Two roads pass through the park, to the north Route 11 "Ruta 11 (Bolivia)") that connects the towns of Entre Ríos "Entre Ríos (Tarija)") and Palos Blancos with Villa Montes, and to the south Route 29 "Ruta 29 (Bolivia)") that connects Yacuiba with Caraparí.[3]​.

Geology

The Serranía del Aguaragüe is predominantly composed of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones, shales and siltstones, which present gentle folding forming anticlines on the summits and synclines in the main valleys.[4]​ The variation in the resistance of these lithologies to fracturing and erosion determines their porosity and favors the presence of groundwater. Twelve main geological formations have been identified in the area, characterized by different types of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, limestones and diamictites. Likewise, according to the classification of the National Geology and Mining Technical Service (SERGEOTECMIN), the park covers seven geological provinces corresponding to periods ranging from the Devonian to the Quaternary.[4]​.

Physiography

The protected area mainly comprises two physiographic provinces: the Subandino, which covers 94.24% of its surface, and the Chaco–Benian Plain, with 5.76%.[4]​ On a large landscape scale, the territory is made up of four units: the mountain ranges (73.91%), the hills (23.96%), the foothills (1.47%) and the plains (0.66%). These units are subdivided into more detailed categories, among which the Middle Mountains stand out, with strong dissection and representing 62.79% of the area, followed by the Low Hills of moderate dissection (13.49%) and other smaller units located mainly in the foothills and alluvial plains.[4]​.

Hydrography

The PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe belongs to the La Plata Hydrographic Region, Pilcomayo River basin (Level 2). This integral area, apart from conserving the biodiversity of flora and fauna, is a potential in water resources, because it is there where the sources of fresh water originate, due to its geological characteristics (porosity and permeability of rocks and sediments) and the existence of active water systems in which four basins are found: Zanja Honda River, Caraparí River, Quebrada del Gritado and the Hydrographic Unit.[5]​.

At least 57 streams have also been identified that supply water to local communities: 20 streams are in the municipality of Yacuiba, 21 in the municipality of Caraparí and 16 in the municipality of Villa Montes.[5]​.

According to Thornthwaite's climate classification, the park area corresponds to a subhumid megathermal climate, especially in the foothills area and in the northern sector of the sub-Andean belt.[6] Summer temperatures are moderate, with an annual average of approximately 21.5 °C. Winter frosts are common in small valleys, caused by the slow descent of cold air masses from the surrounding slopes. Annual rainfall varies between 850 and 1,000 mm.

Within the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe three ecoregions converge: the mountain Chaco, the Tucumán-Bolivian Forest and the Gran Chaco.[7]​ The first two belong to plant formations of the Andean region, while the third corresponds to the eastern plains of the south of the country. In terms of extension, the Tucuman-Bolivian Forest occupies 37.2% of the protected area, followed by the mountain Chaco with 33.9% and, finally, the Gran Chaco with 28.9% of the total surface.[7]​.

Each ecoregion presents distinctive environmental conditions. The Tucumán-Bolivian Forest is characterized by subhumid to humid forests, with marked thermal and water seasonality, average temperatures close to 23 °C and rainfall between 700 and 1,200 mm annually. °C and annual rainfall of 700 to 1,000 mm. In the lowest areas is the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion dominated by dry microfoliate forests subject to a very marked seasonality, with temperatures that can range between 1 °C and 48 °C and average rainfall within a dry climate regime of up to seven months.[7]​.

The Aguaragüe PN-ANMI includes two ecosystems, the Tucumán-Bolivian and Chaco montane forests. The flora of the Tucumán-Bolivian montane forest is mainly characterized by Podocarpus parlatorei, Blepharocalyx salicifolius, Myrcianthes pseudomato, Cedrela angustifolia, Juglans australis, Zanthoxylum coco, Phoebe porphyria, Ocotea ouberula"), Nectanra sp., Viburnum seemannii and Chusquea lorentziana.[8]​.

The Chaco mountain forest, on the other hand, is characterized by Schinopsis marginata, Schinopsis lorentzii, Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, Myracrodruon urundeuva, Amburana cearensis, Anadenanthera colubrina, Ceiba insignis, Prosopis sp. and several species of cacti, including those of the genera Opuntia, Cereus and Pereskia.[8]​.

Furthermore, in the Aguaragüe National Park in the 2024 administration, the following were recorded:[9].

• - 578 species of flora distributed in 112 botanical families.

• - 10 Endemic flora species in Bolivia present in the protected area such as: carapari, montecillos and others.

• - 23 species that are threatened, of these 11 are vulnerable (tipa blanca, cinchona, quebracho, lapacho, and carapari), 5 in danger of extinction (cedar and pine) and 7 species of minor concern (oak, blackberry, algarrobilla, urundel).[9]​.

The animals found in the territory of the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe are 37 species of reptiles, 120 species of birds, 36 species of amphibians, 36 species of fish, 70 species of mammals and 2 endemic species Miskicho del Aguaragüe (Trichomycterus aguaragüe) and the mouse (Akodon varius).[7]​.

Other species found in the park are: anteater, honey bear, jucumari bear, two species of deer (American mazama and urina), black-footed fox, wild cat, ocelot, jaguar.[10]​.

Among the birds are: The charata guan, several species of guans and the chuña. In the mountain forest of Chaco, the tatú bolita, the yellow tatú, the collared peccary, and the white-chinned peccary are present.[8]​.

The amphibian fauna of the protected area includes around 36 species distributed in seven families, among which Leptodactylidae and Hylidae are the most diverse.[7] No endemic species were recorded. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Leptodactylus laticeps is categorized as Near Threatened and Rhinella courselli as Vulnerable, while most of the remaining species are classified as Least Concern. The Red Book of Vertebrates of Bolivia also identifies Rhinella courselli as vulnerable, mainly due to agricultural and livestock expansion, as well as the contamination of water bodies and soils by agrochemicals.[7]​.

The herpetofauna of the protected area includes around 37 species of reptiles distributed in three orders and eleven families, with a clear predominance of the squamates, which total 32 species.[7] Although no endemisms were identified, several species present threat categories according to the IUCN, the Red Book of Vertebrates of Bolivia or CITES. Among them, Chelonoidis chilensis stands out as vulnerable, Kinosternon scorpioides as almost threatened and Caiman latirostris, classified in CITES I and considered endangered due to agricultural and demographic expansion, as well as the degradation of its habitat in the Bermejo and Pilcomayo sub-basins.[7]​.

In the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe, 488 individuals belonging to 26 species of fish were recorded, distributed in three orders and ten families, among which Characidae and Trichomycteridae present the highest specific richness.[7]​ The most abundant species were Hypostomus paranensis and Parodon carrikeri, while Pimelodus maculatus and Prochilodus lineatus showed the lowest abundances. The lower subbasin concentrated the greatest diversity, with 23 species compared to the 10 recorded in the upper subbasin. None of the species is listed as threatened by the IUCN, although the Bolivian Red Book of Vertebrates lists Trichomycterus aguarague and Prochilodus lineatus as near threatened and Acrobrycon ipanquianus as vulnerable, mainly due to exploitation during reproductive migration, upstream mining pollution and habitat alteration.[7]​.

Within the limits of the protected area there are 13 communities, of which four are located in the area of the National Park (PN) and correspond to peasant settlements in the municipality of Caraparí, while nine are located in the Natural Area of Integrated Management (ANMI), made up of peasant, indigenous and mixed communities.[11] In the immediate surroundings of the area there are also 44 populated centers, distributed among the municipalities of Yacuiba, Caraparí and Villa Montes, including part of the urban area of the capital of the latter within the ANMI. In total, 57 communities maintain a territorial relationship with the mountains, composed mainly of peasant populations, followed by indigenous communities belonging to the Assembly of the Guaraní People (APG) and some mixed communities.[11]​.

Regarding the legal status of the land, only 15 of these communities have titles granted by the National Institute of Agrarian Reform&action=edit&redlink=1 "National Institute of Agrarian Reform (Bolivia) (not yet drafted)") (INRA), corresponding to eight peasant and seven indigenous communities, while the rest are in different stages of the sanitation and titling process.[11]​.

The main risks for the ecosystems of the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe come from environmental degradation processes that affect water functionality, forest cover and biodiversity. Deforestation has shown sustained growth since 2000, generating habitat fragmentation, loss of nutrients and impact on ecological corridors, especially for forest-dependent species.[12]​ The expansion of the agricultural and livestock frontier, along with uncontrolled grazing, causes erosion, eutrophication of water bodies and alteration of plant composition. In addition, water harvesting works, illegal settlements and the advance of the urban sprawl reduce native vegetation and affect the availability and quality of water resources.[12]​.

Oil and gas activities constitute another critical threat, particularly in areas where polluting waste is recorded that alters the composition of the water and affects fish populations.[12] Added to this are the inadequate disposal of solid and liquid waste, the execution of works that reduce vegetation cover, illegal logging and forest fires, the effects of which are enhanced when they become recurrent. The modification of microhabitats by road infrastructure and the diversion of water courses also generate barriers to the migration and reproduction of aquatic species, especially fish.[12]​.

Direct pressures on fauna include commercial fishing of high-value species, such as shad, dorado and surubí, as well as occasional or unregulated hunting of mammals and birds.[12] Mortality due to road accidents on the routes that cross the protected area is a persistent problem, affecting species such as foxes (Cerdocyon thous and Lycalopex gymnocercus), carachupas (Didelphis albiventris) and skunks (Conepatus chinga). Finally, climate change intensifies the impacts of these threats by increasing the vulnerability of the territory to floods, droughts and landslides, accentuating the degradation of the ecosystems of the protected area.[12]​.

• - Geography of Bolivia.

• - Annex: World Heritage in Bolivia.

• - Iñao national park and integrated management natural area.

Two roads pass through the park, to the north Route 11 "Ruta 11 (Bolivia)") that connects the towns of Entre Ríos "Entre Ríos (Tarija)") and Palos Blancos with Villa Montes, and to the south Route 29 "Ruta 29 (Bolivia)") that connects Yacuiba with Caraparí.[3]​.

Geology

The Serranía del Aguaragüe is predominantly composed of Paleozoic sedimentary rocks, such as sandstones, shales and siltstones, which present gentle folding forming anticlines on the summits and synclines in the main valleys.[4]​ The variation in the resistance of these lithologies to fracturing and erosion determines their porosity and favors the presence of groundwater. Twelve main geological formations have been identified in the area, characterized by different types of sandstones, conglomerates, shales, limestones and diamictites. Likewise, according to the classification of the National Geology and Mining Technical Service (SERGEOTECMIN), the park covers seven geological provinces corresponding to periods ranging from the Devonian to the Quaternary.[4]​.

Physiography

The protected area mainly comprises two physiographic provinces: the Subandino, which covers 94.24% of its surface, and the Chaco–Benian Plain, with 5.76%.[4]​ On a large landscape scale, the territory is made up of four units: the mountain ranges (73.91%), the hills (23.96%), the foothills (1.47%) and the plains (0.66%). These units are subdivided into more detailed categories, among which the Middle Mountains stand out, with strong dissection and representing 62.79% of the area, followed by the Low Hills of moderate dissection (13.49%) and other smaller units located mainly in the foothills and alluvial plains.[4]​.

Hydrography

The PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe belongs to the La Plata Hydrographic Region, Pilcomayo River basin (Level 2). This integral area, apart from conserving the biodiversity of flora and fauna, is a potential in water resources, because it is there where the sources of fresh water originate, due to its geological characteristics (porosity and permeability of rocks and sediments) and the existence of active water systems in which four basins are found: Zanja Honda River, Caraparí River, Quebrada del Gritado and the Hydrographic Unit.[5]​.

At least 57 streams have also been identified that supply water to local communities: 20 streams are in the municipality of Yacuiba, 21 in the municipality of Caraparí and 16 in the municipality of Villa Montes.[5]​.

According to Thornthwaite's climate classification, the park area corresponds to a subhumid megathermal climate, especially in the foothills area and in the northern sector of the sub-Andean belt.[6] Summer temperatures are moderate, with an annual average of approximately 21.5 °C. Winter frosts are common in small valleys, caused by the slow descent of cold air masses from the surrounding slopes. Annual rainfall varies between 850 and 1,000 mm.

Within the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe three ecoregions converge: the mountain Chaco, the Tucumán-Bolivian Forest and the Gran Chaco.[7]​ The first two belong to plant formations of the Andean region, while the third corresponds to the eastern plains of the south of the country. In terms of extension, the Tucuman-Bolivian Forest occupies 37.2% of the protected area, followed by the mountain Chaco with 33.9% and, finally, the Gran Chaco with 28.9% of the total surface.[7]​.

Each ecoregion presents distinctive environmental conditions. The Tucumán-Bolivian Forest is characterized by subhumid to humid forests, with marked thermal and water seasonality, average temperatures close to 23 °C and rainfall between 700 and 1,200 mm annually. °C and annual rainfall of 700 to 1,000 mm. In the lowest areas is the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion dominated by dry microfoliate forests subject to a very marked seasonality, with temperatures that can range between 1 °C and 48 °C and average rainfall within a dry climate regime of up to seven months.[7]​.

The Aguaragüe PN-ANMI includes two ecosystems, the Tucumán-Bolivian and Chaco montane forests. The flora of the Tucumán-Bolivian montane forest is mainly characterized by Podocarpus parlatorei, Blepharocalyx salicifolius, Myrcianthes pseudomato, Cedrela angustifolia, Juglans australis, Zanthoxylum coco, Phoebe porphyria, Ocotea ouberula"), Nectanra sp., Viburnum seemannii and Chusquea lorentziana.[8]​.

The Chaco mountain forest, on the other hand, is characterized by Schinopsis marginata, Schinopsis lorentzii, Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, Myracrodruon urundeuva, Amburana cearensis, Anadenanthera colubrina, Ceiba insignis, Prosopis sp. and several species of cacti, including those of the genera Opuntia, Cereus and Pereskia.[8]​.

Furthermore, in the Aguaragüe National Park in the 2024 administration, the following were recorded:[9].

• - 578 species of flora distributed in 112 botanical families.

• - 10 Endemic flora species in Bolivia present in the protected area such as: carapari, montecillos and others.

• - 23 species that are threatened, of these 11 are vulnerable (tipa blanca, cinchona, quebracho, lapacho, and carapari), 5 in danger of extinction (cedar and pine) and 7 species of minor concern (oak, blackberry, algarrobilla, urundel).[9]​.

The animals found in the territory of the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe are 37 species of reptiles, 120 species of birds, 36 species of amphibians, 36 species of fish, 70 species of mammals and 2 endemic species Miskicho del Aguaragüe (Trichomycterus aguaragüe) and the mouse (Akodon varius).[7]​.

Other species found in the park are: anteater, honey bear, jucumari bear, two species of deer (American mazama and urina), black-footed fox, wild cat, ocelot, jaguar.[10]​.

Among the birds are: The charata guan, several species of guans and the chuña. In the mountain forest of Chaco, the tatú bolita, the yellow tatú, the collared peccary, and the white-chinned peccary are present.[8]​.

The amphibian fauna of the protected area includes around 36 species distributed in seven families, among which Leptodactylidae and Hylidae are the most diverse.[7] No endemic species were recorded. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Leptodactylus laticeps is categorized as Near Threatened and Rhinella courselli as Vulnerable, while most of the remaining species are classified as Least Concern. The Red Book of Vertebrates of Bolivia also identifies Rhinella courselli as vulnerable, mainly due to agricultural and livestock expansion, as well as the contamination of water bodies and soils by agrochemicals.[7]​.

The herpetofauna of the protected area includes around 37 species of reptiles distributed in three orders and eleven families, with a clear predominance of the squamates, which total 32 species.[7] Although no endemisms were identified, several species present threat categories according to the IUCN, the Red Book of Vertebrates of Bolivia or CITES. Among them, Chelonoidis chilensis stands out as vulnerable, Kinosternon scorpioides as almost threatened and Caiman latirostris, classified in CITES I and considered endangered due to agricultural and demographic expansion, as well as the degradation of its habitat in the Bermejo and Pilcomayo sub-basins.[7]​.

In the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe, 488 individuals belonging to 26 species of fish were recorded, distributed in three orders and ten families, among which Characidae and Trichomycteridae present the highest specific richness.[7]​ The most abundant species were Hypostomus paranensis and Parodon carrikeri, while Pimelodus maculatus and Prochilodus lineatus showed the lowest abundances. The lower subbasin concentrated the greatest diversity, with 23 species compared to the 10 recorded in the upper subbasin. None of the species is listed as threatened by the IUCN, although the Bolivian Red Book of Vertebrates lists Trichomycterus aguarague and Prochilodus lineatus as near threatened and Acrobrycon ipanquianus as vulnerable, mainly due to exploitation during reproductive migration, upstream mining pollution and habitat alteration.[7]​.

Within the limits of the protected area there are 13 communities, of which four are located in the area of the National Park (PN) and correspond to peasant settlements in the municipality of Caraparí, while nine are located in the Natural Area of Integrated Management (ANMI), made up of peasant, indigenous and mixed communities.[11] In the immediate surroundings of the area there are also 44 populated centers, distributed among the municipalities of Yacuiba, Caraparí and Villa Montes, including part of the urban area of the capital of the latter within the ANMI. In total, 57 communities maintain a territorial relationship with the mountains, composed mainly of peasant populations, followed by indigenous communities belonging to the Assembly of the Guaraní People (APG) and some mixed communities.[11]​.

Regarding the legal status of the land, only 15 of these communities have titles granted by the National Institute of Agrarian Reform&action=edit&redlink=1 "National Institute of Agrarian Reform (Bolivia) (not yet drafted)") (INRA), corresponding to eight peasant and seven indigenous communities, while the rest are in different stages of the sanitation and titling process.[11]​.

The main risks for the ecosystems of the PN-ANMI Serranía del Aguaragüe come from environmental degradation processes that affect water functionality, forest cover and biodiversity. Deforestation has shown sustained growth since 2000, generating habitat fragmentation, loss of nutrients and impact on ecological corridors, especially for forest-dependent species.[12]​ The expansion of the agricultural and livestock frontier, along with uncontrolled grazing, causes erosion, eutrophication of water bodies and alteration of plant composition. In addition, water harvesting works, illegal settlements and the advance of the urban sprawl reduce native vegetation and affect the availability and quality of water resources.[12]​.

Oil and gas activities constitute another critical threat, particularly in areas where polluting waste is recorded that alters the composition of the water and affects fish populations.[12] Added to this are the inadequate disposal of solid and liquid waste, the execution of works that reduce vegetation cover, illegal logging and forest fires, the effects of which are enhanced when they become recurrent. The modification of microhabitats by road infrastructure and the diversion of water courses also generate barriers to the migration and reproduction of aquatic species, especially fish.[12]​.

Direct pressures on fauna include commercial fishing of high-value species, such as shad, dorado and surubí, as well as occasional or unregulated hunting of mammals and birds.[12] Mortality due to road accidents on the routes that cross the protected area is a persistent problem, affecting species such as foxes (Cerdocyon thous and Lycalopex gymnocercus), carachupas (Didelphis albiventris) and skunks (Conepatus chinga). Finally, climate change intensifies the impacts of these threats by increasing the vulnerability of the territory to floods, droughts and landslides, accentuating the degradation of the ecosystems of the protected area.[12]​.

• - Geography of Bolivia.

• - Annex: World Heritage in Bolivia.

• - Iñao national park and integrated management natural area.