The just energy transition focuses on ensuring that this transformation benefits all sectors of society, including, for example, workers and communities dependent on the fossil fuel industry.[13]​.

The term just transition has its origins in the context of debates about how to carry out an energy transition in order to meet the established environmental goals - for example, of the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda - without passing the cost on to the most vulnerable populations. Therefore, a just transition must, for example, seek ways to increase and complement energy and climate policy, while guaranteeing future employment opportunities for those who could be affected by the changes caused by its implementation.

One way to ensure that the energy transition is fair is social and environmental safeguards. Social and environmental safeguards are a set of policies, standards and procedures designed to identify, prevent, mitigate and minimize the negative impacts of projects, programs or policies on the environment and communities.[14]​.

They are applied in various areas, such as forest management, sustainable agriculture and infrastructure development, with the aim of guaranteeing sustainable development and protecting the rights of people and the environment.[15]​.

A good example of energy transition is the change from a pre-industrial system - based on traditional biomass "Biomass (energy)" and other renewable energy sources (wind, water and muscle power) - to an industrial system - characterized by widespread mechanization (steam power) and the use of coal. Market shares that reach pre-specified thresholds are generally used to characterize the speed of the transition (for example, from coal versus traditional biomass). In this sense, typical market share thresholds in the specialized literature are 1%, 10% for initial shares, and 50%, 90% and 99% for shares resulting after a transition.[16]​.

Regarding energy systems, we can learn many lessons from history.[17]​[18]​ The need for large quantities of firewood in early industrial processes, combined with the prohibitive costs of land transportation, led to a shortage of economically accessible wood. The glass factories of the century were thus found to function as forest-logging enterprises.[19]​ When Britain had to turn to coal after wood supplies were depleted, the resulting fuel crisis set off a series of events that two centuries later would culminate in the Industrial Revolution.[20][21] Likewise, the increasing use of peat and coal formed a vital element that paved the way for the Dutch Golden Age, which encompassed almost the entire century.[22] Another example, where resource depletion triggered technological innovation and a shift towards new energy sources, can be seen in the whaling of the century, which resulted in whale oil being eventually replaced by kerosene and other petroleum products.[23] Scientist Vaclav Smil[24]​ is the one who described historical energy transitions in greater depth. The contemporaries differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and management.

Technology has been identified as an important but unpredictable driver of change within energy systems.[25] Published forecasts have tended to systematically overestimate the potential of new energy and conversion technologies, and have underestimated inertia in energy systems and energy infrastructure (e.g. power plants, once built, typically operate for several decades). The history of large technical systems is very useful in enriching the debate on energy infrastructure by detailing many of its long-term implications.[26]​ The speed necessary for a transition to occur in the energy sector will be high, from a historical point of view.[27]​ Furthermore, it is vital that the underlying technological, political and economic structures change radically, through a process that one author called “regime change”.[28]​.

The term “energy transition” could also imply a reorientation of policies; which often occurs in the public debate on energy policy"). For example, it could involve a rebalancing of demand with respect to supply, as well as moving from centralized to distributed generation (e.g. heat and power generation in very small cogeneration units), which should replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy-saving measures and greater efficiency. In a broader sense, the energy transition could also involve a democratization of energy[29]​ or a trend towards greater sustainability").

In June 2018, at the G20 Summit in Argentina), the G20 Energy Ministers considered the approach that the Argentine G20 Presidency wanted to give to national contributions to be correct and applicable. The existence of different possible national paths was recognized, also following the concept of Nationally Determined Contributions in order to achieve cleaner energy systems - promoting sustainability, resilience and energy security - under the term "transitions" (plural). This vision reflects the fact that each member of the G20, depending on its level of development, has a unique and diverse energy matrix as a starting point, with different energy resources, demand dynamics, technologies, national capital, geographies and cultures.[30]​.

The emissions reductions needed to keep global warming below 2°C will require a system-wide transformation in how energy is produced, distributed, stored and consumed.[31]​ For a society to substitute one form of energy for another, multiple technologies and behaviors in the energy system must change.[32]​.

Many climate change mitigation pathways consider three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system:.

• - The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity.

• - Electrification, that is, greater use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels.

• - The accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures.

Rising energy consumption complicates the shift from fossil fuels to low-carbon energy sources. This is because new low-carbon energy must not only meet growing demand, but also replace the fossil fuels currently used in the energy mix.[33]​ According to the International Renewable Energy Agency, by 2050 the world must reduce its energy consumption by 6% compared to 2020 through a significant improvement in energy efficiency. Additionally, renewable energy sources should make up 77% of the global energy mix, up sharply from 16% in 2020.[34]​.

The most important energy sources in the low-carbon energy transition are wind energy and solar energy. They could reduce net emissions by 4 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year each, half of them with net lifetime costs below the baseline. [35]​Other renewable energy sources include bioenergy, geothermal energy and tidal energy, but they currently have higher net lifetime costs.[35]​.

Hydroelectric energy is the clean source that generates the most electricity in the world. According to data from the International Energy Agency (IEA), total production reached 4,354.1 TWh in 2022, which is more than the sum of all other renewables combined.[36]​However, due to its high dependence on geography and the generally high environmental and social impact of hydropower plants, the growth potential of this technology is limited.

Wind and solar energy are considered more scalable, but still require large amounts of land and materials. They have greater growth potential.[37]​These sources have grown almost exponentially in recent decades thanks to rapidly decreasing costs. In 2019, wind energy supplied 5.3% of the world's electricity, while solar energy supplied 2.6%.[38]​.

While the output of most types of hydropower plants can be actively controlled, the output of wind and solar energy depends on the climate. Electrical networks must be expanded and adjusted to avoid waste. Reservoired hydropower is a dispatchable source, while solar and wind are variable renewable energy sources.

These sources require dispatchable standby generation or energy storage to provide continuous, reliable electricity. For this reason, storage technologies also play a key role in the renewable energy transition. As of 2020, the largest scale storage technology is pumped hydroelectricity, which accounts for the vast majority of installed energy storage capacity worldwide. Other important forms of energy storage are electric batteries and energy-to-gas conversion.

The IEA's Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions report highlights the need to increase grid investments to more than $600 billion annually by 2030, up from $300 billion today, to accommodate the integration of renewable energy. By 2040, the grid will need to be expanded by more than 80 million kilometers to handle renewable sources, which are forecast to account for more than 80% of the increase in global energy capacity over the next two decades. Failure to improve grid infrastructure in time could result in an additional 58 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions by 2050, representing a significant risk of a 2°C global temperature rise.[39]​.

The main obstacles to the widespread application of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are considered to be primarily social and political, rather than technological or economic.[40]​ The main obstacles are: climate change denial, the fossil fuel lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure and financial constraints.[41]​.

With the integration of renewable energies, local electricity production is increasingly variable. The IPCC has recommended that "coupling sectors, energy storage, smart grids, demand management, sustainable biofuels, hydrogen electrolysis and derivatives will ultimately be necessary to accommodate large shares of renewables in energy systems."[35] Fluctuations can be smoothed out by combining wind and solar energy and extending electricity grids to large areas. This reduces dependence on local weather conditions.

With highly variable prices, electricity storage and grid expansion are more competitive. Researchers have found that "the costs to accommodate the integration of variable renewable energy sources into electricity systems are expected to be modest until 2030"[35]​ Furthermore, "it will be more difficult to supply the entire energy system with renewable energy."[35]​.

Rapid fluctuations increase with large integration of wind and solar energy. They can be met with operating reserves. Large-scale batteries can react in a matter of seconds and are increasingly used to keep the electrical grid stable.

One of the key issues to consider regarding the pace of the global transition to renewable energy is the ability of each electric company to adapt to the changing reality of the electricity sector. For example, to date, the adoption of renewable energy by electric utilities has been slow, hampered by their continued investment in fossil fuel generation capacity.[42]​.

The debate on the energy transition is greatly influenced by the fossil fuel industries. One way for oil companies to continue their work despite growing environmental, social and economic concerns is to put pressure on local and national governments.

The Energy Transition Index (ETI) was created by the World Economic Forum in collaboration with Accenture. The report assesses the current performance of the energy system of 120 countries in terms of sustainability, energy security and economic development. The 2024 edition of the Fostering Effective Energy Transition Report, launched by the World Economic Forum in collaboration with Accenture, points out that the 10 countries with the best results in the energy transition represent only 1% of global energy-related CO2 emissions, 3% of total energy supply, 3% of energy demand and 2% of the world's population.[43]​.

Contenido

La transición energética se fundamenta como una de las principales actuaciones de la UE para combatir el cambio climático.

En octubre de 2014, el Consejo Europeo acuerda el Marco 2030 de Energía y Clima estableciéndose un objetivo de reducción de Gases de efecto Invernadero de, al menos, un 40 % con relación a 1990. Para tal efecto, se incide en la necesidad de acelerar la transición energética y elevar la cuota de energía renovables por encima del 32 %, mejorar la eficiencia energética en al menos un 32,5 % y alcanzar un objetivo mínimo del 15 % de las interconexiones de electricidad en 2030.[44]​.

En diciembre de 2019, la presidencia de la Unión Europea propone la redacción del Pacto Verde Europeo. Este paquete de medidas incluye, entre otras cosas, iniciativas que atañen al sector de la energía.[45]​[46]​Para alcanzar dichos objetivos, la Unión Europea aprueba diferentes iniciativas legislativas relacionados con el uso de la energía y su apuesta por la descarbonización.

En diciembre de 2020, la UE acuerda incrementar el objetivo de reducción de GEI en 2030 hasta, al menos un 55 % respecto a 1990. Para conseguir estos objetivos ve necesario revisar gran parte de las normas europeas relativas a energía y clima y, es por ello que en el mes de julio de 2021 la Comisión Europea presenta un paquete de medidas denominado Fit for 55.[47]​.

En junio de 2021 la Unión Europea aprueba la Ley Europea del Clima, una ley de carácter vinculante para todos los Estados miembros. Esta ley crea el marco necesario para avanzar en la reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y para acelerar la transición energética asociada.

La guerra de Ucrania "Invasión rusa de Ucrania (2022-presente)") iniciada en 2022 y las consiguientes sanciones a Rusia, han impulsado nuevas políticas que buscan disminuir la dependencia del gas ruso potenciando el uso de energía procedente de fuentes renovables. En el caso de Europa, en mayo de 2022 se presentó el plan REPowerEU con el doble objetivo de poner fin a la dependencia de los países de la UE de los combustibles rusos, así como hacer frente a la crisis climática.[48]​.

State of the energy transition in Germany

An example of a transition to sustainable energy is Germany's shift (Energiewende, in German)[49] to decentralized renewable energy and energy efficiency). renewable energy by 2050.[51]​ As of 2018, the goals of the 2030 coalition include achieving 65% renewable energy in electricity production in Germany by 2030.[52]​.

The key policy document, which defines the energy transition or Energiewende, was published by the German government in September 2010, about six months before the Fukushima nuclear accident).[53] Legislative support was finalized in September 2010.

The most important aspects include:.

In addition, there will be an associated research and development drive.

This policy has been adopted by the German federal government, leading to a huge expansion of renewable energy, particularly wind energy. Germany's share of renewable energy has increased from around 5% in 1999 to 17% in 2010, reaching close to the OECD average of 18% for the use of renewable sources.[55] Producers were guaranteed a differential tariff for 20 years, which also ensures a fixed income. Energy cooperatives were created and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits. Large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewable energy market. Likewise, the old nuclear power plants were closed, and the nine reactors that are still operating will be closed in 2022, ahead of schedule.

Less dependence on nuclear stations brings with it greater dependence on fossil fuels. One of the factors that has prevented the efficient use of new energies has been the lack of complementary investment in electrical infrastructure to bring energy to the market. It is estimated that it is necessary to build or modernize 8,300 km of electricity evacuation lines.[55]​.

The various sectors") have different attitudes towards the construction of new power lines. Industry tariffs were frozen and thus the increased costs of the Energiewende were passed on to consumers, who have been receiving increasingly higher electricity bills. In 2013, Germans had one of the highest electricity costs in Europe.[56]​ However, for the first time in more than ten years, electricity prices for residential customers decreased at the beginning of 2015.[54]​.

Austria

Austria embarked on the energy transition (Energiewende) a few decades ago. Due to the geographical conditions of the country, energy production in Austria is highly dependent on renewable energy, in particular hydropower. In 2013, 78.4% of national production came from renewable energy, 9.2% from natural gas and 7.2% from oil (the rest from waste). According to the Federal Constitutional Act for a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Austria, there are no operating nuclear power plants in Austria. However, domestic energy production accounts for only 36% of Austria's total energy consumption, which includes, among other activities, transport, electricity production and heating. In 2013, oil accounted for approximately 36.2% of total energy consumption, renewables accounted for 29.8%, gas accounted for 20.6% and coal accounted for 9.7%. Over the past 20 years, the structure of gross domestic energy consumption has shifted from coal and oil to new renewable energies, particularly between 2005 and 2013 (+60%). The EU target for Austria requires a renewable energy share of 34% by 2020 (gross final energy consumption). Austria is on the right track to achieve this goal (32.5% in 2013). The energy transition in Austria can also be seen at the local level, in some villages, cities and regions. For example, the city of Güssing in the state of Burgenland is a pioneer in independent and sustainable energy production. Since 2005, Güssing has been generating higher levels of heating (58 GWh) and electricity (14 GWh) than the city needs, from renewable resources.[57]​.

State of the energy transition in Denmark

Denmark, as a country dependent on imported oil, was especially affected by the oil crisis of 1973. This sparked a public debate about building nuclear power plants to diversify energy supply. An important anti-nuclear movement gained strength, harshly criticizing the nuclear energy plans undertaken by the government. This eventually led to a resolution, issued in 1985, that banned the construction of nuclear power plants in Denmark. The country then opted for renewable energy, concentrating mainly on wind energy. Wind turbines already had a long history in Denmark since the end of the century. In 1974, a panel of experts stated "that it should be possible to satisfy 10% of the country's electricity demand with wind energy, without causing any particular technical problems for the public grid." Denmark undertook the development of large wind power stations, although with little success at first (as in the case of the Growian project in Germany).

Instead, small facilities that were often sold to private owners, such as farms, prevailed. Government policies encouraged its construction; and at the same time, positive geographical factors favored its proliferation, such as adequate wind energy density and decentralized settlement patterns in Denmark. The lack of administrative obstacles also played an important role. Small, robust systems, in the power range of only 50-60 kilowatts at first, were developed using 1940s technology and sometimes hand manufacturing by very small companies. A significant export trade developed in the late 1970s and 1980s to the United States, where wind energy also experienced an early boom. In 1986, Denmark already had approximately 1,200 wind turbines,[61]​ although they still accounted for just 1% of Denmark's electricity.[62]​ Over time, this share increased significantly. In 2011, renewable energy accounted for 41% of electricity consumption, with wind energy installations alone accounting for 28%. Denmark's Ministry of Climate, Energy and Construction published a four-page document called the "Danish Energy Agreement", which outlines the long-term principles that make up the country's energy policy.[65]​.

As of 2013, the installation of gas or oil heating was prohibited in new buildings; and as of 2016, the ban was extended to existing buildings. At the same time, a heater replacement assistance program was launched. Denmark's goal is to reduce its use of fossil fuels by 33% by 2020. The country is scheduled to be completely independent of oil and natural gas by 2050.[66]​.

State of the energy transition in Spain

In May 2021, Spain approves the Climate Change and Energy Transition Law that seeks to achieve, by 2030, a penetration of renewable energy in final energy consumption of at least 42%, an electrical system with at least 72% of energy production from renewable sources and an improvement in energy efficiency through the reduction of primary energy consumption by at least 35%.[67]​[68]​.

In the field of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the law proposes a reform of the electricity sector, electricity generation through public domain hydraulic power plants and mini-power plants, the modification of the Horizontal Property Law to facilitate photovoltaic installations for self-consumption and the promotion of the penetration of renewable gases such as biomethane, biogas or hydrogen.

To improve energy efficiency, a housing rehabilitation and urban renewal plan is planned; in terms of the transportation sector, mobility and sustainable transportation are promoted by promoting the use of electric vehicles and other green or renewable fuels such as hydrogen.

To respond to the needs set out in the Climate Change and Energy Transition Law, the government develops the instrument of the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan (PNIEC) and the Decarbonization Strategy to 2050.[69]​.

State of the energy transition in France

Since 2012, political debates have developed in France about the energy transition and how the French economy could benefit from it.[70]​.

In September 2012, Environment Minister Delphine Batho coined the term "ecological patriotism". The government initiated a roadmap to implement the energy transition in France. This plan would address the following questions by June 2013:[71]​.

• - How can France move towards energy efficiency and energy conservation? Reflections on modified lifestyles, changes in production, consumption and transportation.

• - How to achieve the energy mix by 2025? France's climate protection goals call for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030, and by 60% by 2040.

• - What renewable energies should France rely on? How should the use of wind and solar energy be promoted?

• - What costs and financing models would be necessary for advice on alternative energy and investment support? And which ones for research, renewal and expansion of urban heating, biomass and geothermal energy? One of the solutions could be to implement an extension of the CSPE (Contribution to the Rates of the Public Electricity Service), a tax charged on electricity bills.

On September 14 and 15, 2012, the Environmental Conference on Sustainable Development addressed the issue of energy transition and the environment as its main topic.[72]​.

On July 8, 2013, the leaders of the national debate presented some proposals to the government, such as environmental taxes and the development of smart grids, among others.[73]​.

In 2015, the National Assembly approved legislation to transition to low-emission vehicles.[74]​.

France is second only to Denmark in having the lowest carbon emissions in the world relative to gross domestic product.[75]​.

Argentina

Argentina's energy matrix is ​​highly dominated by fossil fuels, representing around 90% of its primary sources, with natural gas and oil as the main components.[76]​In comparison, its matrix is ​​more dependent on fossils than the world average and the Latin American average. Regarding the secondary matrix, more than 50% comes from natural gas and approximately 30% from liquid fuels.[77]​.

The country already experienced an internal transition from oil to gas after the 1980s, and today it is positioned as a possible global supplier of gas, a fuel that is presented as a transition within the framework of the global energy debate.[78]​.

At the political level, the Ministry of the Environment has made progress in planning towards 2050 with the National Plan for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change.[79]​However, the use of gas in the energy matrix is ​​maintained, which generates controversy.[78]​.

From the energy sector, two key documents were published in 2023: the "National Energy Transition Plan to 2030"[80]​and "Guidelines and Scenarios for the Energy Transition to 2050". The first follows the trend of fossil dependence with low incorporation of renewables by 2030, while the second document proposes strategies towards 2050 that include energy efficiency, national technologies, resilience, low-emission hydrogen, sustainable mobility, and a just transition.[78]​.

Bolivia

In 2006, Bolivia developed a National Strategic Development Plan that promoted the replacement of fossil fuels with natural gas, given its abundance.[81] This plan promoted the change from diesel to gas in industries and public transportation, in addition to the construction of thermoelectric plants. Although Bolivia now has a surplus of electrical energy that it seeks to export, the lack of exploration has begun to deplete gas reserves.[82] Faced with this situation, Bolivia has begun to implement renewable energy such as solar and wind, although in an incipient manner and without a defined plan, also relying on hydroelectric energy.[83]​.

Bolivia depends mainly on natural gas for primary energy, while for electricity generation it uses hydroelectric and gas-fired thermoelectric plants.[83]​The use of renewable energy is still incipient, although the country's geographical position offers potential for the development of solar and wind energy,[84]​as well as for the production of green hydrogen. The areas of the high plateau "Altiplano (Central Andes)") and the inter-Andean valleys, for example, receive high rates of solar radiation.[85]​.

Currently, 81% of Bolivia's primary energy comes from natural gas, followed by oil and its derivatives (12%), biomass "Biomass (energy)") (5%) and wind, solar and hydroelectric energy (2%).[84]​.

Although there are some renewable energy projects, such as solar and wind plants financed by international cooperation and state resources, the energy transition is advancing slowly. At the same time, the advance of biofuel production has had a negative impact on the Amazon, due to agricultural expansion. Furthermore, a large part of the country's energy resources are located in indigenous territories, which have not been included in inclusive energy development, despite legal commitments of prior consultation.[83]​.

The lithium from the Salar de Uyuni, estimated to be between 21 and 23 million tons, has put Bolivia in the focus of international powers interested in this key resource for the global energy transition.[86]​.

Brazil

In 2023, Brazil doubled its investment in renewable energy, reaching approximately $34 billion, according to the International Energy Agency report.[87] This positions Brazil among the countries with the highest investment in energy transition, according to Bloomberg NEF's Energy Transition Investment Trends 2024 report.[88]​.

According to the Energy Transition Index prepared by the World Economic Forum, Brazil is ranked twelfth among the countries best prepared for the transition, being the best positioned Latin American country and leading investment in clean energy among the great powers.[89]​.

According to the National Energy Balance 2024 of the Ministry of Mines and Energy "Ministry of Mines and Energy (Brazil)"), 49.1% of the domestic energy supply comes from renewable sources, while non-renewable sources represent 50.9%. Regarding the electrical matrix, 89.2% is made up of renewable energies, led by hydraulic energy (58.9%), followed by wind (13.2%) and solar (7%).[90]​.

It is expected that by 2050, the Brazilian energy matrix will significantly reduce the use of fossil fuels, with a share of more than 70% of renewable sources in all scenarios. Biomass will be key in this transformation, followed by wind and solar energy.[91]​.

Agriculture, forestry and other land uses are responsible for the majority of Brazilian GHG emissions, 73% of the total, playing a fundamental role in making the country's carbon neutrality goal viable.[92]​To achieve carbon neutrality in 2050, Brazil must eliminate illegal deforestation before 2028, since otherwise it would be unfeasible to achieve this goal.[91]​.

Chili

Chile has accelerated its energy transition in recent years thanks to broad political support, public-private partnerships and innovative green technologies. It has set the ambitious goal of converting 70% of its total energy consumption to renewable energy by 2030 and has committed to being carbon neutral by 2050.[93]​During the year 2023, 37% of the energy generated in Chile came from non-conventional renewable energy sources.[94]​.

Following the creation of the Ministry of Energy "Ministerio de Energía (Chile)") in 2010, a national energy roadmap was established, and citizen consultations were carried out with the purpose of planning and promoting energy efficiency in the country. Following this line, in 2016 a National Electromobility Strategy was established, which aims to electrify all urban public transport by 2040 and that by 2050, 40 percent of the private transport fleet will be electric vehicles.[95]​.

Given the hydrography of Chile, the use of renewable energy in the country has been mainly concentrated in the production of hydraulic energy for the generation of electricity. The country has 68 hydroelectric plants.

On the other hand, the Atacama Desert located in the north of Chile has proven to be the place with the highest solar radiation on the planet, representing a great opportunity for the photovoltaic energy industry in the country. In 2012, the Government of Chile began a public consultation to develop the regulatory framework for the use and generation of electricity from renewable energies in the country. This led to President Sebastián Piñera creating "Law 20,571" or Citizen Generation Law enacted on March 22, 2014, which granted the right to every Chilean citizen to self-generate electrical energy for their own consumption (photovoltaic self-consumption in this case) and to be able to sell the surpluses produced to electricity supply companies. Chile has more than 30 solar parks.[96]​.

The location of Chile with respect to the South Pacific anticyclone and the morphology of its extensive coastline are determining factors for the development of energy generation facilities from wind resources. The first wind farms in Chile were installed in the early years of the 2000s. In 2001, the Alto Baguales wind farm came into service, initially with a generation of 2MW.36 In 2017, Chile had an installed power of 1,426 MW, (4.7% of the total energy generated in the country), contributed by 651 operational wind turbines. Currently, Chile is one of the main producers of wind energy in the region, after Brazil and Mexico.

Colombia

The energy transition in Colombia has been a gradual process that began with two key regulatory acts: Decree 2811 of 1974, which created the National Code of Renewable Natural Resources,[97]​and Law 99 of 1993, which established the General Environmental Law.[98]​This approach was strengthened in 1994 with Law 164, which approved Colombia's participation in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Climate, promoting the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the exploration of sustainable energies.[99]​.

In 2001, the Program for the Rational and Efficient Use of Energy (PROURE) was created to promote the use of non-conventional sources of renewable energy such as biomass, wind, solar and geothermal.[100]​However, it was not until 2015-2016, following an energy crisis caused by a climate phenomenon, that the government began to seriously address the need for an energy transition.[101]​.

Colombia has formulated more than 30 legislative acts related to the energy transition, of which 29 are in force. The most important is Law 1715 of 2014, which regulates the integration of non-conventional renewable energies into the national energy system. Despite these advances, in 2020 fossil fuels, such as oil (40%), natural gas (26%) and coal (11%), continued to be predominant in Colombia's energy supply.[101]​.

In the electricity subsector, hydroelectric energy represented 65% of electricity generation in 2020. Regarding energy demand, the transportation sector was the largest consumer (35%), with 96% of its energy coming from fossil fuels. Industry was the second largest consumer (26%), mainly using natural gas (29%) and coal (28%), while the residential sector consumed 21%, highlighting firewood (37%), electric energy (35%) and natural gas (20%)[101]​.

In 2022, the update of the National Energy Plan (2022-2050) was published, the objective of which is to identify technological alternatives in energy production and consumption and evaluate their impacts on supply, competitiveness, sustainability, public finances and the country's economy. The document contemplates four possible scenarios to transform the Colombian energy system, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and increasing the participation of renewable energies: updating, modernization, inflection and disruption.[102]​.

Costa Rica

Costa Rica has made significant progress in its decarbonization and energy transition process, making the political decision to prohibit the fossil fuel extractive industry through a moratorium until 2050, established in Executive Decree 36693-MINAET.[103]​From 2015 to 2022, the country has generated more than 98% of its electricity from renewable sources, mainly hydroelectric, without resorting to coal or gas power plants natural.[104]​.

The National Decarbonization Plan establishes objectives to gradually eliminate fossil fuels and achieve an economy with net zero emissions by 2050.[105]​Despite these advances, fossil fuels continue to dominate the country's energy supply, especially in the transportation sector, which consumes 54% of the energy, driven by petroleum derivatives.[106]​.

In 2022, hydroelectric energy contributed 73% of electricity generation, followed by geothermal (13.6%) and wind (11.5%), while thermal plants contributed only 0.8%.[107]​One of Costa Rica's challenges is eliminating seasonal thermal backup that relies on fossil fuels during the dry season, which requires the development of large-scale storage technologies.[106]​.

Regarding electromobility, Law No. 9518 of 2018 promoted electric transportation, exempting taxes for the import of electric vehicles and facilitating the creation of a network of fast chargers throughout the country.[108] This has encouraged the use of electric vehicles, with an average growth of 94% between 2018 and 2022, compared to 12% in the previous period. (2013-2017).[109]​.

Despite these advances, the industrial sector remains a challenge, since it still depends on fossil fuels, such as subsidized bunkering, which slows down decarbonization in this area.[106]​.

Ecuador

Ecuador still has a great economic dependence on hydrocarbons, given that the extraction of oil, natural gas and related service activities represent 3.8% of the country's gross domestic product.[110]​Meanwhile, oil is Ecuador's main export product, with exports equivalent to a total of USD 10,013.12 million in 2022.[111]​.

Regarding generation, currently 75.05% of Ecuador's total electricity production comes from renewable sources, which are made up of hydroelectric, photovoltaic, wind and thermoelectric plants that consume biomass and biogas. On the other hand, 23.55% of the energy generated was produced through fossil fuels.[112]​.

Mexico

Mexico has implemented several laws and reforms to promote the energy transition towards the use of clean energy, such as the Energy Transition Law of 2015, the General Climate Change Law of 2012 and the Electrical Industry Law of 2022. These regulations establish public policies, strategies and mechanisms to regulate and promote the sustainable use of energy, reduce polluting emissions, and guarantee a universal electrical service based on clean energy.

Despite this legal framework, Mexico faces several significant challenges in its energy transition. One of the main challenges is financial, since the transition implies a fundamental change in the generation and use of energy, affecting public finances at both the federal and state levels. This change, aimed at decarbonization, negatively impacts budget revenues, since an increase in energy expenditure for clean energy is required.[113]​.

Another challenge is the nationalization of the energy sector, which has slowed the adoption of clean and efficient energy technologies and resources. In addition, the country has a deficit in infrastructure, especially in electrical energy storage systems, which compromises energy security and increases intermittency in supply.[114]​.

Mexico's energy sector is 89.1% dependent on fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal, contributing to more than two-thirds of global greenhouse gas emissions.[115]​Although Mexico has abundant renewable resource potential (solar, wind, geothermal and biomass), the infrastructure and institutional architecture have not facilitated its rapid integration into the energy matrix.[116]​.

Panama

Panama is characterized by being one of the rainiest countries in the world, which, among other variables, has allowed it to currently have around 97% renewable energy in its electricity generation matrix, mainly hydroelectric. However, reliance on hydroelectricity also presents challenges, such as rainfall variability influenced by climate phenomena such as El Niño ("El Niño (phenomenon)") and La Niña "La Niña (phenomenon)"), and the effects of climate change, which could increase the frequency of extreme events such as floods and droughts.[117]​.

To mitigate these risks, Panama has implemented a policy of diversification of its energy matrix, formalized in the Energy Transition Agenda (ATE) approved in 2020. This agenda seeks to increase the use of non-hydroelectric renewable energies, such as wind and solar energy, which went from almost zero in 2015 to representing 8.9% of electricity generation in 2021. In addition, the ATE promotes the insertion of electric mobility, access to modern energy, and the modernization of the electrical sector.[117]​.

By 2021, Panama already exceeded the regional average in the use of renewable energy, with 69% in the last four years, compared to 58% in the region.[118]​At COP26, the country committed to maintaining at least a 70.4% share of renewable energy in its electrical matrix by 2030.[119]​.

Despite these advances, Panama remains highly dependent on fossil fuels, especially in the transportation sector, where diesel and gasoline represented more than 59% of energy consumption in 2020. This dependence is aggravated by the need to import oil and gas, which exposes the country to the volatility of international prices.[117]​.

Despite these advances, Panama remains highly dependent on fossil fuels, especially in the transportation sector, where diesel and gasoline represented more than 59% of energy consumption in 2020. This dependence is aggravated by the need to import oil and gas, which exposes the country to the volatility of international prices.[117]​.

Paraguay

Paraguay is one of the countries with the cleanest electricity production in the world, sharing this distinction with Albania, according to the World Economic Forum.[120]​99.9% of electricity generation in Paraguay comes from sources that do not emit carbon dioxide, standing out for its high production of hydroelectricity per capita globally, mainly thanks to its two large binational dams: Itaipú and Yacyretá.[121]​.

Paraguay's electrical system is based almost exclusively on the generation of energy from hydropower, a renewable and non-polluting source. However, there is a disparity in their energy matrix. While the energy supply is predominantly renewable (47% hydropower and 33% biomass), energy consumption is significantly based on biomass (44.2%) and hydrocarbons (40.1%), which are polluting and completely imported.[122]​.

Peru

The increase in demand for minerals such as copper as a consequence of the global energy transition has meant a great opportunity for Peru, whose economy depends largely on mining.[123]​However, this also poses challenges due to the socio-environmental conflicts associated with mining, which represent 37.3% of the total conflicts in the country, according to the Ombudsman's Office.[124]​.

Electricity generation in Peru continues to depend largely on fossil fuels. In 2023, 53% of energy came from hydrocarbon-based thermoelectric plants,[125]​and only 8.2% of national energy is generated by non-conventional renewable sources, such as wind, solar and biogas.[126]​.

Renewable energy plants are distributed in 12 departments of Peru, mainly on the coast and the Andes, with no presence in the Amazon regions "Amazon Department (Peru)"), where access to electricity remains limited.[127]​.

Uruguay

Uruguay has an ideal location for the generation of solar, wind and hydraulic energy due to its peninsular landscape and hundreds of kilometers of ocean and river coastline. Without resources such as gas, oil or coal, between 2008 and 2009 Uruguay faced supply problems and high costs in energy production, due to the global increase in fuel prices.[128]​.

In 2010, Uruguay reached a multiparty agreement and adopted the energy transition towards indigenous and renewable sources as a state policy, guaranteeing its execution and continuity. The first stage of the energy transition meant more than US$8 billion of public-private investment. The transformation was carried out with a model in which the public sector had a role as coordinator of the system and administrator of the auction scheme, which provided certainty to national and international private investors.[128]​.

As a consequence of the implementation of this national strategy, Uruguay achieved the decarbonization of electrical energy generation in a short term. On average, renewables represented 93% of the electricity matrix between 2018 and 2022 (53% wind, solar and biomass and 40% hydroelectric), significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector.[129]​.

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) highlighted the Uruguayan model and highlighted the system of calls made by the National Administration of Electric Power Plants and Transmissions (UTE), as examples to follow in its guide for the design of auctions. Private participation was highlighted through promotion schemes without depending on direct subsidies.[129]​.

In 2019, the International Energy Agency (IEA) rated Uruguay as the leader in Latin America in energy production and fourth in the world in terms of levels of electricity generation with wind and solar sources.[130]​According to the United States International Trade Administration, it is one of the most sustainable countries in the world.[131]​.

In 2022, the energy supply reached 5,669 ktoe, which represented a historical record for the country with an increase of 27% compared to 2012 levels. The increase in energy generation was accompanied by a change in the composition of the total energy matrix. Energy from fossil sources significantly reduced its participation in the total supply, going from 60% in 2012 to 40% in the 2018-2022 average.[128]​In contrast, biomass, wind and solar energy increased their relative importance. In 2022 the shares were 39%, 9% and 1% respectively, while in 2012 neither wind nor solar energy contributed to production. Hydraulic energy decreased the weight in the supply; It went from 16% between 2002-2012 to 10% between 2018-2022 (9% in 2022).[128]​.

Renewable energies represented 56% of the total energy matrix in 2022 (while in 2012 they were only 38%), an excellent number by international parameters. Regarding imports of electrical energy, they have systematically decreased in recent times and are currently of very little relevance within the country's supply matrix.[128]​.

Venezuela

Venezuela is one of the Latin American countries furthest behind in the adoption of clean energy. Despite the objectives set a decade ago to adapt to climate change and increase the use of renewable sources, less than 1% of its electricity consumption comes from solar or wind energy.

In 1999, Venezuelan electricity generation was dominated by hydroelectric sources (75.14%) and thermoelectric plants (24.86%).[132] By 2010, hydroelectric plants still represented 66% of generation, while thermoelectric plants, which use gas, diesel and fuel oil, reached 34%. However, the contribution of non-conventional renewable energies, such as solar and wind, remained marginal, at less than 1%.[133]​.

The most recent data from 2014 indicate a setback in Venezuela's energy transition. Thermoelectric plants began to represent 50.80% of the installed electrical capacity, while hydroelectric plants decreased to 48.84%. Solar and wind energy combined barely represented 0.36% of the country's installed capacity.

Oil remains crucial for Venezuela, contributing almost 60% of the national budget.[132]​The majority of companies in the country (80.50%) used gasoline or diesel thermoelectric plants as an alternative source of energy in 2023, while 9% of companies had power plants powered by natural gas.[134]​.

Japan

On September 14, 2012, the Japanese government decided, at a ministerial meeting in Tokyo, to eliminate nuclear energy by the 2030s or 2040s at the latest. The government said it would take "all possible measures" to achieve this goal.[135] A few days later, it suspended its planned nuclear phase-out after industry pressure to reconsider the issue. The arguments raised pointed out that the elimination of nuclear energy would be a burden on the economy, and that imports of oil, coal and gas would entail high additional costs. The government approved the energy transition, but left open the deadline for the closure of nuclear power plants.

United Kingdom

The UK has focused primarily on wind energy, both onshore and offshore, and particularly promotes generation of the latter. With an installed capacity of 18.8 GW at the end of 2017, Great Britain is one of the leaders globally, ranking sixth, after China, the United States, Germany, India and Spain. Initially it was promoted with a quota system, but the expansion objectives were not met in various instances. This led the government to implement, instead, a differential rate.[136]​.

USA

The Obama administration "made a great effort to boost green jobs", particularly in its first term.[137]​.

In the United States, the share of renewable energy (excluding hydropower) in electricity generation has increased from 3.3 percent (1990) to 5.5 percent (2013).[138]​ Oil use will decline in the US due to the increasing efficiency of the vehicle fleet and the replacement of crude oil with natural gas as a feedstock for the petrochemical sector. One forecast is that the rapid uptake of electric vehicles will dramatically reduce oil demand, to the point that it is 80% lower in 2050 compared to today.[139]​.

In December 2016, Block Island became the first commercial offshore wind farm in the US. It consists of five 6 MW wind turbines (30 MW together) located in the Atlantic Ocean, close to the coast (6.1 km from Block Island, Rhode Island). At the same time, Statoil, the Norway-based oil company, spent almost $42.5 million leasing an extensive coastal area of York.[140]​.

The just energy transition focuses on ensuring that this transformation benefits all sectors of society, including, for example, workers and communities dependent on the fossil fuel industry.[13]​.

The term just transition has its origins in the context of debates about how to carry out an energy transition in order to meet the established environmental goals - for example, of the Paris Agreement and the 2030 Agenda - without passing the cost on to the most vulnerable populations. Therefore, a just transition must, for example, seek ways to increase and complement energy and climate policy, while guaranteeing future employment opportunities for those who could be affected by the changes caused by its implementation.

One way to ensure that the energy transition is fair is social and environmental safeguards. Social and environmental safeguards are a set of policies, standards and procedures designed to identify, prevent, mitigate and minimize the negative impacts of projects, programs or policies on the environment and communities.[14]​.

They are applied in various areas, such as forest management, sustainable agriculture and infrastructure development, with the aim of guaranteeing sustainable development and protecting the rights of people and the environment.[15]​.

A good example of energy transition is the change from a pre-industrial system - based on traditional biomass "Biomass (energy)" and other renewable energy sources (wind, water and muscle power) - to an industrial system - characterized by widespread mechanization (steam power) and the use of coal. Market shares that reach pre-specified thresholds are generally used to characterize the speed of the transition (for example, from coal versus traditional biomass). In this sense, typical market share thresholds in the specialized literature are 1%, 10% for initial shares, and 50%, 90% and 99% for shares resulting after a transition.[16]​.

Regarding energy systems, we can learn many lessons from history.[17]​[18]​ The need for large quantities of firewood in early industrial processes, combined with the prohibitive costs of land transportation, led to a shortage of economically accessible wood. The glass factories of the century were thus found to function as forest-logging enterprises.[19]​ When Britain had to turn to coal after wood supplies were depleted, the resulting fuel crisis set off a series of events that two centuries later would culminate in the Industrial Revolution.[20][21] Likewise, the increasing use of peat and coal formed a vital element that paved the way for the Dutch Golden Age, which encompassed almost the entire century.[22] Another example, where resource depletion triggered technological innovation and a shift towards new energy sources, can be seen in the whaling of the century, which resulted in whale oil being eventually replaced by kerosene and other petroleum products.[23] Scientist Vaclav Smil[24]​ is the one who described historical energy transitions in greater depth. The contemporaries differ in terms of motivation and objectives, drivers and management.

Technology has been identified as an important but unpredictable driver of change within energy systems.[25] Published forecasts have tended to systematically overestimate the potential of new energy and conversion technologies, and have underestimated inertia in energy systems and energy infrastructure (e.g. power plants, once built, typically operate for several decades). The history of large technical systems is very useful in enriching the debate on energy infrastructure by detailing many of its long-term implications.[26]​ The speed necessary for a transition to occur in the energy sector will be high, from a historical point of view.[27]​ Furthermore, it is vital that the underlying technological, political and economic structures change radically, through a process that one author called “regime change”.[28]​.

The term “energy transition” could also imply a reorientation of policies; which often occurs in the public debate on energy policy"). For example, it could involve a rebalancing of demand with respect to supply, as well as moving from centralized to distributed generation (e.g. heat and power generation in very small cogeneration units), which should replace overproduction and avoidable energy consumption with energy-saving measures and greater efficiency. In a broader sense, the energy transition could also involve a democratization of energy[29]​ or a trend towards greater sustainability").

In June 2018, at the G20 Summit in Argentina), the G20 Energy Ministers considered the approach that the Argentine G20 Presidency wanted to give to national contributions to be correct and applicable. The existence of different possible national paths was recognized, also following the concept of Nationally Determined Contributions in order to achieve cleaner energy systems - promoting sustainability, resilience and energy security - under the term "transitions" (plural). This vision reflects the fact that each member of the G20, depending on its level of development, has a unique and diverse energy matrix as a starting point, with different energy resources, demand dynamics, technologies, national capital, geographies and cultures.[30]​.

The emissions reductions needed to keep global warming below 2°C will require a system-wide transformation in how energy is produced, distributed, stored and consumed.[31]​ For a society to substitute one form of energy for another, multiple technologies and behaviors in the energy system must change.[32]​.

Many climate change mitigation pathways consider three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system:.

• - The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity.

• - Electrification, that is, greater use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels.

• - The accelerated adoption of energy efficiency measures.

Rising energy consumption complicates the shift from fossil fuels to low-carbon energy sources. This is because new low-carbon energy must not only meet growing demand, but also replace the fossil fuels currently used in the energy mix.[33]​ According to the International Renewable Energy Agency, by 2050 the world must reduce its energy consumption by 6% compared to 2020 through a significant improvement in energy efficiency. Additionally, renewable energy sources should make up 77% of the global energy mix, up sharply from 16% in 2020.[34]​.

The most important energy sources in the low-carbon energy transition are wind energy and solar energy. They could reduce net emissions by 4 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent per year each, half of them with net lifetime costs below the baseline. [35]​Other renewable energy sources include bioenergy, geothermal energy and tidal energy, but they currently have higher net lifetime costs.[35]​.

Hydroelectric energy is the clean source that generates the most electricity in the world. According to data from the International Energy Agency (IEA), total production reached 4,354.1 TWh in 2022, which is more than the sum of all other renewables combined.[36]​However, due to its high dependence on geography and the generally high environmental and social impact of hydropower plants, the growth potential of this technology is limited.

Wind and solar energy are considered more scalable, but still require large amounts of land and materials. They have greater growth potential.[37]​These sources have grown almost exponentially in recent decades thanks to rapidly decreasing costs. In 2019, wind energy supplied 5.3% of the world's electricity, while solar energy supplied 2.6%.[38]​.

While the output of most types of hydropower plants can be actively controlled, the output of wind and solar energy depends on the climate. Electrical networks must be expanded and adjusted to avoid waste. Reservoired hydropower is a dispatchable source, while solar and wind are variable renewable energy sources.

These sources require dispatchable standby generation or energy storage to provide continuous, reliable electricity. For this reason, storage technologies also play a key role in the renewable energy transition. As of 2020, the largest scale storage technology is pumped hydroelectricity, which accounts for the vast majority of installed energy storage capacity worldwide. Other important forms of energy storage are electric batteries and energy-to-gas conversion.

The IEA's Electricity Grids and Secure Energy Transitions report highlights the need to increase grid investments to more than $600 billion annually by 2030, up from $300 billion today, to accommodate the integration of renewable energy. By 2040, the grid will need to be expanded by more than 80 million kilometers to handle renewable sources, which are forecast to account for more than 80% of the increase in global energy capacity over the next two decades. Failure to improve grid infrastructure in time could result in an additional 58 gigatonnes of CO2 emissions by 2050, representing a significant risk of a 2°C global temperature rise.[39]​.

The main obstacles to the widespread application of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are considered to be primarily social and political, rather than technological or economic.[40]​ The main obstacles are: climate change denial, the fossil fuel lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure and financial constraints.[41]​.

With the integration of renewable energies, local electricity production is increasingly variable. The IPCC has recommended that "coupling sectors, energy storage, smart grids, demand management, sustainable biofuels, hydrogen electrolysis and derivatives will ultimately be necessary to accommodate large shares of renewables in energy systems."[35] Fluctuations can be smoothed out by combining wind and solar energy and extending electricity grids to large areas. This reduces dependence on local weather conditions.

With highly variable prices, electricity storage and grid expansion are more competitive. Researchers have found that "the costs to accommodate the integration of variable renewable energy sources into electricity systems are expected to be modest until 2030"[35]​ Furthermore, "it will be more difficult to supply the entire energy system with renewable energy."[35]​.

Rapid fluctuations increase with large integration of wind and solar energy. They can be met with operating reserves. Large-scale batteries can react in a matter of seconds and are increasingly used to keep the electrical grid stable.

One of the key issues to consider regarding the pace of the global transition to renewable energy is the ability of each electric company to adapt to the changing reality of the electricity sector. For example, to date, the adoption of renewable energy by electric utilities has been slow, hampered by their continued investment in fossil fuel generation capacity.[42]​.

The debate on the energy transition is greatly influenced by the fossil fuel industries. One way for oil companies to continue their work despite growing environmental, social and economic concerns is to put pressure on local and national governments.

The Energy Transition Index (ETI) was created by the World Economic Forum in collaboration with Accenture. The report assesses the current performance of the energy system of 120 countries in terms of sustainability, energy security and economic development. The 2024 edition of the Fostering Effective Energy Transition Report, launched by the World Economic Forum in collaboration with Accenture, points out that the 10 countries with the best results in the energy transition represent only 1% of global energy-related CO2 emissions, 3% of total energy supply, 3% of energy demand and 2% of the world's population.[43]​.

Contenido

La transición energética se fundamenta como una de las principales actuaciones de la UE para combatir el cambio climático.

En octubre de 2014, el Consejo Europeo acuerda el Marco 2030 de Energía y Clima estableciéndose un objetivo de reducción de Gases de efecto Invernadero de, al menos, un 40 % con relación a 1990. Para tal efecto, se incide en la necesidad de acelerar la transición energética y elevar la cuota de energía renovables por encima del 32 %, mejorar la eficiencia energética en al menos un 32,5 % y alcanzar un objetivo mínimo del 15 % de las interconexiones de electricidad en 2030.[44]​.

En diciembre de 2019, la presidencia de la Unión Europea propone la redacción del Pacto Verde Europeo. Este paquete de medidas incluye, entre otras cosas, iniciativas que atañen al sector de la energía.[45]​[46]​Para alcanzar dichos objetivos, la Unión Europea aprueba diferentes iniciativas legislativas relacionados con el uso de la energía y su apuesta por la descarbonización.

En diciembre de 2020, la UE acuerda incrementar el objetivo de reducción de GEI en 2030 hasta, al menos un 55 % respecto a 1990. Para conseguir estos objetivos ve necesario revisar gran parte de las normas europeas relativas a energía y clima y, es por ello que en el mes de julio de 2021 la Comisión Europea presenta un paquete de medidas denominado Fit for 55.[47]​.

En junio de 2021 la Unión Europea aprueba la Ley Europea del Clima, una ley de carácter vinculante para todos los Estados miembros. Esta ley crea el marco necesario para avanzar en la reducción de las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero y para acelerar la transición energética asociada.

La guerra de Ucrania "Invasión rusa de Ucrania (2022-presente)") iniciada en 2022 y las consiguientes sanciones a Rusia, han impulsado nuevas políticas que buscan disminuir la dependencia del gas ruso potenciando el uso de energía procedente de fuentes renovables. En el caso de Europa, en mayo de 2022 se presentó el plan REPowerEU con el doble objetivo de poner fin a la dependencia de los países de la UE de los combustibles rusos, así como hacer frente a la crisis climática.[48]​.

State of the energy transition in Germany

An example of a transition to sustainable energy is Germany's shift (Energiewende, in German)[49] to decentralized renewable energy and energy efficiency). renewable energy by 2050.[51]​ As of 2018, the goals of the 2030 coalition include achieving 65% renewable energy in electricity production in Germany by 2030.[52]​.

The key policy document, which defines the energy transition or Energiewende, was published by the German government in September 2010, about six months before the Fukushima nuclear accident).[53] Legislative support was finalized in September 2010.

The most important aspects include:.

In addition, there will be an associated research and development drive.

This policy has been adopted by the German federal government, leading to a huge expansion of renewable energy, particularly wind energy. Germany's share of renewable energy has increased from around 5% in 1999 to 17% in 2010, reaching close to the OECD average of 18% for the use of renewable sources.[55] Producers were guaranteed a differential tariff for 20 years, which also ensures a fixed income. Energy cooperatives were created and efforts were made to decentralize control and profits. Large energy companies have a disproportionately small share of the renewable energy market. Likewise, the old nuclear power plants were closed, and the nine reactors that are still operating will be closed in 2022, ahead of schedule.

Less dependence on nuclear stations brings with it greater dependence on fossil fuels. One of the factors that has prevented the efficient use of new energies has been the lack of complementary investment in electrical infrastructure to bring energy to the market. It is estimated that it is necessary to build or modernize 8,300 km of electricity evacuation lines.[55]​.

The various sectors") have different attitudes towards the construction of new power lines. Industry tariffs were frozen and thus the increased costs of the Energiewende were passed on to consumers, who have been receiving increasingly higher electricity bills. In 2013, Germans had one of the highest electricity costs in Europe.[56]​ However, for the first time in more than ten years, electricity prices for residential customers decreased at the beginning of 2015.[54]​.

Austria

Austria embarked on the energy transition (Energiewende) a few decades ago. Due to the geographical conditions of the country, energy production in Austria is highly dependent on renewable energy, in particular hydropower. In 2013, 78.4% of national production came from renewable energy, 9.2% from natural gas and 7.2% from oil (the rest from waste). According to the Federal Constitutional Act for a Nuclear-Weapon-Free Austria, there are no operating nuclear power plants in Austria. However, domestic energy production accounts for only 36% of Austria's total energy consumption, which includes, among other activities, transport, electricity production and heating. In 2013, oil accounted for approximately 36.2% of total energy consumption, renewables accounted for 29.8%, gas accounted for 20.6% and coal accounted for 9.7%. Over the past 20 years, the structure of gross domestic energy consumption has shifted from coal and oil to new renewable energies, particularly between 2005 and 2013 (+60%). The EU target for Austria requires a renewable energy share of 34% by 2020 (gross final energy consumption). Austria is on the right track to achieve this goal (32.5% in 2013). The energy transition in Austria can also be seen at the local level, in some villages, cities and regions. For example, the city of Güssing in the state of Burgenland is a pioneer in independent and sustainable energy production. Since 2005, Güssing has been generating higher levels of heating (58 GWh) and electricity (14 GWh) than the city needs, from renewable resources.[57]​.

State of the energy transition in Denmark

Denmark, as a country dependent on imported oil, was especially affected by the oil crisis of 1973. This sparked a public debate about building nuclear power plants to diversify energy supply. An important anti-nuclear movement gained strength, harshly criticizing the nuclear energy plans undertaken by the government. This eventually led to a resolution, issued in 1985, that banned the construction of nuclear power plants in Denmark. The country then opted for renewable energy, concentrating mainly on wind energy. Wind turbines already had a long history in Denmark since the end of the century. In 1974, a panel of experts stated "that it should be possible to satisfy 10% of the country's electricity demand with wind energy, without causing any particular technical problems for the public grid." Denmark undertook the development of large wind power stations, although with little success at first (as in the case of the Growian project in Germany).

Instead, small facilities that were often sold to private owners, such as farms, prevailed. Government policies encouraged its construction; and at the same time, positive geographical factors favored its proliferation, such as adequate wind energy density and decentralized settlement patterns in Denmark. The lack of administrative obstacles also played an important role. Small, robust systems, in the power range of only 50-60 kilowatts at first, were developed using 1940s technology and sometimes hand manufacturing by very small companies. A significant export trade developed in the late 1970s and 1980s to the United States, where wind energy also experienced an early boom. In 1986, Denmark already had approximately 1,200 wind turbines,[61]​ although they still accounted for just 1% of Denmark's electricity.[62]​ Over time, this share increased significantly. In 2011, renewable energy accounted for 41% of electricity consumption, with wind energy installations alone accounting for 28%. Denmark's Ministry of Climate, Energy and Construction published a four-page document called the "Danish Energy Agreement", which outlines the long-term principles that make up the country's energy policy.[65]​.

As of 2013, the installation of gas or oil heating was prohibited in new buildings; and as of 2016, the ban was extended to existing buildings. At the same time, a heater replacement assistance program was launched. Denmark's goal is to reduce its use of fossil fuels by 33% by 2020. The country is scheduled to be completely independent of oil and natural gas by 2050.[66]​.

State of the energy transition in Spain

In May 2021, Spain approves the Climate Change and Energy Transition Law that seeks to achieve, by 2030, a penetration of renewable energy in final energy consumption of at least 42%, an electrical system with at least 72% of energy production from renewable sources and an improvement in energy efficiency through the reduction of primary energy consumption by at least 35%.[67]​[68]​.

In the field of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, the law proposes a reform of the electricity sector, electricity generation through public domain hydraulic power plants and mini-power plants, the modification of the Horizontal Property Law to facilitate photovoltaic installations for self-consumption and the promotion of the penetration of renewable gases such as biomethane, biogas or hydrogen.

To improve energy efficiency, a housing rehabilitation and urban renewal plan is planned; in terms of the transportation sector, mobility and sustainable transportation are promoted by promoting the use of electric vehicles and other green or renewable fuels such as hydrogen.

To respond to the needs set out in the Climate Change and Energy Transition Law, the government develops the instrument of the National Integrated Energy and Climate Plan (PNIEC) and the Decarbonization Strategy to 2050.[69]​.

State of the energy transition in France

Since 2012, political debates have developed in France about the energy transition and how the French economy could benefit from it.[70]​.

In September 2012, Environment Minister Delphine Batho coined the term "ecological patriotism". The government initiated a roadmap to implement the energy transition in France. This plan would address the following questions by June 2013:[71]​.

• - How can France move towards energy efficiency and energy conservation? Reflections on modified lifestyles, changes in production, consumption and transportation.

• - How to achieve the energy mix by 2025? France's climate protection goals call for reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030, and by 60% by 2040.

• - What renewable energies should France rely on? How should the use of wind and solar energy be promoted?

• - What costs and financing models would be necessary for advice on alternative energy and investment support? And which ones for research, renewal and expansion of urban heating, biomass and geothermal energy? One of the solutions could be to implement an extension of the CSPE (Contribution to the Rates of the Public Electricity Service), a tax charged on electricity bills.

On September 14 and 15, 2012, the Environmental Conference on Sustainable Development addressed the issue of energy transition and the environment as its main topic.[72]​.

On July 8, 2013, the leaders of the national debate presented some proposals to the government, such as environmental taxes and the development of smart grids, among others.[73]​.

In 2015, the National Assembly approved legislation to transition to low-emission vehicles.[74]​.

France is second only to Denmark in having the lowest carbon emissions in the world relative to gross domestic product.[75]​.

Argentina

Argentina's energy matrix is ​​highly dominated by fossil fuels, representing around 90% of its primary sources, with natural gas and oil as the main components.[76]​In comparison, its matrix is ​​more dependent on fossils than the world average and the Latin American average. Regarding the secondary matrix, more than 50% comes from natural gas and approximately 30% from liquid fuels.[77]​.

The country already experienced an internal transition from oil to gas after the 1980s, and today it is positioned as a possible global supplier of gas, a fuel that is presented as a transition within the framework of the global energy debate.[78]​.

At the political level, the Ministry of the Environment has made progress in planning towards 2050 with the National Plan for Adaptation and Mitigation of Climate Change.[79]​However, the use of gas in the energy matrix is ​​maintained, which generates controversy.[78]​.

From the energy sector, two key documents were published in 2023: the "National Energy Transition Plan to 2030"[80]​and "Guidelines and Scenarios for the Energy Transition to 2050". The first follows the trend of fossil dependence with low incorporation of renewables by 2030, while the second document proposes strategies towards 2050 that include energy efficiency, national technologies, resilience, low-emission hydrogen, sustainable mobility, and a just transition.[78]​.

Bolivia

In 2006, Bolivia developed a National Strategic Development Plan that promoted the replacement of fossil fuels with natural gas, given its abundance.[81] This plan promoted the change from diesel to gas in industries and public transportation, in addition to the construction of thermoelectric plants. Although Bolivia now has a surplus of electrical energy that it seeks to export, the lack of exploration has begun to deplete gas reserves.[82] Faced with this situation, Bolivia has begun to implement renewable energy such as solar and wind, although in an incipient manner and without a defined plan, also relying on hydroelectric energy.[83]​.

Bolivia depends mainly on natural gas for primary energy, while for electricity generation it uses hydroelectric and gas-fired thermoelectric plants.[83]​The use of renewable energy is still incipient, although the country's geographical position offers potential for the development of solar and wind energy,[84]​as well as for the production of green hydrogen. The areas of the high plateau "Altiplano (Central Andes)") and the inter-Andean valleys, for example, receive high rates of solar radiation.[85]​.

Currently, 81% of Bolivia's primary energy comes from natural gas, followed by oil and its derivatives (12%), biomass "Biomass (energy)") (5%) and wind, solar and hydroelectric energy (2%).[84]​.

Although there are some renewable energy projects, such as solar and wind plants financed by international cooperation and state resources, the energy transition is advancing slowly. At the same time, the advance of biofuel production has had a negative impact on the Amazon, due to agricultural expansion. Furthermore, a large part of the country's energy resources are located in indigenous territories, which have not been included in inclusive energy development, despite legal commitments of prior consultation.[83]​.

The lithium from the Salar de Uyuni, estimated to be between 21 and 23 million tons, has put Bolivia in the focus of international powers interested in this key resource for the global energy transition.[86]​.

Brazil

In 2023, Brazil doubled its investment in renewable energy, reaching approximately $34 billion, according to the International Energy Agency report.[87] This positions Brazil among the countries with the highest investment in energy transition, according to Bloomberg NEF's Energy Transition Investment Trends 2024 report.[88]​.

According to the Energy Transition Index prepared by the World Economic Forum, Brazil is ranked twelfth among the countries best prepared for the transition, being the best positioned Latin American country and leading investment in clean energy among the great powers.[89]​.

According to the National Energy Balance 2024 of the Ministry of Mines and Energy "Ministry of Mines and Energy (Brazil)"), 49.1% of the domestic energy supply comes from renewable sources, while non-renewable sources represent 50.9%. Regarding the electrical matrix, 89.2% is made up of renewable energies, led by hydraulic energy (58.9%), followed by wind (13.2%) and solar (7%).[90]​.

It is expected that by 2050, the Brazilian energy matrix will significantly reduce the use of fossil fuels, with a share of more than 70% of renewable sources in all scenarios. Biomass will be key in this transformation, followed by wind and solar energy.[91]​.

Agriculture, forestry and other land uses are responsible for the majority of Brazilian GHG emissions, 73% of the total, playing a fundamental role in making the country's carbon neutrality goal viable.[92]​To achieve carbon neutrality in 2050, Brazil must eliminate illegal deforestation before 2028, since otherwise it would be unfeasible to achieve this goal.[91]​.

Chili

Chile has accelerated its energy transition in recent years thanks to broad political support, public-private partnerships and innovative green technologies. It has set the ambitious goal of converting 70% of its total energy consumption to renewable energy by 2030 and has committed to being carbon neutral by 2050.[93]​During the year 2023, 37% of the energy generated in Chile came from non-conventional renewable energy sources.[94]​.

Following the creation of the Ministry of Energy "Ministerio de Energía (Chile)") in 2010, a national energy roadmap was established, and citizen consultations were carried out with the purpose of planning and promoting energy efficiency in the country. Following this line, in 2016 a National Electromobility Strategy was established, which aims to electrify all urban public transport by 2040 and that by 2050, 40 percent of the private transport fleet will be electric vehicles.[95]​.

Given the hydrography of Chile, the use of renewable energy in the country has been mainly concentrated in the production of hydraulic energy for the generation of electricity. The country has 68 hydroelectric plants.

On the other hand, the Atacama Desert located in the north of Chile has proven to be the place with the highest solar radiation on the planet, representing a great opportunity for the photovoltaic energy industry in the country. In 2012, the Government of Chile began a public consultation to develop the regulatory framework for the use and generation of electricity from renewable energies in the country. This led to President Sebastián Piñera creating "Law 20,571" or Citizen Generation Law enacted on March 22, 2014, which granted the right to every Chilean citizen to self-generate electrical energy for their own consumption (photovoltaic self-consumption in this case) and to be able to sell the surpluses produced to electricity supply companies. Chile has more than 30 solar parks.[96]​.

The location of Chile with respect to the South Pacific anticyclone and the morphology of its extensive coastline are determining factors for the development of energy generation facilities from wind resources. The first wind farms in Chile were installed in the early years of the 2000s. In 2001, the Alto Baguales wind farm came into service, initially with a generation of 2MW.36 In 2017, Chile had an installed power of 1,426 MW, (4.7% of the total energy generated in the country), contributed by 651 operational wind turbines. Currently, Chile is one of the main producers of wind energy in the region, after Brazil and Mexico.

Colombia

The energy transition in Colombia has been a gradual process that began with two key regulatory acts: Decree 2811 of 1974, which created the National Code of Renewable Natural Resources,[97]​and Law 99 of 1993, which established the General Environmental Law.[98]​This approach was strengthened in 1994 with Law 164, which approved Colombia's participation in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Climate, promoting the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and the exploration of sustainable energies.[99]​.

In 2001, the Program for the Rational and Efficient Use of Energy (PROURE) was created to promote the use of non-conventional sources of renewable energy such as biomass, wind, solar and geothermal.[100]​However, it was not until 2015-2016, following an energy crisis caused by a climate phenomenon, that the government began to seriously address the need for an energy transition.[101]​.

Colombia has formulated more than 30 legislative acts related to the energy transition, of which 29 are in force. The most important is Law 1715 of 2014, which regulates the integration of non-conventional renewable energies into the national energy system. Despite these advances, in 2020 fossil fuels, such as oil (40%), natural gas (26%) and coal (11%), continued to be predominant in Colombia's energy supply.[101]​.

In the electricity subsector, hydroelectric energy represented 65% of electricity generation in 2020. Regarding energy demand, the transportation sector was the largest consumer (35%), with 96% of its energy coming from fossil fuels. Industry was the second largest consumer (26%), mainly using natural gas (29%) and coal (28%), while the residential sector consumed 21%, highlighting firewood (37%), electric energy (35%) and natural gas (20%)[101]​.

In 2022, the update of the National Energy Plan (2022-2050) was published, the objective of which is to identify technological alternatives in energy production and consumption and evaluate their impacts on supply, competitiveness, sustainability, public finances and the country's economy. The document contemplates four possible scenarios to transform the Colombian energy system, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and increasing the participation of renewable energies: updating, modernization, inflection and disruption.[102]​.

Costa Rica

Costa Rica has made significant progress in its decarbonization and energy transition process, making the political decision to prohibit the fossil fuel extractive industry through a moratorium until 2050, established in Executive Decree 36693-MINAET.[103]​From 2015 to 2022, the country has generated more than 98% of its electricity from renewable sources, mainly hydroelectric, without resorting to coal or gas power plants natural.[104]​.

The National Decarbonization Plan establishes objectives to gradually eliminate fossil fuels and achieve an economy with net zero emissions by 2050.[105]​Despite these advances, fossil fuels continue to dominate the country's energy supply, especially in the transportation sector, which consumes 54% of the energy, driven by petroleum derivatives.[106]​.

In 2022, hydroelectric energy contributed 73% of electricity generation, followed by geothermal (13.6%) and wind (11.5%), while thermal plants contributed only 0.8%.[107]​One of Costa Rica's challenges is eliminating seasonal thermal backup that relies on fossil fuels during the dry season, which requires the development of large-scale storage technologies.[106]​.

Regarding electromobility, Law No. 9518 of 2018 promoted electric transportation, exempting taxes for the import of electric vehicles and facilitating the creation of a network of fast chargers throughout the country.[108] This has encouraged the use of electric vehicles, with an average growth of 94% between 2018 and 2022, compared to 12% in the previous period. (2013-2017).[109]​.

Despite these advances, the industrial sector remains a challenge, since it still depends on fossil fuels, such as subsidized bunkering, which slows down decarbonization in this area.[106]​.

Ecuador

Ecuador still has a great economic dependence on hydrocarbons, given that the extraction of oil, natural gas and related service activities represent 3.8% of the country's gross domestic product.[110]​Meanwhile, oil is Ecuador's main export product, with exports equivalent to a total of USD 10,013.12 million in 2022.[111]​.

Regarding generation, currently 75.05% of Ecuador's total electricity production comes from renewable sources, which are made up of hydroelectric, photovoltaic, wind and thermoelectric plants that consume biomass and biogas. On the other hand, 23.55% of the energy generated was produced through fossil fuels.[112]​.

Mexico

Mexico has implemented several laws and reforms to promote the energy transition towards the use of clean energy, such as the Energy Transition Law of 2015, the General Climate Change Law of 2012 and the Electrical Industry Law of 2022. These regulations establish public policies, strategies and mechanisms to regulate and promote the sustainable use of energy, reduce polluting emissions, and guarantee a universal electrical service based on clean energy.

Despite this legal framework, Mexico faces several significant challenges in its energy transition. One of the main challenges is financial, since the transition implies a fundamental change in the generation and use of energy, affecting public finances at both the federal and state levels. This change, aimed at decarbonization, negatively impacts budget revenues, since an increase in energy expenditure for clean energy is required.[113]​.

Another challenge is the nationalization of the energy sector, which has slowed the adoption of clean and efficient energy technologies and resources. In addition, the country has a deficit in infrastructure, especially in electrical energy storage systems, which compromises energy security and increases intermittency in supply.[114]​.

Mexico's energy sector is 89.1% dependent on fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal, contributing to more than two-thirds of global greenhouse gas emissions.[115]​Although Mexico has abundant renewable resource potential (solar, wind, geothermal and biomass), the infrastructure and institutional architecture have not facilitated its rapid integration into the energy matrix.[116]​.

Panama

Panama is characterized by being one of the rainiest countries in the world, which, among other variables, has allowed it to currently have around 97% renewable energy in its electricity generation matrix, mainly hydroelectric. However, reliance on hydroelectricity also presents challenges, such as rainfall variability influenced by climate phenomena such as El Niño ("El Niño (phenomenon)") and La Niña "La Niña (phenomenon)"), and the effects of climate change, which could increase the frequency of extreme events such as floods and droughts.[117]​.

To mitigate these risks, Panama has implemented a policy of diversification of its energy matrix, formalized in the Energy Transition Agenda (ATE) approved in 2020. This agenda seeks to increase the use of non-hydroelectric renewable energies, such as wind and solar energy, which went from almost zero in 2015 to representing 8.9% of electricity generation in 2021. In addition, the ATE promotes the insertion of electric mobility, access to modern energy, and the modernization of the electrical sector.[117]​.

By 2021, Panama already exceeded the regional average in the use of renewable energy, with 69% in the last four years, compared to 58% in the region.[118]​At COP26, the country committed to maintaining at least a 70.4% share of renewable energy in its electrical matrix by 2030.[119]​.

Despite these advances, Panama remains highly dependent on fossil fuels, especially in the transportation sector, where diesel and gasoline represented more than 59% of energy consumption in 2020. This dependence is aggravated by the need to import oil and gas, which exposes the country to the volatility of international prices.[117]​.

Despite these advances, Panama remains highly dependent on fossil fuels, especially in the transportation sector, where diesel and gasoline represented more than 59% of energy consumption in 2020. This dependence is aggravated by the need to import oil and gas, which exposes the country to the volatility of international prices.[117]​.

Paraguay

Paraguay is one of the countries with the cleanest electricity production in the world, sharing this distinction with Albania, according to the World Economic Forum.[120]​99.9% of electricity generation in Paraguay comes from sources that do not emit carbon dioxide, standing out for its high production of hydroelectricity per capita globally, mainly thanks to its two large binational dams: Itaipú and Yacyretá.[121]​.

Paraguay's electrical system is based almost exclusively on the generation of energy from hydropower, a renewable and non-polluting source. However, there is a disparity in their energy matrix. While the energy supply is predominantly renewable (47% hydropower and 33% biomass), energy consumption is significantly based on biomass (44.2%) and hydrocarbons (40.1%), which are polluting and completely imported.[122]​.

Peru

The increase in demand for minerals such as copper as a consequence of the global energy transition has meant a great opportunity for Peru, whose economy depends largely on mining.[123]​However, this also poses challenges due to the socio-environmental conflicts associated with mining, which represent 37.3% of the total conflicts in the country, according to the Ombudsman's Office.[124]​.

Electricity generation in Peru continues to depend largely on fossil fuels. In 2023, 53% of energy came from hydrocarbon-based thermoelectric plants,[125]​and only 8.2% of national energy is generated by non-conventional renewable sources, such as wind, solar and biogas.[126]​.

Renewable energy plants are distributed in 12 departments of Peru, mainly on the coast and the Andes, with no presence in the Amazon regions "Amazon Department (Peru)"), where access to electricity remains limited.[127]​.

Uruguay

Uruguay has an ideal location for the generation of solar, wind and hydraulic energy due to its peninsular landscape and hundreds of kilometers of ocean and river coastline. Without resources such as gas, oil or coal, between 2008 and 2009 Uruguay faced supply problems and high costs in energy production, due to the global increase in fuel prices.[128]​.

In 2010, Uruguay reached a multiparty agreement and adopted the energy transition towards indigenous and renewable sources as a state policy, guaranteeing its execution and continuity. The first stage of the energy transition meant more than US$8 billion of public-private investment. The transformation was carried out with a model in which the public sector had a role as coordinator of the system and administrator of the auction scheme, which provided certainty to national and international private investors.[128]​.

As a consequence of the implementation of this national strategy, Uruguay achieved the decarbonization of electrical energy generation in a short term. On average, renewables represented 93% of the electricity matrix between 2018 and 2022 (53% wind, solar and biomass and 40% hydroelectric), significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector.[129]​.

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) highlighted the Uruguayan model and highlighted the system of calls made by the National Administration of Electric Power Plants and Transmissions (UTE), as examples to follow in its guide for the design of auctions. Private participation was highlighted through promotion schemes without depending on direct subsidies.[129]​.

In 2019, the International Energy Agency (IEA) rated Uruguay as the leader in Latin America in energy production and fourth in the world in terms of levels of electricity generation with wind and solar sources.[130]​According to the United States International Trade Administration, it is one of the most sustainable countries in the world.[131]​.

In 2022, the energy supply reached 5,669 ktoe, which represented a historical record for the country with an increase of 27% compared to 2012 levels. The increase in energy generation was accompanied by a change in the composition of the total energy matrix. Energy from fossil sources significantly reduced its participation in the total supply, going from 60% in 2012 to 40% in the 2018-2022 average.[128]​In contrast, biomass, wind and solar energy increased their relative importance. In 2022 the shares were 39%, 9% and 1% respectively, while in 2012 neither wind nor solar energy contributed to production. Hydraulic energy decreased the weight in the supply; It went from 16% between 2002-2012 to 10% between 2018-2022 (9% in 2022).[128]​.

Renewable energies represented 56% of the total energy matrix in 2022 (while in 2012 they were only 38%), an excellent number by international parameters. Regarding imports of electrical energy, they have systematically decreased in recent times and are currently of very little relevance within the country's supply matrix.[128]​.

Venezuela

Venezuela is one of the Latin American countries furthest behind in the adoption of clean energy. Despite the objectives set a decade ago to adapt to climate change and increase the use of renewable sources, less than 1% of its electricity consumption comes from solar or wind energy.

In 1999, Venezuelan electricity generation was dominated by hydroelectric sources (75.14%) and thermoelectric plants (24.86%).[132] By 2010, hydroelectric plants still represented 66% of generation, while thermoelectric plants, which use gas, diesel and fuel oil, reached 34%. However, the contribution of non-conventional renewable energies, such as solar and wind, remained marginal, at less than 1%.[133]​.

The most recent data from 2014 indicate a setback in Venezuela's energy transition. Thermoelectric plants began to represent 50.80% of the installed electrical capacity, while hydroelectric plants decreased to 48.84%. Solar and wind energy combined barely represented 0.36% of the country's installed capacity.

Oil remains crucial for Venezuela, contributing almost 60% of the national budget.[132]​The majority of companies in the country (80.50%) used gasoline or diesel thermoelectric plants as an alternative source of energy in 2023, while 9% of companies had power plants powered by natural gas.[134]​.

Japan

On September 14, 2012, the Japanese government decided, at a ministerial meeting in Tokyo, to eliminate nuclear energy by the 2030s or 2040s at the latest. The government said it would take "all possible measures" to achieve this goal.[135] A few days later, it suspended its planned nuclear phase-out after industry pressure to reconsider the issue. The arguments raised pointed out that the elimination of nuclear energy would be a burden on the economy, and that imports of oil, coal and gas would entail high additional costs. The government approved the energy transition, but left open the deadline for the closure of nuclear power plants.

United Kingdom

The UK has focused primarily on wind energy, both onshore and offshore, and particularly promotes generation of the latter. With an installed capacity of 18.8 GW at the end of 2017, Great Britain is one of the leaders globally, ranking sixth, after China, the United States, Germany, India and Spain. Initially it was promoted with a quota system, but the expansion objectives were not met in various instances. This led the government to implement, instead, a differential rate.[136]​.

USA

The Obama administration "made a great effort to boost green jobs", particularly in its first term.[137]​.

In the United States, the share of renewable energy (excluding hydropower) in electricity generation has increased from 3.3 percent (1990) to 5.5 percent (2013).[138]​ Oil use will decline in the US due to the increasing efficiency of the vehicle fleet and the replacement of crude oil with natural gas as a feedstock for the petrochemical sector. One forecast is that the rapid uptake of electric vehicles will dramatically reduce oil demand, to the point that it is 80% lower in 2050 compared to today.[139]​.

In December 2016, Block Island became the first commercial offshore wind farm in the US. It consists of five 6 MW wind turbines (30 MW together) located in the Atlantic Ocean, close to the coast (6.1 km from Block Island, Rhode Island). At the same time, Statoil, the Norway-based oil company, spent almost $42.5 million leasing an extensive coastal area of York.[140]​.