Electricity (from the Greek ήλεκτρον élektron, whose meaning is 'amber')[1] is the set of physical phenomena related to the presence and flow of electrical charge. It manifests itself in a wide variety of phenomena such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction or the flow of electric current. It is such a versatile form of energy that it has countless applications, for example: transportation, air conditioning, lighting and computing.[2].
Electricity is manifested through various phenomena and physical properties:
Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter produces and is influenced by electromagnetic fields.
Electric current: the flow of electrons that circulates through a conductor at a certain moment. It is measured in amperes.
Electric field: a type of electromagnetic field produced by an electric charge, even when it is not moving. The electric field produces a force on every other charge, the smaller the distance that separates the two charges. Additionally, moving charges produce magnetic fields.
Electrical potential: is the work that an external force must do to attract a unitary positive charge that, from the reference point to the point considered, goes against the electric force and at a constant speed.
Magnetism: electric current produces magnetic fields, and time-varying magnetic fields generate electric current.
History
The history of electricity refers to the study of electricity, the discovery of its laws as a physical phenomenon, and the invention of devices for its practical use.
As the branch of science that studies the phenomenon and the branch of technology that applies it is also called electricity, the history of electricity is the branch of the history of science and the history of technology that deals with its emergence and evolution. The phenomenon of electricity has been studied since ancient times, but its scientific study began in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the end of the 19th century, engineers managed to take advantage of it for domestic and industrial use. The rapid expansion of electrical technology made it the backbone of modern industrial society.[3].
Electricity-Electronics
Introduction
Electricity (from the Greek ήλεκτρον élektron, whose meaning is 'amber')[1] is the set of physical phenomena related to the presence and flow of electrical charge. It manifests itself in a wide variety of phenomena such as lightning, static electricity, electromagnetic induction or the flow of electric current. It is such a versatile form of energy that it has countless applications, for example: transportation, air conditioning, lighting and computing.[2].
Electricity is manifested through various phenomena and physical properties:
Electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter produces and is influenced by electromagnetic fields.
Electric current: the flow of electrons that circulates through a conductor at a certain moment. It is measured in amperes.
Electric field: a type of electromagnetic field produced by an electric charge, even when it is not moving. The electric field produces a force on every other charge, the smaller the distance that separates the two charges. Additionally, moving charges produce magnetic fields.
Electrical potential: is the work that an external force must do to attract a unitary positive charge that, from the reference point to the point considered, goes against the electric force and at a constant speed.
Magnetism: electric current produces magnetic fields, and time-varying magnetic fields generate electric current.
History
The history of electricity refers to the study of electricity, the discovery of its laws as a physical phenomenon, and the invention of devices for its practical use.
As the branch of science that studies the phenomenon and the branch of technology that applies it is also called , the is the branch of the history of science and the history of technology that deals with its emergence and evolution. The phenomenon of electricity has been studied since ancient times, but its scientific study began in the 17th and 18th centuries. At the end of the 19th century, engineers managed to take advantage of it for domestic and industrial use. The rapid expansion of electrical technology made it the backbone of modern industrial society.[3].
Long before there was any knowledge of electricity, humanity was aware of the electrical discharges produced by electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BC. C. they referred to these fish as "the thunderers of the Nile", described as the protectors of other fish. Later, electric fish were also described by the Romans, Greeks, Arabs, naturalists and physicists.[4] Ancient authors such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus,[5][6] described the numbing effect of electrical discharges produced by electric fish and electric rays. Furthermore, they knew that these discharges could be transmitted by conductive materials.[7] Patients with diseases such as gout and headaches were treated with electric fish, in the hope that the discharge could cure them.[6] The first approach to the study of lightning and its relationship with electricity is attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had a word for lightning (raad) applied to the electric ray.[8].
In ancient Mediterranean cultures it was known that by rubbing certain objects, such as an amber bar, with wool or skin, small charges were obtained (triboelectric effect) that attracted small objects, and rubbing for a long time could cause the appearance of a spark. Near the ancient Greek city of Magnesia were the so-called Magnesia stones, which included magnetite and the ancient Greeks observed that pieces of this material attracted each other, and also small iron objects. The words magneto (equivalent in Spanish to magnet) and magnetismo derive from that toponym. Around the year 600 BC. C., the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus made a series of observations about static electricity. He concluded that friction gave magnetism to amber, unlike minerals such as magnetite, which did not need to be rubbed.[9][10][11] Thales was mistaken in believing that this attraction was produced by a magnetic field, although later science would prove the relationship between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians could have known about electrodeposition, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad battery,[12] similar to a voltaic cell, although it is doubtful that the device was electrical in nature.[13].
These speculations and fragmentary records were the almost exclusive treatment (with the notable exception of the use of magnetism for the compass) from Antiquity to the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century; although even then it was considered little more than a curiosity to be displayed in salons. The first contributions that can be understood as successive approaches to the electrical phenomenon were made by William Gilbert, who carried out a careful study of electricity and magnetism. He differentiated the effect produced by pieces of magnetite from the static electricity produced by rubbing amber.[11] In addition, he coined the Neo-Latin term electricus (which, in turn, comes from ήλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for amber) to refer to the property of attracting small objects after having rubbed them.[14] This gave rise to the terms electric and electricity, which first appear in 1646 in the publication Pseudodoxia Epidemica by Thomas Browne.[15].
These studies were followed by systematic researchers such as von Guericke, Cavendish,[16][17] Du Fay,[18] van Musschenbroek[19] (Leyden bottle) or William Watson.[20] Observations subjected to the scientific method began to bear fruit with Galvani,[21] Volta,[22] Coulomb[23] and Franklin,[24] and, now at the beginning of the 19th century, with Ampère,[25] Faraday[26] and Ohm. The names of these pioneers ended up baptizing the units used today to measure the different magnitudes of the phenomenon. The final understanding of electricity was only achieved with its unification with magnetism in a single electromagnetic phenomenon described by Maxwell's equations (1861-1865).[27].
The technological developments that produced the First Industrial Revolution did not make use of electricity. Its first widespread practical application was the electric telegraph by Samuel Morse (1833) - preceded by Gauss and Weber, 1822 -, which revolutionized telecommunications.[28] Industrial generation of electricity began in the final quarter of the 19th century, when electric lighting of streets and homes spread. The growing succession of applications of this form of energy made electricity one of the main driving forces of the Second Industrial Revolution.[29] More than great theorists like Lord Kelvin, it was the time of great engineers and inventors, such as Gramme,[30] Tesla, Sprague, Westinghouse,[31] von Siemens,[32] Graham Bell,[33] and, above all, Alva Edison and his revolutionary way of understanding the relationship between research scientific-technical and capitalist market, which turned technological innovation into an industrial activity.[34][35] The successive paradigm changes of the first half of the 20th century (relativistic and quantum) will study the function of electricity in a new dimension: atomic and subatomic.
Electrification was not only a technical process, but a true social change with extraordinary implications, starting with lighting and continuing with all types of industrial processes (electric motor, metallurgy, refrigeration...) and communications (telephony, radio). Lenin, during the Bolshevik Revolution, defined socialism as the sum of electrification and the power of the soviets,[36] but it was above all the consumer society that was born in capitalist countries, which depended to a greater extent on the domestic use of electricity in household appliances, and it was in these countries where the feedback between science, technology and society developed the complex structures that allowed the current R&D and R&D+I systems, in which public and private initiative are combined. They interpenetrate, and the individual figures blur into the research teams.
Electrical energy is essential for the information society of the third industrial revolution that has been taking place since the second half of the 20th century (transistor, television, computing, robotics, internet...). Only motorization dependent on oil (which is also widely used, like other fossil fuels, in the generation of electricity) can be compared in importance. Both processes required increasingly greater amounts of energy, which is at the origin of the energy and environmental crisis and the search for new sources of energy, most with immediate electrical use (nuclear energy and alternative energies, given the limitations of traditional hydroelectricity). The problems that electricity has for its storage and transport over long distances, and for the autonomy of mobile devices, are technical challenges that have not yet been resolved in a sufficiently effective way.
The cultural impact of what Marshall McLuhan called the Age of Electricity, which would follow the Age of Mechanization (in comparison to how the Age of Metals followed the Stone Age), lies in the very high speed of propagation of electromagnetic radiation (300,000 km/s) which makes it perceived almost instantaneously. This fact brings with it previously unimaginable possibilities, such as simultaneity and the division of each process into a sequence. A cultural shift took hold, stemming from a focus on "specialized segments of attention" (the adoption of a particular perspective) and the idea of "instantaneous sensory awareness of the totality," an attention to the "total field," a "sense of total structure." The sense of “form and function as a unity,” an “integral idea of structure and configuration,” became evident and prevalent. These new mental conceptions had a great impact on all types of scientific, educational and even artistic fields (for example, cubism). In the spatial and political sphere, "electricity does not centralize, but decentralizes... while the railroad requires a uniform political space, the airplane and the radio allow the greatest discontinuity and diversity in spatial organization."[37].
Some of the great drivers of knowledge about electricity
Coulomb (1736-1806), established the quantitative laws of electrostatics
Coulomb (1736-1806) established the quantitative laws of electrostatics.
!Galvani (1737-1798), famous for his research on the effects of electricity on animal muscles
Galvani (1737-1798), famous for his research on the effects of electricity on animal muscles
!Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the battery
Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the battery
!Ampère (1775-1836), one of the discoverers of electromagnetism
Ampère (1775-1836), one of the discoverers of electromagnetism
!Faraday (1791-1867), discoverer of electromagnetic induction
Faraday (1791-1867), discoverer of electromagnetic induction.
Uses
Electricity is used to generate:.
light, through bulbs in lamps and other luminous objects.
Heat, taking advantage of the Joule effect.
Movement, through motors that transform electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Signals, through electronic systems, composed of electrical circuits that include active components (vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits) and passive components such as resistors, inductors and capacitors.
Concepts
electric charge
Electric charge is a property of matter that manifests itself through forces of attraction and repulsion. Charge originates in the atom, which is composed of charged subatomic particles such as the electron (negative) and the proton (positive).[38] Charge can be transferred between bodies by direct contact or by passing through a conductive material, usually metallic.[39] The term static electricity refers to the presence of charge in a body, usually caused by two different materials rubbing against each other, transferring charge to each other.[40].
The presence of charge gives rise to the electromagnetic force: one charge exerts a force on the others. This effect was known in ancient times, but not understood.[41] A light ball, suspended from a thread, could be charged by contact with a glass rod previously loaded by friction with a fabric. It was found that if a similar ball was charged with the same glass rod, they would repel each other. At the end of the 18th century, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb investigated this phenomenon. He deduced that the charge manifests itself in two opposite ways.[42]
This discovery brought about the well-known axiom "objects with the same polarity repel and with different polarities attract."[41][43].
The force acts on charged particles relative to each other, and the charge also has a tendency to spread over a conductive surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is expressed by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse relationship to the square of the distance between them.[44][45] The electromagnetic force is very strong, the second after the strong nuclear interaction,[46] with the difference that this force operates over all distances.[47] Compared to the weak gravitational force, the force The electromagnetic force that separates two electrons is 10 times greater than the gravitational attraction that unites them.[48].
A charge can be expressed as positive or negative. The charges of electrons and protons have opposite signs. By convention, the charge on electrons is assumed to be negative and that of protons to be positive, a custom that began with the work of Benjamin Franklin.[49] The amount of charge is represented by the symbol Q and is expressed in coulombs.[50] All electrons have the same charge, approximately -1.6022×10 coulombs. The proton has an equal but opposite charge, +1.6022×10 coulombs. Charge is not only present in matter, but also in antimatter: each antiparticle has an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.[51].
Load can be measured in different ways. A very old instrument is the electroscope, which is still used for classroom demonstrations, although it is now superseded by the electronic electrometer.[52].
Electric current
The movement of electric charges through a conductor is known as electric current. Current can be produced by any electrically charged particle in motion. The most common thing is that they are electrons, but any other charge in motion can be defined as current.[53] According to the International System, the intensity of an electric current is measured in amperes, whose symbol is A.[54].
Historically, electric current was defined as a flow of positive charges and the conventional direction of current circulation was set as the flow of charges from the positive to the negative pole. Later it was observed that, in metals, the charge carriers are electrons, with a negative charge, and that they move in the opposite direction to the conventional one.[55] The truth is that, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in one direction, or even simultaneously in both directions. The positive-negative convention is typically used to simplify this situation.[53].
The process by which electric current flows through a material is called electrical conduction. Their nature varies, depending on the charged particles and the material through which they are circulating. Examples of electric currents are metallic conduction, where electrons travel through an electrical conductor, such as a metal; and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids. While the particles can move very slowly, sometimes with an average drift speed of only fractions of a millimeter per second,[56] the electric field that controls them propagates close to the speed of light, allowing electrical signals to be transmitted rapidly over cables.[57].
The current produces many visible effects, which have made its presence recognized throughout history. In 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle discovered that water could be decomposed by the current of a voltaic cell, in a process known as electrolysis. In 1833, Michael Faraday expanded on this work.[58] In 1840, James Prescott Joule discovered that current through an electrical resistance increases temperature, a phenomenon now called the Joule Effect.[58].
electric field
The concept of electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space around it, and produces a force that it exerts on other charges located in the field. An electric field acts between two charges in a very similar way to the gravitational field that acts on two masses. Like it, it extends to infinity and its value is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.[47] However, there is an important difference: while gravity always acts as an attraction, the electric field can produce attraction or repulsion. If a large body like a planet has no net charge, the electric field at a given distance is zero. Therefore, gravity is the dominant force in the universe, despite being much weaker.[48].
An electric field varies in space, and its intensity at any point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that a charge would perceive if it were located at that point.[59] The test charge must be negligible, to prevent its own field from affecting the main field, and it must also be stationary to avoid the effect of magnetic fields. Since the electric field is defined in terms of force, and a force is a vector, then the electric field is also a vector, with magnitude and direction. Specifically, it is a vector field.[59].
electrical potential
The concept of electric potential is closely related to that of electric field. A small charge placed in an electric field experiences a force, and to get that charge to that point against the force it needs to do work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to move a test charge located at infinity to that point.[60] It is usually measured in volts, where one volt is the potential required for one joule of work to attract a charge of one coulomb from infinity. This formal definition of potential has few practical applications. A more useful concept is potential difference, which is defined as the energy required to move a charge between two specific points. The electric field has the special property of being conservative, that is, the path taken by the test charge does not matter; All trajectories between two specific points consume the same energy, and also with a single value of potential difference.[60].
Electromagnetism
The physical theory that unifies electrical and magnetic phenomena is called electromagnetism. Its foundations are the work of Faraday, but were formulated for the first time in full by Maxwell,[61][62] using four vector differential equations, known as Maxwell's equations. They relate the electric field, the magnetic field and their respective material sources: electric charge density, electric current, electric displacement and displacement current.[63].
In the early 19th century, Ørsted found empirical evidence that magnetic and electrical phenomena were related. From that base, in 1861 Maxwell unified the works of Ampère, Sturgeon, Henry, Ohm and Faraday, in a set of equations that described both phenomena as one, the electromagnetic phenomenon.[64].
It is a field theory. Their explanations and predictions are based on vector physical quantities, which depend on position in space and time. Electromagnetism describes macroscopic physical phenomena involving electrical charges at rest and in motion, using electric and magnetic fields and their effects on matter.
electrical circuits
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of two or more electrical components such that electrical charge flows in a closed path, usually to perform some useful task.[65].
The components in an electrical circuit can be very varied, it can have elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, plugs, transformers and electronics. Electronic circuits contain active components, usually semiconductors, exhibiting non-linear behavior, which requires complex analysis. The simplest electrical components are passive and linear.[66].
The behavior of electrical circuits containing only resistors and direct current electromotive sources is governed by Kirchhoff's laws. To study it, the circuit is decomposed into electrical meshes, establishing a system of linear equations whose resolution provides the values of the voltages and currents that enter or leave its nodes.[67].
The resolution of alternating current circuits requires the expansion of the concept of electrical resistance, now expanded by that of impedance to include the behaviors of coils and capacitors. The resolution of these circuits can be done with generalizations of Kirchoff's laws, but usually requires advanced mathematical methods, such as the Laplace Transform, to describe their transient and stationary behaviors.[67].
Properties of electricity
Microscopic origin
The possibility of transmitting an electric current in materials depends on the structure and interaction of the atoms that compose them. Atoms are made up of positively charged particles (protons), negatively charged particles (electrons) and neutral particles (neutrons). Electrical conduction in conductors, semiconductors, and insulators is due to the electrons in the outer orbit or charge carriers, since both the interior neutrons and the protons of the atomic nuclei cannot move easily. The conductive materials par excellence are metals that normally have a single electron in the last electronic layer, such as copper. These electrons can easily pass to adjacent atoms, constituting the free electrons responsible for the flow of electric current.[68].
In all materials subjected to electric fields, the relative spatial distributions of negative and positive charges are modified to a greater or lesser degree. This phenomenon is called electrical polarization and is more noticeable in electrical insulators because thanks to this phenomenon, charges are prevented from being released, and therefore they do not conduct, the main characteristic of these materials.[69].
Conductivity and resistivity
Electrical conductivity is the property of materials that quantifies the ease with which charges can move when a material is subjected to an electric field.[70] Resistivity is a magnitude inverse to conductivity, alluding to the degree of difficulty that electrons encounter in their movements, giving an idea of how good or bad a conductor it is.[68] A high resistivity value indicates that the material is a poor conductor while a low value will indicate that it is a good conductor. Generally the resistivity of metals increases with temperature, while that of semiconductors decreases with increasing temperature.[68].
Materials are classified according to their electrical conductivity or resistivity into conductors, dielectrics, semiconductors and superconductors.
Electrical conductors. They are materials that, when placed in contact with a body charged with electricity, transmit this to all points on its surface. The best electrical conductors are metals and their alloys. There are other non-metallic materials that also have the property of conducting electricity, such as graphite, saline solutions (for example, seawater) and any material in a plasma state. For the transportation of electrical energy, as well as for any installation for domestic or industrial use, the most used metal is copper in the form of single or multi-wire cables. Alternatively, aluminum is used, a metal that, although it has an electrical conductivity of around 60% of that of copper, is, however, a much less dense material, which favors its use in electrical energy transmission lines in high-voltage networks. For special applications, gold is used as a conductor.[71]
Dielectrics. They are materials that do not conduct electricity, so they can be used as insulators. Some examples of this type of materials are glass, ceramics, plastics, rubber, mica, wax, paper, dry wood, porcelain, some greases for industrial and electronic use, and Bakelite. Although there are no absolutely insulating or conductive materials, but only better or worse conductors, they are widely used materials to avoid short circuits (sheathing the electrical conductors with them, to keep certain parts of the electrical systems away from the user that, if accidentally touched when they are live, can produce a discharge) and to make insulators (elements used in electrical distribution networks to fix the conductors to their supports without there being electrical contact). Some materials, such as air or water, are insulating under certain conditions but not others. Air, for example, is insulating at room temperature and dry but, under conditions of relatively low signal frequency and power, it can become a conductor.[72].
Production and uses of electricity
Generation and transmission
Until the invention of the voltaic cell in the 18th century (Alessandro Volta, 1800) there was no viable source of electricity. The voltaic cell (and its modern descendants, the electric cell and the electric battery), stored energy chemically and delivered it on demand in the form of electrical energy.[73] The battery is a very versatile common source used for many applications, but its energy storage is limited, and once discharged it must be recharged (or, in the case of the battery, replaced). For a much larger electrical demand, energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines.[74].
Electrical energy is generally generated by electromechanical generators, which are devices that use motion to maintain an electrical potential difference between two points. That is, they transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. This transformation is achieved by the action of a magnetic field on the electrical conductors. If a relative movement between the conductors and the field is mechanically produced, an electromotive force (EMF) will be generated. This system is based on Faraday's law. To achieve movement, air (wind), water (hydraulic), steam or other gases (thermal) are used. The modern steam turbine invented by Charles Algernon Parsons in 1884 generates about 80% of the world's electrical energy using a wide variety of energy sources.
Another device that generates electricity is the photovoltaic cell, and it does so directly from solar radiation using a semiconductor device.
Electrical conductors always offer resistance to the passage of electricity, no matter how small, so that electrical charge is lost during transport; The greater the distance, the greater the loss. An increase in voltage means a decrease in the intensity that circulates through the line, to transport the same power, and therefore, losses due to heating of the conductors and electromagnetic effects and, consequently, less energy loss. Consequently, smaller sections of the conductors that transport it can be used, therefore, to carry electricity over long distances, it must be done in the so-called High Voltage. On the contrary, in current use a lower voltage must be used (normally between 110 V and 240 V) and this implies voltage changes (transformations). The invention at the end of the 19th century of the transformer made it possible to transmit electrical energy in a more efficient way. Efficient electrical transmission made it possible to generate electricity in generating plants, and then transport it over long distances, wherever it was needed.[75].
Because electrical energy cannot be easily stored to meet demand on a national scale, most of the time the same amount is produced as is demanded. This requires an electricity exchange that makes predictions of electricity demand, and maintains constant coordination with the generating plants. A certain reserve of generation capacity is kept in reserve to withstand any anomaly in the network.[76].
Applications of electricity
Electricity has endless applications for domestic, industrial, medicinal and transportation use. Just to mention, we can mention lighting and lighting, household appliances, heat production, electronics, robotics, telecommunications, light signals, air conditioning, refrigeration machines, electrowelding, electromagnets, electrochemistry, solenoid valves. Electromagnetic induction is also applied to the construction of motors powered by electrical energy, which allow the operation of countless devices.[77].
Electricity in nature
inorganic world
The most common electrical phenomenon in the inorganic world is atmospheric electrical discharges called lightning. Due to the friction of water or ice particles with air, the increasing separation of positive and negative electrical charges in clouds occurs, a separation that generates electric fields. When the resulting electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of the medium, a discharge occurs between two parts of a cloud, between two different clouds, or between the bottom of a cloud and the ground. This discharge ionizes the air by heating and excites molecular electronic transitions. The sudden expansion of the air generates thunder, while the decay of electrons to their equilibrium levels generates electromagnetic radiation, that is, light.[78].
Although it cannot be verified experimentally, the existence of the Earth's magnetic field is almost certainly due to the circulation of charges in the liquid outer core of the Earth. The hypothesis of its origin in materials with permanent magnetization, such as iron, seems to be refuted by the confirmation of the periodic reversals of its direction over the course of geological eras, where the north magnetic pole is replaced by the south and vice versa. Measured in human times, however, the magnetic poles are stable, allowing their use, through the ancient Chinese invention of the compass, for orientation at sea and on land.[79].
The Earth's magnetic field deflects charged particles from the Sun (solar wind). When these particles collide with the oxygen and nitrogen atoms and molecules of the magnetosphere, a photoelectric effect is produced through which part of the energy from the collision excites the atoms to energy levels such that when they are no longer excited they return that energy in the form of visible light. This phenomenon can be observed with the naked eye near the poles, in the polar auroras.[80].
organic world
Bioelectromagnetism studies the phenomenon consisting of the production of electromagnetic fields produced by living matter (cells, tissues or organisms). Examples of this phenomenon include the electrical potential of cell membranes and the electrical currents that flow in nerves and muscles as a consequence of their action potential.[81].
Some organisms, such as sharks, have the ability to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception.[82] While others, called electrogenics, are capable of producing large electrical discharges for defensive or offensive purposes. Some fish, such as eels and electric rays, can generate voltages of up to two thousand volts and currents greater than 1 A.[83] The action potential is also responsible for the coordination of activities in certain plants.[84].
Electric battery
Calculation of sections of power lines
Electronics
Electrical engineering
Electrical energy
History of electricity
Electrical energy generation
Electrical measurements
Electric Shock
Electrical supply system
Voltage (electricity)
Thermoelectricity
Electromechanical
-Nikola Tesla.
Jackson, J.D. (1975). Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2nd Edition. ISBN 978-0-471-43132-9.
Feynman, R. and Leighton, R. B. (1987). Physics Vol. II: Electromagnetism and matter. Addison-Wesley Iberoamericana, cop. ISBN 0-201-06622-X.
Gérardin, Lucien (1968). Bionics. World University Library.
Sears, Francis W., Zemansky, Mark W., Young, Hugh D. (2004). University Physics vol. 2 (Electricity and Magnetism). Pearson Education Publishing; Madrid (Spain). ISBN 970-26-0512-1.
! Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia gallery on Electricity.
! Wikiquote hosts famous phrases from or about Electricity.
! Wikilibros hosts a book or manual on Electricity.
! Wiktionary has definitions and other information about electricity.
History of electric traction (accessed July 1, 2008).
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[3] ↑ Jones, D. A. (1991). «Electrical engineering: the backbone of society». Proceedings of the IEE: Science, Measurement and Technology 138 (1): 1-10. doi:10.1049/ip-a-3.1991.0001.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-3
[4] ↑ Moller, Peter; Kramer, Bernd (diciembre de 1991), «Review: Electric Fish», BioScience (American Institute of Biological Sciences) 41 (11): 794-6 [794], JSTOR 1311732, doi:10.2307/1311732 .: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-4
[8] ↑ University of Wisconsin - Madison (1918). The Encyclopedia Americana; X. New York, Chicago, The Encyclopedia American corporation. p. 171. Consultado el 10 de abril de 2023.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-8
[15] ↑ Chalmers, Gordon (1937), «The Lodestone and the Understanding of Matter in Seventeenth Century England», Philosophy of Science 4 (1): 75-95, doi:10.1086/286445 .: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-15
[16] ↑ Cavendish, Henry (1771). «An Attempt to Explain Some of the Principal Phaenomena of Electricity, by means of an Elastic Fluid». Philosophical Transactions 61: 564-677. doi:10.1098/rstl.1771.0056.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-16
[17] ↑ Cavendish, Henry (1776). «An Account of Some Attempts to Imitate the Effects of the Torpedo by Electricity». Philosophical Transactions 66: 195-225. doi:10.1098/rstl.1776.0013.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-17
[32] ↑ «Werner von Siemens». Biografía en el sitio de la empresa Siemens (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 5 de octubre de 2011. Consultado el 18 de enero de 2011.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-32
[43] ↑ Coulomb, C.A.: «Construction et usage d'une balance electrique sur la propriete qu’ont les fils de metal, d’avoir une force de réaction de torsion proportionnelle a l'angle de torsion.» Mem. de l’acad. Sci. pp. 569 y 579. 1785.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-43
[44] ↑ «The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres». Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris 1785.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-44
[54] ↑ Ledanois, Jean Marie; López de Ramos, Aura L. «Sistema Internacional de Unidades». En Ediciones de la Universidad Simón Bolívar, ed. Magnitudes, Dimensiones y Conversiones de unidades. Equinoccio. p. 7. Archivado desde el original el 1996. Consultado el 24 de noviembre de 2010. La referencia utiliza el parámetro obsoleto |coautores= (ayuda): https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-54
[55] ↑
[56] ↑
[57] ↑
[58] ↑ a b
[59] ↑ a b
[60] ↑ a b
[61] ↑ «Definición de electromagnetismo». Diccionario de la lengua española. Espasa-Calpe. Consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2012. «Parte de la física que estudia las acciones y reacciones de las corrientes eléctricas sobre los campos magnéticos.»: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-61
[65] ↑ Hayt, William (2007). «2». Análisis de circuitos en ingeniería. McGraw-Hill. p. 21. ISBN 970-10-6107-1. «La interconexión de dos elementos de circuitos simples forma una red eléctrica; si contiene al menos una trayectoria cerrada, también es un circuito eléctrico».: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-65
[71] ↑ Giordano, José Luis (2006). «El conductor eléctrico, Profísica, Chile.». Archivado desde el original el 4 de mayo de 2008. Consultado el 13 de mayo de 2008.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-71
[72] ↑ González Viñas, Wenceslao; Mancini, Héctor L. (2003). Ciencia de los materiales (1.ª edición). Ariel. p. 85. ISBN 9788434480599. Consultado el 8 de noviembre de 2015.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-72
[76] ↑ Ankaliki, S. G. (2011). «Centro de control de energía para sistemas de potencia». International Journal of Mathematical Sciences, Technology and Humanities (IJMTAH) 1 ((2011) 205-212). ISSN 2249-5460.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-76
[81] ↑ Malmivuo, Jaakko; Robert Plonsey (1994). Bioelectromagnetism : principles and applications of bioelectric and biomagnetic fields (en inglés). Nueva York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195058239.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-81
Long before there was any knowledge of electricity, humanity was aware of the electrical discharges produced by electric fish. Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BC. C. they referred to these fish as "the thunderers of the Nile", described as the protectors of other fish. Later, electric fish were also described by the Romans, Greeks, Arabs, naturalists and physicists.[4] Ancient authors such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus,[5][6] described the numbing effect of electrical discharges produced by electric fish and electric rays. Furthermore, they knew that these discharges could be transmitted by conductive materials.[7] Patients with diseases such as gout and headaches were treated with electric fish, in the hope that the discharge could cure them.[6] The first approach to the study of lightning and its relationship with electricity is attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had a word for lightning (raad) applied to the electric ray.[8].
In ancient Mediterranean cultures it was known that by rubbing certain objects, such as an amber bar, with wool or skin, small charges were obtained (triboelectric effect) that attracted small objects, and rubbing for a long time could cause the appearance of a spark. Near the ancient Greek city of Magnesia were the so-called Magnesia stones, which included magnetite and the ancient Greeks observed that pieces of this material attracted each other, and also small iron objects. The words magneto (equivalent in Spanish to magnet) and magnetismo derive from that toponym. Around the year 600 BC. C., the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus made a series of observations about static electricity. He concluded that friction gave magnetism to amber, unlike minerals such as magnetite, which did not need to be rubbed.[9][10][11] Thales was mistaken in believing that this attraction was produced by a magnetic field, although later science would prove the relationship between magnetism and electricity. According to a controversial theory, the Parthians could have known about electrodeposition, based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad battery,[12] similar to a voltaic cell, although it is doubtful that the device was electrical in nature.[13].
These speculations and fragmentary records were the almost exclusive treatment (with the notable exception of the use of magnetism for the compass) from Antiquity to the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century; although even then it was considered little more than a curiosity to be displayed in salons. The first contributions that can be understood as successive approaches to the electrical phenomenon were made by William Gilbert, who carried out a careful study of electricity and magnetism. He differentiated the effect produced by pieces of magnetite from the static electricity produced by rubbing amber.[11] In addition, he coined the Neo-Latin term electricus (which, in turn, comes from ήλεκτρον [elektron], the Greek word for amber) to refer to the property of attracting small objects after having rubbed them.[14] This gave rise to the terms electric and electricity, which first appear in 1646 in the publication Pseudodoxia Epidemica by Thomas Browne.[15].
These studies were followed by systematic researchers such as von Guericke, Cavendish,[16][17] Du Fay,[18] van Musschenbroek[19] (Leyden bottle) or William Watson.[20] Observations subjected to the scientific method began to bear fruit with Galvani,[21] Volta,[22] Coulomb[23] and Franklin,[24] and, now at the beginning of the 19th century, with Ampère,[25] Faraday[26] and Ohm. The names of these pioneers ended up baptizing the units used today to measure the different magnitudes of the phenomenon. The final understanding of electricity was only achieved with its unification with magnetism in a single electromagnetic phenomenon described by Maxwell's equations (1861-1865).[27].
The technological developments that produced the First Industrial Revolution did not make use of electricity. Its first widespread practical application was the electric telegraph by Samuel Morse (1833) - preceded by Gauss and Weber, 1822 -, which revolutionized telecommunications.[28] Industrial generation of electricity began in the final quarter of the 19th century, when electric lighting of streets and homes spread. The growing succession of applications of this form of energy made electricity one of the main driving forces of the Second Industrial Revolution.[29] More than great theorists like Lord Kelvin, it was the time of great engineers and inventors, such as Gramme,[30] Tesla, Sprague, Westinghouse,[31] von Siemens,[32] Graham Bell,[33] and, above all, Alva Edison and his revolutionary way of understanding the relationship between research scientific-technical and capitalist market, which turned technological innovation into an industrial activity.[34][35] The successive paradigm changes of the first half of the 20th century (relativistic and quantum) will study the function of electricity in a new dimension: atomic and subatomic.
Electrification was not only a technical process, but a true social change with extraordinary implications, starting with lighting and continuing with all types of industrial processes (electric motor, metallurgy, refrigeration...) and communications (telephony, radio). Lenin, during the Bolshevik Revolution, defined socialism as the sum of electrification and the power of the soviets,[36] but it was above all the consumer society that was born in capitalist countries, which depended to a greater extent on the domestic use of electricity in household appliances, and it was in these countries where the feedback between science, technology and society developed the complex structures that allowed the current R&D and R&D+I systems, in which public and private initiative are combined. They interpenetrate, and the individual figures blur into the research teams.
Electrical energy is essential for the information society of the third industrial revolution that has been taking place since the second half of the 20th century (transistor, television, computing, robotics, internet...). Only motorization dependent on oil (which is also widely used, like other fossil fuels, in the generation of electricity) can be compared in importance. Both processes required increasingly greater amounts of energy, which is at the origin of the energy and environmental crisis and the search for new sources of energy, most with immediate electrical use (nuclear energy and alternative energies, given the limitations of traditional hydroelectricity). The problems that electricity has for its storage and transport over long distances, and for the autonomy of mobile devices, are technical challenges that have not yet been resolved in a sufficiently effective way.
The cultural impact of what Marshall McLuhan called the Age of Electricity, which would follow the Age of Mechanization (in comparison to how the Age of Metals followed the Stone Age), lies in the very high speed of propagation of electromagnetic radiation (300,000 km/s) which makes it perceived almost instantaneously. This fact brings with it previously unimaginable possibilities, such as simultaneity and the division of each process into a sequence. A cultural shift took hold, stemming from a focus on "specialized segments of attention" (the adoption of a particular perspective) and the idea of "instantaneous sensory awareness of the totality," an attention to the "total field," a "sense of total structure." The sense of “form and function as a unity,” an “integral idea of structure and configuration,” became evident and prevalent. These new mental conceptions had a great impact on all types of scientific, educational and even artistic fields (for example, cubism). In the spatial and political sphere, "electricity does not centralize, but decentralizes... while the railroad requires a uniform political space, the airplane and the radio allow the greatest discontinuity and diversity in spatial organization."[37].
Some of the great drivers of knowledge about electricity
Coulomb (1736-1806), established the quantitative laws of electrostatics
Coulomb (1736-1806) established the quantitative laws of electrostatics.
!Galvani (1737-1798), famous for his research on the effects of electricity on animal muscles
Galvani (1737-1798), famous for his research on the effects of electricity on animal muscles
!Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the battery
Volta (1745-1827), inventor of the battery
!Ampère (1775-1836), one of the discoverers of electromagnetism
Ampère (1775-1836), one of the discoverers of electromagnetism
!Faraday (1791-1867), discoverer of electromagnetic induction
Faraday (1791-1867), discoverer of electromagnetic induction.
Uses
Electricity is used to generate:.
light, through bulbs in lamps and other luminous objects.
Heat, taking advantage of the Joule effect.
Movement, through motors that transform electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Signals, through electronic systems, composed of electrical circuits that include active components (vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits) and passive components such as resistors, inductors and capacitors.
Concepts
electric charge
Electric charge is a property of matter that manifests itself through forces of attraction and repulsion. Charge originates in the atom, which is composed of charged subatomic particles such as the electron (negative) and the proton (positive).[38] Charge can be transferred between bodies by direct contact or by passing through a conductive material, usually metallic.[39] The term static electricity refers to the presence of charge in a body, usually caused by two different materials rubbing against each other, transferring charge to each other.[40].
The presence of charge gives rise to the electromagnetic force: one charge exerts a force on the others. This effect was known in ancient times, but not understood.[41] A light ball, suspended from a thread, could be charged by contact with a glass rod previously loaded by friction with a fabric. It was found that if a similar ball was charged with the same glass rod, they would repel each other. At the end of the 18th century, Charles-Augustin de Coulomb investigated this phenomenon. He deduced that the charge manifests itself in two opposite ways.[42]
This discovery brought about the well-known axiom "objects with the same polarity repel and with different polarities attract."[41][43].
The force acts on charged particles relative to each other, and the charge also has a tendency to spread over a conductive surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is expressed by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse relationship to the square of the distance between them.[44][45] The electromagnetic force is very strong, the second after the strong nuclear interaction,[46] with the difference that this force operates over all distances.[47] Compared to the weak gravitational force, the force The electromagnetic force that separates two electrons is 10 times greater than the gravitational attraction that unites them.[48].
A charge can be expressed as positive or negative. The charges of electrons and protons have opposite signs. By convention, the charge on electrons is assumed to be negative and that of protons to be positive, a custom that began with the work of Benjamin Franklin.[49] The amount of charge is represented by the symbol Q and is expressed in coulombs.[50] All electrons have the same charge, approximately -1.6022×10 coulombs. The proton has an equal but opposite charge, +1.6022×10 coulombs. Charge is not only present in matter, but also in antimatter: each antiparticle has an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle.[51].
Load can be measured in different ways. A very old instrument is the electroscope, which is still used for classroom demonstrations, although it is now superseded by the electronic electrometer.[52].
Electric current
The movement of electric charges through a conductor is known as electric current. Current can be produced by any electrically charged particle in motion. The most common thing is that they are electrons, but any other charge in motion can be defined as current.[53] According to the International System, the intensity of an electric current is measured in amperes, whose symbol is A.[54].
Historically, electric current was defined as a flow of positive charges and the conventional direction of current circulation was set as the flow of charges from the positive to the negative pole. Later it was observed that, in metals, the charge carriers are electrons, with a negative charge, and that they move in the opposite direction to the conventional one.[55] The truth is that, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in one direction, or even simultaneously in both directions. The positive-negative convention is typically used to simplify this situation.[53].
The process by which electric current flows through a material is called electrical conduction. Their nature varies, depending on the charged particles and the material through which they are circulating. Examples of electric currents are metallic conduction, where electrons travel through an electrical conductor, such as a metal; and electrolysis, where ions (charged atoms) flow through liquids. While the particles can move very slowly, sometimes with an average drift speed of only fractions of a millimeter per second,[56] the electric field that controls them propagates close to the speed of light, allowing electrical signals to be transmitted rapidly over cables.[57].
The current produces many visible effects, which have made its presence recognized throughout history. In 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle discovered that water could be decomposed by the current of a voltaic cell, in a process known as electrolysis. In 1833, Michael Faraday expanded on this work.[58] In 1840, James Prescott Joule discovered that current through an electrical resistance increases temperature, a phenomenon now called the Joule Effect.[58].
electric field
The concept of electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday. An electric field is created by a charged body in the space around it, and produces a force that it exerts on other charges located in the field. An electric field acts between two charges in a very similar way to the gravitational field that acts on two masses. Like it, it extends to infinity and its value is inversely proportional to the square of the distance.[47] However, there is an important difference: while gravity always acts as an attraction, the electric field can produce attraction or repulsion. If a large body like a planet has no net charge, the electric field at a given distance is zero. Therefore, gravity is the dominant force in the universe, despite being much weaker.[48].
An electric field varies in space, and its intensity at any point is defined as the force (per unit charge) that a charge would perceive if it were located at that point.[59] The test charge must be negligible, to prevent its own field from affecting the main field, and it must also be stationary to avoid the effect of magnetic fields. Since the electric field is defined in terms of force, and a force is a vector, then the electric field is also a vector, with magnitude and direction. Specifically, it is a vector field.[59].
electrical potential
The concept of electric potential is closely related to that of electric field. A small charge placed in an electric field experiences a force, and to get that charge to that point against the force it needs to do work. The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to move a test charge located at infinity to that point.[60] It is usually measured in volts, where one volt is the potential required for one joule of work to attract a charge of one coulomb from infinity. This formal definition of potential has few practical applications. A more useful concept is potential difference, which is defined as the energy required to move a charge between two specific points. The electric field has the special property of being conservative, that is, the path taken by the test charge does not matter; All trajectories between two specific points consume the same energy, and also with a single value of potential difference.[60].
Electromagnetism
The physical theory that unifies electrical and magnetic phenomena is called electromagnetism. Its foundations are the work of Faraday, but were formulated for the first time in full by Maxwell,[61][62] using four vector differential equations, known as Maxwell's equations. They relate the electric field, the magnetic field and their respective material sources: electric charge density, electric current, electric displacement and displacement current.[63].
In the early 19th century, Ørsted found empirical evidence that magnetic and electrical phenomena were related. From that base, in 1861 Maxwell unified the works of Ampère, Sturgeon, Henry, Ohm and Faraday, in a set of equations that described both phenomena as one, the electromagnetic phenomenon.[64].
It is a field theory. Their explanations and predictions are based on vector physical quantities, which depend on position in space and time. Electromagnetism describes macroscopic physical phenomena involving electrical charges at rest and in motion, using electric and magnetic fields and their effects on matter.
electrical circuits
An electrical circuit is an interconnection of two or more electrical components such that electrical charge flows in a closed path, usually to perform some useful task.[65].
The components in an electrical circuit can be very varied, it can have elements such as resistors, capacitors, switches, plugs, transformers and electronics. Electronic circuits contain active components, usually semiconductors, exhibiting non-linear behavior, which requires complex analysis. The simplest electrical components are passive and linear.[66].
The behavior of electrical circuits containing only resistors and direct current electromotive sources is governed by Kirchhoff's laws. To study it, the circuit is decomposed into electrical meshes, establishing a system of linear equations whose resolution provides the values of the voltages and currents that enter or leave its nodes.[67].
The resolution of alternating current circuits requires the expansion of the concept of electrical resistance, now expanded by that of impedance to include the behaviors of coils and capacitors. The resolution of these circuits can be done with generalizations of Kirchoff's laws, but usually requires advanced mathematical methods, such as the Laplace Transform, to describe their transient and stationary behaviors.[67].
Properties of electricity
Microscopic origin
The possibility of transmitting an electric current in materials depends on the structure and interaction of the atoms that compose them. Atoms are made up of positively charged particles (protons), negatively charged particles (electrons) and neutral particles (neutrons). Electrical conduction in conductors, semiconductors, and insulators is due to the electrons in the outer orbit or charge carriers, since both the interior neutrons and the protons of the atomic nuclei cannot move easily. The conductive materials par excellence are metals that normally have a single electron in the last electronic layer, such as copper. These electrons can easily pass to adjacent atoms, constituting the free electrons responsible for the flow of electric current.[68].
In all materials subjected to electric fields, the relative spatial distributions of negative and positive charges are modified to a greater or lesser degree. This phenomenon is called electrical polarization and is more noticeable in electrical insulators because thanks to this phenomenon, charges are prevented from being released, and therefore they do not conduct, the main characteristic of these materials.[69].
Conductivity and resistivity
Electrical conductivity is the property of materials that quantifies the ease with which charges can move when a material is subjected to an electric field.[70] Resistivity is a magnitude inverse to conductivity, alluding to the degree of difficulty that electrons encounter in their movements, giving an idea of how good or bad a conductor it is.[68] A high resistivity value indicates that the material is a poor conductor while a low value will indicate that it is a good conductor. Generally the resistivity of metals increases with temperature, while that of semiconductors decreases with increasing temperature.[68].
Materials are classified according to their electrical conductivity or resistivity into conductors, dielectrics, semiconductors and superconductors.
Electrical conductors. They are materials that, when placed in contact with a body charged with electricity, transmit this to all points on its surface. The best electrical conductors are metals and their alloys. There are other non-metallic materials that also have the property of conducting electricity, such as graphite, saline solutions (for example, seawater) and any material in a plasma state. For the transportation of electrical energy, as well as for any installation for domestic or industrial use, the most used metal is copper in the form of single or multi-wire cables. Alternatively, aluminum is used, a metal that, although it has an electrical conductivity of around 60% of that of copper, is, however, a much less dense material, which favors its use in electrical energy transmission lines in high-voltage networks. For special applications, gold is used as a conductor.[71]
Dielectrics. They are materials that do not conduct electricity, so they can be used as insulators. Some examples of this type of materials are glass, ceramics, plastics, rubber, mica, wax, paper, dry wood, porcelain, some greases for industrial and electronic use, and Bakelite. Although there are no absolutely insulating or conductive materials, but only better or worse conductors, they are widely used materials to avoid short circuits (sheathing the electrical conductors with them, to keep certain parts of the electrical systems away from the user that, if accidentally touched when they are live, can produce a discharge) and to make insulators (elements used in electrical distribution networks to fix the conductors to their supports without there being electrical contact). Some materials, such as air or water, are insulating under certain conditions but not others. Air, for example, is insulating at room temperature and dry but, under conditions of relatively low signal frequency and power, it can become a conductor.[72].
Production and uses of electricity
Generation and transmission
Until the invention of the voltaic cell in the 18th century (Alessandro Volta, 1800) there was no viable source of electricity. The voltaic cell (and its modern descendants, the electric cell and the electric battery), stored energy chemically and delivered it on demand in the form of electrical energy.[73] The battery is a very versatile common source used for many applications, but its energy storage is limited, and once discharged it must be recharged (or, in the case of the battery, replaced). For a much larger electrical demand, energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines.[74].
Electrical energy is generally generated by electromechanical generators, which are devices that use motion to maintain an electrical potential difference between two points. That is, they transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. This transformation is achieved by the action of a magnetic field on the electrical conductors. If a relative movement between the conductors and the field is mechanically produced, an electromotive force (EMF) will be generated. This system is based on Faraday's law. To achieve movement, air (wind), water (hydraulic), steam or other gases (thermal) are used. The modern steam turbine invented by Charles Algernon Parsons in 1884 generates about 80% of the world's electrical energy using a wide variety of energy sources.
Another device that generates electricity is the photovoltaic cell, and it does so directly from solar radiation using a semiconductor device.
Electrical conductors always offer resistance to the passage of electricity, no matter how small, so that electrical charge is lost during transport; The greater the distance, the greater the loss. An increase in voltage means a decrease in the intensity that circulates through the line, to transport the same power, and therefore, losses due to heating of the conductors and electromagnetic effects and, consequently, less energy loss. Consequently, smaller sections of the conductors that transport it can be used, therefore, to carry electricity over long distances, it must be done in the so-called High Voltage. On the contrary, in current use a lower voltage must be used (normally between 110 V and 240 V) and this implies voltage changes (transformations). The invention at the end of the 19th century of the transformer made it possible to transmit electrical energy in a more efficient way. Efficient electrical transmission made it possible to generate electricity in generating plants, and then transport it over long distances, wherever it was needed.[75].
Because electrical energy cannot be easily stored to meet demand on a national scale, most of the time the same amount is produced as is demanded. This requires an electricity exchange that makes predictions of electricity demand, and maintains constant coordination with the generating plants. A certain reserve of generation capacity is kept in reserve to withstand any anomaly in the network.[76].
Applications of electricity
Electricity has endless applications for domestic, industrial, medicinal and transportation use. Just to mention, we can mention lighting and lighting, household appliances, heat production, electronics, robotics, telecommunications, light signals, air conditioning, refrigeration machines, electrowelding, electromagnets, electrochemistry, solenoid valves. Electromagnetic induction is also applied to the construction of motors powered by electrical energy, which allow the operation of countless devices.[77].
Electricity in nature
inorganic world
The most common electrical phenomenon in the inorganic world is atmospheric electrical discharges called lightning. Due to the friction of water or ice particles with air, the increasing separation of positive and negative electrical charges in clouds occurs, a separation that generates electric fields. When the resulting electric field exceeds the dielectric strength of the medium, a discharge occurs between two parts of a cloud, between two different clouds, or between the bottom of a cloud and the ground. This discharge ionizes the air by heating and excites molecular electronic transitions. The sudden expansion of the air generates thunder, while the decay of electrons to their equilibrium levels generates electromagnetic radiation, that is, light.[78].
Although it cannot be verified experimentally, the existence of the Earth's magnetic field is almost certainly due to the circulation of charges in the liquid outer core of the Earth. The hypothesis of its origin in materials with permanent magnetization, such as iron, seems to be refuted by the confirmation of the periodic reversals of its direction over the course of geological eras, where the north magnetic pole is replaced by the south and vice versa. Measured in human times, however, the magnetic poles are stable, allowing their use, through the ancient Chinese invention of the compass, for orientation at sea and on land.[79].
The Earth's magnetic field deflects charged particles from the Sun (solar wind). When these particles collide with the oxygen and nitrogen atoms and molecules of the magnetosphere, a photoelectric effect is produced through which part of the energy from the collision excites the atoms to energy levels such that when they are no longer excited they return that energy in the form of visible light. This phenomenon can be observed with the naked eye near the poles, in the polar auroras.[80].
organic world
Bioelectromagnetism studies the phenomenon consisting of the production of electromagnetic fields produced by living matter (cells, tissues or organisms). Examples of this phenomenon include the electrical potential of cell membranes and the electrical currents that flow in nerves and muscles as a consequence of their action potential.[81].
Some organisms, such as sharks, have the ability to detect and respond to changes in electric fields, an ability known as electroreception.[82] While others, called electrogenics, are capable of producing large electrical discharges for defensive or offensive purposes. Some fish, such as eels and electric rays, can generate voltages of up to two thousand volts and currents greater than 1 A.[83] The action potential is also responsible for the coordination of activities in certain plants.[84].
Electric battery
Calculation of sections of power lines
Electronics
Electrical engineering
Electrical energy
History of electricity
Electrical energy generation
Electrical measurements
Electric Shock
Electrical supply system
Voltage (electricity)
Thermoelectricity
Electromechanical
-Nikola Tesla.
Jackson, J.D. (1975). Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2nd Edition. ISBN 978-0-471-43132-9.
Feynman, R. and Leighton, R. B. (1987). Physics Vol. II: Electromagnetism and matter. Addison-Wesley Iberoamericana, cop. ISBN 0-201-06622-X.
Gérardin, Lucien (1968). Bionics. World University Library.
Sears, Francis W., Zemansky, Mark W., Young, Hugh D. (2004). University Physics vol. 2 (Electricity and Magnetism). Pearson Education Publishing; Madrid (Spain). ISBN 970-26-0512-1.
! Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia gallery on Electricity.
! Wikiquote hosts famous phrases from or about Electricity.
! Wikilibros hosts a book or manual on Electricity.
! Wiktionary has definitions and other information about electricity.
History of electric traction (accessed July 1, 2008).
!Wd Data: Q12725
!Commonscat Multimedia: Electricity / Q12725
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!Wikiquote Famous quotes: Electricity.
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[3] ↑ Jones, D. A. (1991). «Electrical engineering: the backbone of society». Proceedings of the IEE: Science, Measurement and Technology 138 (1): 1-10. doi:10.1049/ip-a-3.1991.0001.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-3
[4] ↑ Moller, Peter; Kramer, Bernd (diciembre de 1991), «Review: Electric Fish», BioScience (American Institute of Biological Sciences) 41 (11): 794-6 [794], JSTOR 1311732, doi:10.2307/1311732 .: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-4
[8] ↑ University of Wisconsin - Madison (1918). The Encyclopedia Americana; X. New York, Chicago, The Encyclopedia American corporation. p. 171. Consultado el 10 de abril de 2023.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-8
[15] ↑ Chalmers, Gordon (1937), «The Lodestone and the Understanding of Matter in Seventeenth Century England», Philosophy of Science 4 (1): 75-95, doi:10.1086/286445 .: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-15
[16] ↑ Cavendish, Henry (1771). «An Attempt to Explain Some of the Principal Phaenomena of Electricity, by means of an Elastic Fluid». Philosophical Transactions 61: 564-677. doi:10.1098/rstl.1771.0056.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-16
[17] ↑ Cavendish, Henry (1776). «An Account of Some Attempts to Imitate the Effects of the Torpedo by Electricity». Philosophical Transactions 66: 195-225. doi:10.1098/rstl.1776.0013.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-17
[32] ↑ «Werner von Siemens». Biografía en el sitio de la empresa Siemens (en inglés). Archivado desde el original el 5 de octubre de 2011. Consultado el 18 de enero de 2011.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-32
[43] ↑ Coulomb, C.A.: «Construction et usage d'une balance electrique sur la propriete qu’ont les fils de metal, d’avoir une force de réaction de torsion proportionnelle a l'angle de torsion.» Mem. de l’acad. Sci. pp. 569 y 579. 1785.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-43
[44] ↑ «The repulsive force between two small spheres charged with the same type of electricity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the centres of the two spheres». Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, Histoire de l'Academie Royal des Sciences, Paris 1785.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-44
[54] ↑ Ledanois, Jean Marie; López de Ramos, Aura L. «Sistema Internacional de Unidades». En Ediciones de la Universidad Simón Bolívar, ed. Magnitudes, Dimensiones y Conversiones de unidades. Equinoccio. p. 7. Archivado desde el original el 1996. Consultado el 24 de noviembre de 2010. La referencia utiliza el parámetro obsoleto |coautores= (ayuda): https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-54
[55] ↑
[56] ↑
[57] ↑
[58] ↑ a b
[59] ↑ a b
[60] ↑ a b
[61] ↑ «Definición de electromagnetismo». Diccionario de la lengua española. Espasa-Calpe. Consultado el 19 de diciembre de 2012. «Parte de la física que estudia las acciones y reacciones de las corrientes eléctricas sobre los campos magnéticos.»: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-61
[65] ↑ Hayt, William (2007). «2». Análisis de circuitos en ingeniería. McGraw-Hill. p. 21. ISBN 970-10-6107-1. «La interconexión de dos elementos de circuitos simples forma una red eléctrica; si contiene al menos una trayectoria cerrada, también es un circuito eléctrico».: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-65
[71] ↑ Giordano, José Luis (2006). «El conductor eléctrico, Profísica, Chile.». Archivado desde el original el 4 de mayo de 2008. Consultado el 13 de mayo de 2008.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-71
[72] ↑ González Viñas, Wenceslao; Mancini, Héctor L. (2003). Ciencia de los materiales (1.ª edición). Ariel. p. 85. ISBN 9788434480599. Consultado el 8 de noviembre de 2015.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-72
[76] ↑ Ankaliki, S. G. (2011). «Centro de control de energía para sistemas de potencia». International Journal of Mathematical Sciences, Technology and Humanities (IJMTAH) 1 ((2011) 205-212). ISSN 2249-5460.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-76
[81] ↑ Malmivuo, Jaakko; Robert Plonsey (1994). Bioelectromagnetism : principles and applications of bioelectric and biomagnetic fields (en inglés). Nueva York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195058239.: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricidad#cite_ref-81