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Deep socio-environmental regeneration
Introduction
environmentalism (sometimes called the green movement or environmentalism) is a varied political, social and global movement that defends nature and the protection of the environment.[1][2][3].
Typically, environmentalism (also called environmentalism) is defended from anthropocentric positions, that is, to satisfy a human need, including health and social needs. In these terms, environmentalists make a more or less implicit social criticism, proposing the need for legal reforms and social awareness in governments, companies and social groups.[3] The environmental movement is united with a commitment to maintain human health in balance with natural ecosystems, humanity is considered a part of nature and not something separate from it. A pure defense of environmentalism is made from ecocentric approaches, giving priority to ecosystems and species over individuals, humans or other species. This positioning is normally framed within radical environmentalism.[4].
Political ecology focuses on achieving significant modifications in the environmental policies of all States in the world. There are those who propose a radical change in the State system and deny the need for more development in the conventional or capitalist sense, while others only propose a change in environmental policy, and others a profound change in the form of social and environmental relations of production.[5].
Possibly this policy was born at the moment when the deterioration of the environment becomes evident due to experiments or lack of knowledge of human activity. The book The Limits to Growth, first published in 1972 by the Club of Rome, caused concern and a multitude of environmentalist or ecological political groups emerged in the United States. Political ecology and environmentalism are not always in favor of absolute ecocentrism, but generally tend to start from anthropocentrist positions.[5].
Origin
The environmental movement emerged between the sixties and seventies in the West, from the social denunciation of the domination of nature for development purposes.[6][7] The environmental movement has three main roots: conservation and regeneration of natural resources, preservation of wildlife, and the movement to reduce pollution and improve urban life.[8][9].
The 26th president of the United States of America Theodore Roosevelt, a prominent conservationist, was the first to address the issue of environmental conservation on the political agenda of the United States, although more focused on healthy living conditions than on ecological issues.[10].
Deep socio-environmental regeneration
Introduction
environmentalism (sometimes called the green movement or environmentalism) is a varied political, social and global movement that defends nature and the protection of the environment.[1][2][3].
Typically, environmentalism (also called environmentalism) is defended from anthropocentric positions, that is, to satisfy a human need, including health and social needs. In these terms, environmentalists make a more or less implicit social criticism, proposing the need for legal reforms and social awareness in governments, companies and social groups.[3] The environmental movement is united with a commitment to maintain human health in balance with natural ecosystems, humanity is considered a part of nature and not something separate from it. A pure defense of environmentalism is made from ecocentric approaches, giving priority to ecosystems and species over individuals, humans or other species. This positioning is normally framed within radical environmentalism.[4].
Political ecology focuses on achieving significant modifications in the environmental policies of all States in the world. There are those who propose a radical change in the State system and deny the need for more development in the conventional or capitalist sense, while others only propose a change in environmental policy, and others a profound change in the form of social and environmental relations of production.[5].
Possibly this policy was born at the moment when the deterioration of the environment becomes evident due to experiments or lack of knowledge of human activity. The book The Limits to Growth, first published in 1972 by the Club of Rome, caused concern and a multitude of environmentalist or ecological political groups emerged in the United States. Political ecology and environmentalism are not always in favor of absolute ecocentrism, but generally tend to start from anthropocentrist positions.[5].
Origin
The environmental movement emerged between the sixties and seventies in the West, from the social denunciation of the domination of nature for development purposes.[6][7] The environmental movement has three main roots: conservation and regeneration of natural resources, preservation of wildlife, and the movement to reduce pollution and improve urban life.[8][9].
In 1941, the American ecologist and forester, Aldo Leopold, wrote Sandy County Almanac, a book in which he narrates in first person his experiences on a farm whose resources had been exploited by its previous owner. Aldo Leopold proposed the idea of "thinking like a mountain", where he explains that human beings must recognize and not interfere with the balance of nature. This idea inspired the Norwegian philosopher, Arne Naess, years later in his work on deep ecology.[11][12].
The modern environmental movement expressed itself most passionately at the peak of the industrial age: around the third quarter of the century. Modern environmental classics began in that period with the work of Rachel Carson, which provided the first scientific wake-up call to the death of the planet due to human activity.[13]
During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events occurred that heightened environmental awareness of human-caused damage to the environment. In 1954, the 23 crew members of the fishing vessel Daigo Fukuryū Maru were exposed to radioactivity from a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll. In 1969 there was a spill at an oil drilling site in California's Santa Barbara Channel. Other important events were Barry Commoner's protest against nuclear testing, the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson as well as The Population Bomb by Paul R. Ehrlich. These books increased concern and interest in the environment.[14][15][16][17].
The early environmental movement focused heavily on reducing pollution and protecting reserves of natural resources such as water and air. Rapidly expanding development pressures also prompted considerable efforts to preserve unique territories and wildlife habitats, to protect endangered species before they disappeared. In the United States, laws such as the Clean Water Act were passed during the 1970s, such as the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National Environmental Policy. Act%20was%20signed%20into%20law,On%20this%20page:) (Decree Law of Clean Water, Decree Law of Clean Air, Decree Law of Endangered Species, and Decree Law of National Environmental Policy, respectively), which have been the foundations for the standards environmental.[18][19][20][21].
Thanks to the environmental movement, public awareness and environmental science have improved in recent years. Environmental concerns have expanded, including concepts such as sustainability, the hole in the ozone layer, climate change, acid rain, and genetic pollution.[9][22].
Most environmentalists have similar goals, although they may disagree on details such as emphasis, priorities, or individual behavior. Environmental movements often interact or are linked with other social movements with similar moral views, such as the peace movement, human rights or animal rights; against nuclear weapons or nuclear energy, endemic diseases, poverty, hunger, etc.[23].
In the 1970s, due to the oil crisis, environmental pollution problems increased. Urban massification and a series of catastrophes give rise to the launch of a process of awareness of environmentalism and the emergence of numerous environmental platforms, organizations and movements around the world to try to find and promote respect for the environment.[3] The echo of the environmental movement begins to reach an international resonance, going beyond the limits of activist groups to begin to establish itself in the consciousness of public opinion, especially in industrially advanced countries, where environmental degradation begins to deteriorate. quality of life levels. The first groups that appear are diverse and are characterized by presenting different tendencies: conservationists, institutional and radical.[25].
Scope
Environmentalism is developed under various approaches or areas that address different concerns related to the environment:
• - The conservation movement, which seeks to protect the traditional aesthetics of natural areas, their use for consumption (hunting, fishing, trapping) and the philosophical terrain.
• - The environmental movement, which covers a broader scope that includes all landscapes.
• - The environmental health movement, which dates back at least to urban reforms that included the provision of clean water, more efficient management of wastewater disposal through sewage, and the reduction of inhumane sanitary living conditions. Today environmental health is more related to nutrition, preventive medicine, healthy aging and other concerns specific to the well-being of the human body. In these, the natural environment is of interest above all as a means of warning about what could happen to humans.
• - Gaianism"), or ecological movement focused according to the Gaia hypothesis, which values the Earth and other interrelationships between human sciences and human relationships. Deep ecology, similar to the previous one, was more spiritual although it claimed to be science.
• - Environmental justice, a movement that began in the United States in the 1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism. Minority communities and those with low incomes often live near highways, landfills, and factories, where they are exposed to greater pollution and environmental danger than the rest of the population. The Environmental Justice movement seeks a social and ecological link to environmental problems, while keeping environmentalists aware of the dynamics in their own movement, for example racism, sexism, homophobia, classism, and other ills of the dominant culture.
• - The ecofeminist movement that proposes a relationship between nature and man similar to the relationship of subordination between women and diversities within the patriarchal system "Patriarchy (sociology)"), which in its domain ends up exploiting and degrading the environment.
Basics
Contenido
Un informe publicado en 1972 por el Club de Roma de los Estados Unidos, llamado The Limits to Growth (Los límites del crecimiento) esbozó algunas de las preocupaciones de los ecologistas. Otro informe del mismo país, llamado The Global 2000 Report to the President (El Informe Global al Presidente), publicado más tarde por el Consejo de Calidad Medioambiental, informaba hallazgos similares pero fue ampliamente ignorado. Más recientemente el Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Evaluación del Ecosistema del Milenio) aporta vindicación al movimiento.
Claims
The environmental movement, in defense of its values, demands and promotes initiatives and reforms in various areas. Among them the following can be mentioned:[26].
• - Agroecology: fight against GMOs and promotion of organic farming.[27].
• - Water: sustainable use of water resources, especially continental waters.
• - Animals: report activities that they consider involve cruelty to animals; among them, intensive breeding for the food industry or shows such as bullfights.[28].
• - Anti-globalization: campaigns against economic globalization and any international act.
• - Climate change: warning campaigns against global warming and combustion.[29].
• - Consumption: denunciation of the waste caused by the productivist economy, and promotion of responsible consumption.[30].
• - Pollution: denunciation of different forms of pollution, from atmospheric or river pollution to light pollution, among many others.[31].
• - Education: denounces the anti-environmental content of numerous educational texts and organizes environmental awareness campaigns.
• - Energy: denounces the environmental impacts caused by the different ways of obtaining energy; obviously linked to the area of climate change and hazardous waste. In this area, the role of nuclear energy is especially controversial, whose life cycle CO2 emissions are comparable to those of wind energy,[32] but must address waste management.[33].
• - Marine environment: promotes the sustainable exploitation of the marine environment and denounces marine pollution, such as that caused by plastic debris, oil tanker accidents, or attacks on the coastline.
• - Nature: promotes the protection of natural spaces, the fight against forest fires, and denounces attacks on protected spaces.
• - Heritage: dedicated to denouncing attacks against natural heritage.
• - Waste: promotes waste reduction in modern production systems and denounces bad practices in waste management, including lack of interest in recycling or uncontrolled dumping of hazardous waste.
• - Transport: denounces the unsustainability of the current transport system, based on private transport (car) and the construction of high-speed infrastructure or airports, and promotes more sustainable uses such as public transport charged with renewable electricity, the bicycle, in addition to walking.
• - Urban planning: denounces urban planning abuses and the unsustainability of the modern urban planning model.[34][35].
Organizations
Las grandes organizaciones ecologistas que trabajan por el medio ambiente o por algún aspecto específico del mismo en el ámbito internacional comprenden fundamentalmente el Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza (más conocida globalmente como WWF); Amigos de la Tierra (ONG española que busca aportar soluciones a través de campañas y proyectos para el ambiente de manera sostenible); Greenpeace (ONG multifacética que aborda desde el cambio climático y cuidado de los océanos hasta la promoción de la paz); BirdLife Internacional (dedicada a la protección de las aves y sus hábitats); el Movimiento Mundial por los Bosques Tropicales (conocido como WRM, se centra en la conservación de los bosques y selvas tropicales); The Nature Conservancy (por sus siglas, conocida como TNC internacionalmente, se dedica a la conservación de la biodiversidad y el medio natural); entre otras.[40] Incluso, se encuentran acciones masivas como La Hora del Planeta, inicialmente promovida por WWF, invita global y anualmente a apagar las luces de las instalaciones y dispositivos por una hora el último sábado de Marzo.
International
The large environmental organizations that work for the environment or for some specific aspect of it at the international level fundamentally include the World Wildlife Fund (better known globally as WWF); Friends of the Earth (Spanish NGO that seeks to provide solutions through campaigns and projects for the environment in a sustainable way); Greenpeace (multifaceted NGO that addresses everything from climate change and care of the oceans to the promotion of peace); BirdLife International (dedicated to the protection of birds and their habitats); the World Rainforest Movement (known as WRM, focuses on the conservation of tropical forests and rainforests); The Nature Conservancy (known internationally as TNC, is dedicated to the conservation of biodiversity and the natural environment); among others.[40] There are even massive actions such as Earth Hour, initially promoted by WWF, globally and annually inviting people to turn off the lights of facilities and devices for one hour on the last Saturday of March.
In the Latin American region, a higher general prevalence of environmental knowledge is estimated in Argentina.[41] Based on the Rasch model, a new measurement scale called EKLA was created. This considers the different difficulties of the different issues in the countries and gives indications on the cultural and geographical factors that influence environmental knowledge.[42]However, in a regional panorama of Central and South America, we find various activist organizations and environmental defenders that seek to disseminate information, raise awareness and sensitize, above all, in aspects linked to the Escazú Agreement.[43].
Among these organizations that have reached public sphere and impact are Climate Tracker (originated in Brazil, focused on improving climate journalism); Defenders of the Territory (born in Venezuela, it is made up of 12 defenders throughout Latin America who seek to defend the territory, life and human rights in it); Climate Route (Costa Rican NGO that advocates for the public's right to participate in the climate governance process and climate justice); Interquorum Network (Peruvian network focused on strengthening democracy, human rights and environmental sustainability, emphasizing youth empowerment); among others. There are regional campaigns such as Escazú Ahora, a campaign to ratify the Agreement, but locally the objectives may vary. In Colombia, it is a platform of NGOs, universities and network representatives, created to strengthen environmental democracy in the country.[43].
In Spain, other small organizations have emerged, very active and demanding, which have emerged with various disruptive manifestations of culture, sports and politics. This is the case of Futuro Vegetal, a radical split from Extinction Rebellion. They define themselves as a "civil disobedience and direct action movement that fights against the climate crisis by adopting a plant-based agri-food system", which is why they criticize and try to avoid the consumption of meat by the population. They do this through provocative actions that attract the media.[44] In 2023, in Spain, they launched refreshments on works of art and paintings on significant buildings such as the Congress of Deputies,[45] the BBVA headquarters,[46] the MasterChef restaurant,[47] and the PP and PSOE headquarters in Madrid.[48].
Environmentalists murdered
The newspaper The Guardian in a special report has published a list of 207 "environmental defenders" murdered "while protecting the land or natural resources of their community."[42] Honduras, the Philippines and Brazil are among the first places where these murders occur.[42] Among the murders in 2017 are the Mexican Isidro Balenegro López, Mexican activist and winner of the Goldman Environmental Prize, or Wayne Lotter, a prominent activist against ivory trader in Tanzania murdered in August 2017.[54][55].
The NGO Global Witness indicates that in Latin America about 80% of these crimes are concentrated against defenders of the land and the environment.[56] By 2021, of the 200 cases of murders recorded on the five continents, 157 occurred in the Latin American region[56] Mexico led with a total of 54 murders among the countries with the highest number of events.[57] Colombia registered 33 cases, and Brazil 26[57] To a lesser extent, the Philippines documented 19 cases, Nicaragua 15, and India 14[57] Finally, Honduras and the Democratic Republic of the Congo recorded 8 murders respectively[57] The main sectors responsible by number of victims are divided into mining and extractive industries with 27 crimes; in hydroelectric energy with 13; in agribusiness with 5 cases; due to forestry exploitation, and roads and infrastructure, with 4 victims in each sector - however, the sector of origin could not be identified for the majority of fatalities[56].
Role of science
Largely because of this political criticism and confusion, a growing concern about environmental health problems caused by pesticides, some serious biologists and environmentalists created a scientific ecological movement that did not confuse empirical data with visions of a better future world.
Today it is the science of ecology, rather than aesthetic goals, that provides the basis of unity for most ecologists. All would accept some level of scientific contrast in decisions about biodiversity or forest use. Conservation biology is an important and rapidly developing field.
Renewed focus on local action
La aplicación del ecologismo puede verse desde el activismo ambiental. Este puede manifestarse desde distintos ámbitos como se ha visto. Los movimientos y políticas nacionales buscan promover la conciencia ambiental y la sostenibilidad, como se observa en varios países de Latinoamérica.[58] Venezuela se enfoca en la educación ambiental popular y la participación comunitaria para impulsar la transformación social[58] En el Perú se realizan esfuerzos para incorporar la educación ambiental en los planes de estudios y fortalecer la gestión ambiental institucional[58] Ecuador ha establecido una Estrategia Nacional de Educación Ambiental y reconoce a la naturaleza como sujeto de derechos[58] En Panamá existe una conexión histórica entre los movimientos ambientales y la recuperación de la soberanía nacional[58] En Colombia, la educación ambiental es vista como una herramienta para resolver conflictos socioambientales y promover prácticas sostenibles[58] En Chile, la educación ambiental tiene como objetivo desarrollar la conciencia y las habilidades de los ciudadanos para la coexistencia armoniosa con el ambiente[58] Los movimientos en estos países han sido fundamentales en la defensa de la protección del medio ambiente, los derechos indígenas y el desarrollo sostenible, a pesar de enfrentar considerables desafíos derivados de intereses económicos y conflictos políticos.
No obstante, el movimiento ambiental actualmente persiste en muchos grupos locales pequeños, frecuentemente dentro de ecorregiones, promoviendo los valores estéticos y espirituales que Thoreau o aquellos que reescribieron la respuesta del Jefe Seattle reconocerían. Algunos se asemejan al antiguo movimiento de conservación") estadounidense - cuya expresión moderna la forman Nature Conservancy, National Audubon Society y National Geographic Society - organizaciones estadounidenses de influencia mundial.
Estos grupos políticamente neutrales tienden a evitar conflictos globales y ver el acuerdo de un conflicto entre humanos separado de lo que respecta a la naturaleza - en contradicción directa con el movimiento de la Ecología") y el movimiento por la Paz") que tienen un número creciente de estrechos enlaces: Mientras que partidos verdes, la Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, Greenpeace, y grupos como The Activist Magazine, por ejemplo, ven la ecología y la biodiversidad y un final de las extinciones como algo absolutamente básico para la paz, algunos grupos locales puede que no, y pueden ver un alto nivel de competición global y conflicto como justificable si les permite preservar sus propia identidad local. Esto les resulta egoísta a algunos. No obstante, esos grupos no tienden a quemarse sino a sostenerse por largos períodos, incluso generaciones, protegiendo tesoros locales. La Water Keepers Alliance") es un buen ejemplo de este tipo de grupos que se aferran a las cuestiones locales.
Las visiones y confusiones, sin embargo, persisten. La nueva visión tribalista de la sociedad, por ejemplo, se hace eco de las preocupaciones de los primeros ecologista en cierto grado. Y un número en aumento de grupos locales encuentran el beneficio de la colaboración, como con métodos de decisiones por consenso o políticas simultáneas, o confiando en recursos legales comunes, o incluso un glosario común. A pesar de esto, las diferencias entre los distintos grupos que componen el movimiento medioambiental moderno tienden a tener más peso que esas similitudes, y raramente cooperan directamente excepto en las cuestiones globales más importantes.
Grupos como The Bioregional Revolution") están haciendo una llamada sobre la necesidad de tender un puente entre estas diferencias, pues afirman que los problemas que convergen en el siglo nos obligan a tomar una acción decisiva. Promueven el biorregionalismo, la permacultura, y las economías locales como solución a estos problemas, la sobrepoblación, el cambio climático, las epidemias globales, y la escasez de agua pero más notablemente a la Teoría del pico de Hubbert -- la predicción de que es probable de que lleguemos a un máximo en la producción global de petróleo que podría significar cambios drásticos en muchos aspectos de nuestra vida diaria.
Milestones in ecological advances
The recognition and granting of rights of nature in Latin American countries is crucial to advance socio-legal mobilization, protect ecosystems and promote responsible global environmental governance.[59] Countries such as Ecuador and Colombia have made progress in the written recognition of these rights to a greater extent; Chile and Peru would be found next. Bolivia, on the other hand, goes beyond an anthropocentric approach, rather inverting the hierarchy towards ecocentrism. Because “the Bolivian Constitution recognizes the importance of protecting Mother Earth, describing it as the sacred house where all forms of life have coexisted in harmony.”[60].
Both the Colombian case and the recent Peruvian one are born from the recognition of rights towards a part of nature: rivers. Colombia, with the granting of rights to the Atrato River[61] encouraged the participation of municipal authorities and local communities to address socio-environmental conflicts, which led to an expansion of rights to the Amazon in 2018.[62] In Peru, the Court of Nauta recognized the Marañón River as the holder of rights, a body of water and the heart of socio-environmental problems due to mining, hydroelectric and oil concessions over everything.[63] She acquired the title of subject of rights after demands towards different state institutions by the Kukama Kukamiria women, specifically the Federation of Kukama Women of Samiria and Marañón or “Huaynakana Kamatahuara Kana”. These advances in the region have allowed the activation of socio-legal measures, the protection of strategic ecosystems and the promotion of environmental justice at different levels of government.
The efforts align with international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and contribute to the urgent need for effective mechanisms to address climate change and environmental degradation. That is, they respond to the positioning of the protection of the environment and the rights of nature as the center of the political and social agenda.[64] This recognition has led to the involvement of various interested parties for an effective implementation of multilateral commitments within the framework of global environmental governance. A review of the formulation of ecological constitutionalism in Latin America marks this paradigm.[65].
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Environmentalism.*EFEverde NGO Territory. News from environmental organizations.
• - Political Ecology Magazine.
• - Institute of Political Ecology. Chilean NGO.
• - Felipe Cárdenas, The silencing of environmental science (Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 2007).
References
[1] ↑ Real Academia Española. «ecologismo». Diccionario de la lengua española (23.ª edición). Consultado el 25 de junio de 2024.: https://dle.rae.es/ecologismo
[6] ↑ María,, Mardones, José (1996). 10 palabras clave sobre movimientos sociales. Verbo Divino. ISBN 8481690414. OCLC 636346488. Consultado el 1 de octubre de 2018.: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/636346488
[14] ↑ «Daigo Fukuryu Maru keep voyaging for nuclear free future». Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2025. - [https://d5f-org.translate.goog/en/en-about?_x_tr_sch=http&_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=Estuvo%20expuesto%20a%20la%20radiaci%C3%B3n%20durante%20la,Marshall%20el%201%20de%20marzo%20de%201954.&text=Posteriormente%2C%20los%2023%20pescadores%20a%20bordo%20sufrieron,de%20la%20muerte%22)%20que%20cay%C3%B3%20sobre%20ellos.](https://d5f-org.translate.goog/en/en-about?_x_tr_sch=http&_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=Estuvo%20expuesto%20a%20la%20radiaci%C3%B3n%20durante%20la,Marshall%20el%201%20de%20marzo%20de%201954.&text=Posteriormente%2C%20los%2023%20pescadores%20a%20bordo%20sufrieron,de%20la%20muerte%22)%20que%20cay%C3%B3%20sobre%20ellos.)
[17] ↑ «Barry Commoner, un científico con conciencia de especie y conocimiento del valor de la ciudadanía». Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2025.: https://espai-marx.net/?p=12135
[18] ↑ «Resumen de la Ley de Agua Limpia». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025. - [https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20CWA%20prohibi%C3%B3%20descargar%20cualquier%20contaminante%20desde,(NPDES)%20de%20la%20EPA%20controla%20las%20descargas.](https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20CWA%20prohibi%C3%B3%20descargar%20cualquier%20contaminante%20desde,(NPDES)%20de%20la%20EPA%20controla%20las%20descargas.)
[19] ↑ «Resumen de la Ley de Aire Limpio». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025. - [https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20Ley%20de%20Aire%20Limpio%20(CAA)%20es,regular%20las%20emisiones%20de%20contaminantes%20atmosf%C3%A9ricos%20peligrosos.](https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20Ley%20de%20Aire%20Limpio%20(CAA)%20es,regular%20las%20emisiones%20de%20contaminantes%20atmosf%C3%A9ricos%20peligrosos.)
[21] ↑ «What is the National Environmental Policy Act?». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025. - [https://www.epa.gov/nepa/what-national-environmental-policy-act#:~:text=The%20National%20Environmental%20Policy%20Act%20(NEPA)%20was%20signed%20into%20law,On%20this%20page:](https://www.epa.gov/nepa/what-national-environmental-policy-act#:~:text=The%20National%20Environmental%20Policy%20Act%20(NEPA)%20was%20signed%20into%20law,On%20this%20page:)
[23] ↑ Mario Alberto Velázquez García. «Relaciones entre organizaciones y movimientos sociales. Redes y oportunidades políticas: los casos de la Red Nacional de Acción Ecologista (Argentina) y la Red Nacional de Derecho a la Información Ambiental (México)». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025.: https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1870-39252005000200002#nota
[24] ↑ Trentini, Florencia (2012). Ecología política y conservación: el caso del "co-manejo" del parque nacional nahuel huapi y el pueblo mapuche. Universidad Nacional del Comahue: Centro Regional Zona Atlántica. p. 2. OCLC 823491479. Consultado el 2 de septiembre de 2020.: http://worldcat.org/oclc/823491479
[38] ↑ Thezá Manríquez, Marcel André (2011-08). «La naturaleza con derechos: de la filosofía a la política». Polis (Santiago) 10 (29): 479-485. ISSN 0718-6568. doi:10.4067/s0718-65682011000200022. Consultado el 15 de abril de 2020.: https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0718-65682011000200022
[39] ↑ Delgado Neyra, Paulo César (2020). El daño ambiental en el Perú. Lima - Perú: Motivensa Editora Jurídica. p. 15. ISBN 978-612-4144-32-5.
[41] ↑ Geiger, Sonja M.; Otto, Siegmar; Diaz-Marin, Johann S. (2 de enero de 2014). «A diagnostic Environmental Knowledge Scale for Latin America / Escala diagnóstica de conocimientos ambientales para Latinoamérica». Psyecology (en inglés) 5 (1): 1-36. ISSN 2171-1976. doi:10.1080/21711976.2014.881664. Consultado el 8 de julio de 2024.: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1080/21711976.2014.881664
[56] ↑ a b c «Siempre en pie: Personas defensoras de la tierra y el medioambiente al frente de la crisis climática». Global Witness. Consultado el 8 de julio de 2024.: https://es/standing-firm-es/
[58] ↑ a b c d e f g Pereira, Vilmar Alves; López, Carelia Hidalgo; Lotero, William Gómez; Arévalo, Lissette Torres; López, Lenín Morales; Guevara, Yeissy Sarmiento; Alvarez, Lurima Estevez; Quiñones, Eduardo Quiñones et al. (10 de octubre de 2019). «Una mirada a la educación ambiental y movimientos populares ambientales en América Latina / Um olhar para a educação ambiental e movimentos populares ambientais na América Latina / A look at environmental education and popular environmental movements in Latin America». REMEA - Revista Eletrônica do Mestrado em Educação Ambiental (en portugués): 6-35. ISSN 1517-1256. doi:10.14295/remea.v0i0.9464. Consultado el 2 de julio de 2024. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://periodicos.furg.br/remea/article/view/9464
[60] ↑ Villavicencio Calzadilla, Paola (28 de junio de 2022). «Los derechos de la naturaleza en Bolivia: un estudio a más de una década de su reconocimiento». Revista Catalana de Dret Ambiental 13 (1). ISSN 2014-038X. doi:10.17345/rcda3342. Consultado el 4 de julio de 2024.: https://revistes.urv.cat/index.php/rcda/article/view/3342
[62] ↑ Lyons, Kristina (1 de julio de 2021). «Mejorar los conflictos: derechos de la Amazonía en mundos cosmopolíticos». Revista de Antropología y Sociología : Virajes 23 (2): 105-139. ISSN 2462-9782. doi:10.17151/rasv.2021.23.2.6. Consultado el 4 de julio de 2024.: https://revistasojs.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/virajes/article/view/4862
[64] ↑ El desafío de la sostenibilidad ambiental en América Latina y el Caribe. Textos seleccionados 2012-2014. 2015. Consultado el 3 de julio de 2024.: https://hdl.handle.net/11362/37791
[65] ↑ Iacovino, Angela (2020-06). «Constitucionalismo ecológico en América Latina: de los derechos ambientales a los derechos de la naturaleza». Cultura Latinoamericana. Revista de estudios interculturales 31 (1). doi:10.14718/CulturaLatinoam.2020.31.1.12. Consultado el 3 de julio de 2024.: https://editorial.ucatolica.edu.co/index.php/RevClat/article/view/3509
The 26th president of the United States of America Theodore Roosevelt, a prominent conservationist, was the first to address the issue of environmental conservation on the political agenda of the United States, although more focused on healthy living conditions than on ecological issues.[10].
In 1941, the American ecologist and forester, Aldo Leopold, wrote Sandy County Almanac, a book in which he narrates in first person his experiences on a farm whose resources had been exploited by its previous owner. Aldo Leopold proposed the idea of "thinking like a mountain", where he explains that human beings must recognize and not interfere with the balance of nature. This idea inspired the Norwegian philosopher, Arne Naess, years later in his work on deep ecology.[11][12].
The modern environmental movement expressed itself most passionately at the peak of the industrial age: around the third quarter of the century. Modern environmental classics began in that period with the work of Rachel Carson, which provided the first scientific wake-up call to the death of the planet due to human activity.[13]
During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events occurred that heightened environmental awareness of human-caused damage to the environment. In 1954, the 23 crew members of the fishing vessel Daigo Fukuryū Maru were exposed to radioactivity from a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll. In 1969 there was a spill at an oil drilling site in California's Santa Barbara Channel. Other important events were Barry Commoner's protest against nuclear testing, the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson as well as The Population Bomb by Paul R. Ehrlich. These books increased concern and interest in the environment.[14][15][16][17].
The early environmental movement focused heavily on reducing pollution and protecting reserves of natural resources such as water and air. Rapidly expanding development pressures also prompted considerable efforts to preserve unique territories and wildlife habitats, to protect endangered species before they disappeared. In the United States, laws such as the Clean Water Act were passed during the 1970s, such as the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National Environmental Policy. Act%20was%20signed%20into%20law,On%20this%20page:) (Decree Law of Clean Water, Decree Law of Clean Air, Decree Law of Endangered Species, and Decree Law of National Environmental Policy, respectively), which have been the foundations for the standards environmental.[18][19][20][21].
Thanks to the environmental movement, public awareness and environmental science have improved in recent years. Environmental concerns have expanded, including concepts such as sustainability, the hole in the ozone layer, climate change, acid rain, and genetic pollution.[9][22].
Most environmentalists have similar goals, although they may disagree on details such as emphasis, priorities, or individual behavior. Environmental movements often interact or are linked with other social movements with similar moral views, such as the peace movement, human rights or animal rights; against nuclear weapons or nuclear energy, endemic diseases, poverty, hunger, etc.[23].
In the 1970s, due to the oil crisis, environmental pollution problems increased. Urban massification and a series of catastrophes give rise to the launch of a process of awareness of environmentalism and the emergence of numerous environmental platforms, organizations and movements around the world to try to find and promote respect for the environment.[3] The echo of the environmental movement begins to reach an international resonance, going beyond the limits of activist groups to begin to establish itself in the consciousness of public opinion, especially in industrially advanced countries, where environmental degradation begins to deteriorate. quality of life levels. The first groups that appear are diverse and are characterized by presenting different tendencies: conservationists, institutional and radical.[25].
Scope
Environmentalism is developed under various approaches or areas that address different concerns related to the environment:
• - The conservation movement, which seeks to protect the traditional aesthetics of natural areas, their use for consumption (hunting, fishing, trapping) and the philosophical terrain.
• - The environmental movement, which covers a broader scope that includes all landscapes.
• - The environmental health movement, which dates back at least to urban reforms that included the provision of clean water, more efficient management of wastewater disposal through sewage, and the reduction of inhumane sanitary living conditions. Today environmental health is more related to nutrition, preventive medicine, healthy aging and other concerns specific to the well-being of the human body. In these, the natural environment is of interest above all as a means of warning about what could happen to humans.
• - Gaianism"), or ecological movement focused according to the Gaia hypothesis, which values the Earth and other interrelationships between human sciences and human relationships. Deep ecology, similar to the previous one, was more spiritual although it claimed to be science.
• - Environmental justice, a movement that began in the United States in the 1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism. Minority communities and those with low incomes often live near highways, landfills, and factories, where they are exposed to greater pollution and environmental danger than the rest of the population. The Environmental Justice movement seeks a social and ecological link to environmental problems, while keeping environmentalists aware of the dynamics in their own movement, for example racism, sexism, homophobia, classism, and other ills of the dominant culture.
• - The ecofeminist movement that proposes a relationship between nature and man similar to the relationship of subordination between women and diversities within the patriarchal system "Patriarchy (sociology)"), which in its domain ends up exploiting and degrading the environment.
Basics
Contenido
Un informe publicado en 1972 por el Club de Roma de los Estados Unidos, llamado The Limits to Growth (Los límites del crecimiento) esbozó algunas de las preocupaciones de los ecologistas. Otro informe del mismo país, llamado The Global 2000 Report to the President (El Informe Global al Presidente), publicado más tarde por el Consejo de Calidad Medioambiental, informaba hallazgos similares pero fue ampliamente ignorado. Más recientemente el Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (Evaluación del Ecosistema del Milenio) aporta vindicación al movimiento.
Claims
The environmental movement, in defense of its values, demands and promotes initiatives and reforms in various areas. Among them the following can be mentioned:[26].
• - Agroecology: fight against GMOs and promotion of organic farming.[27].
• - Water: sustainable use of water resources, especially continental waters.
• - Animals: report activities that they consider involve cruelty to animals; among them, intensive breeding for the food industry or shows such as bullfights.[28].
• - Anti-globalization: campaigns against economic globalization and any international act.
• - Climate change: warning campaigns against global warming and combustion.[29].
• - Consumption: denunciation of the waste caused by the productivist economy, and promotion of responsible consumption.[30].
• - Pollution: denunciation of different forms of pollution, from atmospheric or river pollution to light pollution, among many others.[31].
• - Education: denounces the anti-environmental content of numerous educational texts and organizes environmental awareness campaigns.
• - Energy: denounces the environmental impacts caused by the different ways of obtaining energy; obviously linked to the area of climate change and hazardous waste. In this area, the role of nuclear energy is especially controversial, whose life cycle CO2 emissions are comparable to those of wind energy,[32] but must address waste management.[33].
• - Marine environment: promotes the sustainable exploitation of the marine environment and denounces marine pollution, such as that caused by plastic debris, oil tanker accidents, or attacks on the coastline.
• - Nature: promotes the protection of natural spaces, the fight against forest fires, and denounces attacks on protected spaces.
• - Heritage: dedicated to denouncing attacks against natural heritage.
• - Waste: promotes waste reduction in modern production systems and denounces bad practices in waste management, including lack of interest in recycling or uncontrolled dumping of hazardous waste.
• - Transport: denounces the unsustainability of the current transport system, based on private transport (car) and the construction of high-speed infrastructure or airports, and promotes more sustainable uses such as public transport charged with renewable electricity, the bicycle, in addition to walking.
• - Urban planning: denounces urban planning abuses and the unsustainability of the modern urban planning model.[34][35].
Organizations
Las grandes organizaciones ecologistas que trabajan por el medio ambiente o por algún aspecto específico del mismo en el ámbito internacional comprenden fundamentalmente el Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza (más conocida globalmente como WWF); Amigos de la Tierra (ONG española que busca aportar soluciones a través de campañas y proyectos para el ambiente de manera sostenible); Greenpeace (ONG multifacética que aborda desde el cambio climático y cuidado de los océanos hasta la promoción de la paz); BirdLife Internacional (dedicada a la protección de las aves y sus hábitats); el Movimiento Mundial por los Bosques Tropicales (conocido como WRM, se centra en la conservación de los bosques y selvas tropicales); The Nature Conservancy (por sus siglas, conocida como TNC internacionalmente, se dedica a la conservación de la biodiversidad y el medio natural); entre otras.[40] Incluso, se encuentran acciones masivas como La Hora del Planeta, inicialmente promovida por WWF, invita global y anualmente a apagar las luces de las instalaciones y dispositivos por una hora el último sábado de Marzo.
International
The large environmental organizations that work for the environment or for some specific aspect of it at the international level fundamentally include the World Wildlife Fund (better known globally as WWF); Friends of the Earth (Spanish NGO that seeks to provide solutions through campaigns and projects for the environment in a sustainable way); Greenpeace (multifaceted NGO that addresses everything from climate change and care of the oceans to the promotion of peace); BirdLife International (dedicated to the protection of birds and their habitats); the World Rainforest Movement (known as WRM, focuses on the conservation of tropical forests and rainforests); The Nature Conservancy (known internationally as TNC, is dedicated to the conservation of biodiversity and the natural environment); among others.[40] There are even massive actions such as Earth Hour, initially promoted by WWF, globally and annually inviting people to turn off the lights of facilities and devices for one hour on the last Saturday of March.
In the Latin American region, a higher general prevalence of environmental knowledge is estimated in Argentina.[41] Based on the Rasch model, a new measurement scale called EKLA was created. This considers the different difficulties of the different issues in the countries and gives indications on the cultural and geographical factors that influence environmental knowledge.[42]However, in a regional panorama of Central and South America, we find various activist organizations and environmental defenders that seek to disseminate information, raise awareness and sensitize, above all, in aspects linked to the Escazú Agreement.[43].
Among these organizations that have reached public sphere and impact are Climate Tracker (originated in Brazil, focused on improving climate journalism); Defenders of the Territory (born in Venezuela, it is made up of 12 defenders throughout Latin America who seek to defend the territory, life and human rights in it); Climate Route (Costa Rican NGO that advocates for the public's right to participate in the climate governance process and climate justice); Interquorum Network (Peruvian network focused on strengthening democracy, human rights and environmental sustainability, emphasizing youth empowerment); among others. There are regional campaigns such as Escazú Ahora, a campaign to ratify the Agreement, but locally the objectives may vary. In Colombia, it is a platform of NGOs, universities and network representatives, created to strengthen environmental democracy in the country.[43].
In Spain, other small organizations have emerged, very active and demanding, which have emerged with various disruptive manifestations of culture, sports and politics. This is the case of Futuro Vegetal, a radical split from Extinction Rebellion. They define themselves as a "civil disobedience and direct action movement that fights against the climate crisis by adopting a plant-based agri-food system", which is why they criticize and try to avoid the consumption of meat by the population. They do this through provocative actions that attract the media.[44] In 2023, in Spain, they launched refreshments on works of art and paintings on significant buildings such as the Congress of Deputies,[45] the BBVA headquarters,[46] the MasterChef restaurant,[47] and the PP and PSOE headquarters in Madrid.[48].
Environmentalists murdered
The newspaper The Guardian in a special report has published a list of 207 "environmental defenders" murdered "while protecting the land or natural resources of their community."[42] Honduras, the Philippines and Brazil are among the first places where these murders occur.[42] Among the murders in 2017 are the Mexican Isidro Balenegro López, Mexican activist and winner of the Goldman Environmental Prize, or Wayne Lotter, a prominent activist against ivory trader in Tanzania murdered in August 2017.[54][55].
The NGO Global Witness indicates that in Latin America about 80% of these crimes are concentrated against defenders of the land and the environment.[56] By 2021, of the 200 cases of murders recorded on the five continents, 157 occurred in the Latin American region[56] Mexico led with a total of 54 murders among the countries with the highest number of events.[57] Colombia registered 33 cases, and Brazil 26[57] To a lesser extent, the Philippines documented 19 cases, Nicaragua 15, and India 14[57] Finally, Honduras and the Democratic Republic of the Congo recorded 8 murders respectively[57] The main sectors responsible by number of victims are divided into mining and extractive industries with 27 crimes; in hydroelectric energy with 13; in agribusiness with 5 cases; due to forestry exploitation, and roads and infrastructure, with 4 victims in each sector - however, the sector of origin could not be identified for the majority of fatalities[56].
Role of science
Largely because of this political criticism and confusion, a growing concern about environmental health problems caused by pesticides, some serious biologists and environmentalists created a scientific ecological movement that did not confuse empirical data with visions of a better future world.
Today it is the science of ecology, rather than aesthetic goals, that provides the basis of unity for most ecologists. All would accept some level of scientific contrast in decisions about biodiversity or forest use. Conservation biology is an important and rapidly developing field.
Renewed focus on local action
La aplicación del ecologismo puede verse desde el activismo ambiental. Este puede manifestarse desde distintos ámbitos como se ha visto. Los movimientos y políticas nacionales buscan promover la conciencia ambiental y la sostenibilidad, como se observa en varios países de Latinoamérica.[58] Venezuela se enfoca en la educación ambiental popular y la participación comunitaria para impulsar la transformación social[58] En el Perú se realizan esfuerzos para incorporar la educación ambiental en los planes de estudios y fortalecer la gestión ambiental institucional[58] Ecuador ha establecido una Estrategia Nacional de Educación Ambiental y reconoce a la naturaleza como sujeto de derechos[58] En Panamá existe una conexión histórica entre los movimientos ambientales y la recuperación de la soberanía nacional[58] En Colombia, la educación ambiental es vista como una herramienta para resolver conflictos socioambientales y promover prácticas sostenibles[58] En Chile, la educación ambiental tiene como objetivo desarrollar la conciencia y las habilidades de los ciudadanos para la coexistencia armoniosa con el ambiente[58] Los movimientos en estos países han sido fundamentales en la defensa de la protección del medio ambiente, los derechos indígenas y el desarrollo sostenible, a pesar de enfrentar considerables desafíos derivados de intereses económicos y conflictos políticos.
No obstante, el movimiento ambiental actualmente persiste en muchos grupos locales pequeños, frecuentemente dentro de ecorregiones, promoviendo los valores estéticos y espirituales que Thoreau o aquellos que reescribieron la respuesta del Jefe Seattle reconocerían. Algunos se asemejan al antiguo movimiento de conservación") estadounidense - cuya expresión moderna la forman Nature Conservancy, National Audubon Society y National Geographic Society - organizaciones estadounidenses de influencia mundial.
Estos grupos políticamente neutrales tienden a evitar conflictos globales y ver el acuerdo de un conflicto entre humanos separado de lo que respecta a la naturaleza - en contradicción directa con el movimiento de la Ecología") y el movimiento por la Paz") que tienen un número creciente de estrechos enlaces: Mientras que partidos verdes, la Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, Greenpeace, y grupos como The Activist Magazine, por ejemplo, ven la ecología y la biodiversidad y un final de las extinciones como algo absolutamente básico para la paz, algunos grupos locales puede que no, y pueden ver un alto nivel de competición global y conflicto como justificable si les permite preservar sus propia identidad local. Esto les resulta egoísta a algunos. No obstante, esos grupos no tienden a quemarse sino a sostenerse por largos períodos, incluso generaciones, protegiendo tesoros locales. La Water Keepers Alliance") es un buen ejemplo de este tipo de grupos que se aferran a las cuestiones locales.
Las visiones y confusiones, sin embargo, persisten. La nueva visión tribalista de la sociedad, por ejemplo, se hace eco de las preocupaciones de los primeros ecologista en cierto grado. Y un número en aumento de grupos locales encuentran el beneficio de la colaboración, como con métodos de decisiones por consenso o políticas simultáneas, o confiando en recursos legales comunes, o incluso un glosario común. A pesar de esto, las diferencias entre los distintos grupos que componen el movimiento medioambiental moderno tienden a tener más peso que esas similitudes, y raramente cooperan directamente excepto en las cuestiones globales más importantes.
Grupos como The Bioregional Revolution") están haciendo una llamada sobre la necesidad de tender un puente entre estas diferencias, pues afirman que los problemas que convergen en el siglo nos obligan a tomar una acción decisiva. Promueven el biorregionalismo, la permacultura, y las economías locales como solución a estos problemas, la sobrepoblación, el cambio climático, las epidemias globales, y la escasez de agua pero más notablemente a la Teoría del pico de Hubbert -- la predicción de que es probable de que lleguemos a un máximo en la producción global de petróleo que podría significar cambios drásticos en muchos aspectos de nuestra vida diaria.
Milestones in ecological advances
The recognition and granting of rights of nature in Latin American countries is crucial to advance socio-legal mobilization, protect ecosystems and promote responsible global environmental governance.[59] Countries such as Ecuador and Colombia have made progress in the written recognition of these rights to a greater extent; Chile and Peru would be found next. Bolivia, on the other hand, goes beyond an anthropocentric approach, rather inverting the hierarchy towards ecocentrism. Because “the Bolivian Constitution recognizes the importance of protecting Mother Earth, describing it as the sacred house where all forms of life have coexisted in harmony.”[60].
Both the Colombian case and the recent Peruvian one are born from the recognition of rights towards a part of nature: rivers. Colombia, with the granting of rights to the Atrato River[61] encouraged the participation of municipal authorities and local communities to address socio-environmental conflicts, which led to an expansion of rights to the Amazon in 2018.[62] In Peru, the Court of Nauta recognized the Marañón River as the holder of rights, a body of water and the heart of socio-environmental problems due to mining, hydroelectric and oil concessions over everything.[63] She acquired the title of subject of rights after demands towards different state institutions by the Kukama Kukamiria women, specifically the Federation of Kukama Women of Samiria and Marañón or “Huaynakana Kamatahuara Kana”. These advances in the region have allowed the activation of socio-legal measures, the protection of strategic ecosystems and the promotion of environmental justice at different levels of government.
The efforts align with international agreements such as the Paris Agreement and contribute to the urgent need for effective mechanisms to address climate change and environmental degradation. That is, they respond to the positioning of the protection of the environment and the rights of nature as the center of the political and social agenda.[64] This recognition has led to the involvement of various interested parties for an effective implementation of multilateral commitments within the framework of global environmental governance. A review of the formulation of ecological constitutionalism in Latin America marks this paradigm.[65].
• - Wikimedia Commons hosts a multimedia category on Environmentalism.*EFEverde NGO Territory. News from environmental organizations.
• - Political Ecology Magazine.
• - Institute of Political Ecology. Chilean NGO.
• - Felipe Cárdenas, The silencing of environmental science (Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 2007).
References
[1] ↑ Real Academia Española. «ecologismo». Diccionario de la lengua española (23.ª edición). Consultado el 25 de junio de 2024.: https://dle.rae.es/ecologismo
[6] ↑ María,, Mardones, José (1996). 10 palabras clave sobre movimientos sociales. Verbo Divino. ISBN 8481690414. OCLC 636346488. Consultado el 1 de octubre de 2018.: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/636346488
[14] ↑ «Daigo Fukuryu Maru keep voyaging for nuclear free future». Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2025. - [https://d5f-org.translate.goog/en/en-about?_x_tr_sch=http&_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=Estuvo%20expuesto%20a%20la%20radiaci%C3%B3n%20durante%20la,Marshall%20el%201%20de%20marzo%20de%201954.&text=Posteriormente%2C%20los%2023%20pescadores%20a%20bordo%20sufrieron,de%20la%20muerte%22)%20que%20cay%C3%B3%20sobre%20ellos.](https://d5f-org.translate.goog/en/en-about?_x_tr_sch=http&_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=Estuvo%20expuesto%20a%20la%20radiaci%C3%B3n%20durante%20la,Marshall%20el%201%20de%20marzo%20de%201954.&text=Posteriormente%2C%20los%2023%20pescadores%20a%20bordo%20sufrieron,de%20la%20muerte%22)%20que%20cay%C3%B3%20sobre%20ellos.)
[17] ↑ «Barry Commoner, un científico con conciencia de especie y conocimiento del valor de la ciudadanía». Consultado el 26 de mayo de 2025.: https://espai-marx.net/?p=12135
[18] ↑ «Resumen de la Ley de Agua Limpia». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025. - [https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20CWA%20prohibi%C3%B3%20descargar%20cualquier%20contaminante%20desde,(NPDES)%20de%20la%20EPA%20controla%20las%20descargas.](https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20CWA%20prohibi%C3%B3%20descargar%20cualquier%20contaminante%20desde,(NPDES)%20de%20la%20EPA%20controla%20las%20descargas.)
[19] ↑ «Resumen de la Ley de Aire Limpio». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025. - [https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20Ley%20de%20Aire%20Limpio%20(CAA)%20es,regular%20las%20emisiones%20de%20contaminantes%20atmosf%C3%A9ricos%20peligrosos.](https://www-epa-gov.translate.goog/laws-regulations/summary-clean-air-act?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sge#:~:text=La%20Ley%20de%20Aire%20Limpio%20(CAA)%20es,regular%20las%20emisiones%20de%20contaminantes%20atmosf%C3%A9ricos%20peligrosos.)
[21] ↑ «What is the National Environmental Policy Act?». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025. - [https://www.epa.gov/nepa/what-national-environmental-policy-act#:~:text=The%20National%20Environmental%20Policy%20Act%20(NEPA)%20was%20signed%20into%20law,On%20this%20page:](https://www.epa.gov/nepa/what-national-environmental-policy-act#:~:text=The%20National%20Environmental%20Policy%20Act%20(NEPA)%20was%20signed%20into%20law,On%20this%20page:)
[23] ↑ Mario Alberto Velázquez García. «Relaciones entre organizaciones y movimientos sociales. Redes y oportunidades políticas: los casos de la Red Nacional de Acción Ecologista (Argentina) y la Red Nacional de Derecho a la Información Ambiental (México)». Consultado el 27 de mayo de 2025.: https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1870-39252005000200002#nota
[24] ↑ Trentini, Florencia (2012). Ecología política y conservación: el caso del "co-manejo" del parque nacional nahuel huapi y el pueblo mapuche. Universidad Nacional del Comahue: Centro Regional Zona Atlántica. p. 2. OCLC 823491479. Consultado el 2 de septiembre de 2020.: http://worldcat.org/oclc/823491479
[38] ↑ Thezá Manríquez, Marcel André (2011-08). «La naturaleza con derechos: de la filosofía a la política». Polis (Santiago) 10 (29): 479-485. ISSN 0718-6568. doi:10.4067/s0718-65682011000200022. Consultado el 15 de abril de 2020.: https://dx.doi.org/10.4067/s0718-65682011000200022
[39] ↑ Delgado Neyra, Paulo César (2020). El daño ambiental en el Perú. Lima - Perú: Motivensa Editora Jurídica. p. 15. ISBN 978-612-4144-32-5.
[41] ↑ Geiger, Sonja M.; Otto, Siegmar; Diaz-Marin, Johann S. (2 de enero de 2014). «A diagnostic Environmental Knowledge Scale for Latin America / Escala diagnóstica de conocimientos ambientales para Latinoamérica». Psyecology (en inglés) 5 (1): 1-36. ISSN 2171-1976. doi:10.1080/21711976.2014.881664. Consultado el 8 de julio de 2024.: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1080/21711976.2014.881664
[56] ↑ a b c «Siempre en pie: Personas defensoras de la tierra y el medioambiente al frente de la crisis climática». Global Witness. Consultado el 8 de julio de 2024.: https://es/standing-firm-es/
[58] ↑ a b c d e f g Pereira, Vilmar Alves; López, Carelia Hidalgo; Lotero, William Gómez; Arévalo, Lissette Torres; López, Lenín Morales; Guevara, Yeissy Sarmiento; Alvarez, Lurima Estevez; Quiñones, Eduardo Quiñones et al. (10 de octubre de 2019). «Una mirada a la educación ambiental y movimientos populares ambientales en América Latina / Um olhar para a educação ambiental e movimentos populares ambientais na América Latina / A look at environmental education and popular environmental movements in Latin America». REMEA - Revista Eletrônica do Mestrado em Educação Ambiental (en portugués): 6-35. ISSN 1517-1256. doi:10.14295/remea.v0i0.9464. Consultado el 2 de julio de 2024. Se sugiere usar |número-autores= (ayuda).: https://periodicos.furg.br/remea/article/view/9464
[60] ↑ Villavicencio Calzadilla, Paola (28 de junio de 2022). «Los derechos de la naturaleza en Bolivia: un estudio a más de una década de su reconocimiento». Revista Catalana de Dret Ambiental 13 (1). ISSN 2014-038X. doi:10.17345/rcda3342. Consultado el 4 de julio de 2024.: https://revistes.urv.cat/index.php/rcda/article/view/3342
[62] ↑ Lyons, Kristina (1 de julio de 2021). «Mejorar los conflictos: derechos de la Amazonía en mundos cosmopolíticos». Revista de Antropología y Sociología : Virajes 23 (2): 105-139. ISSN 2462-9782. doi:10.17151/rasv.2021.23.2.6. Consultado el 4 de julio de 2024.: https://revistasojs.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/virajes/article/view/4862
[64] ↑ El desafío de la sostenibilidad ambiental en América Latina y el Caribe. Textos seleccionados 2012-2014. 2015. Consultado el 3 de julio de 2024.: https://hdl.handle.net/11362/37791
[65] ↑ Iacovino, Angela (2020-06). «Constitucionalismo ecológico en América Latina: de los derechos ambientales a los derechos de la naturaleza». Cultura Latinoamericana. Revista de estudios interculturales 31 (1). doi:10.14718/CulturaLatinoam.2020.31.1.12. Consultado el 3 de julio de 2024.: https://editorial.ucatolica.edu.co/index.php/RevClat/article/view/3509