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Deep ecological planning

Introduction

The environmental movement, also known as environmentalism, ecological movement or green movement, is a diverse set of currents of thought and social movements focused on environmental protection. Its main objective is to promote a sustainable lifestyle by adopting conservation measures, responsible management of natural resources and promoting changes in public policies and individual behaviors. The movement seeks to mitigate practices that are harmful to the environment and promote a balanced relationship between society and nature.[1][2].

Although in various cultures and historical periods there have been traditions that valued nature, such as certain religious practices and indigenous worldviews that considered it sacred, these concerns did not generate a widespread environmental awareness capable of preventing the degradation of ecosystems. It was from the 20th century onwards, with the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, that more systematic analyzes of the negative effects of human activity on nature began to emerge. During this period, the first protected areas were created, specific environmental legislation was enacted, and initial changes in natural resource management were promoted.

The environmental movement took shape as an influential current after the two world wars, when it became clear that the development model based on continuous growth and intensive exploitation of natural resources was causing unprecedented environmental degradation. This awareness marked the beginning of a more structured approach to the defense of the environment, involving various fields of knowledge and generating growing interest in the media, academic institutions and international organizations.

However, the movement has faced significant opposition. His criticisms of the prevailing development model have generated political, economic and social resistance, and some of his theories, although supported by science, have not always been accepted or understood by society. In addition, it faces challenges such as ignorance, lack of political will, and economic interests contrary to its objectives. Despite this, international organizations and renowned scientists agree that the negative impacts of human activities on the environment are alarming and require urgent actions to mitigate or reverse their consequences, especially in the face of growing demographic pressure and the intensification of climate change.

History

Deep ecological planning

Introduction

First trials

Since ancient times, expressions of interest in nature have been recorded, as well as various attacks on it, but effective measures were rarely taken to protect it. Some cases are worth mentioning, such as that of the Babylonians "Babylon (city)"), who had laws to protect the banks of rivers and canals [3] and regulated the felling of forests; the Indians, who have established sacred groves since Vedic times; [4] the Etruscans, who apparently practiced planned forestry, and the Egyptians, who punished anyone who felled trees without authorization from the State and developed reforestation programs on degraded lands, public properties, on the banks of the Nile and in the canals. [3] According to Brennan & Lo, the ancient Greeks appear to have placed little value on nature itself, except when its harm resulted in harm to people. Aristotle said that "nature made all things specifically for human benefit," [5] but his teacher Plato recorded the deforestation that occurred in his time, saying that "what remains today (of forests) compared to what was like the skeleton of a sick man: all the fat and tender flesh have disappeared, leaving only the bare structure of the earth." [6].

The Romans, however, already outlined some broader ecological concerns. Landowners were expected to inherit land in the condition in which they had received it, contamination of drinking water sources was severely punished, there were restrictions on forest clearing and burning, and other legal mechanisms prevented industries, such as tanneries and cheese factories, from harming neighbors. properties with its emissions of liquid waste and malodorous fumes. [7] Despite these regulations, in their time the forests were reduced immensely, [6] and did not prevent them, on other occasions, from using nature for pure fun. Dião Cássio, for example, said that in the inaugural Games at the Coliseum, nine thousand animals of various species were killed. [8] Even so, their ecological achievements made them notable especially in water management, but after the fall of the Empire they fell into disuse and were practically not imitated throughout the Middle Ages. [7] But good examples of exception are Saint Francis of Assisi's love for the natural world, encouraging loggers to cut down trees so they could be reborn, and wanting legislation to be created to protect birds, [9] and the banning of coal by King Edward I of England in 1272, due to the smoke it gave off when burning. [10] In the United States, there is evidence that the Incas had a sophisticated sustainable nature management program and cutting down trees without government authorization was punishable by death. [3].

During the Renaissance the situation in the West began to change. In this period, with the massive recovery of the ideals of Classical Antiquity, the model of pastoral poetry cultivated by the ancients became fashionable, where nature began to be honored once again as the perfect setting for a simple, pure and harmonious life, far from the sophistication and tumults of civilization. At the same time, a tradition of landscaping and gardening was consolidated that sought to beautify natural environments and make suggestive and excessively humanized environments more pleasant. [11] Important artists and philosophers such as Leonardo da Vinci, Machiavelli, Erasmus and Shakespeare began to understand the world holistically, and preached a more balanced and respectful integration between man and nature, as Machiavelli declared: "Rivers are history, trees and buildings are civilization, and dams and dams are good laws and good weapons that can be established by great leaders." Other important ideas that emerged were the notion that human and natural resources are limited, that nature is in a state of constant transformation - contrary to the medieval conception that it is a fixed creation - and that for good management of natural resources, they must be studied in depth and rationally understood. [12] The first environmental protection laws of Portuguese-speaking culture date from this time, with the prohibition of the felling of fruit trees and the hunting of partridges, hares and rabbits, included in the Manueline Ordinances, at the beginning of the century. [13].

However, the civilization was built on an almost exclusively predatory and destructive model, similar to what the Portuguese colonizers did with the Brazilwood. An abundant tree on the Brazilian coast, it has been widely exploited since it was discovered that its wood produced a beautiful red dye. It was so valued and the devastation was so frenetic that in 1558 it was only found 20 km from the coast, and in less than a hundred years around two million specimens were cut down, destroying 6 thousand km² of Atlantic forest. [14].

Only since the 19th century, with the advent of the Enlightenment, advances in natural history studies, and technological advances, did scientists and thinkers begin to know more and care more about the effects of human action on the environment. From then on, nature conservation measures became more common, albeit slowly, such as the creation of parks and protected areas and regulations for the disposal of urban waste and industrial emissions. At a time when urbanization was accelerating in Europe and America, visiting green areas also came to be seen as a healthy antidote to life in cities, where pollution, overpopulation and other environmental problems were already felt. Another important influence came from the early Romantics, who viewed nature with wonder and awe and for whom it had an almost sacred character, seeking an intimate communion with it. [15] This admiration became a strong component in the development of the aesthetics of the Sublime, a source of copious literature and artistic production. [16].

Strengthening

A new vision of nature emerged in the middle of the century, through the work of Charles Darwin, whose revolutionary theory of natural selection forced, after intense controversies and suffering countless ridicule, both the scientific community and the general public to begin a review of its concepts, developing, in the words of Bocchi & Cerutti, "a new image of time, of the evolutionary course, of history", and causing a reorientation in the ways in which man relates to the environment. environment.[17][18]It was Ernst Haeckel, a Darwinist, who coined the term ecology, from two Greek words: oikos (house or place) and logos (study or knowledge), which originally meant the relationship of an animal with its organic and inorganic environments.[19].

At the same time, with the flourishing of transcendentalism, primarily through the work of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, the idea of a balanced and harmonious life, associating the knowledge of man and nature, began to gain many followers and influence. many young people, especially in the United States. [20] Also worth remembering is George Perkins Marsh, author of Man and Nature, one of the first comprehensive studies of the environmental impact of human activity. Although he aligned himself with the prevailing view that nature should be dominated by man, he criticized the destructive way in which this was being done. Because of this conciliatory stance, his ideas did not meet with much opposition and the widely publicized book triggered official and popular preservation actions in many countries.[21][22] In Europe, it is worth highlighting John Ruskin, author of the controversial Unto This Last") *(*See note: [23]), which contains a social, economic and ecological critique of industrial civilization, and which would have a determining influence on the philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi.[24] Another cultural development worthy of mention, a romantic derivation of transcendentalism and the sublime, was a rich renewal of landscaping in painting and literature, which he exerted a strong social and political influence on many new states that were being founded or redefined in this era of passionate nationalism. such as the Hudson River School, in the United States, characterized by epic and monumental landscaping of the North American virgin lands.[20][25][26][27][28][29].

But at this point, in Europe, with agriculture in decline as the main productive activity [22] and then experiencing the height of the Industrial Revolution, making intensive use of fossil fuels such as coal and indiscriminately dumping urban waste and chemical effluents into the water, In the air or on land, the environment was already suffering from pollution and had been intensely and uncontrollably exploited, with the depletion of many of its resources, which led some of its countries to an aggressive imperialist practice and colonialist, to appropriate the natural wealth of other nations, subjugated by them. A similar development process began to occur in America, which was experiencing an accelerated process of occupation of vast areas that were still virgin and receiving large waves of European and Asian immigrants. [30] [31].

These problems were the reason for the creation of the first environmental associations in the world, such as the Open Spaces Society", founded in England in 1865, [32] and the Sierra Club, in the United States, in 1892. [33] However, since mid-century, several countries were already drafting preservation laws and creating parks and nature reserves. [34] [13] At the beginning of the century, thinkers such as Teilhard de Chardin and Vladimir Vernadsky highlighted the growing influence of human intelligence on the future of society and the environment, [22] and in 1948 the first international environmental organization was finally created, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, which publishes the Red List of threatened species [35].

The period of the great world wars brought enormous changes at all levels. Colonialist empires disappeared, economic and cultural systems were transformed, and the world became, in Marshall McLuhan's famous expression, a "global village." But the demographic explosion, with its growing demands for food, living space, energy, transportation, infrastructure, various amenities and even luxuries and enormous waste, and the new technologies produced after the wars, especially the second, have become an insatiable drain.[36] [37].

At this time the first international environmental dispute was decided. After a Canadian smelter polluted the air in a region of the United States for years, despite several unsuccessful protests by the aggrieved party, an arbitration court ruled in 1941 that "under the principles of international law, as well as the legislation of the United States, no State has the right to use or permit the use of its territory in a manner that causes smoke damage to foreign territory or to the property of its citizens, when the case has serious consequences and the damage is proven." which, according to jurist Leonardo Borges, "would come to be invoked as the basis of a large part of the environmental protection regulations created later." [38].

The rise of contemporary environmentalism

By the end of the wars, the civilization model based on capitalism had triumphed on an almost global scale, but there was also a growing perception that its principles were flawed and that progress demanded too high a price, both in terms of the environment and health. in social and cultural aspects. [39][36][40] As a result, between the 50s and 60s a series of strong social movements emerged, mainly in Europe and America, among them the hippie movement, pacifism, the sexual revolution, feminism and black power, which, gathered under the label of counterculture, questioned the current model of civilization and defended the values of freedom, human rights, respect for minorities, peace and development. equitable. [41][36][39][42] The countries behind the Iron Curtain, although driven by different political and economic principles, do not seem to have had greater success in environmental management, [39][36] and even the eastern regions, with traditions very different from those of the West, also faced similar problems, as was the case of India, which only between the middle of the century and the beginning of the century lost 33 million hectares of forest, or China, where nature was venerated, [40] but since then The beginning of the Qin dynasty, in 221 BC. w. , until the founding of the People's Republic in 1949, reduced its forested area from 60% to 10% of the territory. [43].

In the wave of countercultural protests, environmentalism itself also emerged.[41]The very notion that the world is a "global village" favored an understanding of life on Earth as a unified reality and of the environment as the heritage of all, especially of territorialisms, of all policies and of all particular cultures. The vigorous emergence of the movement surprised sociologists, who generally defended the traditional civilization model, and did not have a consistent theoretical body to address the issue. [36][39] As Leila Ferreira analyzed:

One of the milestones of the movement was launched in 1962, with the publication of the book Silent Spring by Rachel Carson, which, although it dealt especially with the problems of the use of DDT in agriculture, left an influential legacy by combating the materialism of science and the ideas of technological control of nature. [44] [45] For Charles Dewberry, although its content generated much controversy, Silent Spring "may have been the most important book in the formation of the environmental movement in the 1960s." [46] Soon, as problems deepened, including several serious ecological disasters and fears of nuclear conflict during the Cold War, and the growth of activism in many parts of the world, it became clear that environmentalism was not simply a fad, but affected broad issues of enormous importance for the future of society and life in general, and was here to stay.[38][39].

In 1972, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) published the book The Limits of Growth, a study commissioned by the Club of Rome, which made a gloomy prediction about the effect of global development from the perspective of sustainability, indicating that if the pace of growth continued unchanged, a global collapse would occur at some point in the century, but it also said that it would be possible to reverse the trend with appropriate measures. The book generated enormous controversy and received wide publicity, being published in 30 languages and selling millions of copies, with a large and lasting impact on ecological discussions. [47] That same year, an image of the Earth seen from space, taken by the astronauts of the Apollo 17 mission, was made public. The image, nicknamed "La Canica Azul" ("the blue marble" in European Portuguese), immediately became one of the most poignant symbols of the environmental movement, and to this day is one of the most publicized of all time. [48] According to Gregory Petsko,.

In the 1970s, environmentalism spread rapidly around the world, with many influential activist groups emerging, such as the Chipko Movement in India, inspired by Gandhi's methods of peaceful resistance; [49] the United Tasmania Group") in Australia, the first "green" political party in the world; [50] Greenpeace, founded in Canada and to this day one of the most prominent environmental organizations in the world; [51] Associação Gaúcha de Proteção ao Ambiente Natural (Agapan), in Brazil, the first ecological association in Latin America and a model for countless followers; [52] the group Popular&action=edit&redlink=1 "Green Party (UK) (not yet drafted)") of the United Kingdom, the first green party in Europe, [53] and many others. Also in this decade, the "principle of responsibility" was established by the philosopher Hans Jonas, influential in defining future environmental policies, [54] and high-profile events were organized, such as the first Earth Day, launched in San Francisco, but with celebrations throughout the United States with the participation of members of thousands of colleges, universities, primary schools and communities, totaling an estimated crowd of 20 million protesters.[55]

The impact of the devastation and the environmental movement also led the United Nations to become involved in the defense of the environment, beginning to develop various projects and scheduling international conferences. Still in the 1970s, for example, the launch of the Man and the Biosphere program, a result of the 1968 Biosphere Conference, which promoted a series of investigations into the effect of human activity on the biosphere and biodiversity; [56] the Stockholm Conference, the first international meeting that proposed an environmental policy of global application; the Earthwatch Plan (Earthwatch); the United Nations Environment Programme; [57][38] the adoption of the Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, including natural environments of universal importance for the World Heritage list, [58] [59] and the signing of several other international agreements, such as the London Convention on Air Pollution and the Washington Convention "Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)") on Trade in Endangered Species. [60].

At the end of the decade another important milestone appeared, the book Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth, by James Lovelock, which introduced the Gaia Hypothesis to the general public. [61] The concept was developed in collaboration with Lynn Margulis, and in essence proposed that the Earth (Gaia, for the ancient Greeks) is a complex, integrated and self-regulating system, whose living organisms evolve together with their inorganic substrate, influencing and transforming themselves. mutually to perpetuate the existence of life. [62] Although the theory was quickly supported by environmentalists, it encountered much resistance in academia, but many of its assumptions have been tested and are now accepted by science. [61].

Recent years

Starting in the 1980s, environmentalism became definitively multidisciplinary, enshrined the importance of environmental education for a general change of habits [63] and became an almost omnipresent movement, very diverse and largely solidly based on science, although often still sharp internal disagreements, inconsistencies, among its defenders are utopias, mystifications, emotional expressions and unproven or extravagantly fanciful theories, which ends up damaging the credibility of the movement as a whole. [64][65][41] Also contributing to its rejection were the predictions considered alarmist about a global collapse in a short time if a true and profound revolution in practices and concepts did not occur. [66][47].

Noting that, despite increasing general awareness, relatively little had been done for the environment on a large scale, the United Nations created the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1983, whose work resulted in the Brundtland Report, which emphasized the close association between poverty and underdevelopment and environmental damage, and consolidated the concept of sustainable development. The report also recommended the convening of an international conference in order to discuss progress and needs. unsatisfied since the Stockholm Conference, which came to fruition in 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, also known as Rio-92 or ECO-92. The Conference produced a series of important documents, including the Earth Charter, the *Rio Declaration on Environment and Development), the Convention on Biodiversity, the Climate Change Convention and the Agenda. 21, establishing commitments and objectives to be achieved by the signatory countries. Several other meetings and agreements would be held in successive years, but, in the words of Leonardo Borges, it is repeatedly alleged that progress to date is insufficient.[38].

Also in the 90s, a temporizing trend emerged, which sought consensus in the solution of problems, without extremism that supposedly only provokes negative reactions and resistance, a trend promoted, according to Layrargues, especially by the business world:[67].

However, a consensus approach is not necessarily perverse, as it has been adopted by many respected international groups and organizations, due to its emphasis on sharing responsibilities and setting realistic objectives, considering the supranational dimension of problems, the differences between cultures and the different response capacities of countries. different countries. [42] [69] But this does not nullify the prediction of an effective collapse of the environment, with danger even for the survival of civilization, if the pace of destruction continues as before, just perhaps the general crisis will be unleashed later than the most pessimistic estimated, as they report. by a 2008 update of the 1972 study The limits to growth.[47] According to the 2012 UN report Harmony with Nature , a growing number of scientists propose calling the geological period in which we live the Anthropocene, such is the impact that human activities are having on the environment and natural processes.[22] In any case, environmentalism remains the focus of heated disputes throughout the world. [70][45][71][5].

But what stands out in the history of the movement, although it remains extremely controversial and still faces a lot of resistance, is the fact that it has managed to influence many official organizations and policies and has at least managed to instill in a large number of the population, including many young people, a greater knowledge of the subject, awakening their interest, if it has not yet been able to completely change its habits and values. [72][70][45][71] [73][40][41] In the words of José Lutzenberger, a well-known Brazilian environmentalist, "the real challenge is to broaden the horizon." [73] Another notable achievement was giving space and legitimacy to the ecological claims of philosophers, indigenous peoples, traditional communities and ancient Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism, which understand nature - including man - as an integrated and interdependent whole that deserves and needs respect and care, adding immemorial traditions and an ethical, philosophical, spiritual and even poetic dimension to the most current scientific discussion, which is revealed to be more multidisciplinary and more every day. complex.[70][40][45][5][74][75][76][77].

Central aspects

Contenido

El ambientalismo en general se basa en las nociones de que la vida en la Tierra está integrada y es interdependiente, que otras especies, además del hombre, tienen derecho a la vida, que la acción humana tiene un efecto importante sobre el medio ambiente, efecto del cual el hombre es responsable., y que los recursos naturales son limitados y deben gestionarse con objetividad y prudencia, teniendo en cuenta también la justicia social y la viabilidad económica. [78][79][72][42] Se proponen numerosas posibilidades de acción para lograr un equilibrio entre la vida humana y la naturaleza y crear e implementar un modelo de desarrollo sostenible, [80][42][81] un concepto consolidado en 1987 con el trabajo de la Comisión Brundtland") realizado bajo el auspicio de la ONU, y se define de la siguiente manera: "El desarrollo sostenible es garantizar que se satisfagan las necesidades del presente, sin comprometer la capacidad de las generaciones futuras para satisfacer sus propias necesidades". [80].

Proposals and new challenges

Among the main proposals of environmentalists, based on analysis by David Pepper and Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz, the following can be highlighted:[81][42].

The Stockholm Declaration"), drafted at the 1972 Stockholm Conference, organized by the UN, studied the issue and officially formulated several general recommendations applicable at a global level, of which the following can be cited:[79].

These principles remain essentially valid and current, as witnessed by the Earth Charter, approved by UNESCO in 2000 as a global code of ethics, whose preamble reads:

It is important to note that these proposals are not set with absolute or definitive rigor, but must be interpreted with a certain flexibility, adapting them to each moment and each specific context, in a process of continued practice and constant reevaluation of results. In any case, nature protection and environmental education should be a permanent part of society's daily life, since the work, as long as there is life, will never be finished.[42][87][88][89].

In addition to well-known environmental challenges, such as pollution, intensive use of pesticides, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, excessive hunting and fishing, and illicit wildlife trade,[90][91][92][93][94][95][96] others have gained more attention in recent times, such as uncontrolled urbanization,[97]genetic manipulation for commercialization,[98][99] the depletion of water resources, [100] global warming,[101] [102][90] the environmental impact of wars and other military activities, [91][38][103][104]and aspects of environmental justice and security, given the expected increase in the number of international conflicts and civil wars linked to the exploitation or dispute over natural resources in decay; [104] [91] the increasing occurrence of accidental ecological disasters, such as radiation leaks from nuclear power plants and oil spills in oceans and inland waters, and even threats of environmental terrorism.[105][106][107][38].

Mechanisms and repercussions of environmental damage

Contrary to the ancient view that man is a creature separate from nature and has the innate right to dominate it, science has now demonstrated with overwhelming evidence that all life on Earth is interdependent, meaning that changes in a single parameter can have wide-ranging consequences. repercussions with the most diverse ramifications for both wildlife and humanity, in a "snowball" effect that can continue for long periods and is largely unpredictable.[22].

It would be impossible within the scope of this article to analyze all the innumerable variables, even because science itself does not yet know them all, but the point can be illustrated simply from a single aspect, one of the most relevant of the entire process, which already has some well-established mechanisms: the demographic explosion, and its direct consequence: the contemporary trend of urbanization of populations. In 1800 the Earth's population was around 1 billion people, today there are around 7 billion people and, according to UN estimates, around 2050 the 9 billion mark will be reached, with megacities being the most visible image of massive human interference in the environment. In addition to the increasing demand for simple space for housing and food, which requires increasing areas for urban expansion, agriculture and livestock, at the expense of virgin areas, this has a number of other harmful effects on the environment.[97][108][22].

According to a 2008 United Nations report, urban areas today consume more than 65% of the available energy and generate 70% of the gases that produce the so-called "greenhouse effect", mainly carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels. These gases form an insulating layer in the atmosphere that prevents heat dissipation, causing global warming, considered one of the most worrying environmental challenges today and already understood by consensus by the scientific community as caused by human activity.[97][109][110][22][111] Warming triggers a large number of direct and indirect harmful effects on the environment and human well-being, including:.

In addition to these problems, urbanization, especially when poorly planned, affects the environment in other ways, including:.

These effects act interactively and cascade, have a significant impact on a vast human population and directly damage biodiversity by interfering with the balance of ecosystems, causing an increase in the already accelerated rate of new extinctions of entire species. With the progressive decrease in biodiversity, the food chain is broken, the cycle of inorganic components is altered, the entropic process reinforces itself and, beyond a certain point, ecosystems tend to enter into irreversible collapse. As a result, the invaluable environmental services that nature offers and that are essential for human life, including the production of food, medicinal substances, fibers and wood, climate regulation and protection against natural disasters, are lost, in addition to being the source of extremely high economic and social losses. [22][108][109]UN Deputy Secretary-General and Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, Achim Steiner"), revealed that the loss and degradation of forests alone could represent a loss of 4.5 trillion dollars annually. [137].

Controversies and perspectives

Environmentalism cannot be described as a homogeneous movement, given the immense variety of currents that make it up, with different visions of the world, objectives and methods of action, ranging from the most radical proposals to the most innocuous, decorative and superficial, passing through those entirely sedimented in science and rationality to others that are completely intuitive and emotional, which often come into conflict and fight for different spaces. The link that unites them is, generally, the interest in preserving nature and establishing a sustainable way of life.[64][138][42]But, as Héctor Leis pointed out,.

The heterogeneity that characterizes environmentalism is considered by many of its members to be one of its strengths, allowing it to absorb a wide range of interests and knowledge and touch on the most diverse issues, but on the other hand it has opened the door to countless criticisms. regarding its alleged inconsistency.[64][140][72][138][42].

As an example, Rush Limbaugh, an influential American media figure and author of two controversial bestsellers,[141] said that environmentalists are often fanatics and hysterics who have exchanged facts for beliefs; that there is no reason to believe in global warming; that man is not responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer; that the Earth's ecosystems are not fragile and that man does not have the capacity to destroy them; that there are more forests in the United States today than in the last century, and that international regulations are not the best way to address the problem. [142] Similar opinions are supported by other prominent names with scientific training, such as Bjørn Lomborg, author of the also controversial and highly publicized The Skeptical Environmentalist , where he questions the excessive importance given to certain ecological challenges and the movement's priorities, stating that the population explosion is not a problem, that there is abundant drinking water, that the losses of forests and biodiversity are tremendously exaggerated, that the battle against pollution has already been won and that fighting global warming It is not worth it because it would be too expensive.[143][144][145]Other critics say that excessive concern for nature constitutes an impediment to economic growth and social well-being; that the movement is manipulated by political interests and that predictions of a global crisis are nothing more than an attempt to terrorize people in order to control them; that many of the theories presented are not consistent or do not represent the consensus of the scientific community; that studies indicating a progression of environmental damage are flawed or fraudulent or their conclusions are hasty; that human interference with nature is not as important as we would like to think and that the problems we face today derive mainly from natural and not anthropogenic processes, and that environmental proposals are generally naive, ill-informed or practically unviable, or that their costs would exceed the supposed benefits.[146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153] says that environmentalism is a "green mask" for a totalitarian and internationalizing program that threatens the freedom of people and the principle of private property, undermines the sovereignty of States and weakens their position in a highly competitive market economy;[152][154][155]that the movement unduly places greater importance on nature than on people,[152]and that international agreements are mostly rhetoric. [156].

It should be noted that a large number of reports have become public that a significant part of the anti-environmental campaign is financed by large corporations that have strong interests in maintaining their markets and exert pressure on public figures, influential politicians, governments and other bodies. to support its objectives,[147][157][158][159][160][149]having as one of its strategies the manipulation of environmentalist discourse with a scientific appearance in order to discredit it or minimize the importance of current problems, deliberately confusing public opinion, [147][148][161][64]which, according to research, is rarely well informed about the issue or does not believe in its seriousness, and can be easily influenced by propaganda.[147][157]Situations like these led the Royal Society, the United Kingdom's most respected scientific association, in an unprecedented move, to ask ExxonMobil, the world's largest oil company and a powerful lobby against environmentalism, in 2006 to stop funding studies that distort or question the solid evidence already accumulated indicating the reality of environmental issues. The company rejected the allegations and continued its investigation. [150][162].

However, to further complicate the situation, science is still not absolutely certain about many aspects of nature and completely unaware of the explanation of many others, but in the same way the old economic, political and cultural certainties turn out to be valid. doubtful, leaving important questions still without satisfactory answers for both sides of the discussion.[163][164][153][165][140][154][155]Taking this into account, a team of scientists assembled by the United States government, in a 2009 study, considered that uncertainty in science is not essentially different from the innumerable uncertainties that people face in their daily lives, and that it should not be interpreted as an impediment to decision-making.[166]But Giacomini Filho observed that the average citizen is usually perplexed:.

Many advances have been made, other corporations are beginning to consider the defense of the environment as a potentially profitable social capital and are investing in it, [158][169] in one way or another the topic is in the media almost every day and has been integrated into the school curriculum, there are already countless environmental associations, green parties, independent activists, academic research, conferences and international agreements, community actions, new legislation, and their number grows every day, but there are also setbacks at various levels, many demonstrations about problems ecological problems end in violence, the debate is often neither honest, nor fair, nor objective, political and economic interests generally take priority, and environmental catastrophes are no longer rare news, such as forest fires, animal deaths, extinction of entire species on a daily basis, illegal deforestation and accidents in nuclear power plants. [41][70][71][170][171][172][5][165][75][42][90][173]( see: Antinuclear movement).

The desired balance between man and nature has not yet been achieved on a large scale, permanently and sustainably, and the distance between discourse and everyday practice remains great. According to Igor Fonseca, studies indicate that the level of awareness of the population is high in several countries, but that this does not translate into concrete attitudes to the same extent.[173]In the opinion of Giacomini Filho, "in theory, everyone agrees with the loss of privileges for the benefit of the environment. But...neither citizens, nor companies nor governments want sacrifices to occur in their backyards."[174] Fonseca also warned about the possibility that, with the popularization of environmentalism, its concepts become trivialized and lose their ability to generate changes.[175].

Finally, although anyone can question the merit of environmentalist claims, or the accuracy of their predictions, or the viability of their proposals, the scientific community has already reached a broad and solid consensus that the phase of doubts and uncertainties about the reality and scope of the problems must be considered obsolete, given the volume of evidence indicating that man is effectively destroying the environment in which he lives at an accelerated rate, and in doing so acts against his own interests, although this is not adequately understood. The consensus is expressed concretely in the public and official positioning of high-profile international organizations, such as the World Bank, the United Nations and their partners, and in the numerous international conventions, declarations and programs established in recent years for the protection of the environment, which are based on studies prepared by large teams of scientists linked to prestigious academies and institutions, all of whom agree in stating that it is no longer possible to hide the enormous seriousness of the situation and the need for urgent large-scale changes, emphasizing that the threat of a generalized crisis is real and that the environment in many places is already irreversibly compromised, and many others are going the same way. path.[176][177][178][22][179][180][181][47][182][183] [184][185][79][186][187][188][47][189][95][86][190].

This international agreement of the greatest scientific and technical authorities is what gives solidity and credibility to the central demands of environmentalists. Sir John Lawton, former chief executive of the UK's Natural Environment Research Council, citing the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, one of the most important environmental sciences today, said that "it is a very powerful consensus on the direction of the unsustainable situation in which most of the world's ecosystems find themselves." Today there will no doubt be those who say there are gains... but I would put them in the same category as those who say the Earth is flat and those who believe that smoking does not cause cancer." Angela Cropper, co-organizer of the Assessment, added that "the scale of the current responses does not keep pace with the nature, scope or urgency of the situation at hand." [95] This is even more worrying given the current population explosion, which has as an immediate consequence a continued increase in pressure on all resources and natural systems. On the other hand, it is also considered possible, with appropriate measures, to minimize or reverse much of this disastrous trend.[189][191][188][192]One of the most recent official UN resolutions, entitled The future we want"), from 2012, invoking and ratifying a long list of previous similar conventions, was explicit in saying that the way forward is that of sustainable development:.

The UN General Secretariat, in another document from 2012, stated that it is essential that humanity begins to understand itself not as owner of the Earth, but as its guardian, and that a large part of the problems, not only environmental, but also social, such as poverty, hunger and violence, are direct symptoms of the paradigm of domination that still prevails. [22] As the Earth Charter says, "the choice is ours: form a global alliance to care for the Earth and each other, or risk the destruction of ourselves and the diversity of life." [86].

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[159] ↑ Cushman Jr., John. "Environmental Lobby Beats Tactical Retreat" Archivado el 22 de mayo de 2013 en Wayback Machine.. The New York Times, 30/03/1994.: https://www.nytimes.com/1994/03/30/us/environmental-lobby-beats-tactical-retreat.html
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[187] ↑ Comissão das Comunidades Europeias. Comunicação da Comissão ao Parlamento Europeu, ao Conselho, ao Comité Económico e Social Europeu e ao Comité das Regiões: Enfrentar os desafios da desflorestação e da degradação florestal para combater as alterações climáticas e a perda de biodiversidade. {SEC(2008) 2618} {SEC(2008) 2619} {SEC(2008) 2620} / COM/2008/0645 final. Bruxelas, 17/10/2008.
[188] ↑ a b The World Bank. Sustaining forests: a World Bank strategy, 2003.
[189] ↑ a b FAO. [Martin, R.M. (coord.)]. State of the World’s Forests 2012.
[190] ↑ Payments for Environmental Services from Agricultural Landscapes - PESAL. What are Ecosystem Services Archivado el 18 de noviembre de 2011 en Wayback Machine.. FAO Netherlands Partnership Programme, 2010.: http://www.fao.org/es/esa/pesal/aboutPES1.html
[191] ↑ Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. Global Biodiversity Outlook 2. Montreal, 2006, pp. 13-14.
[192] ↑ Burger, J. R. et al. "The Macroecology of Sustainability". In: PLOS Biology, 2012; 10(06):e1001345.
[193] ↑ United Nations. Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 66/288. The future we want Archivado el 23 de marzo de 2013 en Wayback Machine.. United Nations General Assembly, 123rd plenary meeting, Sixty-sixth session, Agenda item 19. Rio de Janeiro, 11/09/2012.: http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/476/10/PDF/N1147610.pdf?OpenElement

History

First trials

Strengthening

The rise of contemporary environmentalism

Recent years

However, a consensus approach is not necessarily perverse, as it has been adopted by many respected international groups and organizations, due to its emphasis on sharing responsibilities and setting realistic objectives, considering the supranational dimension of problems, the differences between cultures and the different response capacities of countries. different countries. [42] [69] But this does not nullify the prediction of an effective collapse of the environment, with danger even for the survival of civilization, if the pace of destruction continues as before, just perhaps the general crisis will be unleashed later than the most pessimistic estimated, as they report. by a 2008 update of the 1972 study .[47] According to the 2012 UN report a growing number of scientists propose calling the geological period in which we live the Anthropocene, such is the impact that human activities are having on the environment and natural processes.[22] In any case, environmentalism remains the focus of heated disputes throughout the world. [70][45][71][5].

Central aspects

Contenido

Proposals and new challenges

Among the main proposals of environmentalists, based on analysis by David Pepper and Kates, Parris & Leiserowitz, the following can be highlighted:[81][42].

These principles remain essentially valid and current, as witnessed by the Earth Charter, approved by UNESCO in 2000 as a global code of ethics, whose preamble reads:

Mechanisms and repercussions of environmental damage

In addition to these problems, urbanization, especially when poorly planned, affects the environment in other ways, including:.

Controversies and perspectives

References

[1] ↑ McCormick, John (1991). Reclaiming Paradise: The Global Environmental Movement (en inglés). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20660-2. Consultado el 10 de octubre de 2024.: https://books.google.com.bo/books?id=xC16yGp9-HUC&pg=PA1&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false
[2] ↑ Hawkins, Catherine A. (2010). «Sustainability, human rights, and environmental justice: Critical connections for contemporary social work». Critical Social Work (en inglés) 11 (3). ISSN 1543-9372. doi:10.22329/csw.v11i3.5833. Consultado el 10 de octubre de 2024.: https://ojs.uwindsor.ca/index.php/csw/article/view/5833
[3] ↑ a b c Deacon, Robert T. "Deforestation and Ownership: evidence for historical accounts and contemporary data" Archivado el 23 de septiembre de 2015 en Wayback Machine.. In: Land Economics, agosto de 1999; 75(03):341-359.: http://www.econ.ucsb.edu/~deacon/DeforAndOwnership.pdf
[4] ↑ FAO. [Martin, R.M. (coord.)]. State of the World’s Forests 2012 Archivado el 2 de febrero de 2013 en Wayback Machine.. FAO, 2012, pp. 19-20.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i3010e/i3010e.pdf
[5] ↑ a b c d Brennan, Andrew & Lo, Yeuk-Sze. "Environmental Ethics". In: Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, otoño de 2011.
[6] ↑ a b Williams, Michael. "Dark ages and dark areas: global deforestation in the deep past". In: Journal of Historical Geography, 2000; 26(01):28–46.
[7] ↑ a b Wacke, Andreas. "Protection of the Environment in Roman Law?" In: Roman Legal Tradition, vol. I, 2002, pp. 1–24.
[8] ↑ Dion Cássio. História de Roma, LXVI 25.
[9] ↑ Sorrell, Roger Darrell. St. Francis of Assisi and nature: tradition and innovation in Western Christian attitudes toward the environment. Oxford University Press US, 1988, pp. 138-141.
[10] ↑ Urbinato, David. "London's Historic 'Pea-Soupers'". United States Environmental Protection Agency, verão de 1994.
[11] ↑ Zlateva, Ioanna. "Poetics and Politics of Nature in Three Early Modern English Poems". In: University of Bucharest Review, vol. XIV (Vol. II – new series)/2012, no. 1, pp. 123-131.
[12] ↑ Witoszek, Nina. "Rivers and Humans: the Civilizing Project of Leonardo da Vinci and Niccoló Macchiavelli". In: Østreng, W. (ed.). Transference. Interdisciplinary Communications. The Centre for Advanced Study at the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, 2008/2008, s/pp.
[13] ↑ a b Meira, José De Castro "Derecho Ambiental". En: Información Legal de la Biblioteca Ministro Oscar Saraiva, v. 19, n. 1, jan./jun. 2008, pp. 11-23.
[14] ↑ Pinto, Angelo C. O pau-brasil e um pouco da história brasileira (en portugués). Sociedade Brasileira de Química.: http://www.memoriasdaquimica.ccs.ufrj.br/historia.php
[15] ↑ Cascino, Fábio. Educação Ambiental. Senac, 1999, pp. 15-22.
[16] ↑ "Sublime" Archivado el 29 de julio de 2014 en Wayback Machine.. Enciclopedia Cultural Itaú, 18/05/2009.: http://www.itaucultural.org.br/aplicexternas/enciclopedia_ic/index.cfm?fuseaction=termos_texto&cd_verbete=3655
[17] ↑ Bowler, Peter J. Evolution: The History of an Idea. University of California Press, 2003, 3ª ed., pp. 175–176.
[18] ↑ Bocchi, Gianluca & Cerutti, Mauro. Modi di pensare post-darwiniani: saggio sul pluralismo evolutivo. Dedalo, 1984, pp. 9-13.
[19] ↑ "Ecology". In: Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2012.
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