The concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) has its roots in the idea of ​​connecting devices to the Internet to enable remote communication and data sharing. The first concepts of creating a network of smart devices were discussed in 1982, when a modified Coca-Cola machine became the first home appliance connected to the Internet. During the 90s, various articles were published in the academic field and the term Internet of Things became popular in 1999. From that moment on, the concept of the Internet of Things and its evolution were related to the incorporation of sensors and connections in any type of device that could support it. Basically it was about incorporating “intelligence” into different electronic objects that could support it.

• - 1999: Kevin Ashton, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), coins the term "Internet of Things" (IoT).

• - 2008: The first version of the Iv6 protocol is standardized, providing a large number of IP addresses for IoT devices.

• - 2010: The number of devices connected to the Internet exceeds the number of people in the world.

• - 2014: Google acquires Nest Labs, a company dedicated to smart home devices, marking a big step in the popularization of IoT in the home.

• - 2016: American software company PTC acquires IoT company ThingWorx for $112 million, demonstrating the growth of the IoT market.

Contenido

El funcionamiento de los sistemas IoT convencionales consiste en el envío, la recepción y el análisis continuo de datos en un ciclo de retroalimentación. Dependiendo del tipo de tecnología utilizada en IoT, los datos pueden ser analizados por humanos o sistemas de inteligencia artificial y aprendizaje automático (IA/ML) de manera casi inmediata o tras un período de tiempo determinado.

El término IoT describe el conjunto de dispositivos físicos que se comunican entre sí mediante redes inalámbricas y requieren de una mínima intervención humana. Este sistema se logra gracias a la incorporación de dispositivos informáticos en diversos objetos de uso cotidiano.

Four stages

• - Data acquisition: IoT devices capture data from their environment using sensors. This data can range in complexity, from information as simple as temperature to real-time video feeds.

• - Data Sharing: IoT devices send captured data over available network connections to a public or private cloud system (device-system-device), to another device (device-device), or store it locally for processing at the edge.

• - Data processing: At this stage, the software is programmed to carry out certain actions based on the acquired data, such as turning on a fan or sending a warning.

• - Decision making from data: Data from all devices in an IoT network is analyzed to obtain valuable strategic information to support reliable business decisions and actions.

The applications for internet-connected devices are broad. Multiple categories have been suggested, but most agree on separating applications into three main branches of use: consumer, business, and infrastructure.[15]​[16]​ George Osborne, former cabinet member for finance, proposes that IoT is the next stage in the information revolution, referring to the interconnectivity of everything from urban transportation to medical devices to home appliances.[17]​.

The ability to connect embedded devices with limited CPU, memory, and power capabilities means that IoT can have applications in almost any area.[18]​

These systems could be responsible for collecting information in different environments: from natural ecosystems to buildings and factories,

[19]​ so they could be used for environmental monitoring and urban planning.[20]​.

Smart shopping systems, for example, could follow a specific user's purchasing habits by tracking their mobile phone. These users could be offered special deals on their preferred products or even guided to the location of the items they need to purchase. These items would be in a list automatically created by your smart refrigerator on your mobile phone.[21]​[22]​ More use cases can be found in applications that handle heating, water supply, electricity, energy management and even smart transportation systems that assist the driver.[23]​[24][25]​

Other applications that the Internet of Things can provide are adding security and home automation features.[26]​ The concept of an "internet of living things" has been proposed describing networks of biological sensors that could use cloud computing-based analytics to allow users to study DNA and other molecules.[27][28]​.

Expanded history

The concept of connecting physical objects to digital networks has antecedents before the term “Internet of Things.” In the early 1980s, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University developed the first ARPANET-connected vending machine, capable of reporting inventory and temperature, considered one of the first primitive IoT devices.[29]​.

In the 1990s, advances in wireless technologies, RFID, and ubiquitous computing influenced the evolution of the IoT. Mark Weiser, a researcher at Xerox PARC, proposed the idea of ​​"ubiquitous computing" in 1991, defined as the invisible integration of technology into everyday objects.[30] This vision anticipated much of the current IoT paradigm.

The term "Internet of Things" was formally coined in 1999 by Kevin Ashton during his work at the MIT Auto-ID Center, in the context of supply chain automation using RFID.[31]​.

The 2000s saw the development of wireless sensor networks funded by DARPA, as well as the introduction of protocols such as 6LoWPAN, which allowed IPv6 to be carried over low-power technologies.[32] Connected consumer devices such as IP cameras and home automation systems also began to appear.

During the 2010s, the IoT grew significantly due to the cheaper embedded hardware, the massification of smartphones, the availability of cloud services, and the expansion of high-speed mobile networks. With the arrival of 4G and later 5G, industrial, medical and urban applications emerged, as well as home ecosystems based on virtual assistants.

In the 2020s, the IoT established itself as a fundamental part of the global technological infrastructure, converging with areas such as artificial intelligence, edge computing and advanced data analytics. Its adoption has spread to smart cities, precision agriculture, automated manufacturing and connected transportation systems.[33]​.

Desde un punto de vista operativo, tiene sentido pensar en cómo se conectan y comunican dispositivos del IdC desde la perspectiva del modelo de comunicación. En 2015, la Junta de Arquitectura de Internet (IAB) publicó un documento orientación para la creación de redes de objetos inteligentes (RFC 7452) que describe marcos de cuatro modelos de comunicación comunes utilizados en dispositivos de comunicación al Internet de las Cosas.

• - Comunicaciones ‘dispositivo a dispositivo’.

El modelo de comunicación dispositivo a dispositivo representa dos o más dispositivos que se conectan y se comunican directamente entre sí y no a través de un servidor de aplicaciones intermediario. Estos dispositivos se comunican sobre muchos tipos de redes, entre ellas las redes IP o la Internet. Sin embargo, para establecer comunicaciones directas de dispositivo a dispositivo, muchas veces se utilizan protocolos como Bluetooth.

• - Comunicaciones ‘dispositivo a la nube'.

En un modelo de comunicación de dispositivo a la nube, el dispositivo de la IoT se conecta directamente a un servicio en la nube, como por ejemplo un proveedor de servicios de aplicaciones para intercambiar datos y controlar el tráfico de mensajes. Este enfoque suele aprovechar los mecanismos de comunicación existentes (por ejemplo, las conexiones Wi-Fi o Ethernet cableadas tradicionales) para establecer una conexión entre el dispositivo y la red IP, que luego se conecta con el servicio en la nube.

• - Modelo ‘dispositivo a puerta de enlace’.

En el modelo dispositivo a puerta de enlace, o más generalmente el modelo dispositivo a puerta de enlace de capa de aplicación (ALG), el dispositivo de la IoT se conecta a través de un servicio ALG como una forma de llegar a un servicio en la nube. Dicho de otra manera, esto significa que hay un software de aplicación corriendo en un dispositivo de puerta de enlace local, que actúa como intermediario entre el dispositivo y el servicio en la nube y provee seguridad y otras funcionalidades tales como traducción de protocolos o datos.

• - Modelo de intercambio de datos a través del back-end.

El modelo de intercambio de datos a través del back-end se refiere a una arquitectura de comunicación que permite que los usuarios exporten y analicen datos de objetos inteligentes de un servicio en la nube en combinación con datos

de otras fuentes. Esta arquitectura soporta “el deseo del usuario de permitir que terceros accedan a los datos subidos por sus sensores”.

Consumer applications

A growing percentage of IoT devices are built for consumption. Some examples of consumer applications include: connected cars, entertainment, home automation, wearable technology, connected health and home appliances such as washing machines, dryers, robotic vacuum cleaners, air purifiers, ovens, refrigerators that use Wi-Fi for remote monitoring of processes.[34]​.

Some consumer applications have been criticized for their lack of redundancy and inconsistency. These criticisms gave rise to a parody known as the Internet of Shit.[35] Several companies have been criticized for rushing into IoT, thus creating devices of questionable value,[36]​ as well as failing to establish and implement well-prepared security standards.[37]​.

Business

The term “Enterprise IoT” (EIoT) is used to refer to all devices in the business and corporate environment.

By 2019, it is estimated that EIdC" will comprise about 40% or 9.1 billion devices.[15]​.

Business: Energy and water industry

The Internet of Things (IoT) has significantly transformed the management of energy and water resources by enabling the interconnection of critical infrastructure through sensors, smart meters and cloud-based analytics platforms. These applications seek to optimize consumption, reduce losses and improve sustainability in strategic sectors.[38]​.

Energy.

In the energy sector, IoT is used in smart grids for real-time monitoring of demand and generation. Smart meters allow electricity companies to collect detailed information on users' consumption, facilitating energy efficiency policies, dynamic rates and the integration of renewable sources. Likewise, the use of sensors in generation plants and transmission lines improves early failure detection and preventive maintenance planning, reducing operating costs and risks of massive blackouts.

Water.

In water management, IoT systems contribute to pressure control in distribution networks, early detection of leaks and monitoring the quality of the resource. Water companies have implemented smart meter networks to monitor consumption patterns, identify anomalous uses and prevent unaccounted losses. In addition, environmental sensors located in basins and pumping stations make it possible to anticipate critical events such as droughts or floods, which is essential for water security and adaptation to climate change.[39]​.

Impact and benefits.

IoT adoption in energy and water not only increases operational efficiency and infrastructure resilience, but also enables data-driven sustainable management models. These advances contribute to the sustainable development goals related to affordable and clean energy (SDG 7) and clean water and sanitation (SDG 6).[40]​.

The media uses the Internet of Things mainly for marketing and studying consumer habits. These devices collect useful information about millions of individuals through behavioral segmentation.[41]​ By making use of the profiles built during the segmentation process, media producers present consumers with on-screen advertising aligned with their known habits at the right place and time to maximize their effect.[42]​[43]​ More information is collected by tracking how consumers interact with the content. This is done by measuring performance indicators such as abandonment rate, click-through rate, registration rate or interaction rate. The amount of information that is handled represents a challenge, since it begins to delve into the domains of big data. However, the benefits obtained from the information far outweigh the complications of its use.[44][45]​.

Infrastructure management

The monitoring and control of urban and rural infrastructure operations such as bridges, railways and wind farms is a key application of IoT.[46]​ IoT infrastructure can be used to track any events or changes in structural conditions that may compromise safety and increase risk. It can also be used to plan repair and maintenance activities efficiently, coordinating tasks between different service providers and facility users.[19]​ Another application of IoT devices is the control of critical infrastructure, such as bridges to allow the passage of vessels. The use of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure can improve incident management, coordination of response in emergency situations, quality and availability of services, in addition to reducing operating costs in all areas related to infrastructure.[47]​ Even areas such as waste management[48]​ can benefit from the automation and optimization that the application of IoT would bring[49]​.

Other fields of application

Agriculture.

The world population will reach 9.7 billion in 2050 according to the United Nations, therefore, to feed this large population the agricultural industry must adopt the IoT.

IoT-based smart farming will enable producers and farmers to reduce waste and improve productivity, from the amount of fertilizer used to the fuel used in agricultural machinery. In IoT based agriculture, a system is built to monitor the crop field with the help of sensors (light, humidity, temperature, soil moisture) and automation of the irrigation system.

Farmers can monitor field conditions from anywhere. IoT-based farming is highly efficient compared to traditional farming. In terms of environmental issues, IoT-based agriculture can provide great benefits, including more efficient use of water, or the optimization of inputs and treatments.

IoT devices can be used for remote patient tracking and emergency notification systems.

These devices can range from blood pressure monitors and heart rate monitoring, to devices capable of tracking specialized implants, such as pacemakers, electronic bracelets, or sophisticated hearing aids.[19] Some hospitals have begun using "smart beds" that detect when they are occupied and when a patient attempts to get up. It can also be automatically adjusted to ensure that the patient has adequate support without interaction from nursing staff.[50]​.

Specialized sensors can be installed in living spaces to monitor the health and general state of well-being of older people.[51]​ Other consumer IoT devices encourage healthy living, for example, connected scales or wearable heart monitors.[52]​ More and more comprehensive IoT tracking platforms are emerging for prenatal and chronic patients that help track vital signs and necessary medication administration. The US plans to save up to USD 300 billion from the national budget due to medical innovations.[53]​.

DEKA Research and Development Corporation (DEKA (company)), a company that creates prosthetic limbs, has created a battery-powered arm that transforms the electrical activity of skeletal muscles to control it. The arm was named Luke Arm (Luke's arm, in English) in honor of Luke Skywalker (Star Wars).[54]​.

In the transportation sector, the Internet of Things is called the Internet of Vehicles. IoT can assist the integration of communications, control and information processing across various transportation systems, offering solutions to the multiple challenges that arise throughout the logistics chain.[55]​.

The application of IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (vehicles, infrastructure, drivers or users). The dynamic interaction between these components of a transportation system allows inter- and intra-vehicular communication, intelligent traffic control, smart parking, electronic toll collection, logistics and fleet management, vehicle control, security and route assistance.[19]​[56]​ In logistics and fleet management, for example, the IoT platform can track the location and conditions of cargo and assets at all times through wireless sensors that send alerts in case of eventualities (delays, damage, theft, etc.).

Applications of big data in IoT

The most concurrent applications where the IoT is associated are those associated with big data, from analysts to data scientists or machine learning specialists. It is a transversal technology, and fundamental for many essential applications.

Another area of ​​great development currently, and for the near future, is edge computing. This evolution of the concept of cloud computing involves moving data processing capacity close to where the data is generated. It implies an emergence of highly technological professional profiles that are capable of exploiting the possibilities of the IoT in such exciting fields as autonomous driving, among others. It is therefore a sector that offers high employability.

The term "Internet of Everything" was introduced by CISCO in 2012, marking a significant evolution in the way we perceive and use technology to connect the world around us. This concept goes beyond the simple interconnection of devices, known as the Internet of Things (IoT), and extends towards a network that intelligently integrates people, processes, data and things. The Internet of Things not only seeks to connect devices with each other, but also aims to create an environment where the information collected is transformed into concrete actions, promoting more informed and efficient decision-making.[57]​.

The fundamental goal of the Internet of Things is to allow data to flow more freely and effectively between different systems and agents, providing a solid foundation for data-informed decisions. This, in turn, opens the door to new capabilities and experiences that can be richer and more personalized, better fitting people's individual and collective needs. Communication in this system occurs at several levels: between machines, between machines and people, and also between people who are assisted by various technologies.[58]​.

Furthermore, the Internet of Things incorporates and transcends the Internet of Things by including two other essential components: the Internet of the Digital and the Internet of the Human. The Internet of the Digital refers to the integration and management of digital data and computing resources, while the Internet of the Human places emphasis on how people interact with technology.[58]​.

The Internet of Everything expands and enriches the concept of the Internet of Things, as it includes a broader range of interactions and possibilities.

Advantages

Ability to connect to the network: The main benefit that the IoT provides is the possibility of connecting to the Internet and thus being able to access everything related to it. For example, when the TV connects to the network to receive the content we are about to see.

Exchange of information quickly and in real time: Another advantage of the Internet of Things is that information is exchanged quickly and in real time, having many different uses. For example, in the field of security. Thanks to the Internet of Things, police or firefighters are automatically notified of a break-in or fire in a controlled space.

Energy savings: Another very important benefit that IoT brings is energy savings. By monitoring and automating processes, they are carried out in a more controlled manner, which translates into lower consumption and therefore greater savings. The best examples can be found in automatic air conditioners in homes and other buildings. When air conditioners are controlled by IoT devices, they synchronize with outside temperature and weather conditions, resulting in more complete use of available resources.

More sustainable processes: Similar to how IoT generates more savings through better resource utilization, it also leads to greater resilience as only the resources that are truly needed are used. The best example can be found in air conditioning.

Communication with the direct environment: Another advantage is that IoT allows direct communication with the immediate environment. For example, we can open and close the door from our mobile phone, or we can receive useful information based on our geographic location at any time.

Disadvantages

The information is not encrypted:.

Requires prior investment in technology: Another disadvantage of IoT is that it requires an initial investment to work. That is, we have to buy devices that have the necessary technology to connect to the Internet.

Reduced privacy: Another issue that can arise with the use of IoT facilities is the reduction of privacy. These devices open private spaces to public spaces, so serious problems can arise in this regard. For example, because security system settings, such as surveillance cameras, are used incorrectly.

Technological gap: Likewise, another disadvantage associated with the use of IoT technology is the widening of the digital divide. In other words, the issue is who can access this technology and who cannot. This is especially true when comparing Internet access in different countries and between urban and rural areas.

Lack of compatibility: Finally, another major drawback of IoT technology is the lack of compatibility between some devices. IoT systems are not standardized and therefore it may happen that some devices do not work together even though they are designed for the same function.

There are some predictions regarding the implementations of what the IoT will be in various areas, whether in the processing of information as well as its incorporation into the new technology that is still in development, but that have undoubtedly changed the way in which we connect and access the information found on the Internet.

IoT and data analysis: IoT will no longer just consist of having wearables or talking to Alexa. IoT will focus more on processing data and making recommendations based on findings. This is due to the ability of the Internet of Things to be associated with artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies with the aim of processing large amounts of data. We will see more of the sintering of data in order to make recommendations and make smart, informed decisions.

5G Network: The evident growth of 5G technology, as well as cloud computing and faster and broader network access, will continue to fuel the growth of the IoT. 5G connectivity will play a vital role in the Internet of Things ecosystem, as it is a technology that can be implemented in countless systems, devices and data centers; and which represents the infrastructure on which large volumes of information will be transmitted in real time.

Impact on business: Many companies and businesses began to carry out remote operations since 2020 and began to promote teleworking and access to data in a decentralized way. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 caused forced changes in companies that led to notable innovations and adaptations, and as time progresses, non-digitized companies will be forced to apply different technological strategies in order not to be left behind.

IoT and BPM: Considering that this connection changed the customer experience, created intelligent business models, and collaborated on solutions, there are technologies that have really leveraged all of these things. This one of them is BPM (Business Process Management). The BPM program allows the integration of business management with information technologies through an approach focused on improving business results, providing personalized services based on the needs of the most demanding clients. The BPMS (Business Process Management System) improves flexibility within companies and continuously aligns business objectives with their own operational policies and procedures, allowing them to adapt internal and external compliance, as well as adopt transparent business methods and, of course, comprehensive operations management.

Thanks to this alignment, work moments are fully guaranteed and optimized in the BPM spectrum through automation and data with specific decisions. Furthermore, it stimulates the implementation of workflows in any work context to adapt to human interactions.

An alternative vision, from the world of the Semantic Web, focuses rather on making all things (not just electronic, smart or RFID) have an address based on one of the existing protocols, such as the URI. Objects do not communicate, but in this way they could be referenced by other agents, such as powerful centralized servers acting for their human owners.

Obviously, these two approaches are progressively converging into addressable and smarter ones. This is unlikely to happen in situations with few spimes (objects that can be located at all times), and meanwhile, the two points of view have very different implications. In particular, the universal addressing approach includes things that cannot have communication behaviors of their own, such as document summaries.[59]​.

According to Cisco's CEO,[60]​ the project is estimated to cost US$19 billion, and, like that, many IoT devices will be part of the international market. Jean-Louis Gassée (initial member of the Apple student group and co-founder of BeOS) has written an article in the Monday Note[61]​ in which he develops the problem that will most likely arise: dealing with the hundreds of applications that will be available to control these personal devices.

There are multiple approaches to solve this problem, one of them is the so-called “Predictable Interaction”,[62]​ which consists of decisions being made in the cloud independently and the user's action will be anticipated to give rise to some reaction. Although this can be done, you will always need manual help.

Some companies have already seen the gap in this market and are working on creating communication protocols between devices. Some examples are the AllJoyn alliance, which is made up of 20 global technology leaders, and other companies such as Intel, which is developing the CCF (Common Connectivity Framework).

Certain entrepreneurs have chosen to show their technical capabilities by trying to find possible and effective solutions to the problem posed. These are some of them:

• - AT&T “Digital Life” is the most popular solution. On its website[63]​ it has all kinds of home automation measures that can be controlled through a mobile phone application.

• - Muzzley uses a single application with which to access hundreds of devices[64]​ thanks to the fact that manufacturers are beginning to join its API project[65]​ in order to provide a single solution to control personal devices.

• - My shortcut[66]​ is a proposal that includes a set of devices that allow the user to establish an interaction with the application, Siri style. Through the use of voice commands, the user is offered the possibility of using the most common tools of the Internet of Things.

• - Realtek, “IoT my things” is also an application that aims to control a closed system of Realtek devices such as sensors.[67]​.

Manufacturers are realizing the problem and are starting to launch products with open APIs on the market. These app companies take advantage of quick integrations.

On the other hand, many manufacturers are still waiting to see what to do and when to start. This can lead to an innovation problem, but at the same time it is an advantage for small companies, since they can get ahead and create new designs adapted to the Internet of Things.

Internet 0 (internet zero) is a low-speed physical level or layer designed for the purpose of assigning “IP addresses over anything.” It was developed at MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms by Neil Gershenfeld, Raffi Krikorian, and Danny Cohen. When it was invented, other names were being considered and, finally, it was named that way to differentiate it from “Internet2” or high-speed internet. The name was chosen to emphasize that it was a slow technology, but, at the same time, cheap and useful. It was coined for the first time during the development of the Media House Project developed by the Metapolis group and the MIT Media Lab inaugurated in Barcelona on September 25, 2001, and directed by Vicente Guallart and Neil Gershenfeld.

This system enables a ubiquitous computing platform, that is, it brings closer the concept of the Internet of Things, since, for example, in an office all objects could be subject to common control through Internet 0, which would be responsible for collecting information and showing it to the user in whose hand it would be to make the decision of what to do. In the prototype developed, things could be connected to each other based on a spatial structure, which included the physical structure, a data network and an electrical network.

In Internet 0, RFID tags are a physical package that is part of the network and the user can communicate with them by sharing data. In this way, information can be extracted and acted upon the extracted data.[68]​.

Guys

The Internet is a public service that is available to anyone in most countries. Initially, only scientists had access to the network.

The Internet is anonymous, meaning that people can access it without having to share their name.

Additionally, the Internet is accessible to anyone, regardless of age, education level, physical ability, or country of origin.

The network is global, allowing people to communicate with someone in another country in real time. Additionally, the Internet has unlimited growth, meaning it can grow without limits.

The Internet is decentralized, meaning there is no centralized control point or hierarchy that governs connections.

The connection between computers allows interpersonal communication, and the uses of the Internet are varied and useful. The speed of message transmission is so fast that it seems instant.

Intelligence

The Internet of Things will probably be "non-deterministic" and open network (cyberspace), in which self-organized intelligent entities (Web service, SOA components) or virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and capable of acting independently (pursuing their own or shared objectives), depending on the context, circumstances or environment. An ambient intelligence will be generated (built on Ubiquitous Computing).

Architecture

The system will likely be an example of "event-driven architecture",[69]​ built from the bottom up (based on the context of processes and operations, in real time) and will take into consideration any additional layers. Therefore, the event-oriented model and the functional approach will coexist with new models capable of dealing with exceptions and unusual evolution of processes (Multi-agent system, B-ADSC, etc.).

In an Internet of Things, the meaning of an event will not necessarily be based on deterministic or syntactic models. Possibly it is based on the context of the event itself: thus, it will also be a Semantic Web. Consequently, common rules that would not be able to handle all contexts or uses will not be strictly necessary: ​​some actors (services, components, avatars) will be self-referenced in a coordinated way and, if necessary, they would adapt to common rules (to predict something it would only be necessary to define a "global purpose", something that is not possible with any of the current approaches and rules).

Chaotic or complex system?

It is a system that works in open or closed semi-loops (that is, value chains, as long as they have a global purpose can be resolved), therefore, they will be considered and studied as a complex System due to the large number of different links and interactions between autonomous agents, and its ability to integrate new actors. At the global stage (full open loop), this will probably be seen as environmental chaos (as long as the systems always have purpose).

Temporal considerations

In this internet of objects is created from billions of parallel and simultaneous events, time will no longer be used as a common and linear dimension,[70]​ but will depend on the entity of the objects, processes, information system, etc. This Internet of Things will have to be based on massively parallel IT systems (parallel computing).

The Internet of Things is based on advanced connectivity of devices, systems and services covering a variety of protocols, domains and applications. It is expected to usher in automation in almost all fields, while enabling advanced applications such as smart environments*.*.

Distributed systems use groups of networked computers for the same computational goal but this has several common problems with concurrent and parallel systems, as these three fall into the field of scientific computing. Today, a large number of distributed system technologies along with hardware virtualization, service-oriented architecture, and autonomous and utility computing have led to the use of services to solve these problems.

Starting from both definitions, we observe that the relationship is that the Internet of Things facilitates the development of distributed systems due to all the progress that it has implied over time, which makes them more efficient. In addition, it allows you to have an application in almost all areas so you can use them in more environments than you could imagine.

Although the IoT provides us with many facilities today, if analyzed in detail, we can see that it is a very interesting tool and that it has a very high potential in the future, but in order for it to be fully exploited, certain problems must be resolved, which would be:

• - Security: Security presents a significant challenge for IoT implementations due to the lack of a common standard and architecture for its security. This is because it is not easy to guarantee the security and privacy of all the users involved since, being connected to the network, the information that is shared between the devices does not contain a standard so it is easy to obtain that information for people with the appropriate knowledge.

• - Energy: The devices used need to be always working, which generates greater electricity consumption, so companies that are dedicated to developing these devices have the challenge of optimizing consumption.

• - Connectivity: The connection of billions or trillions of smart devices represents a daunting problem for service providers when it comes to managing aspects of device failure, configuration, accounting, performance and security. That is why companies and everyone involved with this technology must analyze and develop techniques or protocols that allow optimizing the management of all the devices that are in operation at the moment.

As we observe, the future development of the IoT does not depend entirely on this, but on other technologies or technological advances, so it is necessary for the areas involved to cooperate with each other to have significant progress.

The concerns and problems around IoT have generated the belief among users and experts that big data structures such as the Internet of Things or data mining are inherently incompatible with privacy,[71]​ in addition to devices, where vulnerabilities in operating systems, wireless security protocols and applications are highly complex to protect security.[72]​ The writer Adam Greenfield") assures that these technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing the case of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of pedestrians who read said advertising.[73]​.

The Chartered Institute for IoT states that privacy issues arise as a result of the compilation of detailed data on the consumption behavior of individuals and neighbourhoods, to the creation of predictive models of energy, water and transport use. It is not difficult to imagine a future information system that contains detailed reporting about where citizens live, when they are home, when they will leave, or how often they watch television or use their washing machine.[74]​.

The Council of Internet of Things reveals the concept and dangers of a panopticon city – the big brother, by consolidating a form of government characterized by omniscient surveillance, the INTERNET OF THINGS would cause humans to lose control over detection and interaction with technological artifacts. Imagine if data from all social networks were combined with all location data, calls and SMS records from mobile phones; Now let's imagine combining all that data with data from the databases of retailers, credit agencies, voters, real estate transactions, etc. If all of today's data fragments were consolidated to create a coherent whole, this would create a powerful and uncontrollable panoptical society. The chances of such a society being established are high, as the world is becoming increasingly global and interconnected.[75]​.

The BBC raises one of the most notorious cases of data manipulation, Facebook shares fell nearly 7% after the publication of a series of journalistic investigations that claim that the consulting firm Cambridge Analytica improperly acquired information from 50 million users of the social network in the United States. This information was used to manipulate thousands of Americans and thus obtain voters. Cambridge Analytica managed to know what the content, topic and tone of a message should be to change the way of thinking of voters in an almost individualized way, but the company not only sent personalized advertising, but also developed fake news that it then replicated through social networks, blogs and media.[76]​.

Similarly, the BBC comments on the case that occurred with the Amazon voice assistant, a couple in Portland, Oregon, United States, used to joke about whether Alexa, the virtual assistant of Amazon's echo speaker, could be listening to their conversations... but the joke came to an end when they discovered that, indeed, the machine had recorded and also sent what they were talking about inside their house. Messages that actually reached one of the contacts in the phone book registered with Alexa, to which Amazon responded; - what has happened is a series of inopportune coincidences -.[77]​.

To address this issue, the Chartered Institute for IoT suggests that overall IoT infrastructure requires broad public support that can only be achieved through broad citizen engagement and action to help citizens. Understand the purpose and ramifications of the proposed developments. If this is not developed from the beginning, we can expect resistance from those who will ultimately be affected by these developments. Numerous smart energy projects in the United States and Europe have had to be abandoned because consumers did not trust the intentions of energy companies when installing smart meters in the home. However, there are cases of trust in the IoT such as the Oyster travel card for London transport, in which the consumer is incentivized to exchange their privacy for certain services and comforts, without ensuring that this organization deserves this trust.[74]​.

IoT applications and functionalities

IoT is used in a wide variety of fields, such as smart homes, smart cities, healthcare, agriculture, and industry. Functionalities include data collection, process automation, real-time decision making and improved operational efficiency.

The impact of IoT on society and industries

The IoT has a significant impact on society by improving the quality of life, increasing the efficiency of public services and enabling new business opportunities. In industries, IoT optimizes processes, reduces costs, improves productivity and facilitates data-based decision making.

Advantages and challenges of the internet of things

The advantages of IoT include automation, real-time connectivity, resource optimization, and improved productivity. However, challenges include cybersecurity, data privacy, device interoperability, and solution scalability.

Development and evolution of technologies

• - Connectivity: The development of connectivity technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and communication protocols such as MQTT and CoAP, have allowed the connection of IoT devices to the Internet efficiently.

• - Sensors and Actuators: The miniaturization and cost reduction of sensors and actuators have allowed their integration into a wide range of devices, from household appliances to vehicles and industrial equipment.

• - IoT Platforms: The emergence of IoT platforms, which provide tools for the development, management and analysis of data from connected devices, has facilitated the creation of complete IoT solutions.

• - Security: With the increase in connected devices, security has become a major concern. IoT-specific security technologies and standards have been developed to protect data integrity and privacy.

• - Edge Computing: To reduce latency and improve network efficiency, the concept of edge computing has been developed, where part of the data processing is performed on nearby devices (at the edge of the network), instead of sending all data to the cloud.

The future of the internet of things: trends and advances

Future IoT trends include the expansion of 5G for faster and more reliable connectivity, the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning for data analysis, the adoption of more advanced security standards, and the integration of IoT with other emerging technologies such as augmented reality and cloud computing.

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The concept of the Internet of Things (IoT) has its roots in the idea of ​​connecting devices to the Internet to enable remote communication and data sharing. The first concepts of creating a network of smart devices were discussed in 1982, when a modified Coca-Cola machine became the first home appliance connected to the Internet. During the 90s, various articles were published in the academic field and the term Internet of Things became popular in 1999. From that moment on, the concept of the Internet of Things and its evolution were related to the incorporation of sensors and connections in any type of device that could support it. Basically it was about incorporating “intelligence” into different electronic objects that could support it.

• - 1999: Kevin Ashton, from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), coins the term "Internet of Things" (IoT).

• - 2008: The first version of the Iv6 protocol is standardized, providing a large number of IP addresses for IoT devices.

• - 2010: The number of devices connected to the Internet exceeds the number of people in the world.

• - 2014: Google acquires Nest Labs, a company dedicated to smart home devices, marking a big step in the popularization of IoT in the home.

• - 2016: American software company PTC acquires IoT company ThingWorx for $112 million, demonstrating the growth of the IoT market.

Contenido

El funcionamiento de los sistemas IoT convencionales consiste en el envío, la recepción y el análisis continuo de datos en un ciclo de retroalimentación. Dependiendo del tipo de tecnología utilizada en IoT, los datos pueden ser analizados por humanos o sistemas de inteligencia artificial y aprendizaje automático (IA/ML) de manera casi inmediata o tras un período de tiempo determinado.

El término IoT describe el conjunto de dispositivos físicos que se comunican entre sí mediante redes inalámbricas y requieren de una mínima intervención humana. Este sistema se logra gracias a la incorporación de dispositivos informáticos en diversos objetos de uso cotidiano.

Four stages

• - Data acquisition: IoT devices capture data from their environment using sensors. This data can range in complexity, from information as simple as temperature to real-time video feeds.

• - Data Sharing: IoT devices send captured data over available network connections to a public or private cloud system (device-system-device), to another device (device-device), or store it locally for processing at the edge.

• - Data processing: At this stage, the software is programmed to carry out certain actions based on the acquired data, such as turning on a fan or sending a warning.

• - Decision making from data: Data from all devices in an IoT network is analyzed to obtain valuable strategic information to support reliable business decisions and actions.

The applications for internet-connected devices are broad. Multiple categories have been suggested, but most agree on separating applications into three main branches of use: consumer, business, and infrastructure.[15]​[16]​ George Osborne, former cabinet member for finance, proposes that IoT is the next stage in the information revolution, referring to the interconnectivity of everything from urban transportation to medical devices to home appliances.[17]​.

The ability to connect embedded devices with limited CPU, memory, and power capabilities means that IoT can have applications in almost any area.[18]​

These systems could be responsible for collecting information in different environments: from natural ecosystems to buildings and factories,

[19]​ so they could be used for environmental monitoring and urban planning.[20]​.

Smart shopping systems, for example, could follow a specific user's purchasing habits by tracking their mobile phone. These users could be offered special deals on their preferred products or even guided to the location of the items they need to purchase. These items would be in a list automatically created by your smart refrigerator on your mobile phone.[21]​[22]​ More use cases can be found in applications that handle heating, water supply, electricity, energy management and even smart transportation systems that assist the driver.[23]​[24][25]​

Other applications that the Internet of Things can provide are adding security and home automation features.[26]​ The concept of an "internet of living things" has been proposed describing networks of biological sensors that could use cloud computing-based analytics to allow users to study DNA and other molecules.[27][28]​.

Expanded history

The concept of connecting physical objects to digital networks has antecedents before the term “Internet of Things.” In the early 1980s, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University developed the first ARPANET-connected vending machine, capable of reporting inventory and temperature, considered one of the first primitive IoT devices.[29]​.

In the 1990s, advances in wireless technologies, RFID, and ubiquitous computing influenced the evolution of the IoT. Mark Weiser, a researcher at Xerox PARC, proposed the idea of ​​"ubiquitous computing" in 1991, defined as the invisible integration of technology into everyday objects.[30] This vision anticipated much of the current IoT paradigm.

The term "Internet of Things" was formally coined in 1999 by Kevin Ashton during his work at the MIT Auto-ID Center, in the context of supply chain automation using RFID.[31]​.

The 2000s saw the development of wireless sensor networks funded by DARPA, as well as the introduction of protocols such as 6LoWPAN, which allowed IPv6 to be carried over low-power technologies.[32] Connected consumer devices such as IP cameras and home automation systems also began to appear.

During the 2010s, the IoT grew significantly due to the cheaper embedded hardware, the massification of smartphones, the availability of cloud services, and the expansion of high-speed mobile networks. With the arrival of 4G and later 5G, industrial, medical and urban applications emerged, as well as home ecosystems based on virtual assistants.

In the 2020s, the IoT established itself as a fundamental part of the global technological infrastructure, converging with areas such as artificial intelligence, edge computing and advanced data analytics. Its adoption has spread to smart cities, precision agriculture, automated manufacturing and connected transportation systems.[33]​.

Desde un punto de vista operativo, tiene sentido pensar en cómo se conectan y comunican dispositivos del IdC desde la perspectiva del modelo de comunicación. En 2015, la Junta de Arquitectura de Internet (IAB) publicó un documento orientación para la creación de redes de objetos inteligentes (RFC 7452) que describe marcos de cuatro modelos de comunicación comunes utilizados en dispositivos de comunicación al Internet de las Cosas.

• - Comunicaciones ‘dispositivo a dispositivo’.

El modelo de comunicación dispositivo a dispositivo representa dos o más dispositivos que se conectan y se comunican directamente entre sí y no a través de un servidor de aplicaciones intermediario. Estos dispositivos se comunican sobre muchos tipos de redes, entre ellas las redes IP o la Internet. Sin embargo, para establecer comunicaciones directas de dispositivo a dispositivo, muchas veces se utilizan protocolos como Bluetooth.

• - Comunicaciones ‘dispositivo a la nube'.

En un modelo de comunicación de dispositivo a la nube, el dispositivo de la IoT se conecta directamente a un servicio en la nube, como por ejemplo un proveedor de servicios de aplicaciones para intercambiar datos y controlar el tráfico de mensajes. Este enfoque suele aprovechar los mecanismos de comunicación existentes (por ejemplo, las conexiones Wi-Fi o Ethernet cableadas tradicionales) para establecer una conexión entre el dispositivo y la red IP, que luego se conecta con el servicio en la nube.

• - Modelo ‘dispositivo a puerta de enlace’.

En el modelo dispositivo a puerta de enlace, o más generalmente el modelo dispositivo a puerta de enlace de capa de aplicación (ALG), el dispositivo de la IoT se conecta a través de un servicio ALG como una forma de llegar a un servicio en la nube. Dicho de otra manera, esto significa que hay un software de aplicación corriendo en un dispositivo de puerta de enlace local, que actúa como intermediario entre el dispositivo y el servicio en la nube y provee seguridad y otras funcionalidades tales como traducción de protocolos o datos.

• - Modelo de intercambio de datos a través del back-end.

El modelo de intercambio de datos a través del back-end se refiere a una arquitectura de comunicación que permite que los usuarios exporten y analicen datos de objetos inteligentes de un servicio en la nube en combinación con datos

de otras fuentes. Esta arquitectura soporta “el deseo del usuario de permitir que terceros accedan a los datos subidos por sus sensores”.

Consumer applications

A growing percentage of IoT devices are built for consumption. Some examples of consumer applications include: connected cars, entertainment, home automation, wearable technology, connected health and home appliances such as washing machines, dryers, robotic vacuum cleaners, air purifiers, ovens, refrigerators that use Wi-Fi for remote monitoring of processes.[34]​.

Some consumer applications have been criticized for their lack of redundancy and inconsistency. These criticisms gave rise to a parody known as the Internet of Shit.[35] Several companies have been criticized for rushing into IoT, thus creating devices of questionable value,[36]​ as well as failing to establish and implement well-prepared security standards.[37]​.

Business

The term “Enterprise IoT” (EIoT) is used to refer to all devices in the business and corporate environment.

By 2019, it is estimated that EIdC" will comprise about 40% or 9.1 billion devices.[15]​.

Business: Energy and water industry

The Internet of Things (IoT) has significantly transformed the management of energy and water resources by enabling the interconnection of critical infrastructure through sensors, smart meters and cloud-based analytics platforms. These applications seek to optimize consumption, reduce losses and improve sustainability in strategic sectors.[38]​.

Energy.

In the energy sector, IoT is used in smart grids for real-time monitoring of demand and generation. Smart meters allow electricity companies to collect detailed information on users' consumption, facilitating energy efficiency policies, dynamic rates and the integration of renewable sources. Likewise, the use of sensors in generation plants and transmission lines improves early failure detection and preventive maintenance planning, reducing operating costs and risks of massive blackouts.

Water.

In water management, IoT systems contribute to pressure control in distribution networks, early detection of leaks and monitoring the quality of the resource. Water companies have implemented smart meter networks to monitor consumption patterns, identify anomalous uses and prevent unaccounted losses. In addition, environmental sensors located in basins and pumping stations make it possible to anticipate critical events such as droughts or floods, which is essential for water security and adaptation to climate change.[39]​.

Impact and benefits.

IoT adoption in energy and water not only increases operational efficiency and infrastructure resilience, but also enables data-driven sustainable management models. These advances contribute to the sustainable development goals related to affordable and clean energy (SDG 7) and clean water and sanitation (SDG 6).[40]​.

The media uses the Internet of Things mainly for marketing and studying consumer habits. These devices collect useful information about millions of individuals through behavioral segmentation.[41]​ By making use of the profiles built during the segmentation process, media producers present consumers with on-screen advertising aligned with their known habits at the right place and time to maximize their effect.[42]​[43]​ More information is collected by tracking how consumers interact with the content. This is done by measuring performance indicators such as abandonment rate, click-through rate, registration rate or interaction rate. The amount of information that is handled represents a challenge, since it begins to delve into the domains of big data. However, the benefits obtained from the information far outweigh the complications of its use.[44][45]​.

Infrastructure management

The monitoring and control of urban and rural infrastructure operations such as bridges, railways and wind farms is a key application of IoT.[46]​ IoT infrastructure can be used to track any events or changes in structural conditions that may compromise safety and increase risk. It can also be used to plan repair and maintenance activities efficiently, coordinating tasks between different service providers and facility users.[19]​ Another application of IoT devices is the control of critical infrastructure, such as bridges to allow the passage of vessels. The use of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure can improve incident management, coordination of response in emergency situations, quality and availability of services, in addition to reducing operating costs in all areas related to infrastructure.[47]​ Even areas such as waste management[48]​ can benefit from the automation and optimization that the application of IoT would bring[49]​.

Other fields of application

Agriculture.

The world population will reach 9.7 billion in 2050 according to the United Nations, therefore, to feed this large population the agricultural industry must adopt the IoT.

IoT-based smart farming will enable producers and farmers to reduce waste and improve productivity, from the amount of fertilizer used to the fuel used in agricultural machinery. In IoT based agriculture, a system is built to monitor the crop field with the help of sensors (light, humidity, temperature, soil moisture) and automation of the irrigation system.

Farmers can monitor field conditions from anywhere. IoT-based farming is highly efficient compared to traditional farming. In terms of environmental issues, IoT-based agriculture can provide great benefits, including more efficient use of water, or the optimization of inputs and treatments.

IoT devices can be used for remote patient tracking and emergency notification systems.

These devices can range from blood pressure monitors and heart rate monitoring, to devices capable of tracking specialized implants, such as pacemakers, electronic bracelets, or sophisticated hearing aids.[19] Some hospitals have begun using "smart beds" that detect when they are occupied and when a patient attempts to get up. It can also be automatically adjusted to ensure that the patient has adequate support without interaction from nursing staff.[50]​.

Specialized sensors can be installed in living spaces to monitor the health and general state of well-being of older people.[51]​ Other consumer IoT devices encourage healthy living, for example, connected scales or wearable heart monitors.[52]​ More and more comprehensive IoT tracking platforms are emerging for prenatal and chronic patients that help track vital signs and necessary medication administration. The US plans to save up to USD 300 billion from the national budget due to medical innovations.[53]​.

DEKA Research and Development Corporation (DEKA (company)), a company that creates prosthetic limbs, has created a battery-powered arm that transforms the electrical activity of skeletal muscles to control it. The arm was named Luke Arm (Luke's arm, in English) in honor of Luke Skywalker (Star Wars).[54]​.

In the transportation sector, the Internet of Things is called the Internet of Vehicles. IoT can assist the integration of communications, control and information processing across various transportation systems, offering solutions to the multiple challenges that arise throughout the logistics chain.[55]​.

The application of IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (vehicles, infrastructure, drivers or users). The dynamic interaction between these components of a transportation system allows inter- and intra-vehicular communication, intelligent traffic control, smart parking, electronic toll collection, logistics and fleet management, vehicle control, security and route assistance.[19]​[56]​ In logistics and fleet management, for example, the IoT platform can track the location and conditions of cargo and assets at all times through wireless sensors that send alerts in case of eventualities (delays, damage, theft, etc.).

Applications of big data in IoT

The most concurrent applications where the IoT is associated are those associated with big data, from analysts to data scientists or machine learning specialists. It is a transversal technology, and fundamental for many essential applications.

Another area of ​​great development currently, and for the near future, is edge computing. This evolution of the concept of cloud computing involves moving data processing capacity close to where the data is generated. It implies an emergence of highly technological professional profiles that are capable of exploiting the possibilities of the IoT in such exciting fields as autonomous driving, among others. It is therefore a sector that offers high employability.

The term "Internet of Everything" was introduced by CISCO in 2012, marking a significant evolution in the way we perceive and use technology to connect the world around us. This concept goes beyond the simple interconnection of devices, known as the Internet of Things (IoT), and extends towards a network that intelligently integrates people, processes, data and things. The Internet of Things not only seeks to connect devices with each other, but also aims to create an environment where the information collected is transformed into concrete actions, promoting more informed and efficient decision-making.[57]​.

The fundamental goal of the Internet of Things is to allow data to flow more freely and effectively between different systems and agents, providing a solid foundation for data-informed decisions. This, in turn, opens the door to new capabilities and experiences that can be richer and more personalized, better fitting people's individual and collective needs. Communication in this system occurs at several levels: between machines, between machines and people, and also between people who are assisted by various technologies.[58]​.

Furthermore, the Internet of Things incorporates and transcends the Internet of Things by including two other essential components: the Internet of the Digital and the Internet of the Human. The Internet of the Digital refers to the integration and management of digital data and computing resources, while the Internet of the Human places emphasis on how people interact with technology.[58]​.

The Internet of Everything expands and enriches the concept of the Internet of Things, as it includes a broader range of interactions and possibilities.

Advantages

Ability to connect to the network: The main benefit that the IoT provides is the possibility of connecting to the Internet and thus being able to access everything related to it. For example, when the TV connects to the network to receive the content we are about to see.

Exchange of information quickly and in real time: Another advantage of the Internet of Things is that information is exchanged quickly and in real time, having many different uses. For example, in the field of security. Thanks to the Internet of Things, police or firefighters are automatically notified of a break-in or fire in a controlled space.

Energy savings: Another very important benefit that IoT brings is energy savings. By monitoring and automating processes, they are carried out in a more controlled manner, which translates into lower consumption and therefore greater savings. The best examples can be found in automatic air conditioners in homes and other buildings. When air conditioners are controlled by IoT devices, they synchronize with outside temperature and weather conditions, resulting in more complete use of available resources.

More sustainable processes: Similar to how IoT generates more savings through better resource utilization, it also leads to greater resilience as only the resources that are truly needed are used. The best example can be found in air conditioning.

Communication with the direct environment: Another advantage is that IoT allows direct communication with the immediate environment. For example, we can open and close the door from our mobile phone, or we can receive useful information based on our geographic location at any time.

Disadvantages

The information is not encrypted:.

Requires prior investment in technology: Another disadvantage of IoT is that it requires an initial investment to work. That is, we have to buy devices that have the necessary technology to connect to the Internet.

Reduced privacy: Another issue that can arise with the use of IoT facilities is the reduction of privacy. These devices open private spaces to public spaces, so serious problems can arise in this regard. For example, because security system settings, such as surveillance cameras, are used incorrectly.

Technological gap: Likewise, another disadvantage associated with the use of IoT technology is the widening of the digital divide. In other words, the issue is who can access this technology and who cannot. This is especially true when comparing Internet access in different countries and between urban and rural areas.

Lack of compatibility: Finally, another major drawback of IoT technology is the lack of compatibility between some devices. IoT systems are not standardized and therefore it may happen that some devices do not work together even though they are designed for the same function.

There are some predictions regarding the implementations of what the IoT will be in various areas, whether in the processing of information as well as its incorporation into the new technology that is still in development, but that have undoubtedly changed the way in which we connect and access the information found on the Internet.

IoT and data analysis: IoT will no longer just consist of having wearables or talking to Alexa. IoT will focus more on processing data and making recommendations based on findings. This is due to the ability of the Internet of Things to be associated with artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies with the aim of processing large amounts of data. We will see more of the sintering of data in order to make recommendations and make smart, informed decisions.

5G Network: The evident growth of 5G technology, as well as cloud computing and faster and broader network access, will continue to fuel the growth of the IoT. 5G connectivity will play a vital role in the Internet of Things ecosystem, as it is a technology that can be implemented in countless systems, devices and data centers; and which represents the infrastructure on which large volumes of information will be transmitted in real time.

Impact on business: Many companies and businesses began to carry out remote operations since 2020 and began to promote teleworking and access to data in a decentralized way. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 caused forced changes in companies that led to notable innovations and adaptations, and as time progresses, non-digitized companies will be forced to apply different technological strategies in order not to be left behind.

IoT and BPM: Considering that this connection changed the customer experience, created intelligent business models, and collaborated on solutions, there are technologies that have really leveraged all of these things. This one of them is BPM (Business Process Management). The BPM program allows the integration of business management with information technologies through an approach focused on improving business results, providing personalized services based on the needs of the most demanding clients. The BPMS (Business Process Management System) improves flexibility within companies and continuously aligns business objectives with their own operational policies and procedures, allowing them to adapt internal and external compliance, as well as adopt transparent business methods and, of course, comprehensive operations management.

Thanks to this alignment, work moments are fully guaranteed and optimized in the BPM spectrum through automation and data with specific decisions. Furthermore, it stimulates the implementation of workflows in any work context to adapt to human interactions.

An alternative vision, from the world of the Semantic Web, focuses rather on making all things (not just electronic, smart or RFID) have an address based on one of the existing protocols, such as the URI. Objects do not communicate, but in this way they could be referenced by other agents, such as powerful centralized servers acting for their human owners.

Obviously, these two approaches are progressively converging into addressable and smarter ones. This is unlikely to happen in situations with few spimes (objects that can be located at all times), and meanwhile, the two points of view have very different implications. In particular, the universal addressing approach includes things that cannot have communication behaviors of their own, such as document summaries.[59]​.

According to Cisco's CEO,[60]​ the project is estimated to cost US$19 billion, and, like that, many IoT devices will be part of the international market. Jean-Louis Gassée (initial member of the Apple student group and co-founder of BeOS) has written an article in the Monday Note[61]​ in which he develops the problem that will most likely arise: dealing with the hundreds of applications that will be available to control these personal devices.

There are multiple approaches to solve this problem, one of them is the so-called “Predictable Interaction”,[62]​ which consists of decisions being made in the cloud independently and the user's action will be anticipated to give rise to some reaction. Although this can be done, you will always need manual help.

Some companies have already seen the gap in this market and are working on creating communication protocols between devices. Some examples are the AllJoyn alliance, which is made up of 20 global technology leaders, and other companies such as Intel, which is developing the CCF (Common Connectivity Framework).

Certain entrepreneurs have chosen to show their technical capabilities by trying to find possible and effective solutions to the problem posed. These are some of them:

• - AT&T “Digital Life” is the most popular solution. On its website[63]​ it has all kinds of home automation measures that can be controlled through a mobile phone application.

• - Muzzley uses a single application with which to access hundreds of devices[64]​ thanks to the fact that manufacturers are beginning to join its API project[65]​ in order to provide a single solution to control personal devices.

• - My shortcut[66]​ is a proposal that includes a set of devices that allow the user to establish an interaction with the application, Siri style. Through the use of voice commands, the user is offered the possibility of using the most common tools of the Internet of Things.

• - Realtek, “IoT my things” is also an application that aims to control a closed system of Realtek devices such as sensors.[67]​.

Manufacturers are realizing the problem and are starting to launch products with open APIs on the market. These app companies take advantage of quick integrations.

On the other hand, many manufacturers are still waiting to see what to do and when to start. This can lead to an innovation problem, but at the same time it is an advantage for small companies, since they can get ahead and create new designs adapted to the Internet of Things.

Internet 0 (internet zero) is a low-speed physical level or layer designed for the purpose of assigning “IP addresses over anything.” It was developed at MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms by Neil Gershenfeld, Raffi Krikorian, and Danny Cohen. When it was invented, other names were being considered and, finally, it was named that way to differentiate it from “Internet2” or high-speed internet. The name was chosen to emphasize that it was a slow technology, but, at the same time, cheap and useful. It was coined for the first time during the development of the Media House Project developed by the Metapolis group and the MIT Media Lab inaugurated in Barcelona on September 25, 2001, and directed by Vicente Guallart and Neil Gershenfeld.

This system enables a ubiquitous computing platform, that is, it brings closer the concept of the Internet of Things, since, for example, in an office all objects could be subject to common control through Internet 0, which would be responsible for collecting information and showing it to the user in whose hand it would be to make the decision of what to do. In the prototype developed, things could be connected to each other based on a spatial structure, which included the physical structure, a data network and an electrical network.

In Internet 0, RFID tags are a physical package that is part of the network and the user can communicate with them by sharing data. In this way, information can be extracted and acted upon the extracted data.[68]​.

Guys

The Internet is a public service that is available to anyone in most countries. Initially, only scientists had access to the network.

The Internet is anonymous, meaning that people can access it without having to share their name.

Additionally, the Internet is accessible to anyone, regardless of age, education level, physical ability, or country of origin.

The network is global, allowing people to communicate with someone in another country in real time. Additionally, the Internet has unlimited growth, meaning it can grow without limits.

The Internet is decentralized, meaning there is no centralized control point or hierarchy that governs connections.

The connection between computers allows interpersonal communication, and the uses of the Internet are varied and useful. The speed of message transmission is so fast that it seems instant.

Intelligence

The Internet of Things will probably be "non-deterministic" and open network (cyberspace), in which self-organized intelligent entities (Web service, SOA components) or virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and capable of acting independently (pursuing their own or shared objectives), depending on the context, circumstances or environment. An ambient intelligence will be generated (built on Ubiquitous Computing).

Architecture

The system will likely be an example of "event-driven architecture",[69]​ built from the bottom up (based on the context of processes and operations, in real time) and will take into consideration any additional layers. Therefore, the event-oriented model and the functional approach will coexist with new models capable of dealing with exceptions and unusual evolution of processes (Multi-agent system, B-ADSC, etc.).

In an Internet of Things, the meaning of an event will not necessarily be based on deterministic or syntactic models. Possibly it is based on the context of the event itself: thus, it will also be a Semantic Web. Consequently, common rules that would not be able to handle all contexts or uses will not be strictly necessary: ​​some actors (services, components, avatars) will be self-referenced in a coordinated way and, if necessary, they would adapt to common rules (to predict something it would only be necessary to define a "global purpose", something that is not possible with any of the current approaches and rules).

Chaotic or complex system?

It is a system that works in open or closed semi-loops (that is, value chains, as long as they have a global purpose can be resolved), therefore, they will be considered and studied as a complex System due to the large number of different links and interactions between autonomous agents, and its ability to integrate new actors. At the global stage (full open loop), this will probably be seen as environmental chaos (as long as the systems always have purpose).

Temporal considerations

In this internet of objects is created from billions of parallel and simultaneous events, time will no longer be used as a common and linear dimension,[70]​ but will depend on the entity of the objects, processes, information system, etc. This Internet of Things will have to be based on massively parallel IT systems (parallel computing).

The Internet of Things is based on advanced connectivity of devices, systems and services covering a variety of protocols, domains and applications. It is expected to usher in automation in almost all fields, while enabling advanced applications such as smart environments*.*.

Distributed systems use groups of networked computers for the same computational goal but this has several common problems with concurrent and parallel systems, as these three fall into the field of scientific computing. Today, a large number of distributed system technologies along with hardware virtualization, service-oriented architecture, and autonomous and utility computing have led to the use of services to solve these problems.

Starting from both definitions, we observe that the relationship is that the Internet of Things facilitates the development of distributed systems due to all the progress that it has implied over time, which makes them more efficient. In addition, it allows you to have an application in almost all areas so you can use them in more environments than you could imagine.

Although the IoT provides us with many facilities today, if analyzed in detail, we can see that it is a very interesting tool and that it has a very high potential in the future, but in order for it to be fully exploited, certain problems must be resolved, which would be:

• - Security: Security presents a significant challenge for IoT implementations due to the lack of a common standard and architecture for its security. This is because it is not easy to guarantee the security and privacy of all the users involved since, being connected to the network, the information that is shared between the devices does not contain a standard so it is easy to obtain that information for people with the appropriate knowledge.

• - Energy: The devices used need to be always working, which generates greater electricity consumption, so companies that are dedicated to developing these devices have the challenge of optimizing consumption.

• - Connectivity: The connection of billions or trillions of smart devices represents a daunting problem for service providers when it comes to managing aspects of device failure, configuration, accounting, performance and security. That is why companies and everyone involved with this technology must analyze and develop techniques or protocols that allow optimizing the management of all the devices that are in operation at the moment.

As we observe, the future development of the IoT does not depend entirely on this, but on other technologies or technological advances, so it is necessary for the areas involved to cooperate with each other to have significant progress.

The concerns and problems around IoT have generated the belief among users and experts that big data structures such as the Internet of Things or data mining are inherently incompatible with privacy,[71]​ in addition to devices, where vulnerabilities in operating systems, wireless security protocols and applications are highly complex to protect security.[72]​ The writer Adam Greenfield") assures that these technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing the case of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of pedestrians who read said advertising.[73]​.

The Chartered Institute for IoT states that privacy issues arise as a result of the compilation of detailed data on the consumption behavior of individuals and neighbourhoods, to the creation of predictive models of energy, water and transport use. It is not difficult to imagine a future information system that contains detailed reporting about where citizens live, when they are home, when they will leave, or how often they watch television or use their washing machine.[74]​.

The Council of Internet of Things reveals the concept and dangers of a panopticon city – the big brother, by consolidating a form of government characterized by omniscient surveillance, the INTERNET OF THINGS would cause humans to lose control over detection and interaction with technological artifacts. Imagine if data from all social networks were combined with all location data, calls and SMS records from mobile phones; Now let's imagine combining all that data with data from the databases of retailers, credit agencies, voters, real estate transactions, etc. If all of today's data fragments were consolidated to create a coherent whole, this would create a powerful and uncontrollable panoptical society. The chances of such a society being established are high, as the world is becoming increasingly global and interconnected.[75]​.

The BBC raises one of the most notorious cases of data manipulation, Facebook shares fell nearly 7% after the publication of a series of journalistic investigations that claim that the consulting firm Cambridge Analytica improperly acquired information from 50 million users of the social network in the United States. This information was used to manipulate thousands of Americans and thus obtain voters. Cambridge Analytica managed to know what the content, topic and tone of a message should be to change the way of thinking of voters in an almost individualized way, but the company not only sent personalized advertising, but also developed fake news that it then replicated through social networks, blogs and media.[76]​.

Similarly, the BBC comments on the case that occurred with the Amazon voice assistant, a couple in Portland, Oregon, United States, used to joke about whether Alexa, the virtual assistant of Amazon's echo speaker, could be listening to their conversations... but the joke came to an end when they discovered that, indeed, the machine had recorded and also sent what they were talking about inside their house. Messages that actually reached one of the contacts in the phone book registered with Alexa, to which Amazon responded; - what has happened is a series of inopportune coincidences -.[77]​.

To address this issue, the Chartered Institute for IoT suggests that overall IoT infrastructure requires broad public support that can only be achieved through broad citizen engagement and action to help citizens. Understand the purpose and ramifications of the proposed developments. If this is not developed from the beginning, we can expect resistance from those who will ultimately be affected by these developments. Numerous smart energy projects in the United States and Europe have had to be abandoned because consumers did not trust the intentions of energy companies when installing smart meters in the home. However, there are cases of trust in the IoT such as the Oyster travel card for London transport, in which the consumer is incentivized to exchange their privacy for certain services and comforts, without ensuring that this organization deserves this trust.[74]​.

IoT applications and functionalities

IoT is used in a wide variety of fields, such as smart homes, smart cities, healthcare, agriculture, and industry. Functionalities include data collection, process automation, real-time decision making and improved operational efficiency.

The impact of IoT on society and industries

The IoT has a significant impact on society by improving the quality of life, increasing the efficiency of public services and enabling new business opportunities. In industries, IoT optimizes processes, reduces costs, improves productivity and facilitates data-based decision making.

Advantages and challenges of the internet of things

The advantages of IoT include automation, real-time connectivity, resource optimization, and improved productivity. However, challenges include cybersecurity, data privacy, device interoperability, and solution scalability.

Development and evolution of technologies

• - Connectivity: The development of connectivity technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and communication protocols such as MQTT and CoAP, have allowed the connection of IoT devices to the Internet efficiently.

• - Sensors and Actuators: The miniaturization and cost reduction of sensors and actuators have allowed their integration into a wide range of devices, from household appliances to vehicles and industrial equipment.

• - IoT Platforms: The emergence of IoT platforms, which provide tools for the development, management and analysis of data from connected devices, has facilitated the creation of complete IoT solutions.

• - Security: With the increase in connected devices, security has become a major concern. IoT-specific security technologies and standards have been developed to protect data integrity and privacy.

• - Edge Computing: To reduce latency and improve network efficiency, the concept of edge computing has been developed, where part of the data processing is performed on nearby devices (at the edge of the network), instead of sending all data to the cloud.

The future of the internet of things: trends and advances

Future IoT trends include the expansion of 5G for faster and more reliable connectivity, the rise of artificial intelligence and machine learning for data analysis, the adoption of more advanced security standards, and the integration of IoT with other emerging technologies such as augmented reality and cloud computing.

• - Applico").

• - Broadcom.

• - ioBridge.

• - Kynetx").

• - Llibelium").

• - National Instruments Control, data acquisition and embedded intelligence.

• - Nest Labs.

• - HC Technologies").

• - Google (Core IoT).

• - Sigfox.

• - Video about the Internet of Things.

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