Baroque decorative arts stand out for their ornateness, sumptuousness and pompous character, with a predominance of the curved line over the straight one, a taste for lighting contrasts and illusionistic effects, a certain scenographic and appearance character, thoroughness of detail, use of diverse materials and mixtification of techniques, and a taste for the exotic that is evident in the importation of products from the Far East and, later, in their imitation (chinoiseries and japonesairies).[153]​ In some countries, specific stylistic varieties emerged, such as the Louis XIV and Regency styles "Regency Style (France)") in France or the Jacobean, Restoration, William and Mary, and Queen Anne styles in England.

The decorative arts had a great expansion in the 19th century, mainly due to the decorative and ornamental character of Baroque art. In France, the luxurious project of the Palace of Versailles led to the creation of the Manufacture Royale des Gobelins —directed by the king's painter, Charles Le Brun—, where all types of decorative objects were manufactured, mainly furniture, upholstery and goldsmithing. The making of tapestries had a significant increase in its production and was aimed at imitating painting, with the collaboration in numerous cases of renowned painters who produced cardboard for tapestries "Carton (art)"), such as Simon Vouet, Le Brun himself or Rubens in Flanders.[154] Goldsmithing also reached high levels of production, especially in silver and precious stones. Ceramics and glass generally continued with the same production techniques as in the Renaissance period: white and blue ceramics from Delft (Holland) and polished and carved glass from Bohemia stood out. In bronze, the baldachin of Saint Peter and the chair of Saint Peter stand out, both by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.[156]​.

At this time, cabinetmaking stood out especially, which was characterized by undulating surfaces (concave and convex), with scrolls and various motifs such as cartouches and shells. In Spain, the bargueño emerged, a rectangular chest with handles, with numerous drawers and compartments, as well as the armchair called frailero (or missionary in Latin America). At the end of the century the technique of marquetry was developed in the Netherlands. The golden age of cabinetmaking occurred in the France of the Louis, where high levels of quality and refinement were achieved, especially thanks to the work of André-Charles Boulle.[157]​ The graphic arts were widely disseminated during the Baroque, continuing the boom that this sector had during the Renaissance. The most used techniques were etching and drypoint engraving,[158]​ In the century in which Guido Reni, Claude Lorrain, Abraham Bosse, Jacques Bellange, Jacques Callot, Peter Paul Rubens, Lucas Vorsterman I, Anton van Dyck, José de Ribera, Francisco Ribalta, Francisco Herrera the Elder and, especially, Rembrandt, stood out.[158]​.

The Rococo[note 4]​ developed in the century—coexisting at the beginning of the century with the Baroque and, at the end, with Neoclassicism—and meant the survival of the main artistic manifestations of the Baroque, with a more emphasized sense of decoration and ornamental taste, which were taken to a paroxysm of richness, sophistication and elegance.[160]​ Stylistically, in France the Louis XV and Louis styles occurred. XVI. In 1766, the École Nationale Supérieure des Arts Décoratifs was founded in France, the first renowned training center for decorative arts.

The decorative arts had special relevance, since Rococo was an art with a bourgeois air dedicated to ostentation and luxury.[161] Interior design was notably developed, with special emphasis on furniture, mirrors, silks, tapestries and porcelain objects. The latter was widely disseminated, especially that of Meissen and Sèvres, with delicate ornamental motifs, preferably in an oriental style.[162]​ In Spain, the production of ceramics continued in Talavera, Alcora and Manises, where a type of tile plinth with hunting scenes or landscapes became fashionable.[163]​.

Glass also had a great boom, with Venice still at the forefront of production, as well as Bohemia, where transparent, colorless glass was obtained that replaced the rock crystal used since the Renaissance. The tapestry had a large production center in Lyon, where oriental and exotic motifs (Chinese, Indian, Turkish) became fashionable.[164]​ In Spain, the tapestries from the Royal Tapestry Factory of Santa Bárbara (created in 1720) gained notoriety, some of them designed by Goya.[165]​ The goldsmith's work also had a dissemination center in France, where the work of Goya stands out. Juste-Aurèle Meissonnier.[166]​ In metalwork, the iron bars for the Place Stanislas in Nancy stand out, the work of Jean Lamour (1750-1758).[167]​.

In cabinetmaking, the French Louis one of its best exponents was Jean-Henri Riesener.[168]​ In the United Kingdom, the work of Thomas Chippendale stood out, who gave rise to the so-called "Chippendale style" (second half of the century), characterized by eclecticism "Eclecticism (art)"), with a mixture of Gothic, Rococo, Palladian and Chinese elements.[169]​ At this time, lithography appeared, a new type of engraving on limestone, invented by Aloys Senefelder in 1796. It was used by painters such as Goya, Gainsborough or Géricault.[170]​.

The rise of the bourgeoisie after the French Revolution favored the resurgence of classical forms, purer and austere, in contrast to the ornamental excesses of the Baroque and Rococo, identified with the aristocracy. This environment of appreciation of the Greco-Roman classical legacy was influenced by the archaeological discovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum, along with the dissemination of an ideology of perfection of classical forms carried out by Johann Joachim Winckelmann, who postulated that perfect beauty existed in ancient Greece, which generated a myth about the perfection of classical beauty that still conditions the perception of art today.[171]​ In France, the Directory and Empire styles occurred, while in In the United Kingdom, the Georgian style—named for the reigns of George I, George II, and George III—developed, followed by the Regency style "Regency Style (United Kingdom)"). Its equivalent in the United States was the federal style. The decorative arts return to classic themes (laurel, garlands, sphinxes) and austere coloring, often monochrome, with compact volumes and simple shapes.[172]​.

In ceramics, the work of Josiah Wedgwood stands out, who created a type of cream-colored earthenware that had great international success. Sèvres porcelain also continued, this time imitating ancient themes.[173] In glass, the French Royal Glassworks of Saint Louis produced pieces of potash glass in imitation of Bohemian glassware (façon de Bohême), while in Bohemia itself it successfully continued its production of high-quality glassware, with a more sober style than in the Rococo era. Venetian glass also prospered, especially with white opals that imitated porcelain.[174]​ Goldsmithing evolved like the rest of the arts to more austere forms and themes of classical inspiration.[175]​ In the metal arts, the grille of the Palace of Justice in Paris (1783-1785) and the grille of the choir of Notre-Dame in Paris (1809) stand out.[176]​.

Cabinetmaking returned to more classical forms, represented mainly in the United Kingdom by Robert Adam, George Hepplewhite and Thomas Sheraton.[177] In France, with the so-called Directory style (1795-1805) there was a return to a more sober type of furniture, with a preponderance of the constructive over the decorative and the use of the pure colors of the wood compared to the pastel tones of the Rococo. The Empire style developed in Napoleonic France, from where it spread to the rest of Europe, replacing sobriety with ostentation and luxury, with a sumptuous style, with a preference for exotic and oriental themes, preferably Egyptian (égyptiennerie), due to the Napoleonic campaign in Egypt (1798-1801).[178]​.

Historicist architecture was based on eclecticism "Eclecticism (art)") and the revival of previous styles reinterpreted according to modern concepts, which produced movements such as neo-Romanesque, neo-Gothic, neo-baroque, etc. Inspiration in these styles of the past led to a greater concern for historical accuracy, for imitating to the greatest perfection all the details of the replicated style. To achieve this, both bibliographical references and museum exponents of these styles were frequently used. In 1857 the Victoria & Albert Museum in London was founded with the aim of establishing the fundamental parameters to define the fundamental premises of contemporary design.[188]​.

One of the greatest sources of inspiration was the medieval past, as denoted in the decoration of Neuschwanstein Castle, promoted by King Ludwig II of Bavaria.[188] Neo-Gothic emerged in the United Kingdom already in the middle of the century, but was developed especially in the 19th century, with local varieties such as the Troubadour and Second Empire styles in France and the Elizabethan in Spain. It occurred especially in furniture, but also in other ornamental details applied to architecture. Neo-Gothic influenced modernism at the end of the century, especially in Catalonia.[189]​ One of the greatest theorists of this movement was Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc, while as a designer the architect Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin stood out, who designed furniture, jewelry and silverware based strictly on medieval precedents.[189]​ In the United Kingdom there was a revival of the Queen Anne style in the middle of the century, which consisted of the development of reproductions—especially furniture and silverware—from that period, as seen in the cabriole-leg chairs and tables.[190]​ One of its greatest exponents was Edward William Godwin, an architect and designer linked to the aesthetic movement, greatly influenced by Japanese art, to the point that he designed a type of furniture called "Anglo-Japanese."[191]​.

In the last third of the century, the British Arts & Crafts movement, promoted by John Ruskin and William Morris, had special relevance. This current defended a revaluation of artisanal work and advocated a return to traditional forms of manufacturing, stipulating that art must be as useful as it is beautiful.[192] Following the approaches of Ruskin and Morris, Charles Robert Ashbee was the main organizer of the movement. In 1888 he founded the Guild and School of Handicraft in Toynbee Hall (London), where he designed furniture, silverware and metalwork in a style close to modernism.[193]​.

Arthur Heygate Mackmurdo, founder of the Century Guild interior decoration workshop, worked in Morris's orbit, where he made furniture that stood out for its lines and right angles, such as his famous chair from 1881. products.[195]​ In general, these artists abandoned the neo-Gothic for a simpler, lighter and more elegant style, inspired in part by the Queen Anne style. In the 1890s the modernist influence was received, but soon after Philip Webb returned to a more rustic and austere style. Around 1900 the movement was diluted, mainly due to the contradiction generated by the fact that their artisanal production made the product more expensive and they could only sell to select clientele, which clashed with their ideology close to utopian socialism, while to reach the masses they would have had to resort to serial manufacturing, which contravened their defense of manual craftsmanship.[196]​.

Modernism "Modernism (art)") was an architectural movement that emerged around 1880 in several countries, depending on which it received different names: Art Nouveau in France, Modern Style in the United Kingdom, Jugendstil in Germany, Sezession in Austria, Liberty "Modernism (art)") in Italy and modernism in Spain, a country in which Catalan modernism stood out. It lasted until the beginning of the First World War.[9]​ This style, due to its ornamental character, represented a great revitalization of the decorative arts, with a new conception more focused on the creative act and on the comparison with the rest of the plastic arts, to the point that its creators proposed for the first time the "unity of the arts." Modernist design generally proposed the revaluation of the intrinsic properties of each material, with organicist-type forms inspired by nature.[197] Although theoretically opposed to historicism, they were inspired by numerous styles of the past, especially medieval, Celtic, Oriental and Rococo art. On the other hand, some designs by Hector Guimard pointed to abstract art, while Henry Van de Velde, initiated into modernism, represents the transition between modernism and industrial design.[198]​.

A clear example of an architect concerned with interior design was Antoni Gaudí, who designed many of the furniture for his works, both civil and religious, made wrought iron designs (such as his famous dragon from the Güell pavilions), and innovated in the field of mosaic with his trencadís technique, a type of ceramic cladding made with waste pieces that he arranged in original and fanciful combinations, such as his undulating park bench. Güell.[199]​ Other architects who made ornamental designs were Victor Horta, Hector Guimard (creator of the grille for Paris metro stations, which became one of the visual icons of Art Nouveau),[200]​ Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Josef Hoffmann and Joseph Maria Olbrich. There were also references in painting and illustration, such as Alfons Mucha, Koloman Moser and Émile-Victor Prouvé.

In glass, Émile Gallé made pieces inlaid with gold or silver leaves, mica plates and asbestos fibers, inspired by nature.[201] Louis Comfort Tiffany was influenced by Gallé, from which he innovated technically and stylistically, as in his Favrile Glass, a technique of blown glass and subsequently iridized by exposure to molten metal fumes.[202] René Lalique, goldsmith and glassmaker, created works simpler, far from the sinuous shapes in fashion until then, generally with serial production.[202] In goldsmithing, Peter Carl Fabergé also stood out, creator of highly fantasy pieces, among which his "Easter eggs" stand out, which he made for the Russian royal family.[203] The furniture stood out for its harmonious and proportionate design, with a predominance of undulating shapes. Some of its best exponents were: Arthur Liberty, Henry Van de Velde, Émile Gallé, Louis Majorelle, Carlo Bugatti and Gaspar Homar.[204]​ In ceramics, Auguste Delaherche stood out, author of porcelain and stoneware vases decorated with varnishes.[205]​ In upholstery, Hermann Obrist designed embroideries of plant shapes that were very successful, especially the one known as The whip.[206]​.

In the century the decorative arts had a rapid evolution, marked by the use of new materials and more advanced technologies. With a clear commitment to design as a creative basis, in this century the intellectual aspect of these creations was highlighted compared to the mere material realization traditionally granted to crafts. However, the mass production of ornamental objects led experts such as Gérald Gassiot-Talabot to affirm that "the decorative arts are dead", a circumstance that dates back to the 1930s, with movements such as the Bauhaus and the first industrial designs. Loewy—, which affects the commercial aspect of the product.[208]​.

The traditional decorative arts continued to a more or less extent, although often relegated to the concept of craftsmanship in the face of new industrial design. Mosaic had a new rebirth in Italy thanks to the work of the sculptor Gino Severini, who founded a workshop in Paris in 1951 that later became the Gino Severini School of Fine Arts.[209] In ceramics, new techniques and materials were also explored. As in other fields, he linked up with artists of recognized prestige, such as Georges Rouault, Raoul Dufy, Pablo Picasso and Joan Miró. The latter, in collaboration with the ceramicist Josep Llorens i Artigas, created large ceramic murals such as those at the UNESCO headquarters in Paris, Harvard University, the Maeght Foundation and the Barcelona airport.[210]​.

Stained glass followed two paths: the traditional one and the one that used new techniques and materials, such as reinforced cement instead of leaded and plastic or polyester instead of glass.[211] As for glassware, glass from Murano (Venice) endured, as well as glass from Bohemia, which made an effort to renew itself through cut glass. In Finland, Tapio Wirkkala manufactured glass with bubbles and, in Sweden, glass with figurative or abstract engraved decoration was made.[212]​ In goldsmithing, the most used material was diamond, as well as precious stones.[213]​.

The furniture followed a more functional design, with the use of new materials such as steel, aluminum and plastic. Some exponents, such as the cantilever chair by Mart Stam, the tubular steel armchair by Marcel Breuer or the plastic corolla chair designed by Eero Saarinen, initiated industrial design in furniture. A clear example of the new furniture of innovative design was the famous red and blue chair by Gerrit Thomas Rietveld (1923), with geometric shapes and primary colors. Wood was once again revalued in the Nordic countries, with artists such as Alvar Aalto, Kaare Klint and Børge Mogensen, as well as in the United States with Charles Eames.[214] Tapestry became remarkably close to painting, since many works by painters such as Georges Rouault, Pablo Picasso, Georges Braque, Raoul Dufy, Henri Matisse, Fernand Léger and Joan Miró were brought to the loom Instead, Jean Lurçat renewed the tapestry and returned it to its initial concept, linked to architecture - which is its original framework - and away from painting.[215]​.

Engraving was practiced by numerous painters, such as Pierre Bonnard, Maurice Denis, André Derain, Max Slevogt, Henri Matisse, Marc Chagall, Vasili Kandinsky, Paul Klee, Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, Salvador Dalí, Willem de Kooning, Jackson Pollock, Andy Warhol, Roy Lichtenstein, Eduardo Chillida and Antoni Tàpies. The most used methods were woodcut, lithography and etching, and new techniques were developed such as color aquatint and silkscreen, as well as offset printing.[216]​.

In 1925 the Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes was held in Paris, which was the starting point of art deco.[note 6]​ In reality, the 1925 exhibition was the officialization of a movement that had been brewing for a few years—since the end of the First World War—as a successor style to modernism: in 1919 Louis Süe and André Mare") created the Compagnie des Arts Français, characterized by traditionally inspired furniture but exuberant decoration. This style, which lasted until the beginning of the Second World War, was a revolution for interior design and the graphic and industrial arts. It was characterized by the predilection for curved lines and symmetrical flourishes in graphic arts, and square and geometric shapes in furniture and interior decoration. Aimed mainly at a bourgeois public, it stood out for its ostentation and luxury, and was developed. notably in advertising illustration (Erté) and poster design (Cassandre).[218]​ However, the kitsch aspect of many of his productions caused him to be reviled by avant-garde currents and it was not until the 1960s when he was revalued by movements such as pop art, which sought inspiration in some of his works.[219]​.

One of the areas where this style flourished the most was furniture, where Jacques Émile Ruhlmann stood out, a decorator and furniture designer with great commercial sense, always attentive to capturing the latest in fashion trends.[220]​ In goldsmithing, some productions by the modernist René Lalique made at this time stand out, while another notable name was Jean Puiforcat, who made high-quality silverware pieces, with an austere but luxurious appearance.[221]​ In metalworking, mention should be made of Jean Dunand, author of metal and lacquer pieces, with a geometric design, generally vases inlaid with gold, silver, enamel or other materials.[222]​ In glass, Maurice Marinot preferably made bowls and jars of a more ornamental than practical conception, with solid-looking sculptural forms, with or without color, sometimes enamelled and, occasionally, with etching drawings.[223]​.

One of the most innovative movements in the field of design was the Bauhaus School[note 7]​ which, compared to the excessive ornamentation of art deco, introduced a more rational and functional design concept, more adapted to the real needs of people. This school aimed to break the barriers between art and crafts, with a clear commitment to industrial production. It was born in 1919, when the architect Walter Gropius took over the direction of the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts, which he renamed Das Staatliche Bauhaus Weimar. Its objective was "the collective work of art, the Building, within which there are no barriers that separate the structural arts from the decorative arts." Students at the school learned theories of form and design, as well as workshops in stone, wood, metal, clay, glass, weaving and painting. Gropius rejected industrial production, with a position close to the Arts & Crafts movement, and defended cooperative work, as well as the social responsibility of the designer. The Bauhaus moved to Dessau in 1925 and to Berlin in 1932. Gropius was succeeded by Hannes Meyer in 1928, followed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe in 1930. The school was closed by the Nazis in 1933.[225]

Its design was based on simplicity, geometric abstraction and the use of primary colors and new technologies, as was evident in the tubular steel furniture created by Marcel Breuer, the Barcelona chair by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, the conglomerate furniture by Alvar Aalto, or the lamps designed by Marianne Brandt. In this school, creators such as László Moholy-Nagy, Oskar Schlemmer, Johannes Itten, Paul Klee, Josef Albers, Vasili Kandinski, Lilly Reich, Gerhard Marcks and Wilhelm Wagenfeld stood out.[226]​.

In the century, industrial design led interior design to the path of intellectual creation and functional design, with a progressive increase in experimentation with new materials (plastic, fiberglass) and greater attention to market needs.[227] Although there is no unanimously accepted definition, industrial design is generally considered to be the design of products designed to be manufactured in series using mechanical processes (assembly lines). Intrinsically, an industrial design must be planned in its entirety before entering the manufacturing process, without subsequent manipulations.[228]​.

In Germany, architects and designers such as Peter Behrens, Richard Riemerschmid and Bruno Paul, and workshops and associations such as Deutsche Werkstätten and Deutsche Werkbund, laid the foundations of industrial design in an early phase. The Bauhaus took over, where industrial design moved to the academic field, and its postulates were also adopted by rationalist architecture (or International Style). After the closure of the Bauhaus by the Nazis in 1933, most of its components moved to the United Kingdom or the United States, countries that took up the baton of industrial design. After the Second World War, the ideals of the Bauhaus were taken up in Germany by Max Bill, founder of the Hochschule für Gestaltung in Ulm (1951).[229] In France the pioneer was the architect Le Corbusier, who proclaimed the "absolute expressive autonomy of industrially produced objects" and pointed out as basic aspects of the new design the purity of lines, the functionality of materials and the luminosity of surfaces.[230] In The United States was pioneered by Frank Lloyd Wright, until the emergence of design in the 1930s with figures such as Henry Dreyfuss, Raymond Loewy and Walter Dorwin Teague. In that decade, some Bauhaus masters such as Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and László Moholy-Nagy also established themselves, who taught a new generation of designers. Later Charles Eames, George Nelson and Harry Bertoia stood out.[231]​.

Later, in Europe, industrial design had two main currents: the Scandinavian and the Italian. The first, represented by Arne Jacobsen, Alvar Aalto, Eero Saarinen and Poul Kjærholm, had its roots in popular art and was based on the naturalness and simplicity of forms as a fundamental premise of design. For its part, Italian design was more daring and extravagant, with a predilection for bright colors, use of artificial materials such as resin, plastic and conglomerate, as well as steel and more "noble" materials such as marble. He was mainly represented by Ettore Sottsass, Joe Colombo and Gae Aulenti.[232]

Since the Second World War, traditional decorative arts and industrial design have coexisted with new currents of the artistic avant-garde that have occasionally made inroads into the field of design. One of the artistic styles that entered this field was pop art, which emerged in the United Kingdom and the United States around 1955 as a movement to reject abstract expressionism, with a marked component of popular inspiration. The furniture designed by Verner Panton stands out or that of the Italian team formed by Jonathan de Pas"), Donato d'Urbino") and Paolo Lomazzi"), creators of the Blow inflatable chair (1967) and the Joe Sofa (1971).[233] Another movement interested in design was organic abstract art, which is characterized by the use of rounded shapes inspired by nature. One of its main representatives was Isamu Noguchi, author of furniture, lamps and other objects made with a sculptural conception, such as his famous coffee table with a wooden base and glass top (1947).[234]​.

Between the 1950s and 1960s, the so-called Neoliberty style arose in Italy, with a predominance of curved lines, represented by Gae Aulenti, Franco Albini, Vittorio Gregotti and Carlo Mollino. plastic.[236] Between the years 1960 and 1970 there was a trend in architecture and design known as "anti-design" (also "counter-design" or "radical design"), represented by the British studio Archigram and the Italians Archizoom and Superstudio. One of his best creations was the Mies chair from Archizoom (1969).[237]​.

Since 1975, postmodern art predominated, so called in opposition to modern art, since the failure of avant-garde movements is assumed to be the failure of the modern project. This movement represents a return to traditional forms and styles of art that, however, are reinterpreted and mixed in a free and arbitrary way. Designers such as Ettore Sottsass, Alessandro Mendini, Michele de Lucchi") and Philippe Starck stood out, as well as in the graphic arts Wolfgang Weingart"), Neville Brody and Javier Mariscal.[238]​.

The new millennium began with a thread of continuity with the previous century, both in the survival of traditional techniques, increasingly relegated to the consideration of craftsmanship, and in the evolution of industrial design. Stylistically, at the beginning of the century postmodern art continued to predominate, although the influence of architectural movements such as high-tech and deconstructivism was also noted. A social phenomenon at the turn of the century was the new concept of self-assembling furniture and the sale of design products by catalog or in department stores, which had its paradigm in the Swedish company Ikea, founded in 1943 by Ingvar Kamprad. In general, the trend of the new millennium has been that of eclecticism "Eclecticism (art)"), the mixture of styles, as well as the search for simplicity and comfort. In interior design, there was also greater concern for environmental sustainability and a great boom in the use of new technologies. Among the most prominent designers of the transition of the century we can mention Ron Arad "Ron Arad (industrial designer)"), close to deconstructivism, who made works of recycled materials with a sculptural appearance; and Andrée Putman, a designer with an eclectic style that mixes rococo, high-tech and postmodern elements.[239]​.

Pre-Columbian art is called art produced on the American continent before the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492. Various cultures flourished here over time, among which the Mayans and Aztecs in Mexico and the Incas in Peru stand out.[246]​.

One of its main manifestations was ceramics, made without a wheel, in modeling or casting. In Mexico, funerary urns and vases with caricature-shaped heads have been found among the Toltecs, Mixtec vases, Mayan vases and tripods, or Totonac terracotta masks. But the best creations are from Peru, with some first exponents in the culture of Chavín "Chavín (culture)"), in that of the Mochicas, the Chimús and in Nazca, until leading to the Mayans, among which the pointed amphorae with two handles stand out, with painted decoration of a geometric type.[247] Goldsmithing had great relevance in pre-Columbian cultures, especially in Peru, where gold work has been confirmed since the century BC C. and silver from the century BC. C.[248]​ In Mexico, the treasure found in tomb 7 of Monte Albán stands out, where a gold pectoral representing the god of the dead Mictlantecuhtli was found. In Colombia, where there is a good sample in the Bogotá Gold Museum, the anthropomorphic pectorals of the Quimbaya culture "Quimbaya (ethnic group)") stand out, as well as the tumbaga pieces, an alloy of gold and copper. Platinum was worked for the first time in Ecuador.[249]​ In Peru, a notable textile industry emerged, perhaps the first in the world—there are vestiges from the century BC. C.—, spun on a loom with threads of almost two hundred different colors.[250]​ Tapestries, gauze and brocades were made, with both figurative and abstract and geometric ornamental motifs.[251]​.

Various tribes lived in North America adapted to the multiple habitats of this continent, such as arctic regions, jungles, deserts, forests and grasslands. Although each of them had their own artistic idiosyncrasy, in general they practiced a furniture art made with materials such as skins, plant fibers, feathers, stone, wood, copper, mica, shells, porcupine quills, etc. The main techniques practiced were ceramics, textiles and basket weaving. One of the typical elements of the nomadic tribes were the tipis, tents generally made of buffalo skin and drawn with tribal and family emblems. Ceramics were developed especially in the American southwest, with notable pieces among the Mimbre tribe, authors of bowls decorated with paintings of birds, animals and human beings.[252]​.

Chinese art has had a more uniform evolution than Western art, with a cultural and aesthetic background common to successive artistic stages, marked by its reigning dynasties. Like most oriental art, it has an important religious content (mainly Taoism, Confucianism and Buddhism) and communion with nature. Unlike in the West, the Chinese valued calligraphy, ceramics, silk or porcelain equally, as well as architecture, painting or sculpture, while art is fully integrated into their philosophy and culture. Han (206 BC-220 AD), Six Dynasties period (220-618), Tang (618-907), Song (960-1279), Yuan (1280-1368), Ming (1368-1644), and Qing (1644-1911).

One of the main expressions of Chinese decorative arts is ceramics: the first vestiges are from the Neolithic era, around 2500 BC. C. In the Shang period, fine clay vessels decorated by incision were made, and during the Zhou dynasty a stoneware protoporcelain glazed with feldspar and impure kaolin appeared. In the Han era, there was a type of ceramic glazed with a lead glaze. During the Ming dynasty, a type of translucent white porcelain of great technical perfection was produced. Finally, in the Qing period, both monochrome and polychrome pieces were made, with a thematic predilection for picturesque scenes.[254] Jade also stood out, which has been worked in China since the 3rd millennium BC. C., used as a ritual object, ornament, jewel, amulet, sword decoration or belt buckle.[255]​.

Goldsmithing is scarce, due to the poverty of Chinese territory in gold and silver. The greatest production was during the Tang dynasty, especially necklaces, earrings and bracelets with an abundance of pearls. The Song era highlighted the use of filigree, and the Yuan excelled in silversmithing. The Qing dynasty maintained the previous styles, in pieces of great sumptuousness with an abundance of pearls, jade, coral and other precious materials.[256] In metal work, bronze works stand out, of which notable achievements were created as early as 1700 BC. C. In addition to glasses, helmets and weapons, bells, tripod cauldrons (jue), mirrors, knives and cutlery were made. In the Zhou era, the hu glass proliferated, with large dimensions. In the Han period, bronze became more sumptuous, inlaid with precious materials. During the Ming dynasty, the decoration of bronze vessels in cloisonné enamel began.[257]​.

The furniture presents two main typologies: the chest or box and the frame, generally with an architectural design and rectangular structure, with simple and austere shapes. The Tang had more luxurious furniture, with inlays of gold, silver, mother-of-pearl or ivory, sometimes lacquered.[258] Another great exponent of Chinese decorative arts is lacquer, which has been made since the century BC. C. The heyday of lacquer was during the Han dynasty, a period in which the technique was perfected, sometimes with gold, silver or mother-of-pearl inlays.[259] As for textile art, silk stands out, discovered in China in the 3rd millennium BC. C. It flourished especially since the Han dynasty, a period in which it began to be exported through the Silk Road.[260]​.

Japanese art has been marked by its insularity, although at intervals it has been influenced by continental civilizations, especially China and Korea. Much of the art produced in Japan has been of a religious type: to the Shinto religion, the most typically Japanese, formed around the 19th century, Buddhism was added around the 19th century, forging a religious syncretism that still endures today. Like Chinese art, Japanese art is imbued with a deep love of nature, which has sometimes translated in some artistic objects into a decorative austerity motivated by their imitation of natural objects.[261] Japanese art is divided into historical periods: Jōmon (5000-200 BC), Yayoi (200 BC-200 AD), Kofun (200-600), Asuka (552-646), Nara (646-794), Heian (794-1185), Kamakura (1185-1392), Muromachi (1333-1573), Momoyama (1573-1615), Edo (1615-1868) and Meiji (1865-1911).

In Japan, during the Jōmon period, the oldest pottery produced by humans was produced (7000 BC), made by hand and decorated with incisions or rope impressions.[262] In the Kofun period (around the 2nd century) wheel work appears, probably due to Korean influence. During the Kamakura period, the production of what would be the most typically Japanese ceramics began, with a highly relevant production center, the Seto workshop "Seto (Aichi)") in Owari. In the Muromachi era, the influence of Zen Buddhism led to the creation of the tea ceremony, which led to a great boom in ceramics. In the Momoyama period, ceramics reached a peak, with Seto as one of the first centers of production. In the Edo period, ceramics had one of its largest production centers in Kyoto, with the influence of Chinese and Korean art, and the first porcelains were produced, with a first production center in Arita.[263]​.

In metalwork they stood out notably in the work of bronze, used since the Yayoi era in the making of bells, weapons, mirrors and other liturgical and utilitarian objects,[264]​ while iron was mainly used in armor and swords (katana).[265]​ Wood was rarely used for furniture, since the Japanese tradition is to sit or stretch out on rice straw mats, although low-height tables, chests, shelves, desks and other minor modalities.[266]​ A relevant element is the screen, a movable screen with a wooden frame and panels of upholstery, paper, leather, lacquer or other materials.[267]​ As in China, Japanese art stood out in lacquer, which used to make cabinets, reliquaries, screens, boxes and chests, masks, musical instruments, etc. As authors, in the Momoyama period the name of Honami Kōetsu stands out and, in the Edo period, Ōgata Kōrin.[268]​ In textile art, silk work stands out, whose main typology is the kimono.[269]​.

Indian art has a mainly religious character, which serves as a vehicle for the transmission of the different religions that have marked India: Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam and Christianity, mainly. The Indian subcontinent has not produced as copious a production in decorative arts as neighboring China or Japan, on the one hand due to its history of division into small kingdoms, often with foreign occupations, as well as the fact that the majority of the population could not afford the possession of sumptuous products, reserved for an aristocratic elite; and, on the other hand, due to the perishable nature of many of its productions, especially wood and fabric, in not very favorable weather conditions, due to the monsoons.[270]​.

Ceramics are of little relevance, mainly clay utensils of a utilitarian nature. The most notable are the painted vessels of the Indus culture (Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro). In the Gupta period reliefs and terracotta tiles were given to decorate temples. Already in the Mughal era, Islamic porcelain was introduced.[271] Goldsmithing stood out more: in the Indus culture, gold and pearl necklaces and bracelets were found. Jewelry of Hellenistic influence has been found in Gandhāra, made by incision, embossing, honeycombing, inlay or filigree. In India there was also a large production of jade which, unlike Chinese, is usually inlaid with enamel or precious stones with a gold setting.[272] Bronze has been worked since the time of the Indus culture: in Mohenjo-Daro a statuette of a bronze dancer dressed in jewels was found. Since the century BC. C. steel was also worked, mainly in weapons, sometimes damascened in gold and silver.[273]​.

Wood was little used in furniture, since mats or seats made of cane or bamboo were more common. The presence of furniture occurred more in the religious sphere, especially tables and chests, where a certain influence from the Middle East is denoted. In colonial times, there was a type of Indo-Portuguese style furniture, characterized by the use of dark woods with gold or ivory inlays, as well as Indo-Dutch, ebony and light lacquered woods.[274] As for weaving, wool and cotton were worked for dresses and tapestries, while silk was imported from China.[275] It is also worth highlighting from the Mughal period the miniature, which was luxuriously developed into books. decorated, which were considered objects of great value. One of the best miniaturists was Basawan, creator of the classic style of Mughal miniature, with a narrative style.[276]​.

With the Hegira of Muhammad in the year 622, a new religion arose, Islam, which spread rapidly from the Near East through North Africa to the Iberian Peninsula, as well as through the Balkan area after the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. Over time, the new religion brought together a great diversity of peoples and cultures, so its art was a reflection of this disparity, which produced numerous manifestations and variants. stylistics depending on the region where it was produced.[277] In Islamic art, the decorative arts had a great development, mainly due to the prohibition of the representation of living beings, which subtracted one of the main motifs of painting and sculpture. Added to this is the consideration of architecture as a mere craft, not as an art, which is why the decorative arts became the main Islamic artistic manifestation.[278] The main historical and artistic periods within Islam were the Umayyad, Abbasid, Seljuk, Timurid, Safavid and Ottoman periods in the Near East; Tuluni, Fatimid, Ayyubid and Mamluk in Egypt; and Umayyad, Almoravid, Almohad and Nasrid in al-Andalus.[279]​.

Stucco was widely used in architecture, reaching levels of great technical perfection, especially in the Abbasid era and in North Africa, as well as in Muslim Spain, where it is found in the Aljafería in Zaragoza and the Alhambra in Granada, and where it influenced Mudejar art.[280] Ceramics were heirs of the enameled brick of the Near East, while also denoting Chinese influence. The tilework also stands out, used profusely in the mosques of Istanbul. In al-Andalus, ceramics with a metallic reflection were produced, with a special quality in the workshops of Malaga, Paterna and Manises.[281]​.

Islamic glass was of much higher quality than that made at the time in medieval Europe, being heir to the blowing workshops of Egypt and Syria, of Hellenistic tradition.[282]​ Goldwork was scarce, mainly rings and earrings, of Iranian influence.[283]​ Metalwork was mainly in copper and bronze, to a lesser extent in iron.[284]​ Furniture has been scarce in the Muslim world, due to their predilection for carpets. Most of the furniture was for the religious sphere, such as tables, desks for reading the Koran and pulpits (almimbares). Eboraria was also practiced, especially in chests and urns, such as the so-called Zamora boat (964, National Archaeological Museum "Museo Arqueológico Nacional (Spain)"), Madrid).[285]​.

Another of the arts of relevance in the Islamic world was textiles, heir to Byzantine and Sassanian art. They developed and perfected numerous techniques, such as damask "Damascus (fabric)"), tiraz, velvet and muslin, in dresses, carpets, tapestries, printed fabrics and other fabrics.[286] Another area of relevance was chorioplasty, especially in Córdoba "Córdoba (Spain)"), where the cordoban technique was created, which together with guadamecí were the main modalities produced in Muslim Spain and exported throughout Europe.[287]​.

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