religious architecture
Religious architecture was mainly represented by Nabataean temples, represented by various architectural models built to adapt to Nabataean worship rituals, most notably the Great Temple&action=edit&redlink=1 "Great Temple (Petra) (not yet written)") and the Temple of the Winged Lions").[18]
The Nabataeans built numerous places for religious practice and worship. Known as "high places", shrines, temples and altars were often open-air buildings located high on nearby mountains.[19] These places created throughout the Nabataean kingdom would be dedicated to the worship of the same god(s), and it would be the way in which they carried out the worship that would vary from site to site. The offering would range from material goods and food to live sacrifices of animals, and perhaps humans. The Nabataean kingdom can be considered divided into five religious regions, each with locations of religious importance: the Negev and Hejaz, the Hauran, central Jordan, southern Jordan, and finally northwestern Saudi Arabia.[20] All religious sites in those locations are now in varying states of preservation, making it difficult to know which deities would have been worshiped at each particular shrine, altar, or temple. It is also difficult to know the details of cult practices, meaning that only informed speculation can be made.[21][22].
Located about 40 km southwest of Beersheba is the city of Sobata, one of the main cities of the Nabataean kingdom. Very few archaeological remains have been found of any form of worship, of temples, sanctuaries or Nabataean altars. A small amount of evidence of Dushara worship has been found.[20][23].
The complex of buildings known as the Oboda Temple is located on the city's acropolis. The temple was built as a dedication to the deified Nabataean king Obodas I. The temple is located adjacent to the east of two other buildings: a Christian chapel and a second temple known as the "western temple". The temple dedicated to the cult of King Obodas was built of hard limestone in the year 9 BC. C. during the reign of Obodas II"). The temple is a tripartite building: it consists of a portico, a hall and an adytum; its general dimensions are .
The building was divided into four rooms. The first and second rooms were unequal subdivisions of the adytum (debir); The first room was the eastern room, which is the smaller of the two and measures . The second room was the western room and the largest of the two and a half rooms.
• - Archaeological remains in Avdat.
The third room was probably the vestibule (hekhal), an oblong shape that measured and is now completely covered by a Talus. The fourth room was the porch ('ulam) divided into two compartments, one facing west, measuring approximately , and the other facing east, divided by a wall of .[25] A worshiper would enter through the porch, which faces south, across the vestibule to the adytum rooms at the north end. The worshiper would then turn south to worship images of the deities placed in niches in the wall. The western room had two niches that may have housed images of two Nabataean gods, Allat and Dushura. The other room had a single, larger niche, where it is believed that the challenged image of Obodas the king would be worshiped. The temple was built to be his eternal resting place and the center of worship for his cult.[26].
Located 300 km from Petra, a unique Nabataean-style temple has been discovered there. The inscription on the lintel dates the temple after the fall of the Nabataean kingdom.[21].
• - Archaeological remains in Al-Rawwafah.
Mampsis (medieval Greek: Μάμψις) or Memphis (ancient Greek: ), today Mamshit (Hebrew: ; Arabic: ), currently in Israel, was an ancient Nabataean caravan stop and later a Byzantine city. In the Nabataean period, Mampsis was an important station on the Incense Route, which connected southern Arabia via Edom, the Arabah Valley and Ma'ale Akrabim), to Mediterranean ports, as well as to Jerusalem via Beersheba and Hebron. The city comprises and is the smallest but best restored ancient city in the Negev Desert. The once luxurious houses feature unusual architecture not found in any other Nabataean city.
The reconstructed city allows the visitor to get an idea of what Mampsis was like. Entire streets have survived intact and there are also large groups of Nabataean buildings with open rooms, courtyards and terraces. The stones are carefully carved and the arches that support the roof are very well built.
The Incense Route - Cities in the Negev Desert, including Mampsis, Haluza, Avdat and Shivta, were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in June 2005.[27].
• - Archaeological remains in Mampsis.
Located in southern Syria, Bostra was the northern capital of the Nabataean kingdom, with evidence of temples located at major intersections in the city. In the center of it there is a temple complex dedicated to Dushara-A'ra.[20] It is believed that A'ra was the god of the Nabataean kings and of the city of Bostra itself. The modern buildings make it difficult to find archaeological evidence of the Nabataean cult. An inscription that reads "This is the wall that... and the windows that Taymu bar... built for... Dushara and the rest of the gods of Bostra" is found in what is believed to be that temple.
Located north of Bostra, near Canatha, the settlement has three large temples, the largest dedicated to Baalshamin. The two smaller temples would be dedicated to unknown deities. One has an inscription to the local goddess, Seeia, and may have been used to worship her. The temple complex is not of Nabataean design, but is an amalgamation of architectural styles from the cultures of the northern Nabataean frontier.
Temples of similar style are located in Wadi Rumm, Dharih, Tannur and Qasrawet.[21].
Temples similar to those located near Petra in Wadi Rumm, Dharih, Tannur and Qasrawet. The Nabataean inscription indicates cults dedicated to Allat and Baalshamin.[21].
Jirbet et-Tannur, located in central Jordan is a temple, a "high place", arranged isolated on top of the summit of Jebal Tannur. It can only be accessed via a single steep staircase. The isolation of the sites may indicate that it was of great religious importance to the Nabataeans.[20] The entrance to the inner sanctuary of the temple is decorated with representations of vegetation, foliage and fruits. Glueck identifies them as representatives of the Syrian goddess Atargatis. The inner sanctuary decorated with images of fruits, fish, vegetation, rays, as well as representations of deities. Glueck attributes these iconography to the Mesopotamian storm god Hadad, but Tyche and Nike "Nike (mythology)") are also represented. Starckly notes that the only god named is Qos, the Edomite weather god. An inscription on a stele at the site names him as the god of Hurawa.[19][20]
Khirbet edh-Dharih.
Located 7 km south of Hurawa, the temple of Khirbet edh-Dharih") is surprisingly well preserved. The temple complex is surrounded by an outer and inner courtyard, with a paved path to the porticoes. There are also benches in the form of a theatron. The temple itself is divided into three sections, in a large open hall. From here is the cella, which was painted in rich and vibrant colors. At the back of the cella was the motab and betyl, a square podium flanked by stairs that was the seat of the divine. Despite its good condition, it is not known which god would have been worshiped here.[20].
Capital of the Nabataean kingdom since around 312 BC. C., the city was famous for its wonderful architecture carved into the rock. Located within the Shara Mountains), Dushara was the main male god accompanied by the female trinity Al-'Uzzá), Allat and Manāt.[19][22] In the city there is a stele dedicated to the Edomite god Qos. The Nabataeans worshiped pre-Islamic Arab gods and goddesses, along with deified kings such as Obodas I. The layout and design of the temples show the influence of Roman, Greek, Egyptian and Persian temple architecture. The "High Place" is located in high in the mountains surrounding Petra. Used as a place to offer gifts and sacrifice animals, perhaps humans, to the gods, the High Place consists of a pond for collecting water, two altars, and a large open courtyard.[22].
• - Archaeological remains in Al-Khazneh (the Treasury), Petra.
In this region is a temple with a 20 m long processional path leading to a courtyard overlooking Jebel Qalkha. The design of the betyls, as well as the remains of the offering, point to the possible worship of Dushara, perhaps even Jupiter.
Allat Temple. Rock shrine of Ayn esh-Shallaleh") located behind the temple of Allat. Betylos and cult niches to Dushara and Baalshamin.
Hegra (Arabic: ), now known as Mada'in Saleh[19][20] (Arabic: , romanized: Madāʼin Ṣāliḥ, lit. 'cities of Salih'),[28] is an archaeological site located in the area of al-'Ula within the province of Medina, in the historic Hejaz region, now Saudi Arabia. Most of the remains date from the Nabataean kingdom (century AD). The site constitutes the kingdom's southernmost settlement and its second largest city after Petra (now in Jordan), its capital city. Traces of Lihyanite and Roman occupation can also be found before and after Nabataean rule, respectively.
A ritual cult circle atop Jibel Ithlib Mountain rests on a rock outcrop. Around the site of Jibel Ithlib there are small betyls and niches for worship of other gods. The inscription "Lord of the Temple" may refer to Dushara. The Marseha cults are located here. Today Hegra is known as.
• - The lonely castle, Hegra, Saudi Arabia.
Public spaces
The monuments of Petra are a well-known example of this type of use of Nabataean architecture, with examples including all types of public buildings as well as private buildings. The architectural elements of the urban area of Petra were built according to a general urban design of the city, since the main streets were influenced by Roman urban plans. These places divided the city into two halves, both aligned with the valley; Nabataean engineers also built several sewer channels under the street floor.[33].
A little further from the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, there is a huge theater, arranged so that the greatest number of tombs can be seen. At the point where the valley opens onto the plain, the site of the city is revealed with surprising effect. The theater was dug into the hillside and several of the tombs during its construction. The rectangular gaps in the seats are still visible. Almost surrounding it on three sides are pink mountain walls, divided into groups by deep fissures and covered with protuberances carved into the rock in the shape of towers.[34] The theater was said to have capacity for about 8,500 people.[35] The performances that the public could attend would be poetry readings and dramas. Gladiator fights were also said to take place there and attract the majority of the audience, although no gladiators were able to gain fame due to the high mortality rate. The theater was one of many buildings in Petra that suffered significant damage due to the Galilee earthquake of 363.
The Petra Pool and Garden Complex are a series of buildings in the center of the city. Originally said to be a market area,[36] although excavations at the site have allowed scholars to identify it as an elaborate Nabataean garden, which included a large pool, an island-pavilion, and an intricate hydraulic system.[37][38][39]
In front of the pool and garden complex is the Colonnade Street, which is one of the few features of Petra that was built rather than carved from the natural rock. The street used to feature a semi-circular nymphaeum, which is now in ruins due to flash floods, and used to house Petra's only tree. It was intended to be a symbol of the peaceful atmosphere that the Nabataeans were able to build in Petra. Once the Romans took control of the city, the colonnaded street was narrowed to make room for a sidewalk and 72 columns were added to each side.[40].
Funerary architecture
Funerary monuments were represented by carved royal tombs and tombs built from carved stone. The Nabataeans paid great attention to their tombs, and this was reflected in their architecture, in which many architectural and artistic methods of respecting the dead were developed, suggesting the Nabataeans' interest in the afterlife. Among the most famous Nabataean monuments are the carved royal tombs. Several archaeological studies that have been carried out on them have concluded that the Nabataean engineer combined external influences from neighboring Arab and non-Arab civilizations with the Nabataean architectural style. Many of those tombs can be seen in different places in and around Petra, especially on the way before reaching the Siq. Among the famous funerary monuments of Petra are: the tomb of the Obelisk"), the tomb of the Urn") or the tomb of the Window").[41][42].
Nabataean tombs are primarily “rock-cut tombs.” They are created by directly carving into the landscape, traditionally rock (see: Rock-cut tombs in Israel.) entablatures of metopes and triglyphs, and capitals They were built to honor gods and leaders, as well as to house generations of a particular family. These tombs are usually found within the city. These tombs are simple in style but elaborate in function, often with steps, platforms, libation holes, cisterns, water channels, and sometimes banquet halls. springs, catchment ponds and canals.[43].
Crenellated tombs were also popular in Nabataean architecture. There are variations of the crenellation, changing the number of levels. Crenellated tombs were created to represent fortifications, creating a symbol of cities, strength, military power. Later, under the Achaemenid Persians, the fortification context was removed, giving greater scope to a sign of royalty and authority.
Several tombs have obelisks on the outside. Obelisks are narrow, tapering monuments, often used to represent the Nephesh), specific leaders and gods of monolithic societies. They are often found in Egyptian and Near Eastern architecture.
Tombs with detailed facades were also quite popular among the Nabataean community. There are a total of eight different types of facades[43] that offer the opportunity to understand the different stylistic typologies adopted by the Nabataeans:
• - with a simple trellis, where there are 7 small staggered decorations on the entrance door crowned by a corbel;.
• - double lattice, in which this decoration is duplicated in two different orders;.
• - with steps, the façade is simple but at the top there are 5 opposite steps that tend to widen, topped by a corbel;.
• - proto-Hegro in this case the steps are maintained but the decoration has two Nabataean style capitals on the sides with a corbel;.
• - Hegro, the style is more complex and the difference is a series of corbels;