Urban engineering applies the tools of science, art and engineering in an urban environment.
Urban engineering deals with municipal infrastructure. It involves specifying, designing, constructing and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewage, public lighting, management and disposal of municipal solid waste, storage tanks for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure.
In the case of underground public service networks, it may also include the civil part (ducts and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It may also include optimization of garbage collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however, urban engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously (for a given street or development project) and managed by the same municipal authority.
History
During what we know as the precursor stage of the Modern Age, the Roman Empire, great advances were made for what we know today as urban engineering. They were the first to build large-scale cities and created water networks to supply these cities, developed a sewage system (the Cloaca Maxima) that was sufficiently advanced for the time and created a huge network of roads that connected the entire empire.[1].
In the Middle Ages there was a fairly significant setback in general, the most powerful classes put their efforts into wars between reigns to expand their territories and the poorest classes could do nothing. During the Modern Age, with the arrival of absolutist monarchies, the situation gradually changed. We have an example in the document of the "Laws of the Indies" from the year 1576. This document from the time of Philip II already mentions what the cities built in overseas colonies should be like, mentioning the shape, layout, orientation or width that the streets should have.[2].
During the following centuries, concern about urban planning only increased. A key point was the first industrial revolution. This caused a rural exodus to the cities and these suffered uncontrolled and greatly exaggerated growth. For example, Barcelona went from having 35,928 inhabitants in 1717 to 100,160 inhabitants in 1787 and 353,853 inhabitants in 1887. This uncontrolled growth created the need to regulate and impose urban planning standards and minimum requirements for the habitability of these new cities.[3] In addition, cities had to adapt to new means of transportation such as trains and trams.[4] Some of these needs were responsibility. of military engineers while others fell to architects. It must be taken into account that Barcelona was the only significant case in Europe that had a very significant increase in population, but it did not have an increase in surface area until 1860, when Ildefonso Cerdá made the Cerdá Plan.[5] Until that year Barcelona continued to grow within the wall (demolished in 1854) and became the densest city in the world.[6].
Control of urban works
Introduction
Urban engineering applies the tools of science, art and engineering in an urban environment.
Urban engineering deals with municipal infrastructure. It involves specifying, designing, constructing and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewage, public lighting, management and disposal of municipal solid waste, storage tanks for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure.
In the case of underground public service networks, it may also include the civil part (ducts and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It may also include optimization of garbage collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however, urban engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously (for a given street or development project) and managed by the same municipal authority.
History
During what we know as the precursor stage of the Modern Age, the Roman Empire, great advances were made for what we know today as urban engineering. They were the first to build large-scale cities and created water networks to supply these cities, developed a sewage system (the Cloaca Maxima) that was sufficiently advanced for the time and created a huge network of roads that connected the entire empire.[1].
In the Middle Ages there was a fairly significant setback in general, the most powerful classes put their efforts into wars between reigns to expand their territories and the poorest classes could do nothing. During the Modern Age, with the arrival of absolutist monarchies, the situation gradually changed. We have an example in the document of the "Laws of the Indies" from the year 1576. This document from the time of Philip II already mentions what the cities built in overseas colonies should be like, mentioning the shape, layout, orientation or width that the streets should have.[2].
During the following centuries, concern about urban planning only increased. A key point was the first industrial revolution. This caused a rural exodus to the cities and these suffered uncontrolled and greatly exaggerated growth. For example, Barcelona went from having 35,928 inhabitants in 1717 to 100,160 inhabitants in 1787 and 353,853 inhabitants in 1887. This uncontrolled growth created the need to regulate and impose urban planning standards and minimum requirements for the habitability of these new cities.[3] In addition, cities had to adapt to new means of transportation such as trains and trams.[4] Some of these needs were responsibility. of military engineers while others fell to architects. It must be taken into account that Barcelona was the only significant case in Europe that had a very significant increase in population, but it did not have an increase in surface area until 1860, when Ildefonso Cerdá made the Cerdá Plan.[5] Until that year Barcelona continued to grow within the wall (demolished in 1854) and became the densest city in the world.[6].
Modern municipal engineering has its origins in the United Kingdom of the 19th century, after the Industrial Revolution and the growth of large industrial cities. The threat to urban populations from epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhus led to the development of a profession dedicated to "sanitary science" which later became "sanitary engineering".[7]
A key figure of the so-called "public health movement" was Edwin Chadwick, author of the parliamentary report,[8] published in 1842.
The first British legislation included:.
• - Burgh Police Act 1833 - Powers to pave, light, clean, police, supply water and improve their communities.
• - Municipal Corporations Law of 1835[9].
• - Public Health Law of 1866: formation of drainage boards[10].
• - Public Health Act of 1875 known at the time as the Great Public Health Act.
This legislation gave local authorities powers to undertake municipal engineering projects and appoint municipal inspectors (later known as "municipal engineers").
In the United Kingdom, the Association of Municipal Engineers, (later called the Institution of Municipal Engineers),[11] was established in 1874 under the impulse of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to address the issue of the application of sanitary science. By the turn of the century, Municipal Engineering had become a broad discipline encompassing many of the responsibilities undertaken by local authorities, including roads, drainage, flood control, coastal engineering, public health, waste management, street cleaning, water supply, sewage, wastewater. treatment, crematoriums, public baths, slum clearance, town planning, public housing, energy supply, parks, leisure facilities, libraries, town halls and other municipal buildings.
In the United Kingdom, the development of different branches of knowledge necessary for the management of municipal infrastructure led to the emergence of independent specialist institutions, including:.
• - For drainage: Chartered Institution for Water and Environmental Management, 1895.
• - For urban planning: Institute of Urban Planning 1914 ... later became the Royal Institute of Urban Planning.
• - For public lighting: Association of Public Lighting Engineers, 1934 ... later became the Institution of Lighting Engineers.
• - For highway engineering: Institution of Highways and Transportation, 1930.
• - For public housing: Housing Institute, 1931.
In 1984, the Institution of Municipal Engineers merged with the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Since the 1970s, there has been a global trend towards increasing privatization and outsourcing of municipal engineering services. This new discipline was soon implemented in other countries that had problems similar to those of the United Kingdom. A peculiar case that differentiated urban planning in the United Kingdom from the rest of Europe was the direction of circulation.[12].
In the United Kingdom in the 1990s, a change in management philosophy led to the demise of the traditional organizational structure of boroughs, where the three roles of town clerk, town treasurer and town engineer were replaced by an administrative structure with a greater number of specialist departments.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was growing dissatisfaction with what were perceived as fractured and dysfunctional public services designed along narrow specialisms. A more holistic approach to urban engineering began to emerge as an alternative concept. Critics of the specialist approach included the Architecture and Built Environment Commission which complained that the specialist approach to public realm management focused too much on the efficient movement of vehicles rather than the wider interests of local communities.
Activities
Urban engineering carries out numerous jobs, but its main objective is the creation of cities and their functioning at full capacity.
The main works are planning the organization of the urban space that you want to create or improve. In urban engineering, it is especially important that there is good planning and organization of the project. This is because numerous unions will be involved, not only in engineering, but also in construction, architecture and of course, the relevant public entities.
This means that the necessary coordination must be total, only then will the experts be able to work together and see the project as a whole before starting to execute it.
But urban engineering goes further. Although a design and organization are established in the main stages, professionals go further. The necessary works will be carried out to ensure the supply of water, electricity, and gas to all homes and buildings. But not only that, but an urban engineering project also includes urban supplies, such as public lighting, light signage and even water supply in public areas and irrigation systems.
That is, even the smallest elements must be planned and executed through an urban engineering project.
On the other hand, this sector goes further and is also responsible for waste management. First of all, it is the experts who propose a plan for their collection and treatment. They are very important jobs without which a city could not function correctly.
International organization
The International Federation of Municipal Engineering (IFME) is an organization made up of professional municipal engineers from around the world. IFME's mission is to connect municipal engineers, public works professionals, public agencies, institutions and companies around the world so they can share a global wealth of knowledge and experiences. The objective is to promote continuous improvement in the quality of public works and community services in general.
The inaugural meeting was held in 1960 at UNESCO headquarters in Paris. Membership has grown steadily and in 2009[13] comprised representatives of national associations in: Australia, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Italy, Israel, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa (South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe), Sweden, United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) and the United States. Belgium and San Marino are currently Corresponding Members.
civil works
In the case of large buildings or plants, facilities or campuses, civil works may be required that are similar in scope or type to the municipal infrastructure, namely access roads, parking lots, drinking water supply (including fire hydrants), wastewater treatment plants, drainage, including sedimentation and retention ponds or basins, etc. In most engineering consulting firms, structural engineering and municipal infrastructure are usually separate departments. On a large construction project, the civil engineering design will typically be divided into a structural part, designed by structural engineers and usually focused on the buildings, and a "civil" part, designed by municipal engineers and focused on the environment.
Related disciplines
Municipal or urban engineering combines elements of environmental engineering, water resources engineering and transportation engineering.
Currently, municipal engineering can be confused with urban design or town planning. While the town planner or urban planner can design the general layout of streets and public places, the municipal engineer is responsible for the detailed design. For example, in the case of designing a new street, the city planner may specify the general layout of the street, including landscaping, surface finishes, and street fixtures, but the municipal engineer will prepare detailed plans and specifications for roadways, sidewalks, municipal services, and street lighting.
• - Law of Large Cities of Spain.
• - Execution of urban planning.
• - Ecole des Ingénieurs de la Ville de Paris.
• - This work contains a translation derived from «Municipal or urban engineering» from Wikipedia in English, published by its editors under the GNU Free Documentation License and the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
• - Martinand Claude, le Génie urbain, Rapport au ministre de l'équipement, du logement, de l'aménagement du territoire et des transports, la Documentation française, Paris, 1986.
• - Allemand Sylvain, Sous la ville durable, le génie urbain, Les carnets de l'info, 2009.
• - Serge Thilbault, Le génie urbain, 1996.
• - L'emergence du concept de génie urbain.
• - Viviane Claude, Le génie urbain en 1905, Génie urbain, acteurs, territoires, technologies, Plan urbain, LATTS-ENPC.
• - Index to the Proceedings of the Institution of Municipal Engineers, since 1874.
• - The municipal and sanitary engineer's handbook (1883).
[3] ↑ Calpena, Enric (dir.) (2007). Històries de Catalunya (en catalán). Valls, España: Cossetània edicions. p. 110.
[4] ↑ Patrick O'Brien, Railways and the economic development of Western Europe, 1830–1914 (1983) ch 7.
[5] ↑ Eixample, 150 anys, pág. 67.
[6] ↑ Tarragó, Salvador (1994). «Posibilidades y realidades del siglo XIX». Cerdà ciudad y territorio : una visión de futuro : catálogo de la Exposición Cerdà, ciudad y territorio septiembre 1994-febrero 1995. Barcelona, España: Fundació Catalana per a la Recerca. ISBN 84-8156-069-3.: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35694402
[7] ↑ Hardy, Anne (1984). «Water and the Search for Public Health in London in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries». Medical History 28 (3): 250-82. PMC 1139446. PMID 6390024. doi:10.1017/s0025727300035936.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1139446
[8] ↑ Edwin Chadwick (1842). «Report to Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, from the Poor Law Commissioners on an Inquiry Into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain: With Appendices». Great Britain Poor Law Commissioners/W. Clowes and sons.: https://archive.org/details/b21365143
[9] ↑ La citación de esta Ley por este título corto fue autorizada por la sección 2 de, y el Primer Anexo de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales (Nuevas Cartas) de 1877 (40 y 41 Vict c 69). La Ley de Corporaciones Municipales (Nuevas Cartas) de 1877 fue derogada por la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882. En cuanto al uso continuo de este título breve, consulte la sección 19 (2) de la Ley de Interpretación de 1978. La Sección 243 de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882 disponía el uso continuo de ciertos títulos breves mencionados en el Anexo Primero de esa Ley. Dicha sección 243 fue derogada por la Ley de revisión de la ley de 1898. El Proyecto de ley para la Ley de revisión de estatutos de 1898 dice que el motivo de la derogación de dicho artículo 243 fue: "En cuanto al artículo 243, se propone derogación la mayor parte del Primer Anexo que proporciona títulos breves que no se dan de otro modo". Luego, el proyecto de ley dice que el motivo de la derogación de las entradas de la Parte II del Primer Anexo de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882 (que no menciona el título abreviado de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1835) especificadas en la columna 2 del proyecto de ley fue "Sched. I., Pt. II. . . . as to parts in col. 2 the enactments referred to have been repealed by subsequent Acts except 40 & 41 Vict. c. 47 in Sched. I., Pt. II., which is proposed for repeal by the Bill"; y que la Parte I del Anexo Primero (donde se mencionaba el título abreviado de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1835) fue derogada porque estaba "gastada". En cuanto a la construcción de las referencias a la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1835, véase los artículos 7 (1) y 242 y el Anexo Noveno de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882, y anteriormente el artículo 191 de esa Ley (dicho artículo 191 fue derogado por la Ley de policía de 1964).: https://books.google.com/books?id=RvbMCdjVnjkC&pg=PA453
[10] ↑ La cita de esta Ley por este título corto fue autorizada por artículo 1 de esta Ley. Debido a la derogación de esta Ley, ahora está autorizada por el artículo 19 (2) de la Ley de Interpretación de 1978.: https://books.google.com/books?id=SVYMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA399
[12] ↑ Hamer, Mike (25 December 1986 – 1 January 1987). «Left is right on the road». New Scientist (20 December 1986/1 January 1987): 16-18. Consultado el 7 de octubre de 2016.: https://books.google.com/books?id=qfak8nsMNGIC&pg=PA16
[13] ↑ Buchan, Neil. “Briefing Note - International Federation of Municipal Engineering”. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer, Vol 163, ME3, Sept 2009.
Modern municipal engineering has its origins in the United Kingdom of the 19th century, after the Industrial Revolution and the growth of large industrial cities. The threat to urban populations from epidemics of waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhus led to the development of a profession dedicated to "sanitary science" which later became "sanitary engineering".[7]
A key figure of the so-called "public health movement" was Edwin Chadwick, author of the parliamentary report,[8] published in 1842.
The first British legislation included:.
• - Burgh Police Act 1833 - Powers to pave, light, clean, police, supply water and improve their communities.
• - Municipal Corporations Law of 1835[9].
• - Public Health Law of 1866: formation of drainage boards[10].
• - Public Health Act of 1875 known at the time as the Great Public Health Act.
This legislation gave local authorities powers to undertake municipal engineering projects and appoint municipal inspectors (later known as "municipal engineers").
In the United Kingdom, the Association of Municipal Engineers, (later called the Institution of Municipal Engineers),[11] was established in 1874 under the impulse of the Institution of Civil Engineers, to address the issue of the application of sanitary science. By the turn of the century, Municipal Engineering had become a broad discipline encompassing many of the responsibilities undertaken by local authorities, including roads, drainage, flood control, coastal engineering, public health, waste management, street cleaning, water supply, sewage, wastewater. treatment, crematoriums, public baths, slum clearance, town planning, public housing, energy supply, parks, leisure facilities, libraries, town halls and other municipal buildings.
In the United Kingdom, the development of different branches of knowledge necessary for the management of municipal infrastructure led to the emergence of independent specialist institutions, including:.
• - For drainage: Chartered Institution for Water and Environmental Management, 1895.
• - For urban planning: Institute of Urban Planning 1914 ... later became the Royal Institute of Urban Planning.
• - For public lighting: Association of Public Lighting Engineers, 1934 ... later became the Institution of Lighting Engineers.
• - For highway engineering: Institution of Highways and Transportation, 1930.
• - For public housing: Housing Institute, 1931.
In 1984, the Institution of Municipal Engineers merged with the Institution of Civil Engineers.
Since the 1970s, there has been a global trend towards increasing privatization and outsourcing of municipal engineering services. This new discipline was soon implemented in other countries that had problems similar to those of the United Kingdom. A peculiar case that differentiated urban planning in the United Kingdom from the rest of Europe was the direction of circulation.[12].
In the United Kingdom in the 1990s, a change in management philosophy led to the demise of the traditional organizational structure of boroughs, where the three roles of town clerk, town treasurer and town engineer were replaced by an administrative structure with a greater number of specialist departments.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, there was growing dissatisfaction with what were perceived as fractured and dysfunctional public services designed along narrow specialisms. A more holistic approach to urban engineering began to emerge as an alternative concept. Critics of the specialist approach included the Architecture and Built Environment Commission which complained that the specialist approach to public realm management focused too much on the efficient movement of vehicles rather than the wider interests of local communities.
Activities
Urban engineering carries out numerous jobs, but its main objective is the creation of cities and their functioning at full capacity.
The main works are planning the organization of the urban space that you want to create or improve. In urban engineering, it is especially important that there is good planning and organization of the project. This is because numerous unions will be involved, not only in engineering, but also in construction, architecture and of course, the relevant public entities.
This means that the necessary coordination must be total, only then will the experts be able to work together and see the project as a whole before starting to execute it.
But urban engineering goes further. Although a design and organization are established in the main stages, professionals go further. The necessary works will be carried out to ensure the supply of water, electricity, and gas to all homes and buildings. But not only that, but an urban engineering project also includes urban supplies, such as public lighting, light signage and even water supply in public areas and irrigation systems.
That is, even the smallest elements must be planned and executed through an urban engineering project.
On the other hand, this sector goes further and is also responsible for waste management. First of all, it is the experts who propose a plan for their collection and treatment. They are very important jobs without which a city could not function correctly.
International organization
The International Federation of Municipal Engineering (IFME) is an organization made up of professional municipal engineers from around the world. IFME's mission is to connect municipal engineers, public works professionals, public agencies, institutions and companies around the world so they can share a global wealth of knowledge and experiences. The objective is to promote continuous improvement in the quality of public works and community services in general.
The inaugural meeting was held in 1960 at UNESCO headquarters in Paris. Membership has grown steadily and in 2009[13] comprised representatives of national associations in: Australia, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Italy, Israel, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa (South Africa, Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe), Sweden, United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) and the United States. Belgium and San Marino are currently Corresponding Members.
civil works
In the case of large buildings or plants, facilities or campuses, civil works may be required that are similar in scope or type to the municipal infrastructure, namely access roads, parking lots, drinking water supply (including fire hydrants), wastewater treatment plants, drainage, including sedimentation and retention ponds or basins, etc. In most engineering consulting firms, structural engineering and municipal infrastructure are usually separate departments. On a large construction project, the civil engineering design will typically be divided into a structural part, designed by structural engineers and usually focused on the buildings, and a "civil" part, designed by municipal engineers and focused on the environment.
Related disciplines
Municipal or urban engineering combines elements of environmental engineering, water resources engineering and transportation engineering.
Currently, municipal engineering can be confused with urban design or town planning. While the town planner or urban planner can design the general layout of streets and public places, the municipal engineer is responsible for the detailed design. For example, in the case of designing a new street, the city planner may specify the general layout of the street, including landscaping, surface finishes, and street fixtures, but the municipal engineer will prepare detailed plans and specifications for roadways, sidewalks, municipal services, and street lighting.
• - Law of Large Cities of Spain.
• - Execution of urban planning.
• - Ecole des Ingénieurs de la Ville de Paris.
• - This work contains a translation derived from «Municipal or urban engineering» from Wikipedia in English, published by its editors under the GNU Free Documentation License and the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
• - Martinand Claude, le Génie urbain, Rapport au ministre de l'équipement, du logement, de l'aménagement du territoire et des transports, la Documentation française, Paris, 1986.
• - Allemand Sylvain, Sous la ville durable, le génie urbain, Les carnets de l'info, 2009.
• - Serge Thilbault, Le génie urbain, 1996.
• - L'emergence du concept de génie urbain.
• - Viviane Claude, Le génie urbain en 1905, Génie urbain, acteurs, territoires, technologies, Plan urbain, LATTS-ENPC.
• - Index to the Proceedings of the Institution of Municipal Engineers, since 1874.
• - The municipal and sanitary engineer's handbook (1883).
[3] ↑ Calpena, Enric (dir.) (2007). Històries de Catalunya (en catalán). Valls, España: Cossetània edicions. p. 110.
[4] ↑ Patrick O'Brien, Railways and the economic development of Western Europe, 1830–1914 (1983) ch 7.
[5] ↑ Eixample, 150 anys, pág. 67.
[6] ↑ Tarragó, Salvador (1994). «Posibilidades y realidades del siglo XIX». Cerdà ciudad y territorio : una visión de futuro : catálogo de la Exposición Cerdà, ciudad y territorio septiembre 1994-febrero 1995. Barcelona, España: Fundació Catalana per a la Recerca. ISBN 84-8156-069-3.: https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/35694402
[7] ↑ Hardy, Anne (1984). «Water and the Search for Public Health in London in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries». Medical History 28 (3): 250-82. PMC 1139446. PMID 6390024. doi:10.1017/s0025727300035936.: https://es.wikipedia.org//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1139446
[8] ↑ Edwin Chadwick (1842). «Report to Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for the Home Department, from the Poor Law Commissioners on an Inquiry Into the Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain: With Appendices». Great Britain Poor Law Commissioners/W. Clowes and sons.: https://archive.org/details/b21365143
[9] ↑ La citación de esta Ley por este título corto fue autorizada por la sección 2 de, y el Primer Anexo de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales (Nuevas Cartas) de 1877 (40 y 41 Vict c 69). La Ley de Corporaciones Municipales (Nuevas Cartas) de 1877 fue derogada por la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882. En cuanto al uso continuo de este título breve, consulte la sección 19 (2) de la Ley de Interpretación de 1978. La Sección 243 de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882 disponía el uso continuo de ciertos títulos breves mencionados en el Anexo Primero de esa Ley. Dicha sección 243 fue derogada por la Ley de revisión de la ley de 1898. El Proyecto de ley para la Ley de revisión de estatutos de 1898 dice que el motivo de la derogación de dicho artículo 243 fue: "En cuanto al artículo 243, se propone derogación la mayor parte del Primer Anexo que proporciona títulos breves que no se dan de otro modo". Luego, el proyecto de ley dice que el motivo de la derogación de las entradas de la Parte II del Primer Anexo de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882 (que no menciona el título abreviado de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1835) especificadas en la columna 2 del proyecto de ley fue "Sched. I., Pt. II. . . . as to parts in col. 2 the enactments referred to have been repealed by subsequent Acts except 40 & 41 Vict. c. 47 in Sched. I., Pt. II., which is proposed for repeal by the Bill"; y que la Parte I del Anexo Primero (donde se mencionaba el título abreviado de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1835) fue derogada porque estaba "gastada". En cuanto a la construcción de las referencias a la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1835, véase los artículos 7 (1) y 242 y el Anexo Noveno de la Ley de Corporaciones Municipales de 1882, y anteriormente el artículo 191 de esa Ley (dicho artículo 191 fue derogado por la Ley de policía de 1964).: https://books.google.com/books?id=RvbMCdjVnjkC&pg=PA453
[10] ↑ La cita de esta Ley por este título corto fue autorizada por artículo 1 de esta Ley. Debido a la derogación de esta Ley, ahora está autorizada por el artículo 19 (2) de la Ley de Interpretación de 1978.: https://books.google.com/books?id=SVYMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA399
[12] ↑ Hamer, Mike (25 December 1986 – 1 January 1987). «Left is right on the road». New Scientist (20 December 1986/1 January 1987): 16-18. Consultado el 7 de octubre de 2016.: https://books.google.com/books?id=qfak8nsMNGIC&pg=PA16
[13] ↑ Buchan, Neil. “Briefing Note - International Federation of Municipal Engineering”. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Municipal Engineer, Vol 163, ME3, Sept 2009.